.■5-i<5yg8?i:f:>:::>!':v-:.
OF
Africa
'/ilorX^it
pos-^
THE
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
THE
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
ARTHUR SILVA WHITE,
SECRETABY TO THE ROYAL SCOTTISH GE0GRAPHI04L SOCIETY; EDITOR OF THE
"SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE;" FELLOW OF THE
ROYAL SOCIEIY OF EDINBURGH, ETC.
ILLUSTRATED WITH A SET OF FOURTEEN MAPS
SPECIALLY DESIGNED BY
E. G. RAVENSTEIN, F.R.G.S.
LONDON:
GEORGE PHILIP & SON, 32 FLEET STREET
LIVERPOOL: 45 to 51 SOUTH CASTLE STREET.
1890.
PEEFACE.
T^HE awakening of Africa to a new life is one
of the most notable events of our times. In
consequence of its recognition as a factor in in-
ternational politics, the continent has assumed a
position which, though imperfectly understood, is
not the less characteristic and definite.
This result is due to the combined action of
Europe. We must assume that the European
Powers in Africa have accepted their self-imposed
and responsible task of reclaiming the continent
with a full knowledge of its extent and difficulty.
The development of Africa, however, if it is to be
profitable to those who have undertaken it, and not
merely a fetish for philanthropic parade, involves
far more than blind enthusiasts would have us to
believe. It is one of the colonial problems of the
next century. The factors that compose it are many
and varied, and, it must be confessed, appear to be
scarcely known to the majority of those who without
hesitation register their vote in favour of unlimited
territorial acquisitions. We have been accustomed
vi PREFACE.
to enter upon African campaigns with a light
heart, neither reckoning the cost nor foreseeing the
end ; and the experience thereby gained has been
dearly bought. Surely, therefore, the time has
come when we should take into our councils those
whose special knowledge fits them to advise or
control ?
The African Question is in the main a geograph-
ical problem. In its initial stage — the conquest
and development of African lands — we have to deal
not so much with political as with geographical
conditions. It is only after the latter are under-
stood that we can effectually control the former.
Although not sufficiently competent myself to treat
this geographical problem in a manner that might
be regarded as authoritative, I have attempted to
define the outlines of an inquiry into the subject.
From an examination of the physical and political
phenomena of Africa I have sought to deduce the
general laws that should govern its development.
Each phase of my subject has been made to illus-
trate its practical bearing. Thus, from a survey of
the mountains, lakes, and rivers of Africa, we dis-
cover the lines of least physical resistance to the
migrations of men ; whilst the consideration of
political relations assists us in understanding the
movements of commerce. Again, it is necessary for
us to know the climatic conditions of the various
PREFACE. vii
regions before we are in a position to judge of their
suitability for commercial enterprise or as European
colonial settlements. Upon the distinctive character
and resources of those regions must depend the
nature and direction of their political development.
The plan of the book has been to proceed step by
step, as far as possible in natural sequence, and to
build up Africa under the eyes of the reader, so to
speak. Within reasonable limits, and not forgetting
the due proportion of their component parts, I have
endeavoured to give complete pictures of Africa, by
dealing successively with the various aspects under
which the continent is known to Europe. I travel
again and again over the same ground, but each
stage of the survey is undertaken with a different
object in view. In the treatment of detail I have
proceeded from the general to the particular, every
fresh departure being marked by a closer inspection.
The book has been written to meet the require-
ments of that somewhat mythical and exacting per-
sonage, the general reader. Those who are well
versed in the geography of Africa may find it defi-
cient in detail, but even to them it may perhaps
prove suggestive and profitable.
Mr. E. G. E-avenstein has specially designed a
very complete series of maps to accompany the
volume ; and I am greatly indebted to him, not only
for the care he has bestowed on these maps, but also
viii PREFACE.
for his assistance in the revision of the text. It
is scarcely necessary to add that Mr. Ravenstein's
maps, embodying the original researches of a life-
time, are a valuable contribution to the cartography
of Africa. By a study of them the reader will not
only be assisted in understanding the text, but will
also discover a vast amount of detail ignored in
my descriptions. Mr. Ravenstein has himself sup-
plied a Note at the end of the volume, discussing
the data upon which his maps have been con-
structed.
Finally, it gives me great pleasure to acknow-
ledge the generous co-operation of my publishers.
A. S. W.
Edinburgh, October 1890.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW.
PAGE
Preliminary survey of the continent — Its geological and physical
structure — Oceanic and inland drainage-basins — Coincidence of
political settlement with Oceanic drainage-areas . . . i
CHAPTER 11.
MOUNTAINS, LAKES, AND RIVERS.
Geographical distribution of the chief mountain-systems, and con-
sequent development of the great river-systems, in relation to
accessibility from the sea and internal communications . . 17
CHAPTER III.
CLIMATE AND COGNATE PHENOMENA.
Distribution of temperature — Actual temperatures — Distribution of
atmospheric pressure, and prevailing winds — Annual rain-
fall — Distribution of soils — Zones of vegetation — Distribution
of animals — Classification of climates — Acclimatisation . . 51
CHAPTER IV.
THE INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS.
General considerations — Linguistic groups and their geographical
distribution — Characteristics of Negroes and of native life —
Survey of the indigenous populations : their mental, moral,
and material culture ; their political organisations and social
development — Capacity of the Negro for developing higher
CONTENTS.
PAGE
forms of culture — Non-resistance, from the comparative absence
of political cohesion in Bantu Africa, against the European
domination — Native rights and European responsibilities . . 85
CHAPTER V.
ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY.
Historical sketch of the progress of Islam and the extension of Arab
influence — The border-land of Islam in the south — Signs of the
times— Historical sketch of the progress of Christian missions
— Results of missionary enterprise — Methods of INIohammedan
propagandism and Arab rule, as compared with those adopted
by Christian missions and European rule : in their effect upon
the Pagan populations— Conclusions 129
CHAPTER yi.
THE TRAFFIC IN SLAVES.
The sources, conditions, and extent of the Slave Trade — Discussion
of remedial measures 161
CHAPTER VII.
PROGRESS OF EXPLORATION.
Historical sketch of the progress of discovery and of exploratory
work in Africa — Limits to our present knowledge — The task
of the future, its probable direction, and the spirit in which it
should be undertaken 183
CHAPTER VIII.
COMMERCIAL RESOURCES.
Progress of exploitation — Commerce, the most important initial
factor in African jiolitics — Commercial supremacy rather than
empire tlie uixlorlying motive of Euroj)ean enterprise — The
r(;i;.'n of comiiK.Tce — Tiie value of African laiuls — (Jeographical
distribution of products, and the Tnovements of commerce —
(leograpliical distril)utioii of ivory — Coincidence of slave-routes
witli tradc-rontcH, ivory being tlie i)riiicipal article of exi>ort —
The liquor-trallic — The Labour Problem — Colonisation — Char-
tered companies — "Robber-economy" — Honesty the best policy 217
CONTENTS. xi
CHAPTER IX.
THE EUROPEAN DOMINATION.
PAGE
Relative absence of native political rule — Survey of the European
colonies, protectorates, and spheres of influence — The political
situation — Comparative absence of effective occupation by the
European Powers — Obstacles to European political settlement
not necessarily insuperable, but limitations to be observed . 249
CHAPTER X.
POLITICAL PARTITION.
Cause and effect — Methods — Definitions — The Berlin Conference
of 18S4-85 — Territorial boundaries in Africa before the Confer
ence, and those settled at or immediately after the Conference —
Progress of the partition of Africa — Dij)lomatic negotiations,
treaties, conventions, &c. — Fixed boundaries — Undefined terri-
torial limits 279
CHAPTER XL
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.
General principles underlying the develoi)ment of Africa along
natural lines, derived from an examination of the various aspects
under which the continent is known to Europe at the present
day
NOTES ON THE MAPS, BY E. G. RAVENSTEIN, F.R.G.S. 323
INDEX 333
LIST OF MAPS
BY
E. G. RAVENSTEIN, F.R.G.S.
Height of Land (Contoured Map) Plate I.
River-Basins and Ocean Currents .... „ II.
Mean Annual Temperatures „ III.
Mean Annual Range of Temperature ... „ IV.
Annual Rainfall „ V.
Geological Sketch „ VI.
Zones of Vegetation „ VII,
Commercial Products „ VIII.
Density of Population „ IX.
Languages „ X.
Religions, and Missionary Stations . . . . „ XI.
Progress of Exploration „ XII.
Political Partition „ XIII.
Forms of Government „ XIV.
CHAPTER I.
A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW.
PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF THE CONTINENT — ITS GEOLOGICAL AND
PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OCEANIC AND INLAND DRAINAGE-BASINS
COINCIDENCE OF POLITICAL SETTLEMENT WITH OCEANIC DRAIN-
AGE-AREAS.
MAPS.
Contoured Map Plate I.
E-ivkb-Basins, &c ,, II.
Geological Sketch „ YI.
A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW.
AFEICA is the Pariah of Continents. Nature, whilst The Pariah
Continent,
lavishing on her the most bounteous gifts, has, at the
same time, imposed certain barriers and restrictions to their
enjoyment which hamper no other continent. Although
Egypt and the Mediterranean Littoral saw the dawn of the
earliest civilisation, circumstances, chiefly of a geographical
character, ha^'e been against the development of Africa.
Hence it has happened that, at the present day, we have
Ijeen called upon to re-discover the continent and to exploit
its natural resources.
We are told that Africa is a continental area of ini- its geoiogi-
p • 1 • ^^ anti-
mense antiquity, a large portion of it being Ixiilt up of quity.
rocks belonging to Archaean, Palteozoic, and early Mesozoic
times. These, it is true, are geological terms that may fail
to convince the lay reader. Should, however, any further
proof of the extreme antiquity of the continent be required,
it is afforded by the singular uniformity and simplicity of
its coast-line. Therein lies a phenomenon that at once
arrests attention.
Geologists regard as the continental plateau, not only the Continental
plateau.
great mass of the dry land, l)ut also its extension under the
sea to a depth of one thousand fathoms. Now, this so-called
continental plateau very closely corresponds in its direction
with the present trend of the coast-lme on the east, the south,
the w^est, and the noi'th-west. The dry land of Africa, in
l)rief, occupies almost the entire area of the continental
plateau. The coast-line shows a general absence of large
4 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Absence of estuaries, deep bays, narrow gulfs, firths and fiords, all of
gulfs, &c.
which are such characteristic features of the much younger
coast-line of North-Western Europe. We miss also the
graceful peninsular forms wliich differentiate the continent
of Eurasia. Hence it is that, though Africa is three times
greater in area than Europe, its coast-line measures only
about 17,700 miles, whilst that of Europe is over 2000 miles
longer.
This remarkable absence of bays and gulfs in Africa, or
of any large indentations in its coast-line, is explained by
the washings of the continent — the immense amount of
detritus brought down by the rivers^having, in the course
of ages, gradually filled them up. The Gulf of Guinea, so
called, is not a true gulf ; while the Gulf of Aden and the
Eed Sea, with which it communicates, belong as much to
Asia as to Africa : they simply separate the two continents,
and constitute Africa an immense island — for the Suez
Canal, y2> miles in length, gives it an ipso facto existence as
such. Only in the Mediterranean, in the ancient Syrtes, do
we recognise something like a true gulf. To the south of
this small gulf, and, indeed, at many localities along the
shores of the Mediterranean and the Eed Sea, are actual
depressions below the sea-level, which, at some remote
period, must have been the heads of gulfs and straits that
have gradually disappeared as the land was elevated : raised
beaches, far inland, now mark spots upon which the sea
once broke in waves.
Geoiofficai Of gcological systcms in Africa very little need be said.
sv stems*
All the greater divisions are I'cpresented ; but it is to be
noted that Archaan, I'aheozoic, and ]\Iesozoic strata occupy
the major portion of the surface. Eocks of later Mesozoic
age extend o\er large tracts in the northern portion of the
continent, while Tertiary deposits are similarly developed
across wide regions which di'ain towards the Mediterranean.
A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW. 5
The West Coast — in contradistinction to the North and East Geological
Coasts — has shown a remarkable persistency throughout an
immense lapse of time, for it seems to have been outlined
as far back as in the Palaeozoic era ; and the general dis-
tribution of rocks of this age and of the older Arch£ean
scliists throughout the continent would appear to indicate
that in Palaeozoic times the major portion of what is now
land was then under water. Numerous small islands com-
posed of Archaean rocks must in those times have dotted
this sea, not only on the West Coast, but also along the main
continental axis and elsewhere. In Mesozoic times, the land
in the west and in the south and east had considerably
increased in extent ; but vast areas in the Interior would
appear to have been occupied by shallow seas. Within
those areas we now find : in Northern Africa, Jurassic and
Cretaceous, and in Southern and Central Africa, Triassic
strata. The major portion of the continent would thus
appear to have been dry land after Mesozoic times. In late
Mesozoic times considerable volcanic outpourings took place
in Eastern Africa; and it is probable that these volcanic
eruptions were connected with the movement that resulted
in the intensification of the main continental axis — that
large backbone of elevated land which traverses the conti-
nent in a N.E — S.W. direction — and in the accompanying
deformations of the earth's crust along the tract within
which we now find the great lakes. The only deposits of
Quaternary and later age we need refer to here are the
enormous alluvial accumulations met wdth along the courses
of the principal rivers and their tributaries, and the drifting
sands which overspread such wide regions in the desiccated
areas of Northern Africa.
In its general configuration, Africa conforms to the conti- Conformity
to conti-
nental type. Its hio-hest elevations are found, in accordance nentai
'/ ir Q type.
with the general law, on that side which faces the deepest
zone
6 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
sea : next the Indian Ocean. Its land sculpture is due prin-
cipally to the action of denudation, guided and controlled l»y
the geological character and structure of the rocks,
charac- We havc, then, these characteristic physical features to
teristic
physical start witli : that the dry land of Africa occupies the greater
features. "^ .
portion of the continental plateau, and that the shore-line
is almost without any great indentations. This absence of
spacious bays and protected roadsteads has, it is evident,
played an important part in the political development of
Africa. The plateau character of the continent has, in like
manner, been the means of excluding European enterprise
from the interior lands, and has constituted Africa the out-
cast she now is.
Coastal From the abysmal depths of the surrounding seas the
continent rises by terrace upon terrace. A narrow coastal
zone, from lOO to 300 miles in width, and not exceeding,
say, 600 feet in elevation, girdles the greater part of the
continent. Here the seafaring nations of Europe have
timorously planted their colonies, for the expansion of which
a coast-line as a base is so absolutely essential. This coastal
zone penetrates most deeply into the Mediterranean lands,
to the east of the Ali^erian highlands, mto the Western
Sahara, and along the valleys of the Lower Niger and of
otlier large rivers.
Inland The great inland plateau rises abruptly from the coastal
belt, for the most part step-like, in a succession of terraces,
its hii'-liest elevations being attained in the north-east. As
this vast inland plateau, varying between 600 and 3000 feet
in elevation a])ove the sea-level, composes the greater part
of Africa, and includes very many subsidiary plateaus, it
niiiy pci'baps Ix-, conxcnicnt- tn (list ingiiisli it IV(»iu its com-
pniicnt, paits by apjdying to it tbc Icnn I ba\(^ already
used in its strict geological sense — that of the continental
plateau.
plateau.
A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW. 7
It is, however, to be observed that the more we learn of
Northern Africa, particularly of the Saharan regions, the
less we observe the permanence of the })lateau type, though
in the southern half of Africa it is well defined.
The main axis of this continental plateau, as we shall Continental
axis.
henceforth call it, extends like a backl)one in a S.W. — N.E.
direction from the South-West Coast to the shores of the
Eed Sea, near which we find its most important nucleus,
the volcanic mountain region of Abyssinia. From this main
axis three subsidiary axes* strike transversely, like ribs,
in a north-westerly direction : one follows the shores of
the Eed Sea, separating them from the l)asin of the Nile ;
another runs parallel to the West Coast, more or less con-
tinuously ; and the third takes a middle direction, dividing
the catchment-basins of the Nile and Congo, and stretching
a mighty arm, as it were, across the Sahara to within a com-
paratively short distance of the Mediterranean.
The mean altitude of Africa, taken roughly at 2000 feet, Elevation
of land
conforms very nearly to the mean elevation of the land of masses,
the globe. Africa may, therefore, be regarded as a plateau
of moderate elevation. Its mean altitude, however, is very
greatly exceeded by that of Asia. As far as is known, its
highest summits are reached in Kenia, which lies on the
Equator, and in Kilima-njaro, a little to the south. The
latter is estimated to be 19,680 feet above the sea-level,
whilst the former cannot be much under. Mr. Stanley has
quite recently (1889) discovered in the Euwenzori group,
situated in the source-region of the Nile, snow-clad peaks
which cannot be much under 19,000 feet in elevation. High
mountains occur also in South Africa, in Abyssinia, on the
Guinea coast, in Morocco, and in the Sahara, the enumera-
tion of which is here unnecessary, because later on we shall
* The contours selected for the map illustrating this chapter may not, how-
ever, distinctly bring out these transverse subsidiary axes of the continent.
8 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
encounter them again. At present we are concerned only
with distributions and generalisations.
General Froiu tliis distribution of the great mountain-systems of
structure. Africa, it will be seen that they do not exactly follow the
law that holds good in regard to other continents : that the
main continental axis coincides with its greatest length ;
although, if we regard the subsidiary axes above referred
to, we see in them only a variation of this physical law.
There is another general law, which, on the other hand, is
well exemplified in Africa : that the chief island masses
occur to the south and east of continents. Thus, we find
Madagascar — which at one time, however remote, formed
part of the mainland — situated, in accordance with this
law% to the south and east. Madagascar itself, built up in
terraces just like the parent mass, is, it is true, the only
African island of any size. In the Gulf of Guinea there
are a few small volcanic islands, stretching in a south-
westerly direction from Mount Camarons ; and small groups
of volcanic islands appear off the North-West Coast; but
they are comparatively insignificant.
Vast size of It is difficult to realise the immense size of Africa. Its
simplicity of form imposes upon the mind of the casual
observer. Many people, in fact, regard it as a country, and
not as a large continent. Yet, if we seek its continental
centre, or that point in the Interior which is most remote
from all tlie surrounding coasts, we find that, in order to
reach it, we slujuld require to travel a distance of over
1 100 miles. Only in Asia, whose continental centre is as
remote as 1600 miles, should we require to travel a greater
distance; but then Asia is duc-tliii-d larger than Africa.
Emboss- The exterior margins of the broad plateaus of Africa will
generally be found, as in those of other continents, to be
hi<^dier than tlieir central portions, thus presenting toward
the sea a sort of natural nuupart. This peculiar emboss-
ment.
A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW. 9
ment of the continent, whilst determining its river-systems,
has formed one of the most liostile impediments in regard
to the accessibility of the interior lands. The rivers and Cataracts,
lakes are, of course, the true natural highways ; ])ut all the
large rivers, not only in their upper, but also in their middle
and lower courses, where they break through the margins
of the plateaus, have, in consequence, their beds filled with
all sorts of rocky obstructions ; and so great is their inclina-
tion that the accelerated waters become rapids, or break
into cataracts, or fall down sheer heights, in their eager
passage to the sea. And unfortunately, from the fact of the
inland or continental plateau approaching so near to the
coasts, all the great rivers have their navigation obstructed
at relatively short distances from their mouths. Serious
obstacles are thus placed in the way of free commercial
intercourse between Inner Africa and the outside world.
In order better to realise the physical relief of Africa, Drainage-
1 1 • 1 T • • areas.
let US endeavour to picture the disposition of its oceanic
and mland drainage-basins,* thus illustratmg in the most
forcible manner possible the chief slopes of the continent
towards the surrounding seas, or into those enclosed basins
whose drainage- waters never reach the Ocean at all. Of
these catchment-basins, by far the most important is that
draining into the Atlantic Ocean. In this respect Africa
agrees with Europe and the Americas : about half of the
land of the globe drains into the Atlantic.
The following are the drainage- areas of Africa : —
1. Atlantic Ocean.
2. Mediterranean Sea.
3. Indian Ocean.
(a.) Madagascar.
* By drainage-basins I refer to surface drainage only, — more correctly
speaking, catchment-basins.
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Oceanic
drainage
basins.
Enclosed
basins.
4. Three Inland drainage-areas : —
(a.) Sahara Desert.
(Jb.) Kalahari Desert.
(c.) Eastern Abyssinia.
By consulting the map, it will be seen at a glance how
greatly the Atlantic Ocean drainage-area is in excess of
the other drainage-areas of the African continent. It
includes, of course, the mighty river-systems of the Niger
and Congo, besides all the river-basins of the West Coast.
The Congo alone discharges as great a volume of water as
probably all the rivers of Africa taken together, the Niger
m this respect coming next, and the dissipated Nile taking
only a fourth place. The Nile, originating below the
Equator, is the only river of importance in the Mediter-
ranean dramage-basin, its magnificent system extending like
a tongue far into the interior of Africa. The Indian Ocean
drainage-basin includes, besides Madagascar, all the rivers
of the East Coast, of which the Zambezi and Limpopo are
the chief, from the Cape up to the Eastern Horn.
Of the enclosed basins, or those basins having a self-
contained hydrographical system, by far the most extensive
is that of the Sahara, which in the south impinges on the
Sudan. Lake Tsad lies in a trough, l)ut not l)y any means,
as was at one tune supposed, in the lowest part of the
Saharan plateau. Besides the small enclosed basin between
the Abyssinian highlands and the sea, in which there are
restricted areas of absolute depression, tliere is a third,
surrounding the Kalahari desert and holding Lake N'ganii.
These are all more or less desert or riverless regions, in
which the. annual rainfall is under five or ten inches ; and
the explanation of their origin, tliough ])artly due to the
configuration of the land, will be given when we come to
consider the meteorological conditions of Africa.
If we compare the chief rivers of Africa with the great
A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW. n
rivers of the world, the Congo will be found to rank second River-
_ . systems.
only to the Amazons in those respects which constitute
an important river, namely, in point of drainage-area and
annual discharge of water. The fact of their mouths being
situated on or near the Equator, and their catchment-basins
receiving in consequence an excessive rainfall, sufficiently ^
accounts for their abnormal volumes of discharge. But
in regard to mere length, the Congo is exceeded by ^ of _
the great rivers of the world. Of these, the Mississippi-
Missouri heads the list with a course of 4192 miles, and
the Nile comes next with 4018 miles (though some day
it may establish even a closer contest). In its lengthy
course through desert lands the Nile, however, loses more
w^ater by evaporation than any other liver of the same or
of much lesser importance : hence the comparatively small
volume of its discharge.
The discharge of a river may, rouglily speaking, be said Discharge
. ^ o ... . of rivers.
to equal the excess of rainfall over evaporation in its basin.
The usual discharge of Tropical or sulj-Tropical rivers is
calculated by Dr. John Murray to l)e about one-fifth of
the rainfall on the river's basin ; but the Nile discharges
only about one-thirty-seventh. European rivers discharge
])etween one-third and one-fourth of the rainfall on their
catchment-basins.
The lakes of Africa, which play so important a part in Lakes,
the accessibility of the continent, conform to the general
law as regards the salinity or freshness of their waters ;
that is to say, those not provided with outlets have, for
the most part, salt or brackish water, unless submarine
outlets carry off the salts held in solution. Lakes thus fall
under two comprehensive divisions.
All the great lakes of Africa, except Tsad, are situated
along the continental axis, in areas of relative depression, or
along the line of great faults or fractures in the earth's crust.
12 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Lakes. Though most of them fluctuate in level, they are all very
different in character to lakes like Tsad and N'gami, which,
being situated in low, swampy ground, expand and contract
enormously, in accordance with the seasons. Another class
of lake is to be found in those expansions of a river's course
in low or "spongy" ground, such as are common in the
basin of the Congo. But all of these lakes are formed in
areas of relative depression, and are, therefore, to be again
differentiated from the lakelets or marshes bordering the
shores of the Mediterranean and Red Seas, where there are
small areas of absolute depression — that is to say, localities
Ijing below the sea-level. One might go on multiplying
instances of dissimilarity in the characteristics of the various
lakes of Africa, but our present purpose has been served in
what has already been said in regard to them.
Coinci- "VVe have completed our preliminary survey of the con-
poiiticai tinent in its oroQ-raphical and hydrographical relations —
settlement * ^ ./ O 1
with drain- skctchcd, it is true, in broad outlines ; but before proceeding
age-areas. ' ' ; i: o
in the next chapter to fill in details, attention should be
directed to a very striking fact. It will be found, on com-
paring the maps, that what may be called political settle-
ment in Africa has coincided very closely with the oceanic
drainage-areas, while the inland drainage-areas have been
, . . 1 practically deserted by man, as they have been paralysed
' ])y Nature.
Physical This phenomenon illustrates in a very lucid manner how
obstacles
against political Settlement is controlled by physical obstacles. In
expansion, ^^^frica it has, in fact, after first finding a footing on the
coasts, endeavoured to penetrate into the Interior by the
most natural highways — tliose af'l'ordcd by tlic great river-
systems. Bearing this parallel in niiud, we have at once
some explanation of the fact that, lor instance, the Medi-
terranean Littoral has from time immemorial been European
A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW. 13
rather than African. The Sahara desert has proved an
impassable barrier against any considerable political expan-
sion southwards.
In practical politics, therefore, Africa may be said to be
limited on the north by the Sahara-Mediterranean water-
parting. Elsewhere we shall show how, in a far greater
degree, physical obstacles of one kind or another have con-
trolled or limited the expansion of political power in Africa,
which, in its natural course, by following the lines of least
resistance, would endeavour to proceed along the fluvial
highways of the continent.
CHAPTER II.
MOUNTAINS, LAKES, AND RIVERS.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE CHIEF MOUNTAIN-SYSTEMS,
AND CONSEQUENT DEVELOPMENT OP THE GREAT RIVER-SYSTEMS,
IN RELATION TO ACCESSIBILITY PROM THE SEA AND INTERNAL
COMMUNICATIONS.
MAPS.
Contoured Map Plate I.
River-Basins, &c „ II.
I
MOUNTAINS, LAKES, AND RIVERS.
N" the present chapter we shall examine in detail the
oceanic and inland drainage-basins of Africa.
The most prominent physical features of the Mediter- Mediter-
ranean sea-
ranean seaboard are concentrated in and around the high- board,
land region extending eastwards from the Atlas Mountains
to the Gulf of Gabes. The Atlas range in the east sinks
towards the highlands of Algeria. The uplands of Algeria
and Tunis rise in terraces at a short distance from the coast,
but on their south side they fall rapidly to those remark-
able depressions called shotts, which extend inland west-
wards from the Gulf of Gabes for a distance, of about 235
miles. As these shotts are probably the vestiges of what
was once an inland sea, and some of them at least could be
connected by canals, efforts have not been wanting on the
part of the French Government to turn them to account
as fluvial highways into the Interior. The maritime low-
lands are cori tinned almost uninterruptedly eastwards to
the Nile delta, and have a breadth of 100 miles or less in
most places. They are backed in the south by stony desert
lands, called hammadas and serirs — of which the latter are
relatively the higher ; and the uniform flatness along the
coast is broken by the bold and picturesque promontory
of Barka (the ancient Cyrenaica), which advances its steep
and rugged sides far into the sea. At one part of the Gulf
of the Syrtes the hammadas, or stony jjlateaus, impinge upon
the coast, and attain elevations of over 2500 feet.
In no part of the Mediterranean Littoral are large rivers
E
1 8 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Absence of possible. 'E\en in Algeria the river-beds are filled with
rivers. water only in the rainy season. Along the remainder of
the coast the conditions are still less favourable to the
formation of large streams, thongh in past ages the deep
channels leading into the Gulf of the Syrtes must have
held considerable rivers.
Atlas Before entering the Sahara, it will be more convenient
Mountains. n -it i a r> •
to contniue our survey or JN^orth Africa westwards to the
Ocean, where we enter the northern portion of the Atlantic
drainage-basin. This corner of Africa is occupied by the
imposing range of the Atlas Mountains, which runs as a
backbone along it. Into its Alpine fastnesses few travellers
have penetrated, but those few have returned with the most
inspiring accounts. Peaks reaching from ii,ooo to 12,000
feet and more, to the south of Morocco city, have been
reported as common. The highest summit of which we
have any precise knowledge appears to be Tizi-n-Tamjurt,
which Mr. Joseph Thomson estimated at about 15,500 feet.
Fine valleys and gorges penetrate the mountains in all
directions, and there are several practical)le passes. The
range, which is of no great geological antiquity, is built up
in long terraces. Archrean rocks occur, Ijut tliey liave been
lidgcd up by subsequent movements. In the west the
mountain range breaks into a plateau at about sixty miles
distant from flie Atlantic coast. The coast-line itself,
opposite tlie Canary Islands, is low, and is eveiywliere cut
up by wadis, which only contain any considerable amount
of water in llu' scasdii wlicn Ihc snows of tlie Atlas are
melting.
Sahara \V(; now enter tb(! doniiiiii of ibci Sahara. There is suffi-
rcgiun.
cjeiil evidene(! to show lliat this gi-eat sandstone plateau at
one tinn", not \-ery iviikiIc in u:eoloL;i(;d liistdvy, was to a
large extent suljincrged ; llmn^h this is a contention disputed
]iy soinr; autlioi-ilies. I''ossil iciii;iii)s h;i\-e ])oon discovered in
MOUNTAINS, LAKES, AND RIVERS. 19
many places, and there are still several minor depressions
and lakes left. By depressions we do not mean all the
Jiofra of the Arabs, who sometimes apply this term in a
relative sense, but those small enclosed areas which are
actually below the sea-level. Of these, reference has already
been made to the sJiotfs on the northern border-land of the
Sahara, into which wide and lengthy channels conduct the
scanty water-supply of the inland plateau. Others of
smaller area are found in the northern portion of the Libyan
Desert, west of the Lower Nile, in Siwah and elsewhere,
ujjon which have grown up flourishing oases.
Over one-half of the Sahara is occupied by plateaus and Physical
. , . , , features.
mountams ; the remanider is steppe-land and desert, dotted
with oases. The transition areas bordering on the cultivated
zones are more extensive in the extreme south than in the
north. Not more than one-ninth is covered by the endless
sands which popular tradition formerly ascribed to the whole
area of the Sahaiu.
The highest elevations occupy the middle regions, along
the central axis of the Saharan plateau, running in a
N.W. — S.E. direction, and culminating in the mountains of
Tibesti — an imposing nucleus, with summits of nearly 8000
feet. Its extension in the plateau to the N.W. contains
summits of over 5000 feet. This highland region, l)uilt up
of limestone and sandstone, though falling under the mean
elevation of the chief European ranges, rivals them Ijoth
in length and extent; it is, in fact, about 1000 miles long.
Between it and Tripoli another highland region occurs in the
border-range ; and outlying groups of mountains, contain-
ing heights of 5000 feet, are found elsewhere within the
Sahara, as in the Azben plateau. In the east the Sahara
plateau adjoins the watershed of the Nile ; in the south it
meets that of the Congo, and in the west that of the Niger-
Benue. The Ahaggar highlands drain by wadis into the
20 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Niger basin ; but some of the streams flow north, and others
are lost in the inland basin of the desert.
Enclosed areas of relative depression occur more especi-
ally in the Western Sahara ; and others are found near
the borders of the highest mountains, as, for instance, that
lying under the Borku plateau — the Bodeli, which receives
the overflow waters of Lake Tsad by the Bahr-el-Ghazal
channel.
Water- The Sahai'a is furrowed in many directions by river-
sapply.
beds, none of which contain water the whole year round ;
but in the length and width of their channels they rival
the great rivers of Europe, thus pointing to a time when,
under more favourable climatic conditions, this region was
traversed by magnificent waterways. The underground
supply of water at the present day is, on the other hand,
remarkably great. In most places, especially near high
land, water is easily reached by sinking for it. This sub-
terranean water-supply, when 1)rought to the surface by
artesian wells, and when naturally flowing near the surface
or into areas of relative depression, creates, as if by magic,
those refreshing oases on the caravan routes between the
]\Iediterranean States and the Sudan, which serve as so many
stepping-stones across the inhospitable wastes. Upon the
nature of the water-supply depend, of course, the char-
acter and extent of the oasis. In general terms it may be
stated that, other conditions being fa\ourable, wherever the
water reaches the surface, at that spot an oasis is formed.
"When tlie water lies as much as fifteen to thirty feet below,
artesiiiii wells are requii-cd to rcacli it. At otlior spots it
percolates to the surface ii) tlic Inrm of springs, or wells
Tip as siirfacc-drainage, or by oiIkt diicct means of infil-
tration. "Water, in fact, is Uic lil'c-lil 1 of Africa, more
especially in tln^ laiidess regions surli ;is we are now con-
.sidering, ami it is more pre(;i(;us tliaii " mucli lino gobl."
MOUXTAINS, LAKES, AND RIVERS. 21
The Wadi Draa, the length of whose channel exceeds that Desert
streams.
of the Ehine, is the best example of a true desert stream
under the most favourable conditions. Its upper course,
draining from the soutliern slopes of the Atlas, carries a
certain amount of water all the year round ; but only when
the snows of the Atlas are melting does the river ever reach
the sea, owing to the immense amount of evaporation and
absorption it undergoes in passing through the arid regions
of its middle and lower courses. Farther to the east we
find another large river-bed, that of the Igharghar, which
in places is as much as fifteen miles wide. This remark-
able river-channel, coming from the south and pursuing a
course of 700 miles, receives from the S.W. a tributary arm
of almost equal size, and eventually leads into the Shott
Melrihr. There are, moreover, many other wadis con-
ducting their scanty water-supply into the sandy wastes,
wdiich greedily alisorb wliat little water is left after the
abnormal evaporation, or into areas of relative depression,
where marshes are formed in the season of rains. In
the latter case, if the w^aters have held solutions of saline
matter, large areas are left during the dry season over
which the salt lies stretched out like a crystal sea. The
Sahara in this way offers a valuable commercial commodity
to any who may take the trouble to gather it.
The Tsad Ijasin, situated in a trough lying between the Tsad basin,
watersheds of the three chief rivers of Africa, the Nile, the
Congo, and the Niger, is an immense self-contained hydrogra-
phical system situated in the very heart of Africa. The eleva-
tion of the lake above the sea-level is about 800 feet. In the
dry season it resembles a marsh, occupied by a cluster of
large islands, but a marsh greater in area than the island of
Sicily, In the season of rains its waters rise from twenty to
thirty feet, and then the Tsad becomes an inland sea of im-
posing proportions. It occasionally overflows by its outlet, the
2 2 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Bahr-el-Ghazal, whose chaimel conducts in a N.E. direction
for a distance of about 300 miles into the Bodeli depression.
Lake Tsad receives many important tributary streams — one
from the west equalling the Ehine in length ; and its chief
feeder, the Shari, is the largest river in Africa not reaching
the sea. The Sliari and its tributaries drain tlie high
watershed country to the south-east of the lake. AVhether
the Tsad basin is hydrographically connected with that of
the Benue-Niger in the season of rains is a point not yet
sufficiently elucidated ; but there is strong evidence, such
as that furnished by Barth and Vogel, in favour of some
such connection between the Shari and the Benue.
Means of It is obvious, froui wliat has been said in our survey of
communi- loi -iii- ^ • ^
cation. the bahara as an inland draniage-basni, that the desert
possesses no natural means of communication. Although
there are no insurmountable physical obstacles, as far as the
lie of th(^ land is concerned, conditions of climate, wliich we
shall subscfjuently consider, have condemned the greater
portion of this I'egion as one of peril. Into it none may
thoughtlessly enter. To cross it, utilising the oases as
stepping-stones, requires the resources of a large caravan,
and necessitates an innnense waste of time, some tliree or
four months being reqnii'cd for the overland journey. We
have seen, too, how ]iolitically isolated it has been in the
past; and fartlici' on we sliall find that, as regards coni-
nu'icial intercourse with tlic chief centres of poi)nlation
witliin its liasin, moic ail\ antageous highways are offered
llian tliosc l)y tlic oNcilaml caiaxan I'outes.
I'Ik! I'sad I'egion, on llic other liainl, tliouL;h t<'clinically
belonging to the Sahara diaiiiauv-liasin, is cliniatically and
in other res])(!cts an iiili'^ral ]iniii(iii nl' the great Sudan,
stretehing friaii ocean lo oeean. Access to its hasin is
ad'ordeil liy other routes, from tlu; east, west, and south;
and, Liiveii the trade to at tract, 1 hej-e need he no ob.stacdes
MOUNTAINS, LAKES, AND RIVERS. 23
in the way of permanent conniiercial highways converging
from those directions upon the important regions bordering
the Lake, but more especially the densely populated countries
to the south of it.
The valley of the Kile, in its entire length from the NUe vaiiey.
Equator to the Mediterranean, to which drainage-basin it
consequently belongs, is the next area we have to consider.
The mighty river, issuing from its lake-reservoirs, drains
nearly the wdiole of ISTorth- Eastern Africa, receiving its
chief affluents west and east of its lower middle course,
and finally empties its waters into the Mediterranean. The
Victoria Nyanza, its highest source-reservoir, is situated
at about 4000 feet above the level of the sea ; and, as the
Nile is about 4000 miles in length, its average fall to the
sea is consequently one foot per mile. The watershed
enclosing its basin approaches very close upon the source-
country, but widens out enormously in the middle region,
both east and west ; it then closes in gradually upon the
banks of the Lower Nile, until it merges in the Deltaic lands.
The highest source-stream of the Nile will be found in Source-
streams
one of the large feeders entering the Victoria Nyanza from and lake-
the south. This lake, receiving tributary streams from all
sides, is the largest in Africa : it is estimated to exceed
the area of Scotland. The Nile, issuing from the head of
this immense reser^'oir, breaks throuo-h the mountainous
country on its northern border by cataracts and falls, form-
ing by the way many enlargements of its channel, and joins
the Albert Nyanza. Lake Albert, situated some 1600 feet
below the level of the A^'ictoria, is probably nothing more
than the eroded valley of a once mighty affluent of the Nile,
for the rocks on either side, rising in corresponding terraces,
are of the same geological formation. It now acts as the
second reservoir of the Nile, and is itself connected in the
S.W. with the third reservoir, the Albert Edward Nyanza,
reservoirs.
24 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
3307 feet above sea-level, by a newly discovered river called
the Semliki. These two lakes, therefore, with the Semliki
Eiver, form the south-western arm of the Upper Nile. The
Albert Edward Xyanza and its outlet, the Semliki, receive
innumerable tributary streams from the high mountain mass
of Euwenzori.
Source- The sourcc-country of the Nile is, in brief, situated within
an immense irregular triangle, the apex of which is formed
by the confluence of its S.E. and S.W. branches, and the base
of which is represented by the Congo watershed.
Nile We can now trace the Nile as it issues out of the head of
system.
Lake Albert, a majestic stream, bound on its long journey
to the ]\Iediterranean. Passing through a valley flanked on
either side by mountains which recede as the river flows
north — e\'entually leaving only a few sentinel groups to
mark its l)anks — the Nile soon lea^'es the plateau- country
finally behind, and enters the steppe-land, where its banks
are lost in extensive swamps. Its first important accession
is where it is joined, from the west, by the Balir-el-Ghazal.
This affluent, striking the Nile almost at riglit angles to
its course, contributes the large sii})ply of water which its
triluitaries gather from the northei'u slopes of the Congo-
Nile waterslied. The uiiitt'd stream, a little lower down,
receives through its right bank the tributary waters of
the Sobat, draining from the southern extension of the
Al)yssinian highlands. AVith this accession to its strength,
the Nile takes ii}) a dclinite nortliciii course and ilows as
a l)old stream. At Kharti'im it receives its chief right-
hand tril)utary, the ]>lue Nile, l^p to this junction, the
main stream is known under several designiitions, but it
may l)e exclusively regarded by us as the AVliite Nile.
B.ieanci 'I'll'' I'.l IK' N i]<\ oiin ilia ti ii'j; ill till' Alpine heights of Abys-
Wliite
Niies. sinia, is an iiii])oitant river-system in ilsrlf. Tt too, like the
White Nile, has its lake-reservoir, the Tsana, situated 5760
MOUNTAINS, LAKES, AND RIVERS. 25
feet ahove the sea-level. Out of this lake the Blue Nile
issues from the south. As if in mere exaltation of spirit,
the river at first describes a magnificent bend, and finally,
leaving its home of high birth, enters lower country. Here,
it must be confessed, it pursues an irregular course until its
union with the White Nile at Khartum.
"We observe, therefore, two highly important confluences Conflu-
in the upper reaches of the Nile : the one where all the
source-stream sof the White Nile are united in Lake Albert ;
and the other at Khartum, where the White and Blue Niles
mingle their waters.
From Khartum, the Nile, as a sober and respectable river The united
Nile.
that has abandoned the frolics of its youth, enters a new
phase, and one which is often experienced by man in the
middle course of life : serious troubles come. It has to con-
tend against a hostile environment and to struggle for mere
existence. It soon receives, it is true, a small accession
of strength in the tributary waters of the Atbara, from
Abyssinia ; but from thence its onward course is an unaided
and a very weary one indeed. It has to traverse I2C0
miles, for the most part through arid deserts, which con- /, >
stantly sap its strength, before it can relinquish the burden
of its existence on the shores of the Mediterranean.
Before singing the requiem of the Nile, however, a pass- Abyssinia,
ing reference is due to Abyssinia. These picturesquely
sculptured highlands, rising at least on two sides from a
forbidding steppe-country, form a sanatorium in that part
of Africa, the possession of or control over which should
some day prove highly advantageous to Italy. In the north,
the country falls in gentle declivities and in low hills to the
desert country between the Nile and Red Sea ; and in the
south it is in a sense united by isolated groups of mountains
and high-lying valleys with the main axis of the continent.
In the east, the mountains are abrupt and precipitous, and
26 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
practically no draiuage-waters find their way in that direc-
tion ; but in the west the slopes are more gradual, and on
that side they send tributary waters to the Nile. The
highest peaks of Abyssinia are evenly distributed, several
of them attaining altitudes little under 15,000 feet. But,
owing to the highly mountainous character of the country,
its rivers are torrents and they pursue very tortuous
courses. In regard to the Atbara, one interesting fact
may be recorded. It is this river that brings to the Nile
the fertile alluvium which, in the course of ages, has
contributed to the formation of its delta.
Means of licgardiug the Nile as a means of connnunication, we can
communi-
cation, readily understand how its immense fluvial system must
ha^-e appealed in the past to those who had only an
imperfect knowledge of its hydrography as a magnificent
highway into Central Africa. Unhappily, the Nile valley,
so tempting in its apparent directness of communication
with the Interior, is obstructed by obstacles that, even
apart from tlie utterly hostile conditions of climate, im-
pose limits whicli up to the present day have never been
passed. Some of these obstacles may be referred to in
this place.
It is only natural that in the source-country of the Nile
the ri veer's bed should be obstructed so as to defy navigation ;
but between Khartum and Assuan there are six cataracts,
wliich more or less hinder navigation. Although at Assuan
and clscw here; satV; ])assages may be found in the season
(»f lains, this, tlic i"'irst Cataract, may be regarded as the
natnral southern rronlirr of Lower l*]gyi)t. Above this point
no lirni hold can lie krpl, iij)on the riNcrnin ])oj)ula,tion
for any coiisidcialilc dislancc. ( )|' coiusc, the Nile Aalley
can again be easily icacjieil nnich I'aillier south, — for
instance, at P.cilier, hy a line of lails laid from Sawakin
(Suakiii); hut that would he practically introducing a new
MOUNTAINS, LAKES, AND RIVERS. 27
highway, although not a fluvial one, and at once renuning
the political base of operations from the shores of the
Mediterranean to those of the Eed Sea. The country
within the loop of the Nile occupied by the Nubian Desert
has in the past, and will doubtless in the future, set a limit
to any effective administration originating from Lower
Egypt-; and this for reasons which will more fittingly be
given in the next chapter.
The Eed Sea drainage-area, with its short wadis, may Red sea
be regarded as relatively of no hydrographical importance, basin.
The water-parting between the Nile and the Eed Sea passes
over desert country, for the most part occujiied by barren
hills, although mountains reaching over 6000 feet are found,
and, near Abyssinia, e\en as high as 8000 feet.
The enclosed hydrographical basin between Abyssinia and Enclosed
basin,
the sea is a triangular region of considerable extent. The
south-west coast of the Gulf of Aden has undergone cer-
tain modifications of level ; behind it lies a broad zone of
flooded land, containing depressions below the sea-level, and
the land rises inland in terraces. Except the Hawash, flow-
ing from Abyssinia, and losing itself in the thirsty soil,
there are no permanent streams within this enclosed basin,
its deeply eroded valleys carrying water only in the rainy
season.
We now come to the most important drainage-basin of Atlantic
Africa, that of the Atlantic, the extreme northern corner of basin,
which has already been referred to.
The great bend which the coast makes, forming in its Guifof
. Guinea
mnermost recess what is known as the Gulf of Guinea,
clauns our chief attention, because into this sheltered sea —
taking its widest limits — about three-fourths of the total
drainage-waters of the continent ultimately find their way.
In no other part of the world, Mr. J. Y. Buchanan aJBfirms,
does the influence of the coast make itself felt so far out at
2S
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Atlantic
drainage-
area
defined.
Senegal
and
Gambia
Rivers.
sea. The Xiger and the Congo are, of course, the chief of
the many important rivers of that portion of Africa ; and
the enormous deposits of dark mud which they bring down
to the ocean have contributed in a remarkable degree to the
filling up of the coast-line. The soft muds off the mouth of
the Congo have, in fact, been traced out at sea as far as 600
miles, at depths of 30CO fathoms.
The Atlantic Ocean drainage-basin includes all the river-
systems from the Senegal, opposite the Cape Verde Islands,
in the north to near the Cape of Good Hope in the south.
In the Equatorial regions the Congo and its affluents carry
the interior watershed, in the neighbourhood of Tanganika,
almost to the East Coast. The Niger, also, in the north
encroaches boldly upon the Sahara regions. The outstanding
topograpliical features of the Atlantic drainage-basin are
the almost uninterrupted coastal ranges, situated at no
very great distance inland, behind which the rivers are
developed, and through which they ultimately force their
way in their journey to the ocean. There are detached groups
of mountains, such as Mount Camarons and others to the
south of it, from whose valleys issue large rivers, but none
larger than the Ogowe. We then approach the Congo as it
breaks through the outer rim of tlie inland plateau. South
of the Congo, again, the coastal highlands unite with the
mitin continental axis.
The T^]»])cr Guinea Coast is, Inr \\\(\ most part, flat and
cut lip into iMiiin'i'ous lagoons, into which the smaller rivers
liiid Hicir \v;iy. TIk; Futa -billoii highlnmls gi\c liirlh not
only to the large rivers Senegal and Gambia, but also to
several trilmtai'ies of tlic Upper Niger. The Senegal and
thi- (liiiiiliia arc. iia\igable foi' long distiinci's IVom llieir
nioutliH, es])ecially in thi' scisoii of r;iins.— Ihc I'oinicr ii])
to the ra])ids near Mcdim', mid ihc. laLtrr iiji to Ihe rapids
<tf llarrukunda.
MOUXTAINS, LAKES, AND RIVERS. 29
The ISric^er, risino- also in the Fiita Jallon hiohlaiuls, at River
^ ' o , Niger.
first flows in a northerly direction to its enlargement m
Lake Dieho, from whence its course is more sinuous to
Timbuktu, at first north-east, and then almost due east to
the meridian of Greenwich. In the neighljourhood of this
locality the sloj^e of the land is shown by several wadis
wdiicli, join the Niger from the north and north-east, whilst
the river's course is deflected to the south-east. After pur-
suing this direction for some distance, the Niger begins to
break through the edge of the inland plateau in its descent
to the coast ; and, with the help of some tributaries, it forces
its way through rocky ground as far as Eabba, above which
spot, or at about 600 miles from its mouth, rapids occur
which obstruct navigation. From thence to the sea, how-
ever, navigation is possible for at least seven months in the
year, as the river flows in an ever- widening channel, and
the highlands recede from its banks, leaving a fine open
valley. Near Lokoja the Niger receives its chief affluent,
the Benue. The Benue is navigable for another 60c miles ; River
. Benu^
SO that, if there be any truth m the hypothesis before
alluded to in regard to the Shari and Benue being con-
nected in the rainy season, a navigable highway of nearly
1000 miles would thus lead into the Central Sudan. The
Niger-Benue, as a united stream, then breaks through the
last obstacles of the inland plateau and enters the low-
lying coastal zone. The Deltaic lands, and for miles behind
them, are a dead flat; and the Niger empties into the sea
by over twenty mouths.
Passing the Old Calabar Paver w^e skirt the slopes of Physical
_ _ _ features
Mount Camarons. This is the landward peak of a chain of between
•^ the Niger
volcanic mountains stretching away from it in a S.W. ^"'^ Congo,
direction, the summits of which appear above the ocean
waters in the islands of Fernando Po, Principe, Sao Thome,
&c. A narrow coastal zone extends south, gradually widen-
30 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
ing into the valleys occupied by the large estuary of the
Gabiin and by the Ogowe, the chief river of this part of
Africa. The Ogowe has a very extensive delta : it empties
its waters into the sea by two branches, fifty miles apart,
the low-lying intervening country being cut up in all direc-
tions by interlacing channels. The coast-line itself for some
distance south is broken by lagoons. The Upper Ogow6
rises behind the coastal range, in the plateau country that
forms the watershed between the Congo and the Atlantic.
This coastal region of highlands sends some smaller rivers
direct to the sea ; and a little farther south it is entirely
broken through by the impetuous rush of water which the
mighty Congo gathers for its final assault in order to reach
the ocean.
Congro AMien we consider that the Congo and its tributaries
basin.
drain an area over thirty-three times that of the little State
of Belgium, which controls its political destinies, we can
readily grasp the full significance of what such a magnificent
11 u vial system implies. Were the basin of the Congo cut
up liy iniiuntain ranges, we sliould not have such an infinite
number of large tributaries ; but the greater part of its
catchment-area is occupied by what at one time, however
remote, must have been a vast lake or inland sea. One proof
of this is afforded by the fact that its iiii]»ortaiit tril)utaries
join the main stream in its u])per course, while portions
of their b;iiiks arc. only slightly elevated above the river-
bed, and in tlic rainy season are inundated. The basin of
the Congo is therefore compaialilc to the dry bed of an
iidand sea, in IIk; fnrrows of which ils drainage-waters arc
constantly Mowing down the general slupe of the continent
towai'fis th(; Atlantic Ocean. Its ancient shoi'cs are now
representc'l by tin- hi^h liml or lini i<\' the liasin, which
surrounds it on all sides. The iikkcss kI' wealing away the
coastal range, must have been the work of ages; it must liave
MOUNTAINS, LAKES, AND RIVERS. 31
begun at a time wlien tlie waters of the ancient lake or sea
were of sufficient height to use its outlet or drain as a
channel, in the same way as the Lukuga has periodically
conducted the overflow waters of Tanganika into the basin
of the Upper Congo.
From what has been said, it is evident that, where the obstruc-
tions in
upper courses of the Congo and its tributaries break through river-bed.
the plateau- country in order to reach the lower basin, there
must be rocky obstructions in their beds, forming rapids,
cataracts, and waterfalls. This is illustrated very strikingl}^
by the southern tributaries, which, flowing almost parallel to
each other in a northerly direction, in order to unite with
the Kasa'i and Sankuru, all have their beds obstructed by
cataracts beyond the parallel of 5° south latitude.
Following our usual plan of first tracing and defining Bird's-eye
broad features and subsequently filling in details, we now Congo
observe that the main stream of the Congo, rising in the
high-jjlateau country to the south-west of Tanganika, issues
out of Lake Bangweolo as the Luapula. It then joins Lake
Moero in the south. Flowing out of this lake again in the
north, as the Luapula still, it strikes a more westerly
course, until it joins a chain of lakelets that are united
together by its tributary, the Lualaba, a river which is
fed by numerous affluents rising in the same source-country
as, though more to the west of, the parent stream. The
Lualaba and Luapula then drain into a small depression,
which their united waters fill up as a small lake, and they
issue forth again as the Congo proper. Eeceiving several
streams by the way, the Congo, ever increasing in volume,
pursues a bold and decisive course to Stanley Falls, after
passing over which it recei^'es some more important tribu-
taries through both banks, but especially through its
right, from whence the drainage- waters of the high-plateau
join it, deflecting it more and more to the west. The
32 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
cong-o: magnificent s^Yeep ^yhich the Congo makes in its middle
tributary . . -
systems, coui'se has often been commented upon. As it turns and
flows to the south-west, it gathers in some considerable
streams from its left, but receives a still more important
tributary system through its right, bank, where the M'bangi
joins it as one large river. The M'bangi, the upper course
of which is known as the Welle-Makwa, drains all the
north-eastern region of the Congo basin, and is one of its
two chief feeders or arms. The other, which at no great
distance from the M'bangi confluence joins the Congo on
its left bank, is a still more important one : it receives
innumerable tributary streams through the Kasai and
Sankuru, and falls into the Congo at Kwamouth. With
this enormous influx to its waters the Congo carries every-
thing before it in its final onrush to the sea.
Broadly defined, then, we may regard the main stream or
chief artery of the Congo system of waterways as issuing
out of Lake Bangweolo, and being joined north and south by
two other arteries. In the numerous tributaries we recog-
nise so many ^•eins. Such a highly-developed system as
that which the Congo possesses entitles it to rank as a peer
among the rivers of the world, and has earned for it, as our
explorers have laid it bare, the consideration it deserves,
Orogra- T(j retrace our steps. Between the continental axis of
features, clcvatiou aud tlic phiius of the Congo is an intervening
region of middle heights, tlirough which most of the tribu-
taries must flow in their ujiper courses. The continental
axis forms in the south and east a right-angled triangle, and
this middle I'cgion occupies tlie enclosed area, the hypothenuse
of which is well dcliued. 'J'hc source-streams of the Congo,
as we have seen, ai"(; t'oinul in the higli-lc\(.'l lake-country
whi<'h gives rise to thi'cc df the. four ehicr livers of Africa:
the, Congo, the Nile, and the; Zandn'/i. Tlic Congo, like the
Xile, huH its source-reservoirs, and at very much the same
MOUNTAINS, LAKES, AND RIVERS. 33
elevation. Lakes Bangweolo and Moiiro are situated at
altitudes above the sea-level of 4100 feet and 3000 feet
respectively. It is instructi^■e in this respect to note tliat
Lake Nyassa, lying to the east of Bangweolo, is situated
about 2500 feet below the level of the latter. Lake Tan-
ganika, on the other hand, situated nearly 2700 feet above
the sea, belongs to the basin of the Congo, though its outlet
by the Lukuga can only fulfil its drainage functions wdien,
at rare periods, the lake overflows.
The mountains surrounding Tanganika rise 2000 to 3000 Lake Tan-
feet above its waters, whilst the lake itself lies in a deep
trough, receiving tributary streams from all sides. South-
east of the Tanganika is a small lake, called the Hikwa.
Captain Storms considers that this lake at one time over-
flowed into the Tanganika, the waters of which were
thereby raised so as to drain out by the Lukuga into the
Lualaba basin of the Congo : the soft rocks at the break in
the western ramparts of Tanganika were thus gradually
eroded into a channel in the rainy season, though in the
dry season it may have formed a watershed.
The AVelle-Makwa-M'bangi arm of the Congo receives Congo :
northern
its head-waters from the mountainous region to the north- arm.
west of the Albert Lake. Its numerous northern tribu-
taries are considerable streams, but those which join the
river from the south have, in consequence of the proximity
of the main arm of the Congo, no great scope for develop-
ment. The M'bangi, shortly before its confluence with
the Congo, in piercing a mountain chain which lies athwart
its course, forms at Zongo six rapids. For twenty-four
miles the river is greatly contracted, and at places the rocky
ground divides the stream into several channels.
The tributaries of the Kasai-Sankuru arm of the Congo, Congo :
. , southern
flowing parallel to each other, drain the northern slopes of arm.
the South-Central African plateau. This tributary system
C
34 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
rivals in importance the main arm of the Congo itself.
Between it and the Congo are situated two lakes, which,
as far as has been ascertained, have no hydrographical
connection with one anotlier.
Lower The Lowcr Congo extends from its mouth for 120 miles
to Matadi, from whence cataracts obstruct the river as far
as the neighbourhood of Stanley Pool. Below Matadi, how-
ever, the river rushes past the bases of steep mountains, and
then expands to three times its former breadth, — to about
twelve miles across ; and it is studded with islands, which
are of constant occurrence in the bed of the Congo. Be-
tween Stanley Pool and Kwamouth, at the confluence of
the Kasai, the river passes between rocky heights of from
6co to 1000 feet.
Cong-o We thus see how, according to the nature of the country
estuary.
through which it passes, the Congo varies so greatly in width.
But at its estuary, between Banana and Shark Point, it
is only eight miles across, with depths of sixty fathoms.
Tbe current at this jioint runs at aliout three knots an
liour ; and, as the Congo is estimated to discharge over
one million tons of water per second, we can realise its in-
Snbmarine lUiencc ou the coast-linc. The sediment wliich its heavily
cliarged waters carry out to sea is deposited, for a distance
of over 300 miles, on either side of its ocean course, in sul)-
marino mountains of detritus and slime raised as high as
5000 f<'<'t. 'I'be soundings made by the Buccaneer demon-
stratcil tliiit llic walls of this siibiu;iiiiu> ciifioii are raised to
within 100 fatlioms of the smface of the sea, whilst between
tlicni Ibc S(»Mnding-line had to tra\('l ten times that distance
in oiilci- to reach th(^ bed of I he ocean. As, for reasons
which have alicafly liccn nicni ioncd, llic watcis of the Gulf
of (iiiiiK.'a arc slowly rcccihni:, wc may confidently })oint to
tlie formation in the, course, of ages of a delta of enormous
extent at tlie mouth of tlie Cong(». ll, must not, however,
canon.
MOUNTAINS, LAKES, AND RIVERS. 35
be supposed that this submarine canon is in any way (hie its origin.
to erosion by the river, the effect of which in this respect
cannot be felt for any great distance from shore, because
the river current itself, as Mr. J. Y. Buchanan has pointed
out, does not prevail below the surface of the sea for more
than twenty fathoms, and gradually thins out in its onward
course. For many miles from shore the colour of this ocean
river is of a darkish yellow, tinged with red ; and at more
remote places this layer of fresh water is so thin that the
screw of a steamer will churn it up and disclose the deep-
sea water below. Mr. Buchanan has, in fact, demonstrated
that the canon has not been hollowed out, but that it has
been built up by the sediment deposited through the agency
of the circulation of the sea water.
We may now regard the Congo river-system as a means Means of
communi-
of communication between the sea and the interior lands cation.,
which it drains. For this purpose we may regard the
intricate network of waterways above Stanley Pool as be-
longing to the Upper Congo. From Stanley Falls to Stanley
Pool the main arm of the Congo traverses a distance of
nearly 1000 miles, and is navigable throughout the entire
distance. It is very broad all the way, measuring in
places as much as fifteen or even twenty-one miles across.
According to the latest estimates by Belgian officers, which
may possibly prove to be too sanguine, the Kasa'i and
Sankuru have about an equal extent of navigable waters;
and the third great affluent of the Congo, the M'bangi,
has about 600 miles. Moreover, we are told that, taking-
all the tributaries into account, there are over 7000 miles
of continuous waterways accessible from Stanley Pool. We
must, therefore, at once recognise the importance of this
centre, situated, as it is, so near to the West Coast. If
we accept the Belgian estimates as accurate, the aggregate
length of the banks of the navigable waterways of the
36 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Upper Congo must be 14,000 miles, or about tliat of the
coast-line of Europe from the North Cape to Constantinople.
One can understand the enthusiasm of Mr. Stanley in re-
garding such a length of navigable rivers, with people on
their shores waiting to be supplied with the manufactures of
Europe ! The recent discovery that the Lomami is navi-
gable for 600 miles from its confluence with the Congo to a
point a little beyond the latitude of ISTyangwe, which lies
only a short distance to the east, carries our fluvial com-
munications into the very heart of Africa. As regards the
Lower Congo, ocean-going steamers stop at the port of
Boma, though there is water enough to float them up to
Matadi : the depths, however, are constantly changing,
owing to the shifting sandbanks. Between Matadi and
Stanley Pool, past the cataracts, a railway is in progress
of construction ; so that these insuperable obstacles to
transport by water will eventually be overcome by the
enterprise of man.
Between Procccding soutli, froui the mouth of the Congo, we
the Congo . . , . . .
an-1 Orange enter Upon an extensive region draimno; mto the Atlantic.
Rivers. ^ o o
The western slopes of the continental axis, extending
between the Congo and Orange Elvers, send several im-
portant streams to the ocean. Chief among them are the
Kwaii/^a ami Kuiu'nr, wliicli rise from opposite sides of
a watershed in the South-Centi'al plateau country, their
source-streams being in proximity to one anotlier and not
far removed — say, alxjut 100 miles — fi())u tlie coast.
Oro-T.-i- 'I'lic coniiiiy sniiib of llic howcr Congo, aliliough gradually
pliical
icatures. usccndiiig IVoiii the coast iiiln Ihc Iiitriioi', dors not at
fii'st rise in tuii'aces. It will lie seen thai the highest
land is at (ii'st far icnioNcd IVoni Ihc coast, and that it
gradually draws closer as \\r. jiiocccd sunlh. There are
districts in the Intcriur lying at an average elevation of
5000 feet, ami I'lijoying a 'J'cnipciate climate, wliich are
MOUNTAINS, LAKES, AND RIVERS. 37
as well watered as any other parts of Afiica. The Kwauza
is navigable for 250 miles from its mouth. The Knnene,
on the other hand, is shallow, even in its lower course, and
is not navigaljle.
South of the Kunene, as far as the Orange Eiver, there Absence of
extends a dreary coastal region, which, as it rises gradually
into the Interior, is said to improve in quality ; but it sends
no j)ermanent streams to the sea. Along this coast there
are no harbours, though Walvisch Bay affords a secure road-
stead. Behind this British possession there are tracks into
the Interior, but along the rest of the coast, to the north and
to the south, there are practically none.
The Orange Eiver and its tributaries are comprised under Orange
a self-contained system, resembling m many hydrographical
respects that of the great Congo itself. We here leave,
it is true, the important region of the continental axis of
elevation, but we find its counterpart in tlie south, bear-
ing a very close resemblance in miniature, and trending
also in a S.W. — N.E. direction. The Orange Eiver rises
at no great distance from the East__Coast, in the high ^ U-'^'V^
border-r ange o f the Draken Berge — one peakjowering over
its source at an elevation of over 10,000 feet ; and it
receives fine tributaries from the north and from the south. —
As a river-system it occupies the whole Atlantic drainage-
area of South Africa proper. The watershed between it
and the Indian Ocean drainage-basin culminates towards the
east in the massifs of the Draken Berge. This mountain-
range falls in steep terraces towards the Natal coast, but
its inland slope, towards the Transvaal plateau, is more
gentle. Situated between the Vaal and Molopo tribu-
taries of the Orange Eiver is the fine plateau of Southern
Bechuana-land, which in parts reaches 5000 feet, but sinks
towards the enclosed area around Lake N'gami to some
2000 feet.
DEVELOPMENT OE AERICA.
Communi-
cations.
Lake
N garni.
Indian
Ocean
drainage-
basin.
The Orange Eiver, on account of the numerous cataracts
formed in the country through which it flows, is practically
unnavigable. It is, in consequence, of little or no use as a
means of communication. Moreover, with the exception of
Saklanha Bay, situated some sixty miles to the north of
Cape Town and providing a good natural harbour, there are
no places on this coast where ships can find safe anchorage.
In the large enclosed hydrographical basin holding Lake
X'gami we have a reproduction on a small scale of that
of Lake Tsad. The former lies to the north of the Orange
Eiver and the letter to the north of the Congo : hence we
have another remarkable bathyhypsographical feature in
which these two river-systems resemble one another. The
N'gami, however, though fluctuating in size like its proto-
type, is a comparatively insignificant lake. It, too, like
the Tsad, lies on the border of a desert zone — that of the
Kalahari. In its neighbourhood are numerous depressions,
in which salt-pans are formed ; and there exist also many
larse river-beds with little or no water in them. The
N'gami has its outlet in the Zuga channel, which carries
off its overflow waters into the salt-pans.
This concludes our survey of the wliole Atlantic drainage-
area. The Indian Ocean drainage-basin is the last we shall
have to con.sider.
That portion of South Africa the mountain torrents of
wbich flj-ain into the Indian Ocean is comprised under the
siiullu'iii slojjcs of tlie In'gh border-range which, starting
fioiii the ('a])(! of (lood IIopc, runs ]);iiallel to the coast in
a nortli-easterly diivcijoii to (lir I)ial<cii IV'rge. The land
ri.scH in nigular terraces from llio sea, and there is a middle
coastal range betwt'cn it and the Orange Iiiver watershed.
Wo are, consequently, not suiiuisecl (,(• linil Ihe sulmiaiine
Itank off Ca])e Agulhas — the most soutlnily point of Africa
— continuing th(i .same pliysical formati<»ii I'ai' into the ocean.
MOUNTAINS, LAKES, AND RIVERS. 39
Between the coastal-range and the border-range there is a Cape
rivers.
large plateau, the Great Karoo, from sixty to ninety miles
wide, and situated between two and three thousand feet
above the sea. In this desert region of sand and clay we
do not expect to find permanent rivers. The rivers of
the Cape generally are mostly mountain torrents, flowing
through deep gorges, though as we proceed east they have
a more permanent water-supply. Happily, however, the
Cape is not dependent on its waterways for access into the
Interior.
It is not until we reach the Limpopo that we discover any Limpopo
river of consequence in this part of Africa. The Limpopo,
which is navigable for sixty miles from its mouth for vessels
of 200 tons, rises in the South African plateau, from which
it receives several large tributaries, and, after describing a
wide bend by the north, falls into the sea near the finest
harbour in South-East Africa — Delagoa Bay. The valley of
the Limpopo is, it is evident, of some consequence as a
means of communication.
North of the Limpopo the coastal zone begins to broaden
out, until it merges in the valley of the Zambezi. The
watershed between these rivers and the Sofala coast is
considerably cut up, and sends no important streams to
the sea.
The Zambezi Iii\'er and its magnificent system of accessible Zambezi
River :com-
waterways is the "Congo " of the East Coast. The catchment- p^[^^°^
basin of the river itself is equal to three times the area of Congo.
Erance, Indeed, as a means of communication with the
interior parts of Africa, and especially with the most healthy
parts, it may be questioned whether the Zambezi, or the
Congo, or the Nile is the most valuable as a commercial
highway. Affording, as it does, ready access to what has
been called the high-level lake-region of Africa — the region
most suited to European settlement — the Zambezi may be
40 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
regarded as second to none. Curiously enough, too, its
source -streams are quite close to those of the Congo, the
watershed hetween the two river-systems running across the
South-Central plateau and then striking north-east, between
Lakes Nyassa and Tanganika. The slopes in the South-
Central plateau are scarcely perceptible, and, as far as the
inequalities of the land are concerned, there is easy access
between the two basins.
But, to begin at the beginning. The Upper Zambezi, drain-
ing the southern slopes of the South- Central plateau, derives
its highest source-streams from the country to the west of
Bangweolo, at a romantic spot called Border Craig by Mr.
Arnot, because on the other side of the watershed probably
the highest source-stream of the Congo takes its rise. The
Zambezi does not originate, as formerly supposed, in Lake
Dilolo, but passes through it. In its upper course it receives
through its right bank several large tributaries from the far
west. After entering the valley which it traverses in its
middle course, it skirts the southern border of the South-
Central plateau, recei\'ing tributaries through either bank,
until it is joined by the Loangwa, which rises in the highland
country to the west of Lake Nyassa. Between the upper
course of the Loangwa and the Congo basin there is a range
of mountains over 6000 feet high, which ultiiiiatclv menses
in the plateau country between Lakes Nyassa and Tangan-
ika. The Zambezi, after its continence with the Loangwa,
Ijegins to work its way into the coastal zone, and its l)ed
consequently becomes obstructed at tlic rim of the interior
plateau. When, finally, it gets faiily away into llie lowlands
it b(;comes a line, bold stream.
Shortly before entering tbi- low-lying conntry, in wln"ch,
ninety miles fioin the coast, it begins to I'orm ;i delta, tlie
Zambezi njeeives tlirongli its left li;inlx the tiibutary waters
of the Shin'. The cut in; delta of the Zamljczi, comprising an
MOUNTAINS, LAKES, AND KIJ'ERS. 41
area of 2500 square miles, is only slightly elevated above Navigable
channels,
the level of the sea, with which it imperceptilily merges. Of
the innumeral)le channels only seven may be regarded as
the actual mouths of the river, and of these the Madredane
is the channel most used for navigation. Unfortunately, all
the mouths of the Zambezi are barred, as they are con-
stantly silting up, and the river-beds consequently undergo
changes of level, which present serious obstacles to naviga-
tion. The Madredane itself is frequently choked with
vegetation. Mr. I). J. Eankin claims to have discovered
in the Chinde (Shinde) mouth an alternative passage from
the sea into the Zambezi, which ultimately may prove to
l)e of value ; and, of course, there are others not mentioned
here, which are practicable ; but, as a general rule, it may
be stated that the mouths of the Zambezi are all so lialjle
to be silted up that only costly measures, effectively main-
tained, can ever preserve them as permanent, navigable
highways for steamers.
It is the Kwakwa or Kilimani Elver by which, up to the Kwakwa
present, the best access to the Zambezi has been available for
commerce. But between the upper course of the Kwakwa
and the Zambezi Eivers a portage of five miles is necessary ;
so that, for international and commercial purposes, the use
of the Kwakwa Eiver, passing through Portuguese territory,
has its disadvantages. The Zambezi, on the other hand,
being a free river, is the best, as it is the most natural, high-
way into the interior lands ; and, as there are no insuperable
obstacles to the navigation of its available channels, we may
be sure that, when the proper time comes, adequate and
effective measures w^ill be taken for the safety of vessels
using them.
As Lake Nyassa is situated 1 570 feet above the level of the shire
sea, it follows that its outlet, the Shire, in order to travel the
short distance to join the Zambezi, must fall very rapidly,
42 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
especially where it breaks away from the inland plateau.
At this locality the Murchison cataracts are formed, and
prevail for some fifty miles. Here, in proceeding up the
Shire from the Zambezi to Lake I^yassa, a portage is
necessary.
Means of Ecgardiug the Zambezi as a means of communication with
communi-
cation. ^j^g Interior, we see at a glance, from what has been said,
that there are really no insuperable obstacles to uninter-
rupted navigation from the sea until we reach the Karoa
basa rapids above Tete. Farther up, its bed is again and
again interrupted by the inequalities of the land through
which the river flows. In the Victoria Falls, for example,
we witness a phenomenon the grandeur of which is un-
surpassed even by the Falls of Xiagara ; for here the
Zambezi, looo yards broad, drops lOO feet into a fissure
of the earth's surface, which stretches right across its bed
and is continued past its left bank for over thirty miles.
But the Zandjezi also offers access from the sea to another
water-and-land route, which, conducting over the high-level
Lake country, ultimately connects in the north with the
Congo and Nile basins, thus affording a practicable highway
across the continent of Africa. Let us briefly examine
this route in detail.
A highway III the initial stage of our journey we enter either the
across
Africa. Zaiidjczi itsclf, by one of its mouths, or the Kwakwa Eiver.
Ill the former case we can navigate vessels right up to the
Murclii.son cataracts on the Shire, but in the latter case
a five-iiiil(i ])ortage between the Kwakwa and Zambezi is
necessary. J'ast the Murcliisnn cataracts anotlier portage,
of sixty miles, is essential; l»iil lioni thence to tlie Nyassa
we have ficc access Ity water, rielweeii J.,akes Nyassa and
Tangaiiika thcj so-called Stevenson Jload stretches for 250
miles; whilst tlie Victoria Nyaiiza, according to Stanley's
latest (li.scovery of its south-westerly extension, is only 155
MOUNTAINS, LAKES, AND RIVERS. 43
miles distant from the Tanganika. Such a I'oiite as this, by
far the greater portion of which is by water, cannot fail to be
of immense value to those who, by opening up the contineiit
and introducing legitimate commerce, hope to impose a
higher civilisation upon its native inhabitants.
A glance at Lake Nyassa, and we have done with the Lake
^ J ' _ Nyassa:
Zambezi catchment-basin. Lakes Nyassa and Tanganika compara-
'' " tive view.
closely resemble one another in their hydrographical rela-
tions : as Tanganika is to the Congo, so is Nyassa to the
Zambezi. It is a striking fact that the three great river-
systems of Africa — the Nile, the Congo, and the Zambezi —
should all be provided with large lake-reservoirs. Though
the Congo now receives no overflow waters from Tan-
ganika, owing to the subsidence of the lake, it must have
done so in former times, and might possibly do so again.
Lake Nyassa, like Tanganika, has in the south its satellite
lake, that of Shirwa, which, like Hikw^a, is a self-con-
tained hydrographical basin. Shirwa lies 400 feet above
the level of Nyassa, and was for a time supposed to be con-
nected with the river Lujenda, from which it is separated
by an elevated ridge of sandy soil. Whether, as native
report has it, the lake may still have some subterranean
connection, is a moot-point. At least, it does not overflow
into the Nyassa, but belongs rather to the Lujenda system,
though its mention in this place is more convenient.
Lake Nyassa, in fact, receives no tributaries of any size.
It is 350 miles in length, and averages nearly forty miles
in breadth, its mean depth being about 100 fathoms. The
highest elevations on its shores are those in the north-east,
where the Livingstone mountains average as much as 10,000
feet, and extend for 100 miles.
We now enter the domain properly regarded as the East East
. "^ . Coast.
Coast of Africa, stretching from the delta of the Zambezi
northwards to the Gulf of Aden. Throuuhout the lenfrth of
44 DEVELOPMEXT OF AFRICA.
East this coast, and its interior region draining into the Indian
Ocean, there are no navigable rivers, properly so regarded :
all of them, as they break through the terrace-like forma-
tions of the inland plateau, form rapids. The watershed,
starting from the south, coincides with the high country
that separates the hydrographical systems of the great
Lakes, and ultimately unites with the Aljyssinian highlands
in the north. From south to north, within this drainage-
area, the inland plateau recedes more and more from the
shores of the Indian Ocean ; but, in the extreme north, the
high-level country, starting from the nucleus of Abyssinia,
takes a direct easterly trend, so as to form the backbone
of the great Horn of Africa. Dipping under the surface
of the sea at Cape Guardafui, it plainly indicates its sub-
marine extension in the direction of the island of Sokotra,
wliich, like a sentinel, raises its summit above the ocean
waters. The coastal zone of East Africa maintains a corre-
sponding increase in its average breadth; and there is a
well-defined intermediate zone of elevation between the
lowland and the highland regions.
Rovuma Between Lake Nyassa and the Indian Ocean the only river
of prime importance is the Eovuma, which rises in the high
country near the eastern shores of the lake. The liovuma
forms a cataract forty miles above its confluence with the
Lujenda, and its bed is elsewhere obstructed ; so that, as a
means of communication with tlie East Coast — which Living-
stone liinl ardently wislicd to discover in it — the river is of
no special value. The Lujenda, rising to the north of Lake
Shirwa, issues f)ut of two snrall lakes, and then breaks away
through tlie rough countiy tliat divides it from the upper
course of llie I;m\iiiii;i, recei\iiig Iriliutary waters tlirough
both 1 tanks. The united sti'eams, ue.ir llicii' eoiilhience, are
jis liroad as 700 feet.
Opposite Zanzibar, and between the Kuliji and lUivu.
River.
MOUNTAINS, LAKES, AND RIVERS. 45
(Pangani)— the former coming from the highlands on the Zanzibar
mainland.
north-east of Nyassa, the latter from the slopes of Kilima-
njaro — there is an interesting region, broken up by moun-
tains, and sending only small unnavigable streams to tlie
sea. We have, first, the coastal zone, stretching inland
to the uplands of Usagara, behind which the continent
rises and expands into plateaus and tablelands. The im-
mense plateau lying to the east of Tanganika averages
over 4000 feet in elevation above the sea-level. Mounts
Kilima-njaro and Kenia, farther north, are the southerly
outposts and culminating elevations of a volcanic region
in which large isolated mountain -masses occur among the
plateaus. How far north this region extends it would be
difficult to define, but its characteristics are more or less
apparent in all the highland country up to Abyssinia.
Numerous small lakes occur, some fresh, some salt, Ijut
none of them provided with an outlet. There is a long
chain of these lakelets in an apparent cleft of the earth's
surface situated to the east of the Victoria Nyanza, and
extending north and south for a distance of over 600 miles.
Of these, the Naivasha Lake, 6000 feet above the sea, is
the highest in elevation. Erom this central point, in the
watershed country between Kenia and the Victoria JSTyanza,
the valley slopes north- and south-wards.
The chief river of this part of the East Coast, the Tana, Tana
^ River.
derives its head-waters from the slopes of Mount Kenia
and beyond. It is a permanent stream, and conveniently
overflows when the snows of INIount Kenia are meltino-
under a summer sun.
To the north of the region we have been surveying lie Somai-
and Galla-
the Somal- and Galla- lands. What little we know of this lands,
extensive tract of country is that it slopes from the north
southw^ards, and, of course, from the west eastwards, thus
givmg a general S.E. slope towards the Indian Ocean, in
46 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
which direction it falls in successive, long, flat terraces.
The whole of the country is scored by wide, but for the
most part dry, river-beds, only two of which carry perma-
nent streams.
Remarks. "We havc uow finished our hasty survey of the mountains,
lakes, and rivers of Africa. Unconscionably long and w^eari-
some as it may have appeared to those who have had the
courage to accompany me so far, step by step, it fills me with
remorse to think how much I have necessarily omitted :
really large and important districts, which, in order to pre-
serve some sort of balance, have been entirely overlooked
on account only of their relative insignificance. For the
same reason, that of proportion, some regions have had but
slight notice. Only general terms have been employed in
describing what it were possible to have seen, say, from
the car of a balloon; if, on the other hand, we came to
the earth and examined it more closely, our descriptions
would require considerable modifications.
The points I have endeavoured to bring out in strong
relief are — (i.) The distribution of the great land-masses,
resulting in the formation of the chief drainage-systems;
and (2.) the general configuration of the land, as indicated
by the courses of the arterial rivers and tlieir tributary
systems.
As in the early stages of drawing a picture, we have first
da.shed in the broad outlines and then (illcd in the salient
details, leaving a great deal unrecorded, owing to the limi-
tation of our view. ]>ut our picture of Africa is, up to the
present, only a lilack-and-white sketch, more wliite than
Ijlack ; ;inil \\i- can only liojx; to convey a semblance of
realism when we resort to colours, wlien we clothe the
mountains and tlic plains with vegetation.
We havc regarded our sulijcct-mailer in the present
MOUNTAINS, LAKES, AND RIVERS. 47
chapter from one point of view only : accessibility. In Accessi-
bility of
how far is the continent, by the natural disposition of its African
mountain barriers, favoural)le or otherwise to the migratory
movements of men ? In how far do the rivers of Africa,
from their facility for navigation, offer highways into tlie
interior lands ?
"Well, if we have seen anything at all, we nnist have
recognised how the great river-systems of Africa give frge ^
access into the Interior at least up to the points where, as •
cataracts and rapids, they break through the rim of the
continental plateau. Eailways could be built to obviate
such hindrances to internal communications, such as at the
cataracts of the Lower Congo, where the upper reaches of ^
the river are sufficiently valuable and attractive as highways. ,/
As far as roads are concerned, it is well known that native
tracks lead from every village to every other village ; and
then there are the caravan routes, to which we shall refer
subsequently. Highways, like the Stevenson Eoad between
Lakes Nyassa and Tanganika, will be built when the proper
time arrives : that is to say, when trade prospects warrant
their construction. Across the unhealtliy coastal zone, from
the depots of commerce, also, railways will in time run
inland to the chief commercial centres. Though we are told
it is unwise to prophecy until we are sure, I venture to
remark that, in the end, it will be found impossible for
Europeans to colonise Africa without the rapid means, such
as railways afford, to reach the high-lying and relatively
healthier regions of the Interior. It is all a question of
time and of experience. At present we have the most
elementary notions as to the proper manner of " opening up "
Africa. Elsewhere will be explained some of the difficulties
we shall have to face and the problems to be solved.
It is evident that the physical embossment of Africa, / / ^
although providing splendid waterways throughout the /( L>C.
48 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
iuland plateau, does not afford steamers uninterrupted access
j j from the sea, except in most cases for comparatively short
^ ' ' distances. And this is one of the reasons, though not the
chief, why at the present day we see the coasts occupied by
Europeans and Inner Africa by unregenerate Natives.
CHAPTER IIT.
CLIMATE AND COGNATE PHENOMENA.
DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE ACTUAL TEMPERATURES — DISTRI-
BUTION OF ATMOSPnERIC PRESSURE, AND PREVAILING WINDS — ■
ANNUAL RAINFALL DISTRIBUTION OF SOILS ZONES OF VEGETA-
TION DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATES
ACCLIMATISATION.
MAPS.
Mean Anndal Temperatures (Actual)
Mean Annual Range of Temperature
Annual Rainfall ....
Geological Sketch ....
Zonks of Vegetation ....
Plate III.
„ IV.
V,
„ VI.
., VII.
T
CLIMATE AND COGNATE PHENOMENA.
HE phenomena of climate are so manifold and complex, Phenomena
of climate.
and our data in Africa are, moreover, so limited and
imperfect, that we can refer to them here only in very
general terms, and in so far as their practical application is
concerned. They necessarily include atmospheric pressure,
temperature, humidity, and the resvdting aerial circulation
or prevailing winds, which in the main determine rainfall.
Vegetation, in its tvirn, depends partly on rainfall ; the geo-
graphical distribution of animals is largely controlled by
vegetation ; and upon both of these depends in a great
measure the distribution of the populations. In working
up to this final result, therefore, we shall be following the
natural sequence of physical phenomena, or of cause and
effect, by first considering the meteorological conditions of
Africa.
First, then, as regards temperature.* As the greater Mean
portion of Africa lies within the Tropics, we are prepared perature.
to find there a very high mean annual temperature. From
the Northern Tropic (Cancer) southwards to the Orange
Eiver, and excepting only the western seaboard and a small
portion of the South-East Coast, which are cooled by their
proximity to the ocean, there is a zone with a mean annual
* The data in regard to temperature and atmospheric pressure are derived
mainly from Dr. Alexander Buchan's monumental maps of the world illus-
trating the Challenger volume on the subject. These maps are the most
recent and authoritative we possess. They do not give actual temperatures,
of course, but temperatures reduced to sea-level. The former we shall con-
sider apart, in connection with Mr. Ravenstein's map (Plate III.).
52 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
temperature of 80° Fahr. This zone encloses a correspond-
ing inner zone of 85° Fahr. To the north, the Sahara and
Libyan deserts lie within the zone of 70° to 80° Fahr. ; and
to the south we find a corresponding zone of mean annual
temperature along the West Coast and in the high-plateau
country of South jAfrica. The Mediterranean seaboard,
the South-West Coast, and the southern-most part of Cape
Colony enjoy the mean annual temperature of Southern
Europe : from 60° to 70° Fahr.
Mean tern- Bearing in mind these zones of mean annual temperature,,
February.' it will be instructivc to compare them with the mean tem-
peratures of the two extreme months, February and August,
when the juxtaposition and interchange of seasons between
the northern and southern Hemispheres is well exemplified
in Africa. In February — the winter of the northern, and
the summer of the southern, Hemisphere — the zone of 80°
Fahr. lies more to the south and west, whilst the zone of
85° Fahr. is immensely increased in size, and encloses two
large patches or areas indicating as high a temperature as
90° Fahr. These two patches are situated, the one — and the
smaller one — to the north of the Equator, in the source-
country of the Upper Nile ; the other, south of the Equator,
in the high-plateau country between Lake Tanganika and
the Orange River. The zone of 70° to 80° Fahr. includes part
of tlie West Coast and the south coast of Cape Colony, in the
southern Hemisphere ; while, in the northern Hemisphere,
the Saharan regions experience a mean temperature of from
60" to 80" Falir. The Mediterranean seabuai'd has, however,
a mtian teni])(;rature of from 50° to 60° Fahr.
Meantem- W(! unturally fiiid vcry nearly the reverse of these con-
peratiires '■ . . . , , , tt . , . .
Augukt. (Iitioiis 111 August, wlu'ii tlie northern Hemisphere enjoys its
KuiiiiiK'T. Then tin' zone of 80' Fibi., Ihougli prevailing as
far south as Lake Nyassa, rcacli(!s tlie shores of the Mediter-
ranean, aixl IcMvcs only a poi'tion of North-West Africa "out
CLIMATE AND COGNATE PHENOMENA. 53
in the (comparative) cold " of from 70° to 80° Fahr. Within
this zone of 80° Fahr. we find, well to the north of the
Equator, interior zones of 85°, 90°, and even 95° Fahr.,
their axes lying, roughly, N.W. and S.E. The innermost
zone of 95° Fahr. is situated in the heart of the Sahara.
South of the isothermal line of 80° Fahr. are zones of 70°,
60°, and 55° Fahr., extending to the Cape.
All of these isothermal lines, enclosing the zones above influence
the ocean
referred to, are, of coui'se, more and more deflected as the "po" tem-
perature
neighbourhood of the sea is approached, and therefore assume
approximately the curvature of the coasts.
So far we have discussed temperatures reduced to sea- Actual
tempera-
level ; but Mr. Eavenstein's map (Plate III.) illustrating tures.
this chapter will convey to the reader a far more realistic
idea of this dry subject, for there only actual temperatures
have been given. It will be seen how relatively few places
there are in Tropical Africa where temperatures favourable
to Europeans can be found. A mean annual temperature of
from 72° to 80° Fahr. prevails almost everywhere, and in
the East Coastal zone it rises to and above 80° Fahr. Only
in the very highest regions do we find temperatures of from
64° to 72° Fahr. When, however, we enter the more Tem-
perate regions of Africa, in the north and in the south, we
there find temperatures congenial to Europeans. But, of
course, temperature is not everything : it is modified in
many ways by local conditions, and more especially by the
relative humidity of the atmosphere.
Having glanced at mean temperatures in Africa, we may
briefly consider the prevailing winds.
The sun, which is the source of all life, is the prime cause Atmos-
p , phenc preS"
or the movements of the atmosphere. Without its beneficent sure,
action there would be stagnation above and death below.
In its apparent path through the Tropics, the sun gives rise
to those variations of atmospheric pressure known in meteor-
54 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
ological science as areas of low and of liigh pressure.* But
the distribution of atmospheric pressure is further deter-
mined by the geographical distribution of land and water.
Hence we have those phenomena which lead to diversity of
climate.
Prevailing: It is not my intention here to exhibit the working of the
winds.
machinery, so to speak, but simply the manufactured result.
Upon the varying relative distribution of atmospheric pres-
sure depends the prevailing winds, or, as Dr. Buchan lucidly
expresses it : " the flow of the air from a region of higher
towards a region of lower pressure, or from where there is
a surplus to where there is a deficiency of air."
Land and Wc havc uot space cveu to glance at diurnal phenomena,
breezes. of which the land and sea breezes are the most notable
examples. Of the prevailing winds in the interior of Africa
we know next to nothing ; and, indeed, we can speak only
very approximately of those in other parts of the con-
tinent, except pei'haps in Algeria, in South Afi'ica, and on
the Eed Sea.
In discussing the prevailiug winds of Africa, the most
* Areas of loiv pressure follow approximately the path of the sun, but are
ultimately deteruiined by the chief land-masses ; and for the following reasons.
In the summer months the land is much warmer than the ocean in the same
latitudes : hence pressure is lower, owing to the ascending heated currents
carrying away a portion of the atmosphere, whose place is then taken by
relatively colder, and therefore heavier, air. Also, in higher latitudes over the
ocean in the winter the temperature is higher than over the land in the same
latitude : lience ascending currents of air set in, and pressure is lower.
Tiiese physical phenomena are simply reversed in areas of hif/h pressure. In
the winter months temperature over the land is lower than over the ocean in
the same latitudes, consequently the air is denser or heavier, and pressure is
high : hence it is that pressure is high ()V(,'r all the continents during tiie winter
months of those continents.
Furthermore, it is esKential to bear in mind tiiat, on the eastern sides of
all the great oceans, between aliout latitudes 20° to 40" north and south, pres-
Hure inki'jh at all hcusoiih, but highest in the sunrnu r nmnths of the respective
oceans.
These remarks are introduced in (iniir to assist lay readers the better to
underHtund the meteorological phenomena with which we are dealing.
CLIMATE AND COGNATE PHENOMENA. 55
important factor to take into acconnt is that of the Trade- Trade-
winds.
winds, which, though shifting with the apparent path of
the sun, blow more or less constantly, unless locally affected,
from the N.E. in the northern Hemisphere and from the S.E.
in the southern Hemisphere. The intervening region is a
belt of calms. In the southern Hemisphere the S.E. Trades
prevail more or less regularly off the West and South-East
Coasts; but in the northern Hemisphere the N.E, Trades
are only constant off the Atlantic shores of Africa.
In the northern Equatorial regions of Africa, both on Monsoon
^ winds.
the West and East Coasts, there are monsoon winds. Off
the West Coast the S.W. monsoon blows into the Gulf of
Guinea as the prevailing wind throughout the year, though
this is a region which is comparatively calm. On the
East Coast, on the other hand, the monsoons are controlled
by the disturbing element of a large continental mass in
proximity — Asia. These winds prevail in Southern Asia
more or less from the S.W., by S., to the S.E. from April to
October, and from N.E. during the other months of the
year ; and their influence is felt over the whole of the great
Horn of Africa as well as off the coasts. Along the Eed
Sea the wind is almost always northerly ; and on the Medi-
terranean seaboard the winds vary from S.W., N.W., and
N.E. throughout the year.
How far these winds are likely to prevail in the Interior
can only be approximately determined by a careful examina-
tion of isobaric charts, showing atmospheric pressure, and,
inferentially, the prevailing winds, month by month. We
have, however, said enough to assist us in making the appli-
cation we are about to consider — the rainfall of Africa.*
The heaviest rainfall occurs in the Equatorial regions. Rainfall:
-J-, , -,1 . ,. Equatorial
Enclosed longitudinal zones of from 50 to 100 inches of zone.
annual rainfall are found at several places within those
* See map (Plate V.) illustrating this subject.
36
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Rainfall :
Tropical
and sub-
Tropical
zones.
Desert
regions.
Sources of
Kreat river-
systems.
limits. In the heart of Africa — the Congo forest region — a
zone of over 50 inches extends as far south as the Zambezi
watershed. Within this Equatorial belt there are, moreover,
two districts which receive an even heavier annual rainfall
— over 100 inches. The S.W. monsoon winds carry from
the region of calms in the Gulf of Guinea an abnormal
amount of moisture, which is precipitated on coming in
contact with the cooling influence of the coastal uplands ;
and a similar patch of heavy rainfall occurs near Sierra
Leone. Curiously enough, in the extreme north-west of
Madagascar there is also a heavy annual rainfall of over
100 inches.
Outside this rainy Equatorial zone we find in the north
two zones, of from 25 to 50 inches, and of from 10 to 25
inches of annual rainfall, respectively, extending up to the
southern borders of the Sahara ; and in the south there
are corresponding zones, but, instead of their axes lying east
and west, they extend, roughly, N.N.W. and S.S.E., making
a deep inland curve on the South-West Coast.
The greater portion of the Sahara receives under 5 inches
of annual rainfall : hence its desert character. Eor the
winds coming from Europe and blowing from a colder
to a warmer region, the air thereby gradually increases its
capacity for absorbing and letaining moisture, veiy little of
which is precipitated over the thirsty desert lands. But in
the transitional regi(Jiis north and south of the Sahara,
as well as iu tlie mountain districts, an annual rainfall of
fiDiii 5 to 10 inclies is found. Much the same conditions
prevail in the domain of the Kalahari Uesert, whence,
however, the winds blow outwards to the sea. The Atlas
Mountains, on the other hand, aircsst th(! rainfall, and enjoy
as much as from 10 to 50 inches during tlie year.
We have now soiik! explanation o\ why the great river-
systems of Africa are situated where they are found: tlieir
CLIMATE AND COGNATE PHENOMENA. 57
source-streams originate in the regions of relatively tin;
highest annual rainfall.
As regards the seasons of rain, we may thus broadly Rainy
seasons.
define them. The Mediterranean seaboard receives its rains
in the winter months ; so also do the extra-Tropical coasts
of South Africa. Where the abnormal rainfall on the nor-
thern shores of the Gulf of Guinea occurs, there is a double
rainy season ; the same conditions prevail also on the coast
of Angola, south of the Congo, where the rainfall is small.
The eastern Horn of Africa, enjoying only a light rainfall,
is under the influence of the monsoon rains, which extend
far inland — betw^een the Ked Sea, on the latitude of Sawa-
kin, in the north and Zanzibar in the south. The Sahara
and Lil^yan desert (excepting the mountain regions), the
Kalahari, a portion of the South-West Coast, and other
smaller districts in Africa, are rainless regions. But the
remainder of the continent, and by far the larger portion,
has a single rainy season. The seasons at which rain falls
in this inter-Tropical zone vary with the position of the
sun. In the belt of calms along the Equator, however, as
might be expected, there is rain all the year round : for
there the light airs meet and discharge their moisture,
which otherwise would be carried away.
The Equatorial limit of snowfall reaches the African shores snow-iine.
of the Mediterranean in the northern Hemisphere, and the
highlands of the Cape in the southern Hemisphere ; whilst in
the most elevated districts of both of these regions snow may
fall in the middle of every winter. Snow falls also on the
very highest mountains of Africa wherever they may rise
above a certain altitude, even at the Equator ; but this
vertical limit of snowfall is too uncertain for us to consider
it in any detail. Suffice it to say that Mounts Kilima-njaro,
Kenia, Euwenzori, and probably also the mountains of Abys-
sinia, thrust their crests above the line of perennial snow.
58
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Distribu-
tion of soils.
Soils :
Archasan
rocks.
Soils :
Paljeozoic
division.
Soils :
Mf.-sozoic
strata.
From the consideration of meteorological conditions we
pass by a natural transition to the question of soils, which
have a reflex action upon climate. In regard to the distribu-
tion of soils in Africa, which, from the agricultural stand-
point as well as from that of political settlement, is of
prime importance, very little can be said with certainty :
our data in this respect are of the most imperfect and
limited kind. On referring to our geological map (Plate VI.),
however, we can broadly distinguish the soils which must be
more or less developed in the great geological divisions.
The Archaean rocks, for instance, frequently yield soils
not unlike those of granitic tracts ; that is to say, where the
slope of the ground is considerable, the soil is necessarily
thin and gravelly, and is not cultivable ; but, in the lower-
lying tracts where such rocks prevail, clay-like soils are
occasionally well developed. Such soils, w4th proper treat-
ment, are often fertile.
Of rocks belonging to the great Palccozoic division, it may
be said in general terms that the soils most likely to be en-
countered will be argillaceous or clay-like in character, though
many are more or less arenaceous or sandy. And as regards
the fertility of the soils overlying these rocks, much depends
on the configuration of the ground. On moderate slopes and
gently undulating ground the soils and subsoils are often
of considerable depth. All gradations of character are met
with, from more or less loose sandy soils to very heavy soils
consisting largely of clay. The fertility of all these soils is,
of course, largely influenced by the amount of organic matter
wliich they may happen to contain.
'I'hc Mesozoic strata of Central and South Africa have
ii pic\al(!iit arenaceous or saiuly cbaracter, and the soils
yielded l»y tliem on Rlo])ing gidiiiid mid ii])lands are some-
what open and liglit. In the, north of Africa, where the
later Mesozoic strata arc well developed, limestones and
CLIMATE AND COGNATE PHENOMENA. 59
calcareous sandstones are tolerably abundant, and the over-
lying soils, in places where the slope of the ground allows
of their accumulation, are usually fertile. In Abyssinia
enormous areas are occupied by volcanic rocks, wluch are
believed to be of Mesozoic age, and the soils formed from the
disintegration of these rocks is almost invariably fertile ; but,
unfortunately, owing to the configuration of the country, the
loose soils are continuously swept down from the plateaus
and terraces into the great river valleys. We have already
observed how the Eiver Atbara carries away the sediment
which goes to form the Nile Delta.
Tertiary rocks are developed chiefly along the Mediter- soiis :
Tertiary
ranean seaboard, and consist largely of limestones and cal- rocks,
careous strata. The soils yielded l)y these, under normal
climatic conditions, are frequently highly fertile ; but, un-
fortunately,* the regions in Africa over which Tertiary
strata are principally developed are characterised by an
extremely dry climate, so that wide areas are practically
desert. On the other hand, where water is plentiful, the
abundant growth of vegetation indicates the natural fertility
of the land ; and, doubtless, irrigation on an extended scale
would reclaim many broad tracts of desert lands which in
former times appear to have been cultivated with success.
Enormous regions in iSTorthern Africa have become desiccated
even within historical times. Abundant facts tend to show
that, in the flourishing days of Egypt and Carthage, for in-
stance. Northern Africa was much better watered than it is
now, and sustained a very large population ; the land, which
was also irrigated, was, in fact, under extensive cultivation.
The Quaternary and Recent deposits consist in North soiis:
Africa chiefly of movino; sands and of the gravel and grit that and Recent
"^ '=' . . deposits.
strew the courses of rivers which have either ceased to
* In African affairs this term is a qualification that necessarily occurs aj,'aia
and ajrain.
6o DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
exist or are greatly diniiuislied in volume; and in Central
and South Africa these deposits are represented by the
alluvial accumulations of the great rivers and their tribu-
taries.
Best soils Looked at broadly, therefore, it is obvious that the soils
for agricul- -i i i
turaipur- most readily available for agricultuial purposes are those
great Hats which border the streams and rivers. But there
must be enormous tracts in the Mesozoic and Paheozoic
areas readily capable of being brought under cultivation ;
while, with judicious disforesting, large regions of uplands
might be converted into rich pasture-lands. Kor can it be
doubted that if the forests, which in the times of the
Itomans and Carthaginians clothed large districts of North
Africa, were in part restored, and good systems of irriga-
tion adopted, the soils of these regions would soon cease to
Effect of be regarded as barren. The inliuence of forests in reo-ulatins
forests on *=*. o O
rain-^ tlic raiii-supply is undoubted, for they prevent the rain from
being rapidly absorbed underground, besides keeping the
soils from being washed away and inducing a more humid
climate generally.
Before leaving this question of the distribution of soils in
Africa and their fertility, the attention of the reader should
be specially directed to the maps illustrating this chapter,
which may be studied for the elucidation of details into
which space forbids us to enter. And, as a rough and ready
guidance to the subject, it may be added that the best
agricultural regions of England have from twenty-five to
twenty-eight inches of annual rainfall.
Distribu- The vegetation of Africa naturally falls to be described
tion of _
vegetation, uiidcr latitudinal zones.
According to Dr. Behm,* the area of Africa may be
thus distinguished : —
* Die Bevolkeruwj der Erde, vi. i8So. Erfjunzunrjsheft, Petcrmaniis Mitteil-
unyen, No. 62, p. 59.
CLIMATE AND COGNATE PHENOMENA. 6r
36.4 per cent, is occupied by deserts.
14 6 ,, „ ., ,, steppes.
5.3 „ ., ., ,, scrub.
21.3 ., ,. .. ., savannas.
21.8 ,, .. ,, ,, forests * and cultivated lund.
.6 ,, ,, ,, ,, the larger lakes.
Eoughly speaking, therefore, about half the continent is
occupied by deserts and steppes, and of the other half tlie
moiety is an area of savannas. We have left less than a
quarter of the area of Africa in which fairly fertile land
is found, and a large portion of that, especially in the
Equatorial regions, is covered with forests. Almost the
whole of the northern Hemisphere is desert or steppe
country, and the most fertile lands are in the southern
Hemisphere, chiefly distributed along the continental axis
and in the river valleys.
The typical zones of vegetation in Africa are thus Vegeta-
broadly distinguishable: — (i.) The Mediterranean zone ; typical
JO \ / ^ } zones.
(2.) Sahara desert zone ; (3.) Equatorial zone of Tropical
vegetation; and (4.) Savannas of South- Central and South
Africa.
This being the general distribution of vegetation in A f rica,
we may proceed to view it in somewhat greater detail.
"What we want to arrive at is the outward aspect of the
continent in its characteristic features, upon which only we
can afford to dwell.
The Mediterranean lands, with the exception of the desert Mediterra-
. nean zone.
tracts on the eastern Littoral, sustain a vegetation similar
to that of Southern Europe, if somewhat more Tropical. In
the highly mountainous regions of Morocco there are fine
forests and pasture-lands with rich soils capable of yielding
any growth, according to altitude ; but this development of
vegetation applies only to the northern slopes ; for, as we
* The above estimate was, of course, antecedent to Stanley's discoveries.
62 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
cross the watershed and enter the domain of the Sahara,
we abruptly emerge upon the broad steppes. The finest
soils are found in the Tell lands, of moderate elevation, which
intervene between the coast and the " Middle Atlas ; " and
there a climate, with seasonal changes not uidike those of
England, is found. The farther we penetrate south, vegeta-
tion in Algeria becomes scantier ; and we eventually pass
over a rocky steppe-country into the Algerian Sahara. This
border-land of desert is dotted with oases, in which the date-
palm is the typical growth. Much the same conditions
prevail in Tunis. But in Tripoli, along the remainder of
the Mediterranean coast up to the Nile Delta, except in the
peninsula of Barka and the narrow coastal zone in its
neighbourhood, we encounter a soil of almost universal
barrenness, favourable for little else but the growth of
marketable grasses, vegetables, and Tropical fruits. The
steppes and deserts extend in many places right up to
the sea, and are backed, at a very short distance inland,
by stony plateaus. The terrible Libyan Desert itself
advances to the coast-line and encroaches upon the Nile
Delta. The luxuriant vegetation of the Mediterranean
basin is, therefore, limited to the highland region in the
n(n-th-west, and is thereby carried still farther, to the
Atlantic^
Desert Soutli of tliis zouc is tlic pitilcss dcscrt plateau, stretching
from shore to shore across the immense breadth of North
Africa, and continuing its characteristic features eastwards
into Asia, thus raising a most effectual barrier between the
two largest centres of population in the world, the incon-
venience of whicli for purposes of inter-communication has
only ])arLially been <)1)\ iiitc(l by llie fortunate coincidence of
the Isthmus of Suez and by the genius of Dc Lesscps. The
desert zone is supreme, tluui, Ix^twciai the Atlantic and the
lied Sea. The Lower Nile, which Liavcrses the Libyan, Nubian,
zone
CLIMATE AND COGNATE PHENOMENA. 6;^
and Arabian deserts, carries only a thin thread of vegetation,
practically limited to its narrow valley, through the thirsty
land of the Pharaohs ; whilst the Upper Nile flows through
a savanna and steppe region. Where, however, the moun-
tains of the Sahara reach a superior elevation, or where the
water comes to the surface and forms oases, a corresponding
desert vegetation is encouraged. Let us try to realise what
the Sahara is really like. It is not by any means as yellow
as it is painted.
The desert of the Sahara is popularly regarded as a level a picture of
expanse of sand of indefinite extent, resembling an ocean, desert.
But regions of this character within its domain are rare
and comparatively restricted. The Libyan desert, it is true,
is an immense district in itself (not much smaller than
European Eussia), and resembles very closely an ocean of
sand, the high dunes formed by the prevailing N.E. wind
counterfeiting " Atlantic rollers ; " but the Libyan Desert,
where organic life is scarcely possible, is the most desolate
region in the whole of this zone, though some consider the
bare rocky plateaus of certain portions of the Sahara are
infinitely more depressing, for they have so gloomy and
sombre a hue. The true desert is where, in this vast
plateau, the dunes lie heaped up and murmur like the waves
of the sea;* where animal life, if it exist at all, assumes
the protective colour of the sand ; where there are no
birds, no trees, no flowers : " the sky without clouds, the
sands without shadow : " " the region of blind forces of
heat and wind."
Only about one-ninth of the Sahara is covered with
sand ; the remainder consists of mountains and rocks,
steppes and oases. In the high-lying districts, the valleys
are covered with trees and are fairly habitable ; and in the
* In the regions of dunes the sand emits a sound like a clarion, whether
by the rubbing together of the molecules it is not possible to say (Reclus).
64 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Arabian desert, to the east, a luxuriant vegetation exists
in the river valleys. The Western Sahara is somewhat
different in character : there are extensive plains, with
mountains, hills, and valleys, and dry wadis ; and the land
is not so desolate but that life can be supported almost
anywhere within its borders. Of the oases little need be
said, they are so familiar to all of us : their luxuriant
vegetation standing out, in our imagination, as in a sea of
fire, — safe ports for the exhausted convoy of dusty and
parched travellers.
This is wdiat the Sahara is not unlike in fine weather,
but when a sandstorm occurs, or when the suffocating hot
winds blow, then it is a region unfit for man or beast.
Transition Betwecu latitudes 13° and 15° north, we emerge almost
region.
imperceptibly on the transitional region of pastoral steppe-
country, which grows grasses and sometimes edible corn,
and heralds a land of plenty beyond. Between this inter-
mediate region and the Tropical forest zone extends, almost
continuously between the oceans, a fine park-like country,
with antelopes and giraffes a-hiding, and mimosa trees
casting shadows over the grassy tracts, or congregating into
open forests.
Kalahari The descrt zouc of the northern Hemisphere has its coun-
desertzone. . j • i i i> i
terpart m the mucli more restricted desert zone or tlie
South-West Coast, which, increasing in depth from Ambriz
to Mossamedes, eventually penetrates into the Kalahari
domain, and, farther east, merges gradually in the fine grass-
country of the Transvaal and Orange Free State. Patches of
desei't land occur also in tlic Icaroos of South Africa and in
the steppe-districts of otlicr ]»oi'ti()ns of Africa. In these
stony and sandy places there is a desert vegetation, which,
after a heavy rainfall, is remarkably developed; the soils are
alternately di'cnichcd and l)aked, and the ])lants strike their
loots deep underground, some sLoiiiig up thcii' moisture-
CLIMATE AND COGNATE PHENOMENA. 65
supply in bulbs, like tbe "kengwe" (water-melon). Where
iron occurs, the sandy or clay soils obtain a reddish tinge.
Salt-pans are formed in many places. In the river-beds
which carry off the surface-drainage there is always a
certain amount of vegetation apparent. The origin and
general characteristics of these desert zones have already
been commented upon ; it is sufficient for our present
purpose to remember that they mostly afford a precarious
subsistence to a hardy, half-savage, indigenous population.
The regions of Tropical vegetation are more or less co- zone of
° i O Tropical
incident with those enjoying the highest mean annual vegetation,
temperature and heaviest rainfall : that is to say, they
border the Gulf of Guinea and prevail inland, up to the
great Lakes in the east, and in the Congo basin. South
and west of the Congo the dry coast-lands effectually limit
this Tropical zone of vegetation ; and patches of savannas
occur elsewhere within its domain.
The mangrove swamps and alluvial plains of the Lower
Niger give place, as we penetrate into the inland plateau
and leave the primeval forest behind, to the hardier vegeta-
tion of a drier soil and climate : in room of the palm-oil tree
we find the shea-butter tree, and instead of yams we meet
with native corn and maize. From the low, sandy coasts
of Upper Guinea we may have to pass over grassy plains,
or perhaps steppes, before gaining the primeval forest ;
but once this region is reached, we encounter a dense and
tangled growth of Tropical vegetation, the luxuriance of
which is extraordinary. Nor is this vegetable abandon
peculiar to the coast inland from the Gulf of Guinea :
it is also widely distributed in the Central Sudan and in
the Congo basin.
Mr. Stanley, in lucid and picturesque language, thus The great
IT Congo
describes the dense forest region which he recently dis- Forest,
covered and traversed between the Congo and Lake Albert :
E
66 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Mr. Stan- " The momings generally were stern and sombre, the sky
ley s de-
scription of coversd with lowering and heavy clouds ; at other times
the great ® "^
Congo rj thick mist buried everything, clearing off about 9 A.M.,
Forest. j o' o ^ >
sometimes not till 1 1 A.M. Nothing stirs then : the insect
life is still asleep ; the forest is still as death ; the dark
river (Ituri), darkened by lofty walls of thick forest and
vegetation, is silent as a grave ; our heart-throbs seem
almost clamorous, and our inmost thoughts loud. If no
rain follows this darkness, the sun appears from behind the
cloudy masses ; the mist disappears ; life wakens up before
its brilliancy ; butterflies skurry through the air ; a solitary
ibis croaks an alarm ; a diver flies across the stream ; the
forest is full of a strange murmur ; and somewhere up-river
booms the alarm-drum — the quick-sighted natives have seen
us ; voices vociferate challenges ; there is a flash of spears,
and hostile passions are aroused." *
This short passage gives a very vivid impression of the
primeval forest. In the same paper ]\Ir. Stanley speaks of
the impediments that arrested the progress of his expedition :
" These consisted of creepers, varying from one-eighth of an
inch to fifteen inches in diameter, swinging across the path
in bowlines or loops, sometimes massed and twisted together ;
also of a low, dense bush occupying the sites of old clear-
ings, which had to be carved through before a passage was
possible. Where years had elapsed since the clearings had
been abandoned, we found a young forest, and the spaces
between the trees choked with climbing plants, vegetable
creepers, and tall plants. Tliis kind had to be tunnelled
through before an incli of progress could be made. The
primeval forest offered least obstruction ; but tlie atmosphere
was close, stagnant, impure ; and an eternal gloom reigned
there, intensified every other day Ijy the thick black clouds
chafed with rain, — so cliaracteristic of this forest region."
* Scottlah (Jwjrapliical Ma<jaJiic, vol. v., p. 228.
CLIMATE AND COGNATE PHENOMENA. 67
We may take Mr. Stanley's descriptions, quoted above, as
illustrative of other and similar regions in Africa.
The zone of primeval forest and dense Tropical vegetation Limits of
zone of
finds an irre2;ular northern lindt in about the tenth parallel primeval
■^ ^ torest and
of north latitude. It includes, besides the Guinea Coast 1l°l^^^on
and Lower Niger, some interior parts beyond the coastal
range and a considerable portion of the Congo basin, the
southern tributaries of which, however, flow through prairie
country of unsurpassed fertility. Though this rich Tropical
growth finds its easterly limit on the approach to the high-
plateau country, in which the Upper Nile and Upper Congo
have their origin and where the great Lakes are situated,
large patches of Tropical or sub-Tropical vegetation and
forests are found within the confines of Abyssinia, up to
an altitude of nearly 1 0,000 feet, around the western sources
of the Nile, along the East Coast, up the great river-valleys,
and elsewhere.
South of the Equator vegetation is much richer and Zones of
vegetation
more widely distributed than in the corresponding regions compared,
of the northern Hemisphere ; and it is relatively more
developed towards the East Coast : for there we encounter
a plateau-country with a higher mean annual temperature
and heavier rainfall. Moreover, on the East Coast, south
of the Equator, the transition areas between one zone of
vegetation and another are more gradual than on the
West Coast, not only on account of the prevailing winds
and heavier rainfall, but because the East Coast is washed
by relatively warm ocean-currents, whilst the West Coast
is washed by relatively cold ocean-currents. The effect
on vegetation is therefore well marked. To take an
example : the southern Imiit of the occurrence of the palm
is, on that account, advanced some sixteen degrees farther
down the shores of the Indian Ocean than on the Atlantic
seaboard.
68 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Savannas. The entire area coloured on our map (Plate VII.) as a
region of savannas is in reality very diversified, and may
be said to include all the vegetations of Africa. It is
consequently very representative, not in regard to vegetation
only, but also in the distribution of animals and in other
respects.
Vegreta- "\Ye liavc thus not only a latitudinal, but also a longi-
tion : latitu-
dinal and tudinal, development of vegetation south of the Equator.
m^Jnts''^'"^ Vegetation is richer as we proceed from south to north
and also from west to east. On the East Coast, again,
north of the Equator, vegetation is less rich, although the
climate is healthier, than in the corresponding region to
the south.
These general remarks on the distribution of vegetation in
Africa may serve as a running commentary on the maps.
Later on, in dealing with natural products, we shall gain
more detailed information in regard to the character and
fertility of the respective districts.
Distribu- The distribution of the fauna of any continent being
fauna. controlled by the distribution of vegetation, which, in its
turn, depends largely on climate, we naturally expect to find
in Africa a fauna strictly Tropical. The faunas of Africa
i \\ are, in fact, remarkably homogeneous, and the most repre-
sentative of the Tropics. Animals, far more than plants,
possess the power of migration ; and in the Equatorial
regions of Africa this movement is proljably from north
to south. Owing to the difference in the seasons of rain
in the verdant uplands north and south of the Equator,
the greater numljer of African animals desert the dry
tracts and migrate in searcli of sustenance to more
favoured districts. This migratory movement cannot be
determined with any certainty, for we know very little
about tlie subject ; but tlic N. to S. direction seems
to liold true in respect of birds of passage in Equatorial
CLIMATE AND COGNATE PHENOMENA. 69
Africa.* Wallace's classification of zoological provinces in
Africa may be still regarded as acceptable in all essential
particulars.
The continent of Africa preserves faunal types of a very Unique
faunal
remote period of creation, which exist nowhere else : these types.
are the hippopotamus and the giraffe. It seems only fitting
that this vast, antique continent should be the last resting-
place of the largest animals ; although they are everywhere
retiring or are being exterminated along the paths of
European invasion — I mean progress.
We may recall some of the benefits we owe to African African
, . legacies.
products. Of such, Elisee Reclus specially mentions durrah,
the date, the banana ; certain species of dogs, the guinea-
fowl, the cat, and the patient ass ; possibly also the goat,
the sheep, and the ox.
Of the zoo-geographical regions of the world, the Ethiopian Fauna :
African
or African realm is one of the richest. As we have noted realm,
elsewhere in regard to geology and climate, the Mediter-
ranean region and an adjoining portion of the Sahara
constitute an area of transition, the faunal development
of which is more or less uniform with that of Southern
Europe, the deserts of Arabia, Asia Minor, and beyond.
This exception gives emphasis to the obvious fact that it
is the deserts, and not the mountains, which separate faunal
regions.
Professor Heilprin, in his Distribution of Animals, to Faunai
sub-
which I am indebted for most of my facts in this section, regions,
thus divides the faunal sub-regions of Africa : — (i.) The vast
pasture-lands of East Central Africa, which are the most
representative of all ; (2.) the forest zone of West Africa ;
and (3.) the Sahara Desert. The latter contains a com-
paratively limited fauna, merging almost imperceptibly in
* Compare Emin Paclia in Central Africa, p. 391 et scq. London : George
Philip & Son.
70 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
that of the Mediterranean. The islands comprise an In-
de]3endent sub-region of their own.
Mammal- Of the mammahan fauna, the carnivorous and hoofed
lan fauna.
animals exist in excej)tional and many other varieties.
They have unique representatives, as we have said, in the
hijipopotamus and giraft'e. The former is found in all the
larger rivers south of the Sahara ; the latter ranges almost
everywdiere over the open country, and sometimes enters
the forests. The elephant is widely distributed through-
out Equatorial Africa south of the Sahara.* There is
an extraordinary number of species of antelope ; some fre-
quent the desert regions, some are confined to the forests,
some are found in mountain fastnesses, and some range
over the open plains. The last mentioned comprise the
greatest numljer of species, and are met with in herds of
many hundreds. The Cape buffalo is found in most parts
of South, Central, and West Africa. There are zebras and
quaggas ; and there is the patriarchal wild ass of Abyssinia,
from which country our present domesticated variety is
supposed to have sprung. Of beasts of prey, there are
the lion, leopard, panther, hyena, and jackal ; but the tiger
is entirely absent. An important group is represented by
the Ethioj)ian apes, the anthropoid apes, chimpanzees and
gorillas. Chimpanzees and gorillas have been found more
especially on the West Coast ; but possibly they roam far
inland towards the Nile watershed, in the Equatorial zone
of forest. Of monkeys there are many of a large and
savage kind, widely distriljuted over the continent,
other The bh'd fauna of Africa is not so rich ; but the reptile
faunas.
fauna is Lu'gely (levcl()])('il. A'i])crs of tlie most deadly
kind, such as the ])urt-aild('r, are eucouniered. Crocodiles
abound in all the; laigcr rivers.
* In discu^Hiiij,', midir I'nxhictH, the variouH kinds of ivory, we shall refer
at some leugth tu the dittributiuii of the elcphuut in Africa.
CLIMATE AND COGNATE PHENOMENA. 71
Of the extraordinary abundance of insect life much insect
. . . , pests.
might be said, for it is largely due to this cause that
travelling in the continent becomes so painful and difficult
for Europeans. We must, however, pass over this subject
merely with a reference to the locusts, which are a veri-
table plague in some parts, and to the tsetse fly {Glossina
morsitans). The tsetse fly, especially, is a most deadly
enemy. It is common enough in some parts of South and
Central Africa, but does not appear to pass beyond the
Bahr-el-Ghazal and Sennar, and it is quite unknown in the
north-west of the continent. Its bite causes the death of
horses, oxen, camels, sheep, and dogs ; but, curiously enough,
it is innocuous to man, to buffaloes, zebras, goats, jackals,
hyenas, and several wild animals. Why this is so no
one appears to know. As the country is cleared, how-
ever, the tsetse fly becomes rarer ; and, considering the
importance of destroying this deadly pest, no efforts should
be spared to protect domesticated and draught animals
against attack.
We may now apply our meteorological data to what it is c:imato-
logy.
one purpose of this chapter to illustrate — the habitability
of Africa and the acclimatisation of Europeans.
We have referred to the distribution of temperature, the Factors of
climate.
prevailing winds, the rainfall, and the vegetation. These,
taken together, practically determine climate. The most
important factor of climate is, of course, distance from the
Equator ; but other factors, which profoundly modify climate,
have to be taken into account. What is gained by hori-
zontal distance is also obtained in part by vertical height :
that is to say, distance from the Equator has, other things
being equal, the same effect as height above sea-level — a
lowering of temperature. Now, the decrease of temperature
with height, though varying according to local conditions, ,
may be stated to be, roughly, i ° Fahr. for every 300 feet // --4-
72
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Modifica-
tions of
climate.
Compari-
son be-
tween
climate^'.
Hence it is that mountains of such great height as Kilima-
njaro, K^nia, and perhaps Enwenzori, though lying on or
near the Equator, have their summits covered with snow all
the year round; consequently, in passing from their base
upwards, one passes through zones of vegetation which are
characteristic of almost every class of climate. A^egetation
and soil also react upon climate. Loose and sandy soils,
for instance, are bad conductors of heat : the temperature,
instead of penetrating to considerable depths, like in close,
loamy, or clayey soils, is concentrated on the surface, and
is more rapidly radiated at night, — thus giving rise to
extreme and rapid fluctuations of temperature in the
superincumbent atmosphere. On the other hand, where
the ground is covered by thick vegetation, especially by
dense forests, the sun's rays do not reach the earth at all,
or only indirectly : the temperature is therefore more
equally distributed, and humidity is increased.
Owing to the unequal conducting powers of land and
water — water being the very worst conductor of heat,
absorbing it slowly and releasing it slowly — we have im-
portant modifications of climate where land and sea are
in proximity. And, finally, there is always the factor of
the surface-currents of the ocean to take into account.
These currents follow, in the main, the prevailing winds,
and profoundly affect the climate of tlie shores they
wash.
Tlie climates of the world range between what are compre-
hensively known as oceanic, insular, and continental ; but
it is only with the latter class that we shall have to concern
ourselves.
Since tlic greater part of Africa lies witliin tlie Tropics,
it follows that its climate must be, in tlio main. Tropical,
except in so far as it is suly'cct to local mudilications. Thus,
alunL^ the great axis of the coiitinnil w ilh elevations of over
CLIMATE AND COGNATE PHENOMENA. 73
6000 feet, though solar radiation is very great, the tempera-
ture of the air is not felt to be so oppressive as in the lower-
lying and more humid lands. In proximity to large sheets
of water, like the great Lakes, the climate is moister and
more equable than at a distance from them; whilst prox-
imity to the ocean ensures still greater uniformity in climatic
phenomena. In highly mountainous regions the climate
varies in accordance with the configuration of the land;
thus, if a mountain range lie athwart the path of the pre-
vailing wind, the leeward side will get little or nothing of
the rainfall, which is nearly all precipitated on the wind-
ward side. As a general rule, the leeward slopes of moun-
tain ranges thus situated have relatively colder winters and
hotter summers than the windward slopes.
Hence it is that the South-West Coast of Africa, stretching Application
of known
inland to the Kalahari, receives little or no ranifall from laws,
the Indian Ocean, and is consequently a desert. Moreover,
the South East Trades of the Atlantic, though they originate
off this coast, blow outwards to sea. The Sahara Desert,
and, in fact, the whole of ISTorth Africa except the Atlas
regions, owes its sterile character chiefly to the fact that
the prevailing winds, carrying moisture from the Medi-
terranean, proceed from a colder^ to a warmer zone : the n^
atmosphere thus gains progressively in its capacity for
absorbing and retaining moisture ; and there is consequently
no rainfall, unless, as in the case of the Atlas, great moun-
tains intervene to throw the winds into higher regions, and
thereby cool the air, bringing about a precipitation.
The chief qualities of desert climates are the intense heat Desert
by day and the severe cold by night. We have, there-
fore, in the Sahara and Kalahari regions and on the South-
West Coast, not to mention lesser areas, well-marked
characteristics of climate. Compared to the other climates
of Africa, they are relatively healthy.
74
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA,
Climate of
coastal
zone.
Sub-
Tropical
cLmates.
Malarial
fevers.
Malarial
poisous.
The low-lying coastal zone of Equatorial Africa has a
distinct climate of its own, which prevails in some cases
along the lower courses of the great rivers. This region,
for reasons which we shall learn later on, is by far the
most humid and pestiferous.
The sub-Tropical northern seaboard enjoys more or less
a Mediterranean climate, and the sub-Tropical region of
the Cape one equally favourable.
Taken as a whole, it seems evident that for Europeans
Africa is by far the least habitable of any of the con-
tinents, and, speaking generally, it is the malarial fevers
that render it so unfitted for European settlement. It is
true we do not know very much about Tropical diseases,*
their distribution, and tlie causes of their inception and
propagation ; but of Tropical diseases generally we shall
have little to say : it is malarial fevers that must chiefly
concern us.
Malarial fevers are of two kinds, intermittent and
remittent, and there are many degrees of intensity and
virulence between them. They are endemic and epidemic.
The intermittent varieties are the most widely distributed
in Africa, as elsewdiere ; indeed, no continent is free from
them. But Africa is svibject to intermittent malarial fevers
in an extraordinary degree ; and the reason of this is not
hidden : the mean annual temperature and rainfall, being
the predisposing and exciting causes of the disease, are
excessive in the habitaljle parts of the continent.
Malarial poisons are generated in marshy ground, and tlie
denser the s<jil, if impregnated with vegetable matter, the
more virulent is the disease. Thus, the malarial poisons
are most easily generated and retained iu day or close soils ;
* My data in this respect are partly derived from Dr. R. W. Felkin's
Trojiicul Diseases, republislied from the Proccedmys of the lloyal Society of
Edinburgh.
CLIMATE AND COGNATE PHENOMENA. 75
but in sandy or porous soils, unless the subsoils lie near to the
surface, the morbific agents have a better chance of escape.
Temijerature, humidity, and the character of soil are, other fac-
tors.
therefore, the main factors with which we have to reckon.
As regards temperature, which is lowered in inverse ratio to
vertical height, it has been stated that in Equatorial Africa
malaria scarcely occurs above 3000 or 5000 feet in alti-
tude ; but this is a doubtful point. Malaria is certainly most
virulent on the coasts. In the latter case it has been
observed that a height of 500 feet or more will perceptibly
modify its intensity, especially in places where the winds
disperse the poisonous exhalations of the soil. The fevers
have their maxima at certain seasons, and are most dan-
gerous at the time of seasonal changes, especially after pro-
longed drought or succeeding rainfall.
Humidity and soil may be considered in conjunction. Humidity
and soil.
The soils most favourable to the propagation of malaria
are naturally those along the coasts and up the middle and
lower valleys of the great rivers ; and these regions of
Equatorial Africa lie in the zones of the highest mean
annual temperature and rainfall. Here we find malarial
fevers in their worst or remittent forms : they are endemic.
This pernicious variety prevails also in low-lying, marshy
districts under a certain altitude. To turn up the virgin
soil in such districts is to release the poisonous messengers
of death : hence no European, however seasoned, should
be employed in such work.
According to Mr. W. North,* malaria in its highest de- Distribu-
. . . tionof
gree of intensity is met with in Senegal, on the coasts of malaria.
the Gulf of Guinea, the West Coast down to the twen-
tieth degree of south latitude, Madagascar, Nubia, parts of
Abyssinia and the Siidan, the East Coast, and Egypt.
In a milder form it is met with in Tripoli, Algeria,
* Nineteenth Century, June 1S89.
76
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Remedial
measures.
Other
Tropical
diseases.
Guinea
Coast.
Acclimati-
sation.
]\Iorocco, the Cape de Verde Islands, and the oases of the
Sahara.
Other things being equal, malaria prevails in its worst
form where the amount of rotting vegetation or organic
matter is greatest. Obviously, therefore, it would be
checked or palliated by either flooding or draining marshy
lands. Plantations of Eucalyptus are also recommended as
a remedial measure.
Of other Tropical diseases only a few need be referred
to. Asiatic cholera has touched the Mediteri'anean and
East coasts of Africa, but apparently it has not penetrated
into the Interior. Yellow fever is known on the Guinea
Coast. Tropical dysentery is widely diffused : all along
tlie Guinea Coast and southwards to the Congo, between
this coastal region and the Nile, on the Mediterranean
seaboard, in Egypt, Mozambique, Madagascar, and in Cape
Colony.
I will not depress the reader by mentioning more. One
thing is notable : all Tropical diseases appear to find a con-
genial home on the Coast of Guinea.
The question naturally arises, to what extent can Euro-
peans become fever-proof : acclimatised, in short ? A\nien
it is remembered that the Natives themselves, in migrating
from one district to another, are sul)ject to the malaria of
strange localities, though proof against that prevailing in
their own, it at once becomes evident that acclimatisation is
only in a measure possible. The acclimatisation of man, like
that of animals, is a process of time, of generations, and
not of months only. Montlis ! AVliy, European travellers,
traders, and missionaries, in their eager haste to reach the
goal of tluMr ambitiDii, dasli recklessly into the fever-beds
of Africa witlioul the slightest hesitation or precaution.
And few (;sca])e tlie fcsvcr. Sonic (He after an attack or
two; some drag on, with the ])oison degenerating their
CLIMATE AND COGNATE PHENOMENA. 77
blood and tissues, for years. Those who are wisest return
periodically to Europe or go to some sanatorium, of which
there are many even in Africa. But either the grim fasci-
nation which the Dark Continent exercises over all who have
business therein or other personal interests draw them back
again, to expend the new lease of life they have elsewhere
gained, to become bankrupt of which is to wilfully arraign
oneself at the Highest Court before which man can be tried.
Some of my personal acquaintances have passed many Comments,
years of their lives in the most fever-stricken parts of
Africa, the Guinea Coast, where all the elements of malarial
fever are rifest ; and they tell me that, though none escape
the fever, those with sound constitutions may, with due
care and precautions, prolong life indefinitely at the most
pestiferous places. The main precautions appear to be
to avoid alcoholic licpiors, to lead a regular, careful, and
quiet life, and to take plenty of exercise. Well, in a
climate like that of Africa, especially in the moist heat of
tlie coast-lands, to lead a life of this kind is not so easy as
it might appear to be ; for men are human, and there are
relatively few distractions " on the Coast " to nourish their
higher aspirations. My impression is that Europeans, by
long residence there, lose so much of their moral as well
as of their vital powers, that they are only able to combat
the subversive elements of life in an ever-lessening degree :
they succumb to the climate in the first generation, though
in tlie second and subsequent generations their descendants
may become more and more acclimatised, and may develop
a mind and body better suited to existence under such
conditions. And even then, whatever his development and
however complete his acclimatisation, the European cannot
compare his hybrid constitution with that of the Negro,
to whom must be intrusted all hard manual labour or work
requiring constant outdoor exposure.
78 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Habita- "We "svill now attemijt to focus tlie information brought
bilityof . ^ ....
Africa. together in this chapter on the point it is designed to
illustrate : the habitability of Africa. By habitability I
refer, of course, to the favourable conditions of climate
and soil for settlement by Europeans. Such an essay
must, at best, be a tentative one, and I venture on it
with diftidence, because we really know so little of Africa,
when all has been said.
Unsettle- First, then, we can eliminate the three inland-drainage
lands. areas as desert lands quite unfitted for European settle-
ment.
"We have left, in something like a natural order : —
Settieabie (i.) Tlie Mediterranean seaboard and Lower Egypt, (2.)
lands.
North-West Africa, (3.) Upper Guinea, (4.) the Sudan,
(5.) Eed Sea Littoral, (6.) Abyssinia, (7.) Lower Guinea,
(8.) Congo basin, (9.) Portuguese West Africa, (10.) South
Africa, (i i.) South-East Africa (Zambezi basin), (12.) East
Coast, and ( I 3.) the high-plateau countries.
Reofions Of thcsc rcgious, the ]\Iediterranean seaboard has been
north of
Equator, sliowu to bcloiig, botli cHmatically and politically, more to
Europe than to Africa, from the continental portions of
which it is cut off by the Sahara Desert. Lower Egypt
falls very much under the same category, for the Nubian
Desert acts in precisely the same manner as the Sahara,
thougli in a more limited degree. Climatic phenomena, there-
fore, relegate this region outside of Continental Africa.
The late lamented Egyptian Sudan, on the other hand,
is accessil)le in the north from the Eed Sea, and in the
south I'll 111! the lost E(|uatorial rroNincc, wliich in its
turn can Ijc reached from tlie East Coast. ]>ut this
region is at present chjsed to us by as deadly, if not so
unconqueral)le, a foe as climate — the Mahdists and Arab
patriots.
Nnrlb-AN'fst Africa would njipcar lo l)e habitable enougli ;
CLIMATE AND COGNATE PHENOMENA. 79
but the Upper Guinea Coast has been demonstrated as tlie
unhealthiest region of the continent. Of the lied Sea
Littoral tlie less said the better : we know how our
troops suffered at Sawakin. Abyssinia, on the other hand,
is for the most part a sanatorium in itself, and offers
one of the best routes into Africa, vid Kassala, from the
Eed Sea.
This almost disposes of the whole of the continent Effects of
climate.
north of the Equator. In the greater part of that region
we see now how the factor of climate is hostile to
European enterprise, and how in the past it has been the
most effective bulwark for the preservation of native inde-
pendence. Protected by the deserts in the north, with
only two fairly accessible highways * from the east, is it to
be wondered at that, these two feasible routes having been
entirely neglected so far — they are infamously bad in any
case — the Mahdists and their adherents should have proved
■ such formidable foes ? By the loss of Khartum and of
Emin's province we have been deprived of the only two, or
at least the best, points of vantage from whence effective
political control could be exercised. As regards the ap-
proach from the w^est, south of the Equator, Stanley's recent
expedition demonstrated the almost superhuman difficulties
of opening up a route from the Congo to the Lakes, to
maintain which for effective political action appears next
to impossible, at least in the near future.
"We perceive, therefore, that on the L^pper Nile we have Upper Nile
region.
a region which, climatically, is an enclave most difficult to
penetrate from any side. It is closed to us now ; and to
enter it again will tax all the resources of civilisation.
Alas ! for the fall of Emin Pacha, who so nobly maintained
for fifteen years our most advanced stronghold in Moham-
medan Africa. Abyssinia, perhaps, may in the future be
* From the Red Sea and from the East Coast.
8o
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Central
Sudan.
Reg-ions
south of
Equator.
Intermedi-
ate and
hi^ldand
regions.
a factor of importance to us ; but at present, in spite of
Italy's political ascendancy, we are very far from making
any use of this pseudo- Christian kingdom. It is too early
as yet to reckon on Uganda.
"We still have left the great Mohammedan States of the
Sudan ; but they are accessible only from the unhealthy
Guinea Coast. Access to these States is practicable enough ;
and, when once the plateau is gained, the climate of the
higher-lying regions is sufficiently favourable to Europeans.
Behind the Coast, too, at a certain altitude above sea-level,
healthy districts may be found — Mount Camarons, for in-
stance, is a sanatorium in itself ; and the perfect climate
of the Canaries might be enjoyed periodically without
necessitating too long a sea-voyage for Europeans.
Of the regions lying to the south of the Equator, in the
strictly Tropical parts of Africa, we have three distinct
classes of climates — the coastal, the highlands, and the in-
termediate zones. The coastal belt and the river valleys
have already been spoken of as in the main unhealthy,
though fairly habitable for Europeans, provided certain
protective measures are not neglected, such as great care
of health, draining of swamps, &c. It will be notice-
able, in fact, that, along the coasts of Africa, Euroj^ean
settlements are mostly situated on islands near the shore
or on peninsular lands ; and it cannot be doubted that
this measure of precaution has been adopted more from
hygienic considerations than from reasons of safety against
attack.
The regions oC iiKjderate elevation intervening between
the coasts and llic liigh-plateau country necessarily contain
districts in wliicli iMirojiean settlements are possible. But
it is to till', liighliuid countries along the main axis of the
continent that we must look for the most favourable
disti-icts (jf E(iuatoria] Al'iica; it is there that, for climatic
CLIMATE AND COGNATE PHENOMENA. Sr
as well as for political reasons, we have our best chance
of personally and effectually controlling the destinies of
Africa. The magnificent water communications and the
relatively healthy climate are factors in our hands which
compensate for their absence north of tlie Equator.
It seems as if Africa had been thus delimitated by Nature, cross and
in the north for the sphere of inaccessible and unchange-
able Islam, and in the south for the impressionable Bantu,
who has been taken under the regis of Christian Europe.
Therein lies our hope and our responsibility. The develop-
ment of Africa is, in the end, a contest between Cross
and Crescent, for the benefit not only of the cause itself,
but also of Pagan Africa. Whether the struggle be under-
taken for commercial profit or political aggrandisement,
the issue must be very much the same.
Now, we have seen that, for the effective administration Essentials
P-i-i T-1 1 1 •111*'^ effective
of European political power, a base on the coast is absolutely occupation,
essential. Hence it happens that the possession of our
South African Empire, extending practically from the Cape
to the banks of the Zambezi, and embracing the finest
climates and the richest lands in Africa, places us in a
peculiarly advantageous position for influencing and even-
tually controlling the countries lying to tlie north. It is
almost unnecessary to point out the obvious conclusion,
that on the power and cohesion of our forces in South
Africa must depend not merely the welfare of the colony,
but also the success of our mission in Africa and the wel-
fare of its indigenous populations. European interests and
native African interests are so far inseparable and identical.
The natives must be either our allies or our foes : to use
them only as instruments were a crime.
CHAPTEH IV.
THE INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS.
GENERAL COXSIDERATIOXS LINGUISTIC GROUPS AND THEIR GEO-
GRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION CHARACTERISTICS OP NEGROES
AND OF NATIVE LIFE — SURVEY OP THE INDIGENOUS POPULA-
TIONS : THEIR MENTAL, MORAL, AND MATERIAL CULTURE ;
THEIR POLITICAL ORGANISATIONS AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
CAPACITY OF THE NEGRO FOR DEVELOPING HIGHER FORMS OF
CULTURE — NON-RESISTANCE, FROM THE COMPARATIVE ABSENCE
OP POLITICAL COHESION IN BANTU AFRICA, AGAINST THE EURO-
PEAN DOMINATION NATIVE RIGHTS AND EUROPEAN RESPONSI-
BILITIES.
MAPS.
Languages Plate X.
Forms of Government „ XIV.
Density of Population „ IX.
THE INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS.
IN former chapters we have endeavoured to elucidate inter-
action
physical phenomena in Africa by reference to the laws between
i- ti i. ./ physical
governing them, and to deduce practical hints for our cafph°eno-
guidance in " opening up " the continent. In dealing with ™^"^'
the political aspects of our subject, we shall see in how far
they have been controlled by physical causes. It is only
by understanding this interaction between physical and
political phenomena that we can hope to lay the foundation
of a rational policy in Africa : for violation of Nature's
laws brmgs the inevitable Nemesis.
We have now to deal with the distribution of the native Distribu-
populations. Our knowledge of the innumerable tribes native
7 . . popula-
inhabitmg Africa and of their languages — in the examina- t'on^-
tion of which the best classification may be sought — is, it
is true, not much more extensive and complete than our
knowledge of the geological structure of the continent :
that is to say, we know a good deal of the coastal tribes
and of those in direct contact with them, but of the
remainder and greater number we have only a specimen
here and there, so to speak, to guide us. A rough and
general classification can, however, be made.
Dr. Gust, writing* in 1887, informs us that there are Langiiages
438 languages and 153 dialects spoken m Africa: say, lects.
therefore, there are 600 languages and dialects, and we
shall not be very far wrong. But over and above this
wealth of linguistic material, the difficulty of classify-
ing the indigenous tribes on the basis of language is, in
* Languafjcs of Africa (Linguistic and Oriental Essays. Triibner & Co.).
86
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Population
of Africa.
the j)resent state of our knowledge, very great. As an
example, Professor Keane points out * that the pure Negro
race — a very large and important section of the African
Family — " presents apparent ethnological unity with obvious
linguistic diversity." Moreover, many of the tribes, the
names only of w^hich we know, have been shifted from
group to group in accordance with the genius and ingenuity
of the operator ; frequent migratory movements have also
occurred : thus, tribes taking their distinctive names from
their chiefs have undergone kaleidoscopic changes on the
map. Whilst, therefore, making language the basis of a
classification, our inquiry may be modified or amplified in
various directions as the occasion demands.
The total population of Africa, which has been variously
estimated, is usually regarded as being upwards of two
hundred millions. But quite recently Mr. E. G. Eavenstein
has made a careful calculation, independent of all others ;
and he has very kindly placed his figures at my disposal.
The result is surprising. ]\Ir. Eavenstein estimates the
total population of Africa at only 127,038,370, distributed
as follows : —
Area.
Englisli sq. miles.
ropulation.
Morocco and Tuat
• 314.027
6,076,000
Algeria ....
257,600
3,870,000
Tunis ....
44.S00
1,500,000
Tripoli ....
400,000
1,010,000
Saliura ....
. 2,386,000
1,400,000
Egypt Proper
. 436,000
6,970,000
„ Old Dependencies .
685,000
7,162,000
Abyssinia ....
128,000
3,000,000
Gall a- and Somal-lands
• 732,100
3,190,000
Central Sudan .
662,200
31,880,000
West Sudan and Upper Guinea
770,000
14,266,000
E(|uatorial and South Africa
. 4.458.700
41.818,170
Islands ....
239,880
4,896,200
11,514,307
127,038,370!
* Appendix to Stanford's Africa (Keith Johnston), p. 523.
t Density of population, 1 1 per sq, mile ; rate of increase per decade,
10 per cent.
THE INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS.
87
Mr. Eaveiistein furtlier calculates the areas of Africa, and p°p"'^;^^;.
the populations they support, to he divided as under : — t?J^^i divi-
Area.
English 1
3q. miles.
Poiiul
ation.
Under Turkish rule
: —
E-ypt .
436,000
6,970,000,
Tripoli .
400,000
836,000
1,010,000
7,980,000
European Possessions, &c. : —
British . . 2
,351,936
39,289,500
French . . 2
,783,945
21,947,600
German .
832,750
5,105,000
Italian
315,070
5,369,000
Portuguese
909,820
5,513-900
Spanish .
246,760
444.000
Belgian .
827,000
8,267,284
15,000,000
92,669,000
Liberia .
37,000
1,050,000
Boer States
173,350
744,000
Independent .
2,120,323
24-5955370
Great Lakes
80,350
Grand totals
11,514,307
127,038,370
The indigenous races of Africa may he classified in many ciassifica-
-^. tion of
different ways. Two instances may he given. J irst, m races,
respect of the character of hair : the Semites, Hamites,
and Fulah have curly hair ; the Negroes and Bantu have
woolly or fleecy hair ; and the Hottentots also have woolly
luiir, hut growing in tufts. Second, as regards tlie colour
of skin : it ranges through every diversity from yellow
to hrown and from hrown to hlack, or wdiat appears to be
hlack, — for dark-brown would be a more accurate definition.
The light-coloured races, as one might expect from the
phenomena of climate, are found in the north and extreme
south-west, and tlie dark-coloured races in the intermediate
Tropical regions. The former division includes the Medi-
terranean seaboard, Lower Egypt, and the greater part
of the Sahara in the north, and the countries of the
Hottentots and Bushmen (Bojesmans) in the south-west;
88
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Vag-aries
of ethno-
graphic
distribu-
tions.
Climatic
conditions.
whilst the latter, embracing the remainder of the continent,
i.s subdivisible into the Sudan and Bantu Africa. It must
not, however, be supposed that this distribution according
to colour is at all restrictive, for light-coloured peoples are
found in other regions than those ascribed to them in the
above classification. The Monbuttu, for example, who live
to tlie soutli of the Niam-Niam cannibals, have remarkably
light complexions, and some even have fair hair ; they have
also beards and aquiline noses. Dr. Schweinfurth esti-
mated that one in every twenty of the Monbuttu cannibals
is fair. Some think that this is due to a meat diet, as
against a vegetable diet. M. Antoine d'Abbadie's hypo-
thesis, that among the Ethiopians the flesh-eating tribes
have the fairest complexions, has been corroborated by
others — not, I believe, on account of their diet, but because
they more readily obtain the flesh of animals in the higlier
plateau-countries, where herds and flocks are reared. They
thus enjoy a relatively cooler climate. As in the distribu-
tion of temperature, distance from tlie E(|uator is in a
measure balanced by vertical heiglit, as far as the colour
of skin is concerned. It is a curious fact, upon which
several explorers have commented, that the cannibal tribes
are relatively of higher mental endowment and of better
physique than their more prosaic neighbours. V>\\i then,
ajiain, are not these cannil)als flesh-eating tribes, living in
the high plateau-countries ?
While climatic conditions are in a measure responsible
for the colour of the peoples and the character of their hair,
it is also to these phenomena we must look in reference
to tluiir occupations and to their general distribution over
IIk; land. It will l)c found that tlie populations follow
ajijiroxiniately the s\sicins of climate in proportion to
till' abundance (^f rain and vegetation. We do not, of
course, expect to (ind a dense population in the Sahara;
THE INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS. 89
but, as soon as we enter the fertile Sudan, we encounter, in
the basins of the Tsad and Niger, and in Nigritia generally,
the densest j)opulations of Africa. And in other parts —
as, for example, in the Congo basin, parts of the Lakes
district, and along the valley of the Lower Nile — the
populations are also very dense. In such regions Nature
herself has largely provided the means of support.
Then, as regards the occupations of the natives, it is occupa-
, . , , , • f 1 tions of the
obvious that our remarks on the vegetation ot the con- natives,
tinent must afi'ord the best key to a classification. Thus,
shepherds, herdsmen, and agriculturists are found in all
the favourable regions of North and South-West Africa ;
agriculturists in the rich Equatorial countries ; and shep-
herds, dominating agriculturists, in the lands lying imme-
diately to the north, including the Sudan and the whole
of the Eastern Horn ; while purely agricultural tribes and
herdsmen are encountered in the South-Central plateaus,
Abyssinia, the Upper Nile territories, and Morocco. The
nomad Bushmen and some of the other dwarfish tribes are,
most naturally, found in the barren or isolated districts —
but chiefly south of the Equator— whither they have fled
for protection from aggressive neighbours.
In Egypt and along the Mediterranean shores of Africa Archjeo-
there are archseological remains dating back to the earliest
historical times. Of the rest of Africa, almost without
exception, it may be said that races of men may have
come and gone, but neither we nor their representatives at
the present day are apparently the better for them : not a
monument, not a vestige of culture and civilisation have
been left behind. The Bushmen, it is true, were artists in
their way, and have left rude mural decorations, portray-
ing exciting scenes of the chase and of battle, much in the
style of a precocious child's " first attempt." This entire
absence of monuments, to say nothing of a written language.
90 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
throughout the greater part of Africa renders a satis-
factory systematic investigation into the ethnic affinities
of the peoples extremely difficult, if not for the present
impossible.
Distinct Six distinct races are distinguishahle : the Xegroes
races.
proper, the Fulah, the Bantu, the Hottentots, the Semites,
and the Hamites. The last two races are restricted almost
exclusively to the north and north-east ; the Negroes pro-
per and the Fulah occupy the vast Central zone between
the Atlantic and the Upper Nile region ; and the Bantu
overspread the whole of the continent in the south, with
the excejDtion of the barren coastal enclave in the south-
west, where the Hottentots eke out a precarious livelihood.
At present we shall not concern ourselves with European
residents, excursionists, and incursionists.
Linguistic From these general considerations we may proceed
groups : ,
EHstribu- to particulars. We boldly adopt the classification of Dr.
F. Miiller,* who recognised the followina; seven distinct
linguistic groups : —
1. The Semitic Family, along the North Coast and in
Abyssinia.
2. The Hamitic Family, mainly in the Sahara, Egypt,
Galla- and Somal-lands, Morocco, and Algeria.
3. The Fulah and Nuba groups, in the AVestern, Central,
and Eastern Sudan.
4. The Negro systems, in the Western and Central
Sudan, I'jtjtcr Cuiuea, and the Upper Nile region.
5. 11u; r>;iiitii Family, everywhere south of about 4° N.
]:itiLu(l(', cxccjit in the Hottentot domain.
6. Th(! Iloticutot group, in the extreme south-western
(•oiii(;r, fi'om tlie Tro])ic of Capricorn to the Cape.
7. Tlie MalMyo-rolynesian Family, in Madagascar.
* Allrjcmciiic Elkno'jrdjihic. From Appendix to Stanford's Africa, p.
526.
tion.
THE INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS. 91
In the coastal lands and in the smaller African islands Alien
languages.
the languages of European or foreign dominations largely
prevail, while other lingum franccv are in current use
elsewhere — such as Swaheli on the East Coast and Arabic
and Hausa in the Sudan.
The whole of North Africa is occupied by the descen- Hamites
and
dants of the Hamites and Semites. The former is the most Semites,
ancient race of which we have any knowledge in Africa.
The Hamitic peoples (Egyptians, Libyans, and Numidians)
at one time occupied the whole of North Africa and
a large part of the East Coast north of the Equator,
and the basis of the present stock still hold their ground
over wide areas. They are purest in type in the Central
Sahara, where the Tuareg tribes constitute a nucleus.
The isolated Tibesti highlands appear to have been
the cradle of the Tibu, wdio occupy a dual ethnographic
position.
Between the ]\Iiddle Nile and the Eed Sea, in Galla-
and Somal-lands, in parts of the "Western Sahara, and
in Morocco, Algeria, and Tunis, Hamitic peoples either
predominate or form the basis of the populations. The
Semites, on the other hand, have dispossessed the Hamites
in various regions. Their oldest representatives appear to
be in Abyssinia ; but the Arabs, who at present form the
bulk of their numbers, are the descendants of the Moham-
medan incursionists of the seventh century, and are widely
distributed in the basin of the Upper Nile westwards to
Lake Tsad, and in North Africa.
The basis of the populations of Morocco, Algeria, and Diverse
Tunis is composed of Hamitic Berbers. They are a pas- elements,
toral people, and do not mix with the dominant race,
the Arabs (Moors), who out-number them in the large
towns. The constant immigration of Negroes from across
the Sahara, and the presence in the towns of Jews, a
92 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
despised and maltreated race in those parts, add to these
diverse ethnical elements, which evince no sign of assimila-
tion. The Berbers appear to be the most hopeful stock
to encourage ; but their want of unity renders difficult any
plan that might be undertaken for their support. The
wild tribes of the Sahara, at constant feud among them-
selves, are quite beyond control.
Arabs. In the Nile basin the races are very mixed, but
Semitic or Arab influences are in the ascendant. Tlie
Bedwins are of pure Arab blood and are nomadic in their
mode of life : while the Fellahm half-castes constitute the
sedentary Aral) populations. In Morocco and Algeria the
Moors compose the sedentary Arab population, chiefly
in the towns, and the nomad Arabs or Bedwins are
to them a constant terror. The patriarchal Somal and
Galla tribes are also nomadic and warlike ; but they are
not fused together, and are equally inimical to foreign
influence.
Negro Between these regions and the uncertain boundary of
systems.
Bantu Africa we find the true home of the Negro. The
Nuba and Fulah groups, usually classed together, and
the great and diverse Negro systems, evince a remarkable
degree of development. It will l)e safer to consider them
as a whole.
The Fulah, or Fellata, or Fillani, as they are variously
styled, though the dominant race in many i)arts of Nigri-
tia, form only a fragment of the Negro populations under
their sway, of which the Hausa are deservedly prominent.
Sokoto is the chief of the Fidah States. From being simple
herdsmen at the commencement of the nineteenth century,
they have gradually become, by their prowess in war, their
intelligence, and their proselytising zeal, the ruling people
between Timbuktu and Bornu.
""J'he Negro peoples are too Duuicrous and diverse to
THE INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS. 93
admit of classification. They extend right across the con-
tinent, from the northern shores of the Gulf of Guinea
to the Upper Nile, in the neighbourhood of which we find
some of the purest Negro tribes, such as the Bongo, Bari,
and Shilluk.
In sharp contrast to the multitudinous Negro systems, Bantu
Family.
the Bantu Family shows striking linguistic unity over a
tliird of the continent. Of the innumerable Bantu tribes,*
the Lunda peoples occupy the central and the Zulu peoples
the eastern regions.
In the south-western corner, as w^e have seen, is the Hottentots.
Hottentot group.
The island of Madagascar, belonging linguistically to the Maiayo-
"^ "^ Polyne-
Malayo-Polynesian Family of languages, has the Hova as sians.
the ruling class in the central plateau-districts, and the
Sakalava on the western seaboard.
Having alluded to the geographical distribution of the
native races on the basis of language, we may now regard
the various tribes at closer quarters.
Of the light-coloured peoples of South-West Africa, the Hottentots
1 -r> 1 ^'^'^ Bush-
two chief groups, the Hottentots and Bushmen (Bojesmans), men com-
appear to be the remnants of a primeval race that formerly
ranged over the greater part of South Africa. By the in-
cursion of st;:onger Kafir tribes they were expelled from
the more fertile lands on the east, and for self-protection
took refuge in the barren districts now occupied by them.
Here, too, as a nomadic and hunting people, divisions among
themselves took place. In bodily appearance they still
resemble one another, but in language they are differen-
tiated. The Bushmen have remained a more primitive
* In reading off the map the names of Bantu peoples, it is necessary to
remember the force of the various tribal or collective prefixes : such as ama-.
Ilia-, iiC-, aha-, ha-, he-, wa-, o-va-. Throughout East Africa the following
prefixes are used for special designations : m- or mu- implies an in iividual of
the tribe ; «-, the country ; and /it'-, the language of the country.
94 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
people, while the Hottentots have become assimilated with
their conquerors. The Bushmen have persistently refused
to be enslaved; they love freedom, and, in their search for
it, they have penetrated farther and farther into the wilder-
ness. The Hottentots, on the other hand, unlike their
wilder brethren, have mixed freely with the European
colonists ; but from their unhappy union has sprung up a
breed of half-castes, who have inherited the vices and none
of the virtues of the parents on either side.
Bushmen. The Buslnuan, by the necessities of his lot, has evolved
those instincts which, as a hunted creature, are most
serviceable to him. In spite of his dwarf stature — the
average Bushman being about 4 ft. 6 in. in height — and
meagre muscular development, he is remarkably enduring;
moreover, he is swift as a deer on foot, and his animal
faculties are preternaturally keen. His courage is great,
but his cruelty is greater. Being an mveterate nomad, he
requires no hut ; he roams the country in quest of food,
and takes shelter in caves and holes. The women, being
physically weaker than their lords, are oppressed ; and they
are employed in all inferior capacities. The Bushmen roam
about in small bands, and are found in considerable numbers
on the Orange Eiver only. The colour of their skin is of a
reddish, inclining to a coppery, hue ; fat is freely used as a
protection against the cold ; and a small hide is the only
covering to their bodies. Yet, though so low in the scale
of humanity, they believe not only in a spirit-world but
also in a future life : they have a proverb, " Death is only
sleep." The curious practice of mutilating the fingers,
chiefly of the left hand, by occasionally taking off a
joint, may be regarded cither as a propitiation to " the
gods " or as a surgical remedy ; for the Bushmen believe
in lili)(td-l(:lling.
Tlie Hottentots, like the Ijushmeu, have delicately formed
THE INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS. 95
limbs and are of slight muscular development, but they are Hottentots.
of greater stature, being of the medium height of man.
In the tawny-yellow colour of their skin they outwardly
resemble the Mongolian races. Prior to contact with the
European colonists, the Hottentots were simple herdsmen
and comparatively well off; about a century afterwards. Dispersal
I . \. 1 • 1 ofHotten-
however, they were driven fiom their pasture grounds ; tot tribes,
and by 1 8 1 o they were all dispersed. The Griqua half-
breeds are now the most Europeanised of the Hottentot
tribes. The Namaqua, on the other hand, migrated north,
roaming far over the inhospitable coast-lands ; they have
thereby retained their racial characteristics, and are now
the most typical of the Hottentot tribes. A nomadic
people, they continue to preserve many of their ancient
practices and customs.
It is apparent that, in their natural state, primitive
tribes cannot live in direct contact with European civihsa-
tion ; as in other parts of the world, so in Africa we see
them receding farther and farther and perishing by degrees.
Wlierever they have become assimilated with Europeans,
in whatever capacity, they have deteriorated. Our con-
tact with them has not been for their good. They have
been hunted down, driven from their pastures, or enslaved.
But, where they have been free, they evince many bar-
baric virtues that are conspicuously absent in the half-
breeds. It is true they are inveterate cattle-lifters ; but
this habit must be regarded in them as one form of hunt-
ing : like all nomadic and primitive peoples, they are essen-
tially hunters. They are kind to one another, hospitable in
their way, and what is called " fond of music."
In other parts of Africa, but especially in the remote Pygrmy
districts of the Equatorial forest zone, we recognise scattered
remnants of a primitive people in the various Pygmy tribes.
They are encountered, in a chain of small settlements extend-
96
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Pygmy
tribes.
Negroes.
Character-
istics of
Negroes.
ing right across the continent, from the Gulf of Guinea,
where they were first observed by Mr. Du Chaillu, to the
Albert Nyanza, and in the Middle Congo region. Of these
tribes, the Akka average only four feet in height. Some
of the dwarf tribes discovered by Mr. Stanley during his
recent journey through the great Congo forest, if one
may judge from the specimens he examined, are even
more diminutive (39 to 50 inches) and equally well-pro-
portioned. Mr. Stanley speaks of the Wambutti as the
handsomest of the primitive peoples of Africa.
All the Pygmy tribes are nomads and hunters — the bow
and arrow being their principal weapon — and they adopt
more or less the dress and practices of their neighbours.
But they are holding their own with difficulty, and must
in time altogether disappear. AVhetlier there exists any
ethnical connection between them and the Bushmen is a
debated point. They are undoubtedly of a primeval race,
but, as Dr. Eatzel points out, of no lower mental develop-
ment than the Xegro, and very far from approximating to
the ape type, as was so often asserted.
For purposes of general description, the other indigenous
races of Africa may all be included under the generic term
of Negroes. But before entering into particular refer-
ences, it may be worth while to take a general survey,
and endeavour to realise the Negro cliaracter and mode
of life. It would be tedious to expatiate upon points
in which one tribe differs from another ; we must rest
satisfied with broad generalisations.
'I'lu; ])(ipu]iu' idea of the Negro is the travesty one sees
(»f' liiiii on tobacco-labels or on the stage: an e])ony com-
plexion, coarse thick lips, and a flat nose : but this is a
type found nowhere in Africa, except perhaps in the' Niger
Delta, wlierc debased nati\('s are frc([uently encountered.
It is quite natural to infer that tlic Negro types undergo
THE INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS. 97
modifications in accordance with locality, and that both in
regard to colour and features there are as many varieties
as in manners and customs.
As regards mental characteristics, witliout presuming to
dogmatise, a few well-known traits may be referred to in
this place ; l)ut up to the present time we can scarcely
claim to have discovered the genius of the Negro race. In
its debased forms, as a stunted parasite in America or
as Europeanised on the West Coast of Africa, we do not
recognise the true race-development of the Negro. Under
this limitation, therefore, we can only reproduce popular
ideas on the subject.
It appears to us, then, that life has been so easy to the Deveiop-
■v -i-Af- 1 1 ^ • ^ 1 ment of the
JNegro m his African home that his character has undergone Negro race,
scarcely any evolution beyond that of man in the savage
state. Wlierever he has come in contact with a hislier
native civilisation — in the Sudan, for instance — he has
developed along natural lines ; but, grafted upon the alien
civilisation of Europe, he has either retrograded or exhibited
a mimetic, and therefore a spurious, nature. Left to him-
self, the Negro has, in all outward respects, been remarkably
unj) regressive. That tlie race, and far more the individual,
is capable of development — of what we call progress — has
been demonstrated over and over again. It is true we
usually associate the progress of the Negro with his capacity
to adopt the civilisation we impose on him. He is so
clever at imitation, he so rapidly accommodates himself to
altered circumstances, and, above all, he is so amenable
to authority, tliat he easily adopts a hybrid civilisation.
But, as Dr. Blyden points out,* this is not a true race-
development : the Negro must go his own way, in his own
home, if the race is to discover and nourish its inherent
genius.
* Christianity, Islam, and the Negro Race, by E. W. Blyden.
G
98 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Negro The character of the NeOTO in his primitive state is
character.
that of the overgrown child. His superficial and impres-
sionable nature is the cause of many virtues and failings in
him. He is vain, self-indulgent, impulsive, demonstrative,
and theatrical ; but he has " a good heart." Livingstone,
whose experience of the Negro character was unrivalled,
appears to have come to the conclusion that, after all, the
Negro is no better and no worse than the rest of the sons
of men. And, indeed, we Europeans appear to unsophisti-
cated savages a most immoral and wicked people : their
judgment of us is, in fact, crippled bj much the same
limitation that prejudices our judgment of them. There is
the same curious admixture of good and evil qualities in
them as in us : it is merely a distinction of kind and a
question of degree. The Negro is, in short, an untrained
child of Nature ; and want of self-control or of " character "
generally — the products of civilisation — naturally accen-
tuates his failings. Only those who have lived with him
learn his many excellent qvialities of heart and mind. ]\I.
Elisee Eeclus, the eminent geographer, gives the Negroes
of Africa a good character : he says they are docile and
faithful, and have many " feminine " characteristics ; they
are timid, curious, jealous and coquettish, braggarts, lovers
of secrets, fond of petty quarrels and speedy reconciliations ;
moreover, they are satisfied to obey and to be sacrificed for
those who oppress and ill-use them.
Ne^ro There is a popular notion that those tribes which go
morals, i i i p • • n
in a state of nature and are untouclied l»y lorcign iniiu-
ence are the most moral. Generalisations of this sort are
tempting, but they are dangerous to accept. Lying and
stealing, for instance, come naturally to an oppressed, primi-
tive people ; and, it is true, tliese failings are acquired
in an cxti'aonlinary degree on the outskirts of civilisa-
ticni. In South Africa tliis plicnomcnon lias been most
THE INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS. 99
strikingly exemplified : our contact with the native races
has resulted in their deterioration ; for they have learnt
our vices, and not our virtues. Only the Kafir tribes have
been able to withstand our blighting influence. Cases
there have been where natives have fertilised the seed of
Christian teaching, but these examples are relatively few
in number. It is also remarkable that crime and cruelty
are most conspicuous among tribes that enjoy a relatively
high social culture. But still, it is doubtful whether the
generalisation referred to in the above : that the unclothed
tribes are the most moral : be a fair conclusion. Dr.
Eatzel, in commenting on the subject, considers that
polygamy, with its attendant evils, would appear to exert
the determining influence in this respect. An unclothed
tribe is essentially a primitive one, and, being poor, cannot
acquire wives by purchase. Although polygamy as an
institution is universal in Africa, it is only the more
advanced tribes which possess the capital (such as cattle)
to indulge in any excess. Polygamy gives rise to tlie
Slave Trade and a host of other evils ; and we can readily
realise its disastrous influences on a savage people. Envy
of others' possessions is a leading characteristic of man,
and human life is cheap in Africa.
The stamina and vitality of the Negro race must be very Negro
• 1 • 1 1 labour.
great, smce it has withstood for centuries such devastating
scourges as the Slave Trade, incessant tribal wars, barbarous
practices (c.r/., human sacrifices, ordeals, witchcraft), and
unchecked disease. But Negroes take life easily; their
animal spirits are irrepressible ; even when they are driven
as cattle in a slave-caravan, the incidents of the marcli
provoke their loud mirth, tliough their hearts, like their
bodies, may be sufiering. As an agriculturist, the Negro
is unsurpassed : he is more efficient in this respect than
the weaker Coolie or the more intelligent Chinaman. His
1 00
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Domestic
life of
Negroes.
Forms of
govern-
ment.
dexterity is remarkable in the practice of any new handicraft.
His precocity in book-learning is equally great ; but his
ability is said to stop short of a high standard. He culti-
vates the land with the simplest implements, the hoe being
the chief, sometimes the only one. The Negro is capable of
great endurance. He is capable of work, too — of any amount
of work as a free man ; but as a slave he will render no
more than his taskmaster exacts. And it is important
to bear in mind, that though the Chinaman or the Coolie
are good substitutes for the Negro labourer, they are only
makeshifts : the indigenous native is, after all, the best
agriculturist and workman.
The domestic life of Negroes is wdiat we might expect of
a primitive people. The bonds of family relationship are
very strong. The love of the mother for her child is as
potent a passion in the Negress as among her European
sisters ; and her influence in the family (the tongue being
her most effective weapon) is much greater than that of its
nominal head, the father. The man performs the work wdiich
is most fitted to his strength, whilst the woman is employed
on tasks requiring skill and endurance. Marriage is mostly
by purchase, especially among those tribes which raise cattle,
and is celebrated wdth great ceremony. Whilst polygamy
is general where the means of purchase exist, divorce is
rare, largely on account of the commercial character of mar-
riage. Like most natural peoples, the natives of Africa are
very " musical : " that is to say, they have a highly developed
sense of rhythm and noise, and indulge it ad nauseam.
Their forms of government are half-patriarchal, half-
feudal. A benevolent despotism a})pears to be the best
for them ; yet the great Zulu and Matabele leaders and
the Waganda potentates have not been tlie absolute despots
they aj)pear to us, for their power was derived from their
chiefs. Their territories, though not having the advantage
THE INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS. loi
of being mapped as " spheres of influence," are recognised
by their neighbours to extend as far as their arms can
reach to strike effectively ; they are therefore subject to
expansion and contraction. Foreign pressure has, un-
doubtedly, welded together tribes under recognised leaders ;
but the general absence of cohesion has rendered them
easy victims to the European lust of territory.
The simple pomp of Negro courts is characteristic of the Negro
i- i- i- ^ court life.
poverty of the land. But the Negro is naturally fond of
ceremony ; he dearly loves to talk and to argue, and is an
astute diplomatist, as many Europeans have found to their
cost. It is said that the reason why he likes trading is the
opportunity it affords him to " haggle," and not the profits
he derives.
Althouoh tribes like the redoubtable Zulu evince a re- Onthewar-
'=> , path.
markably warlike spirit, the Negroes are too self-indulgent
to be bellicose as a race. If their mode of warfare appears
to us cruel, it is because human life is not of much value
in Africa, They make excellent soldiers under a capable
leader, and can show both courage and devotion in a cause.
Their weapons of war are chiefly the spear and the club,
constructed in various forms, and to a certain extent the
axe and the knife — weapons that are essentially practi-
cal and workman-like. Bows and poisoned arrows are
connnonly used. When about to take the war-path, the
warriors carefully anoint themselves with some prepara-
tion of fat, so that they shine like bronze statues ; some-
times they use paint (red and white chiefly) in ingenious
and awe-inspiring devices ; and they bedeck themselves
with all the finery they possess.
We can picture to ourselves very much the style of life Negro
^ J 'J mode of
led by the greater number of the natives of Africa when Hfe.
we recall the circumstances of their geographical position :
a vast Tropical land, shut off from the outside world, in
I02 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
which Nature for the most part provides the means of
sustenance. The natives, living under such circumstances,
easily satisfy their animal appetites. ]\Iost of them are
agriculturists, some are herdsmen, some both. The raising
of cattle is successfully pursued on the eastern side of the
continent, where milk is the chief article of food and the
blood of oxen is drunk. The derivatives of milk are used as
articles of food only by the Arabs, Abyssinians,. and Berbers.
Sheep and goats are raised, but horses are unknown to the
Bantu. The staple diet is a meat and vegetable one, for
the most part, and salt is a commodity largely in demand.
Negro The native dwellings are of the simplest possible con-
struction, from materials ready to hand : mud walls, reeds
and grasses, and what not. They are erected round a
central point, and protected on the circumference by hedges
of thorns or other impediments. Their chief essential is
that they be safe against attack. The villages are, conse-
quently, built in such a manner as to ensure this protection ;
hence, difficulty of access is sometimes further increased by
ditches and palisades. The herdsmen often build for them-
selves stone walls, and cover them with skins, to keep out
the drifting sand and the cold. Windows are entirely dis-
pensed with, and the doors are very small. The best huts
are made in the Upper Nile region ; elsewhere they are of
the most unsubstantial and uncomfortable character. The
destruction of a native village entails, therefore, little loss
on its owners. IMle-dwellings are erected l)y river and lake
communities ; and temporary forts are found in large trees ;
but nowhere do we meet with extensive wood-built villages.
A Negro village is sometimes of considerable size, so as to
closely surround the liut of the cliicf ; but in the greater
kingdoms this is not practicable, and tlie principal settle-
ments are, in consequence, comparatively small and scattered
over a wide area.
THE INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS. 103
The dress of the natives is of many kinds, the demand Negro
dress.
being at present regulated by the supply of skins, cloths, or
woollen materials. A bunch of grass, a twig, or a palm-leaf
are always to be had, however, should other materials fail; and
some of the inland tribes have no other covering to their
bodies. The Negroes of South and Central Africa and of the
Upper Nile region wear a sort of apron suspended from the
waist in front and beliind. Herdsmen wear skins ; while
the Wanyoro and Waganda, who manufacture excellent
bark-cloth, drape themselves in its ample folds, and are the
most " dressy " natives of Africa. Where woollen stuffs are
easily procurable, as on the West Coast, they are largely
used for clothing. Hats are worn only on special and
solemn occasions ; but grease in the hair proves a good pro-
tection against the sun. The free use of fat or grease on
the body is, in fact, a very general custom, and they are
sometimes mixed with colour or aromatic preparations.
Elaborate dressing of the hair is a fashion widely dis- Negro
fashions.
tributed, and the most fantastic designs are popular.
Individual fancy rather than prescribed fashion appears
to be the rule ; but the Zulu and other peoples have a
national mode of hair-dressing. The shaving of the head
is in certain districts a sign of mourning, tliough some
natives either crop the hair close or partly shave the head
for decorative and other reasons. This practice of dressing
the hair is, however, least conspicuous among the higher
Negro tribes, such as the Waganda.
Tattooing is not an art that can be said to be widely Negro
practices.
practised ; but the natives of the Middle Congo are very
expert at it, and partial tattooing or the raising of cica-
trices on the body are customs frequently followed : some-
times these serve as tribal marks. Piercing the ears,
nostrils, or lips, and inserting ornaments, is a custom
common among the Zambezi and Nyassa tribes and in the
I04
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Religious
ideas of
Neg^roes.
Negro
super-
Fetishism.
Trade and
commerce.
Tpper Nile territories ; and filing or extracting certain
front teeth is a frequent practice.
Tlie religious customs of the indigenous Negro tribes
point to a universal belief in spirits — if not in a divinity —
and in a future life of some sort. They believe, says Eatzel,
that the soid (? Itreath) dies with men, but that the spirit
(? shade) goes into the earth and returns from thence.
Burial-places are therefore sacred. Gross superstitions of
course exist. The world to them is full of spirits : there
is a spirit in everything, wdiether animate or inanimate
objects. Thus, animals are supposed to possess the souls of
men, and the worship of snakes is not uncommon. The
wholesale practice of human sacrifices — wives, relatives,
or slaves of the deceased, or even subordinate chiefs — is
one of the main causes of depopulation in Africa ; whilst
" smelling out " witches and obnoxious individuals is another.
Fetish-worship is more apparent among the tribes in the
Northern and Central than in the Southern and Eastern
regions ; on the West Coast it is quite a cult, for in those parts
wooden idols or graven images are common, and they enjoy
a certain order of precedence. Anything can be declared a
fetish. This is decidedly a backward step, even for tribes in
the lowest stage of culture. The fetish priest or magician is
a dangerous enemy to Christianity. Apparently the Negroes
cannot dispense with his services ; for not only is he their
doctor, but he is useful to them also in many affairs of life.
The Africans are born traders ; and on this account
commerce has been found to be the most effective civilising
agency in tlie hands of Eur()])cans — an agency potent for
good or evil. Every village has its market, wliilst a town
may have several. If one wants to buy tlie simplest article,
it involves the time-destroying process of " going to market."
But external (■onimcrcc, whicli was iiitroihiccd by the Arabs
and Portuguese, is as yet small, owing chiclly to the want
THE INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS. 105
of easy communications. The caravan-routes are, therefore,
of immense importance for the introduction of European
influence.
The caravan-traffic, which is concentrated on the East Caravan
traffic.
Coast, is there properly organised, whilst that on the West
Coast has declined with the suppression of the Slave
Trade. Farther to the north and east, however, caravans,
owing to the enterprise of predatory natives, advance more
like trains of war, in close order, and require to form
strong encampments at night. The rate of march, for long
journeys, is not, as a rule, less than 2^ miles an hour,
while some explorers have been able to advance at the rate
of four miles an hour.
Let us now make a closer inspection of some of the more Represent-
ative
representative native peoples m Africa. Our limits will only native
admit of a very hasty survey.* Commencing in South Africa,
we shall gradually work our way northwards to the Sudan.
The vigorous and energetic Kafir peoples living in the Kafir
peoples.
south-eastern corner of the continent — Kafraria, Natal, and
Zulu-land — are composed of the Zulu, Swazi, Pondo, and
three or four less known tribes. They are in many
respects in advance of the other peoples of South-Central
Africa, to whom ethnographically and linguistically they
are allied. They occupy some of the finest lands of South
Africa, live in a sub-Tropical and well- watered country, and
possess herds. As herdsmen, they live a free, independent
life, and are nourished by a wholesome meat and milk diet.
Their contact with Europeans, though leading to many
disastrous encounters, has resulted in many customs and
ideas of Christendom being introduced among them, to their
individual advantage ; ]:)ut in the domestic arts they are
still beliind many of the tribes of Central Africa.
* In the foregoing and in the particulars that follow I am largely indebted
to Dr. Ratzel's VolkerJcunde for my data.
io6 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
The Zulu. Of all Katir peoples the Zulu are the most powerful.
From Chaka to Cetewayo, they have had many capable
leaders, who, enjoying a limited despotism, have led them
to victory upon victory. The military organisation of
the Zulu has, above every other influence, been the main
cause of their material progress. Like all herdsmen, their
government and family relationship are strictly patriarchal,
but with them in an extraordinary degree. The king
is the father of his people. None are allowed to marry
without his consent, and that is rarely given until after
twenty years of mihtary service, though sometimes a whole
regiment may be married as a reward for conspicuous
bravery in the field. The men are early trained to the use
of arms and in the evolutions of warfare. The warriors
are fed by the king, whose numerous " wives " cater for
them. By fostering care such as this the Zulu army has
become the most redoubtable of any savage people. Their
arms are the spear and shield, the asssegai and the club.
Under these martial conditions, family life is sacrificed
to the exigencies of the State, and women occupy a very
subordinate position. Polygamy, though general, is re-
stricted by the want of means to purchase wives ; but the
" fair captives " in time of war are plentiful enough.
The rearing of cattle is the principal occupation of the
jjeople. Though, as we have indicated, the Zulu are behind
other races in the domestic arts, they are very skilful in
the working of metals. Tlieir dress is of the most primi-
tive kind, consisting in most cases simply of an apron.
Ill their mental endowments they are distinguishable for
the strength and dccisit^n of their cliaracter and for their
innate pride as a race of warriors; but they are none the
less tlie victims of sui)erstition and witchcraft.
Though wliat lias been said of the Zulu is largely applicable
to the otlier Kafir peojjles, tlie former are the most notable
THE INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS. 107
and powerful, largely on amount of their political unity. Tiie
Zulu have, in fact, " eaten up " or dispersed many of the
smaller tribes ; and they have, moreover, been able to hold
their own in the wars against white colonists.
The numerous Bechuana tribes occupy the central regions, The
Bechuana.
between the Zulu on the east and the Ovalierero on the
west, the Orange Eiver in the south, and, say, the Zambezi
Ptiver in the north. Their northern boundaiy is, however,
uncertain ; on the east the Draken Berge form a natural
frontier, as on the west do the steppes of the Kalahari.
"Within this extensive tract of country the pacific tribes of
the Bechuana pursue a pastoral life, the rearing of herds
being their chief occupation. They are, of all the Kafir
peoples, the least differentiated from the Negro tribes
of Central Africa. Their history has in the main been
determined for them by their geographical position. Sur-
rounded as they are and have been by strong tribes, and
occupying a country incapable of sustaining a dense popula-
tion in any one particular place, they have become scattered :
consequently, there is little cohesion among them. The chief
tribes are the Basuto, Makololo, and Bamangw^ato. They
are not a warlike people, though they have proved their
prowess in war ; on the contrary, they pursue the arts
of peace, and are quite willing to work for Europeans,
towards wdiom they are well disposed. Impressionable and
of weak character, they are readily influenced for good or
for evil.
We thus see that in the Bechviana we have a ready
medium for the expansion of British influence through a
healthy and rich country suitable to colonial life, and lead-
ing from a strong political base in the south to the banks
of the Zambezi. Therein lies our opportunity and our
responsibility. Fortunate it will be for us if we do not
neglect the one nor abuse the other.
loS
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
The
Ovaherero.
The
Ovambo.
Ethno-
logical
varieties.
The Ovaherero tribes lead a half-nomadic life in the
barren country occupied by them between the Kalahari
and the Atlantic. They are the only people of South
Africa to whom agriculture is unknown ; their sole occupa-
tion is the rearing of cattle, which regulates all the affairs
of their life. They appear to have retrograded in civilisa-
tion, and, though bright and light-hearted, they are inac-
cessible and unprogressive.
The highly fruitful land on the south bank of the
Kunene is occupied by the Ovambo tribes. They are
among the most peaceful and diligent of agricultural peoples
in Africa, and they live in crowded communities. Besides
cereals, they cultivate tobacco, which forms the currency of
the country. What little we know of the Ovambo is very
much to their credit, for they appear to possess an excep-
tional sense of honour. The other tribes on the Kunene
are allied to the Ovambo, but apparently are independent
of them. From their proximity to the Portuguese, and
therefore to the traffic in slaves and spirits, their manners
and customs have undergone considerable modification for
tlie worse.
The Zambezi Valley is, both in a physical and ethnologi-
cal sense, the transition region between South and Central
Africa. The tribes of the two regions, though apparently
of the same stock, are remarkably differentiated in mental
and social characteristics. The strongest tribes there, as
elsewhere, occupy the richest countries. The Zulu peoples
in the east would appear to bridge over the ethnological
varieties that are met with in that region. The Central
African tribes have not been welded together by the
military organisations that exist in East Africa : there is,
in consequence, not tlie same unity among them, and they
are vastly inferior in moral ([ualitics, being more cowardly
and less trustwortliy. They are, in fact, an imdeveloped
THE INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS. 109
and an agricultural people, cattle being difficult to raise in
consequence of the presence of the tsetse fly. In some of
the Zaml)ezi tribes we recognise the remnants of a conquer-
ing people. Migratory movements appear to have taken
place, not only from east to west, but also from south to
north. The tribes, however, approximate more to those of
Central than to those of South Africa.
The Makololo are one of the chief tribes of the Zambezi The
Zambezi
Valley. Owing to the occurrence of the tsetse fly cattle- tribes,
rearing is not pursued to any great extent ; the j)eople are
mostly agriculturists. Dwelling on both banks of the
Zambezi, and accustomed to a river-life, they have become
expert boatmen. Unfortunately, the Makololo have deteri-
orated even within the time they have been known to
us. The Bakoba, a river-people dwelling on the shores
and islands of the Zambezi, appear to belong to the indi-
genous race of this region, though their origin, like that of
the other tribes in their neighbourhood, was undoubtedly
from the south.
Proceeding from south to north, the first great kingdom
encountered in the Upper Zambezi is that of the Barotse
and Mambunda (Marutse-Mabunda), composed of as many
as eighteen large tribes. In them also the absence of
any military organisation is distinguishable : in its place we
observe, rather, a despotism characterised by great cruelty.
Farther east, on the Zambezi, the Batoka bridge over
the ethnological varieties between South Africa and the
Lakes region ; and they are an agricultural people. In
the highly fertile and Tropical regions of the great Lakes,
under the south-east monsoons, we enter one of the most
interesting and promising parts of Africa.
To the south and west of Lake Nyassa and around Lake Nyassa
Shirwa, the Manganya or Wa-N"yassa, who are differentiated
by a slight departure from the Negro type in their lesser
no DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
prognathism, exhibit striking traits of dihgence and energy.
Some of their better qualities have undoubtedly been sup-
pressed by the invasions they have sustained, but on the
whole they are a pacific and capable people. Their elabo-
rate mode of liead-dress and love of ornaments are note-
worthy. One encounters in them the first occurrence of
the hideous pcUle, — a ring inserted in, and at right angles
to, the upper lip ; and they also practise tattooing and file
or extract certain teeth. Formerly they used to rear cattle
in large numbers ; at the present day they are one of the
most advanced of Central African tribes, both in industrial
arts and in agriculture. The Slave Trade has, however,
practically destroyed their home industries, and has most
probably brought about the absolute want of cohesion that
characterises their political organisation. Their manners
and customs are much the same as those in vogue among
the Zambezi tribes.
East Coast Between Lake Nyassa and tlie East Coast, the tribes,
though related to one another, have been widely disj^ersed
and have suffered terribly, not only at the hands of Kafir
conquerors from the south, but also tlirough the Traffic in
Slaves, which is rampant there. Tlie allied tribes between
Lakes Nyassa and Bangweolo, the Babisa, might almost
be regarded as Hottentots ; ethnologically tliey are united
with the inhabitants of the kingdoms of ]\Iuata Yanvo,
Kazembe, and Kasongo. Although they occupy strongly
defended positions as agriculturists, only some of their
chiefs possessing small herds, they liave been oppressed and
dispersed by the rutldess slave-hunters and -traders.
Ethno- Throughout Eastern Ecpiatorial Africa it is seldom that
Jufaiism. ^v<'- do uot oiicounter, scattered among the agricultural com-
iiiuiiitios, nomadic tribes wlio terrorise and dominate tlieir
neigldjours. I'.iit (his cthiinlogical (hialisni is not without
precedent in nihcr parts of the world : we ourselves have
THE INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS. m
the Gypsies. In Eastern Africa these marauding tribes
have warlike habits ; they not only live by robbery, but
act also as agents for the Slave Trade. At the same time
there are more j)acific tribes, which are quite content to
settle down next to agricultural peoples and rear cattle.*
Of all the half-nomadic and conquering tribes the Mata- The
bele are now the most prominent. Their original home was
undoubtedly in the south. They are first-rate warriors
and brigands, and probably derived their military instincts
from the Zulu, to whom they are related. The Zulu peoples,
in fact, would appear to extend on the eastern side of the
continent throughout the entire distance from Natal to the
Equator. Mosilikatse, the father of Lobengula, the present
chief of the Matabele, was their first great leader and
liberator ; their actual separation from the Zulu proper
appears to have occurred at a comparatively recent date.
Again and again, in their feuds with the Batoka and
Makalaka, they have shown themselves to be a wild and
warlike people ; and they have been conspicuous for their
brutality and insatiable appetite for the destruction of
human life. The Mashuna, living in their neighbourhood,
have suflered, and continue to suffer, terribly from their
depredations and oppression. The country between them
has been devastated — but is supposed to be one of the
ricliest gold-fields in Afi'ica.
The warlike shepherds of Galla-, Somal-, and Masai-lands Tribes of
are of Hamitic origin, but of very mixed race. The Galla Somai'-,and
Masai-
are half -Negro, half-Arab. The WoUo-Galla, a fanatical •^'is.
]\Iohammedan people, are as conspicuous for their habits
of theft and their untrustworthiness as the Pagan Galla in
the south are notable for their fidelity and frankness. As
agriculturists and herdsmen, and in the industrial arts,
* Cattle-raising, however, may be said scarcely to exist north of the
Zambezi.
IT2 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
the Galla bordering on Abyssinia and the Sonial of the
coast towns are the most advanced ; but the purely nomadic
tribes dispense with domestic utensils they cannot obtain
by barter.* The warhke tribes are divided into two great
classes — warriors and non-combatants. Only the latter
are allowed to marry, to smoke, and to indulge in intoxi-
cating drinks. The Masai, however, have also married wai-
riors, who on occasions go upon the war-path. Incessant
raids, chiefly to " lift " cattle, appear to be their chief
occupation.
The Galla are partly under the influence of Islam, and have
been profoundly affected by their contact with Abyssinia,
with the history of which country they have been associated
for 300 years. The Somal and Danakil, and a large number
of the Galla, have become converts to Islam, but their
Pagan customs are conspicuously transparent under its thin
veneer. The Galla appear, in fact, to have been deteriorated
by Mohammedanism.
"Between Tlic positiou of the pcoples of the East Coast, situated
and the as tlicy arc between the Coast Arabs and the brigand tribes,
deep sea. "
is a most embarrassing one. Yet in no other part of Africa
are there more pronounced evidences of a capacity for
development. The Traffic in Slaves and the raids of the
Galla, Somal, and Masai, have been the greatest enemies
of progress. The weaker tribes have been dispersed, robbed,
or annihilated, and any cohesion among them has been
promptly destroyed. The Arab domination, in fact, does
not appear to have been for the good of the natives, but
quite the reverse.
Ftbiopian Two distiuct pcoplcs occu])y tlie source-region of the
Kile — Ethio])ia in its widest sense: the sedentary agri-
culturists and the wandering herdsmen, the latter being
of lighter colour, of nobler attributes, and in most cases
* Tlie Masai, tlio most proiiduiiccd noiiuul.s, are specially conservative.
THE INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS. 113
the dominant race. The Waganda are in every respect
the most prominent of these peoples, and they form the
basis of the population in Uganda. Then there are the
Wahmna, a shepherd people, who keep strictly apart from,
and consequently do not assimilate with, their neighbours ;
yet the royal family of Uganda are Wahuma.
Tlie Waganda and Wanyoro are outwardly distinguish- Waganda
and
able from most other African peoples by their dress, for Wanyoro.
they clothe themselves from head to foot. The Waganda
pay great attention to this custom, and are said even
to punish with deatli anybody found in the streets in-
sufficiently clothed. Yet, curiously enough, in their own
homes the women are accustomed to throw off their robes ;
and the warriors who go to battle not only first divest
themselves of su]3erfluous clothing, but also paint their
faces red or white. They have often been described by
travellers as exhibiting great taste in their graceful toga-
like draperies ; and it is further notable that they avoid
any disfigurement of the body, such as tattooing. Their
dwellings are vastly superior to those commonly found in
Africa, and their industries are equally remarkable for
excellent workmanship. The women for the most part
engage in agriculture, while the men build houses and
serve as warriors. The Waganda are also great hunters,
and those who live on the Nyanza are expert fishermen.
Polygamy, owing to the great preponderance of women, is
general, and marriage is by purchase. King M'tesa is said
to have had as many as 7000 so-called wives.
Both the Waganda and Wanyoro are warlike, and they
are admirably equipped. They carry spears and shield
into battle, and occasionally bows and arrows ; many also
possess muskets
Their political strength is due to the military organisa-
tion under which they are trained, for every ef&cient man is
H
114 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Waganda. a wamor. Besides an excellent army, the Waganda possess
a large fleet of canoes, well built, and usually manned by
forty men in each.
Dr. Eobert W. Felkin, in his admirable accounts of these
people, has made us acquainted with their military strength
and political organisation, their subtle diplomacy and com-
paratively high degree of social culture.
Feudahsm underHes their form of government. Court
ceremony is a potent factor in their lives, a certain savage
pomp being maintained. Their love of music and social
amusements brings the people constantly together. The
governing body consists of the king, the prime minister,
the great chiefs, and some court officials, such as the chief
cook and brewer ; and it is notorious for its cruel and
barbarous enactments.
The Waganda have shown themselves open to foreign
influence. Too curious to indulge in jealousy, they have
readily availed themselves of foreign commerce. By their
trade with the Zanzibar Arabs they have become more or
less familiar with the Swaheli language. They have also
permitted Christian missionaries to reside at court. The
clever way in which M'tesa played off one Mission against
the other, and both against the Arabs, was a striking
example of native wit and diplomacy.
Tribes There are a number of pure Negro tribes dwelling in the
between
Abyssinia couutry betwccn Abyssinia and the Congo watershed. Dr.
Congo. Junker observed that the skin-colour of these tribes becomes
darker and darker from north to south and east to west.
On the other hand, the peoples on either side of this chain
of settlements, tlie Abyssinians and Niam-Niam (Zande),
are light-coloured. These Negroes follow very closely the
manners and customs of the shepherd tribes of East and
South Africa, and they themselves engage in pastoral pursuits.
They do not appear to have been long in possession of their
THE IXDIGEXOUS POPULATIONS. 115
present homes, but to have migrated or to have been driven
there from the north.
The most northerly of these tribes at present known upper Nile
NcgT06S.
to us are the Shilluk, who are undoubtedly pure Negroes.
Their warlike character has obtained for them an evil
reputation ; but it must be remembered that they have
simply defended their homes against the Egy|3tian spoiler
and the slave-trader. A branch of the Shilluk, the Jur,
resemble them in every respect, while the numerous tribes
of the Dinka, though disunited, are allied by blood. The
Nuer, another warlike people, resemble the Shilluk and
Dinka. The Bari are primitive and inaccessible, but are
said to be intelligent. The Shuli and Madi, on the other
hand, though standing in blood-relationship to the Bari,
are a vigorous agricultural people, who very readily sub-
mitted to the Egyptian domination.
The majority of these Upper Nile Negroes have adopted
the most rudimentary forms of ornamentation. They
tattoo themselves. The Dinka and Nuer, for instance,
have triljal tattoo marks ; but the Shilluk and Jur do not
follow this barbarous practice. "Wliile all of them are
satisfied with a modicum of clothing, the Shilluk, Jur,
Nuer, and Bari very often have none. The Upper Nile
territories were at one time among the most densely
populated regions of Africa ; but they have been devastated
by the constant slave-raids : in consequence of which the
shepherd people have, as a rule, for protective purposes,
larger villages than the agricultural. Eaiding for cattle has
been the leading motive of all native military undertakings
in Africa ; and, in the Nile territories, the slave-traders
have in this w^ay robbed the shepherds in order to pay the
agriculturists, besides securing for themselves the usual
complement of victims. In the industrial arts, and par-
ticularly in the working of iron, the Upper Nile Negroes
ii6 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
take high rank among the natives of Africa. Their family
life, though differing in few respects from that of other
Negroes, has been profoundly affected by the depredations
of the slave-raiders.
Ligrht- As regards the light-coloured peoples of the Upper Nile,
coloured ^
peoples. the Niam-Mam (Zande) should not be classified as Negroes,
strictly speaking : their relationship belongs, rather, to the
Galla and Somal. More vigorous, both mentally and physi-
cally, than their Negro neighbours, they have also attained
a higher degree of culture. Their occupations are chiefly
agricultural ; but, split up as they are into numerous
tribes, there is no cohesion amonw them. The accounts of
travellers concur in describing the Niam-Niam as the most
inveterate cannibals.
Another cannibal people are the Monbuttu, who occupy
an unique position among so-called Negroes. They also
are light-coloured — among the very lightest in Africa —
and their physiognomy approximates very closely to the
Semitic type.
Central Of the tribcs of Central Africa we know less and less
African . . i nr- i n /-^
tribes. as wc penetrate into the Interior, the Middle Congo region
excei^ted ; Ijut there is reason to believe that, ethnologically,
they differ but slightly from other Negroes. Their languages
are dialects of the Bantu. It is there that we encounter
some of the most densely populated districts in Africa,
such as in IManyema and on the banks of the Sankuru.
The admixture of light and dark coloured peoples, which
is so common on the East Coast, is observable also in the
central regions of the continent. Iicference has already
been made to a race of people of diiiiinuiive stature,
apparently of indigenous origin, who are found here and
there in Central Africa dwelling in small isolated settle-
ments.
Caniiibiilisiii would appear to be very widely distributed
THE INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS. 117
as a custom among the Central tribes. Tattooing also Practices
is a practice frequently met with, though it is not usual customs,
among Negroes ; in the Middle Congo region the natives
ornament themselves in this way from head to foot. In
spite of cruel and barbarous practices, and the cheapness
of human life, the populations of Central Africa would
appear to increase very considerably. The Slave Trade
works havoc among them ; but the Slave Trade is carried
on chiefly from the outskirts. In the inland regions slaves
are not so valuable as a commercial commodity, because
there is not sufficient work for them in the fields. In
presence of this disturbing element to social progress, in-
ternal commerce and the industrial arts have, it must be
admitted, reached a relatively high degree of development.
In the Central regions south of the Sudan there is little
or no cohesion among the tribes, for the slave-traders and
raiders have destroyed it. Agriculture, in spite of the
favourable conditions of soil and climate, is not carried on
with any great care, and cattle-raising is not pursued to
any extent.
The kingdom of the Muata * Yanvo, which at one time The
. - , , . ^ , . Balunda.
was said to be equal m area to Grermany and to contain a
population of two million souls, has recently broken up ;
but it was undoubtedly of very ancient origin. The actual
Lunda peoples (Kalunda or Balunda) are the most widely
distributed and inliuential, and form the basis of the popu-
lation ; while all are of the Bantu stock. They are well-l^uilt,
somewhat light in colour, and have fairly regular features.
The women practise tattooing, paint the body, and cut the
hair short ; but the men, as a rule, while abstaining from
these customs, pay very great attention to the dressing of
their hair. They engage almost exclusively in agriculture.
As regards their political organisation, whatever tlieir
* Muata = " Master."
ii8 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
cohesion at one time may have been, the numerous tributaiy
chiefs at the present day affect greater and greater inde-
pendence tlie farther they are removed from the central
authority. A curious division of the administrative power
is worth noting. The joint ruler with the Muata Yanvo
is his " unmaii'ied wife," a queen who has her own court
and whose "husband"'" is regarded as a woman. The two
rulers are supported by an aristocracy ; and there is also a
sort of general assembly, which has given rise to a "public
opinion." The capital town of each new Muata Yanvo is
changed on his ascent to the throne. In Kazembe, a tribu-
tary state, very similar social conditions are observable.
West The indigenous peoples of West Africa liave naturally
tribes. undergone radical modifications through their long and
uninterrupted intercourse with the European colonists.
Woollen stuffs, so readily obtainable, have been adopted as
ordinary articles of dress ; and the introduction of muskets
and gin has played an important part in the life of the
peoples. Their languages are divergent from the Bantu
dialects. In the settlement of freed slaves at Sierra Leone,
for instance, there are representatives of 200 Negro tribes,
speaking as many as 151 different languages. Then, in
the colonies, the European languages are spoken to a large
extent, while Arabic and Fulbe are also current. Yet, in
spite of these antagonistic elements, the natives are wonder-
fully alike in outward respects. AVhile polygamy and
the Slave Trade are largely responsible for tlie existence on
the Coast of these heterogeneous phenomena, the repeated
invasions from the Interior have been ccpially, if not in
a greater degree, the fundamental cause of them. It is,
moreover, natural to infer that these phenomena are more
conspicuous in the less settled districts between the Portu-
* At the timo of Ijiiclincr's visit, this uiisexetl individual is reported to
ha,vc introduced himself as '' only a woman, but the wife of a great person."
THE INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS. 119
guese colonies in the south and the Niger Delta in the
north. While the Negroes of Angola have a large pro-
portion of Portuguese blood in their veins, they are very
closely allied to the natives of the Congo ; and at Bihe,
for so long a slave-trading centre, the population is very
mixed.
The industries of West Africa have in like manner been Trade and
1 ■ • T commerce
greatly affected by the European domination. I oreign manu- on the
factures have practically stamped out the native industries ; Coast,
and only in shipbuilding has our contact been to the
profit of the Africans. The native industries are therefore
at a low stage. The capacity of the Negro for commerce
is brought out on the West Coast in a marked degree.
The Dualla are very advanced, and are a good type of the
native trader ; but they try to raise monopolies, like other
people. In astuteness they are probably surpassed by the
active Bangala. Where trade is vigorous, the native has
an opportunity — the very best opportunity — for advance-
ment. But this exerts the reactionary influence of making
the individual independent of the central authority : thus,
the native political organisations of the West Coast are less
stable than those of the East Coast. Moreover, the teaching
of Christian missionaries has naturally had the effect of
divesting tlie native ruler of the sanctity which frequently
attaches to his person ; and, though he may be still the
high-priest, he is not so unapproachable as was formerly
the case. On the other hand, the same Christian teaching
has inculcated a higher mental culture, which, quite apart
from the weakness of native character, might have had a
greater degree of permanence but for the immoral practices
of irresponsible traders and the introduction of the gin-
trade to supersede the Traffic in Slaves.
Considering the extent to which the Slave Trade at
one time raged on the West Coast, it is not to be sup-
I 20
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Slavery
and the
Slave
Trade.
Negro
kingdoms.
Occupa-
tions of the
natives on
the West
Coast.
The Jolof
and Man-
dingo.
posed that, since its abolition (whicli entirely ruined the
organised caravan- traffic), slavery has been very greatly
affected as a domestic institution. There are Negroes who
still regard themselves as slaves. It is worth while noting
in this respect, that whereas the more highly developed
peoples (such as the Fulah and Moors) treat their slaves
worse, those only slightly removed above the slaves in station
treat them most leniently. There are slaves in every house-
hold on the West Coast ; whilst the purchase of wives is a
custom more prevalent there than anywhere else in Africa.
Women are the most valuable marketable commodity, and,
though polygamy * is indulged in to an extraordinary
extent, they have their rights : in fact. Dr. Eatzel speaks
of the West Coast as the land of Woman's Eights. While
the household slaves appear to be well treated, those who
work in the fields are regarded more as animals.
Organised armies are found in Dahom^, where women
are tlie best soldiers, and in Ashanti, the only two self-
founded Xegro kingdoms in Africa. The famous Amazon-
warriors do not marry ; they are regarded as men, and
occupy barracks in the king's palace, where they are waited
upon by eunuchs.
Agriculture is generally pursued, except where the
populations, from their position on the Coast, are better
engaged in fishing or trading operations or in gathering
oil-seeds. The Krii (Krii-boys) are a fraternity of native
sailors who have been thoroughly trained by Europeans ;
every vessel working down the Coast employs them, so
as to save the ship's crew from exertion under such perilous
climatic conditions.
On the North-AVest Coast, south of the Mohammedan
States, tliere are peoples, undoubtedly of the Negro race.
* It ia stated that the King of Ashanti may possess 3333 wives, but no
irKjre.
THE INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS. 121
whom it is not easy to classify. The Jolof and Mandingo
portray Negro types, but types greatly modified by admixture
with a nobler race. Purely Negro cliaracteristics, in fact. Pagan
"^ ^ _ Negroes of
become less and less observable as one penetrates inland, ^f^^:
In many respects tlie Pagan Negroes of the Niger-Benuu '^'^^'''ct-
district excel their Mohammedan neighbours, as in the
construction of their huts and in agricultural pursuits ;
while their industrial arts have also reached a higher
stage of progress. This is a phenomenon worth noting, islam in the
\AAest-
since Islam is credited with the power of always elevat- Central
Sudan,
mg the Pagan peoples.
The Pulah, by their talents and perseverance, have risen The Fuiah.
from the lowest stage of native culture to the highest ; but
those who have remained herdsmen are still behind the
other peoples in this respect. As conquerors, the Mandingo
come next to the Fulah, but their power at the present day
has decayed, and they themselves are dispersed, although
originally they exercised the most potent power in North-
West Africa. Prior to the Fulah domination, they were, in
fact, the chief people of this region. The Hausa are, per- TheHausa.
haps, not so capable as either the Fulah or Mandingo ; but
their past has been equally great, and their influence must
at one time have been very extensive, if one may judge
from the spread of their language. As far north as the
Azben plateau it is still the prevailing tongue, although the
Tuareg have ruled there from time immemorial ; and it is
the dominant language over wide regions to tlie south,
in all the so-called Hausa States. As the language of
commerce, also, it is spoken on the west side of the Niger
and beyond. In their diligence, orderliness, and trustworthi-
ness, the Hausa retain the stanq) of an ancient civilisation.
We ourselves employ them as police, with good results ;
and in the Niger Territories they are excellent herds-
men. Kohlfs, indeed, regards the Hausa as the highest in
122 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
intellectual development of any people between the Niger
and the Beniie.
Islam in the Want of coliesion and weakness of political relations
Western
Sudan. are characteristic of the Negroes of Nortli-West Africa, in
consequence of which thej have fallen an easy prey to their
light-coloured conquerors. The first ambition of a Moor
or Fulah would appear to be to possess a drove of slaves,
who in some cases have become the germ of a state. It has
been truly said that every wandering Fidah in the Western
Sudan is a seed of future dominion over the darker coloured
peoples. Like the Arabs of the East Coast and the Jews
of all countries, they insinuate themselves into positions of
influence. In consequence of this disintegrating process,
only the inaccessible tribes of the Interior are protected
from dispersion. The ruling classes of this region are, of
course, the Mohammedans. Rohlfs, however, estimates that
between the Niger and Benue they form only one-third
of the population. Acknowledged Mohammedans are, as a
rule, only those li\dng in the towns and the wandering
Fulah and Mandingo who come from the north. To the
Fulah, propagandism is the means and the end : con-
version to Islam and the enrichment of the propagandists
are, of course, synonymous.
That the progress of Islam has effected important changes
in native culture requires no demonstration. Islam has rooted
up many ill weeds in Pagan territories and planted better
seed ; more especially it has been the enemy of the arch-
fiends. Superstition and Petishism. In all that concerns
tiie outward aspects of culture, Islam has undoubtedly
improved the Negro. The Jolof, a weak people, evince the
relative iulluences of Christianity and Islam where, as
in Goree and St. Louis, they have come in contact with
Europeans and Arabs. Though learning European crafts,
they have retained tlicir own manners and customs; ])ut
THE INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS. 123
they have very readily come under the ascendancy of the
Arabs and have assimilated with them.
Enough has been said to draw certain conclusions in Native
culture.
regard to the mental, moral, and material culture of the
natives of Africa. We have seen that in his savage state the
Negro leads a life of ease and self-indulgence. A child of
Nature, he is contented to receive the sustenance so freely
given to him, without exj^eriencing any desire to emancipate
himself from Nature's leading-strings. Some dim conscious-
ness of a higher power and an uumaterial world has indeed
entered his soul, but his untutored mind invests these
intuitions with a fantastic and mythical interpretation.
His mind being freely open to receive impressions, and the
harsh conditions of his social life having schooled him into
unquestioning obedience to the powers that be, he has on
occasions been raised to a higher stage of culture, from
whatever source it has come, native or foreign, provided it
has been adapted to his peculiar genius. Thus, the great
Lunda, Zulu, and Waganda kingdoms of Central and South-
Central Africa were built up and fused into a certain degree
of compactness and cohesion by the genius of native leaders.
With the death of their leaders, and in the absence of any
competent successors, these kingdoms have gradually suffered
disintegration ; none the less, barbarous as they may appear
in our eyes, they have shown an advance of native culture,
a step forward towards progress, or potential civilisation.
In a lesser degree we have seen the weaker tribes conquered
and absorbed, driven back or dispersed, by stronger tribes ;
and the stronger tribes have either been herdsmen, Hving a
healthier, more vigorous and freer life in the less enervating
uplands, or of a more energetic race.
The examples that have been cited are the best test- Disturbing
PTTi-p n-r-i T'/i influences.
cases, tor tlie disturbing factor of European or ahen milu-
ences has not played so potent a part in these Central
124 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Disturbing nativG kin2;doms as in the coast- lands and in North and
influences.
South Africa. This disturbing factor, which has acted like
an electric current, is one with which we shall deal in
the next chapter. In the main it has been a spiritual
force : positive Islam and negative Christianity. The
great Mandingo kingdom and the other Negro kingdoms
in West Africa, Dahome and Ashanti, have been too
much under its influence to admit of their progress being
fairly criticised apart. As for the Republic of Liberia,
it has been wholly founded by foreign agencies and popu-
lated by freed slaves ; so that it, too, is not to be cited as
an example of untrammelled native culture : as an experi-
ment, it is, of course, most instructive.
The Slave Trade and its ramifications, the introduction of
vile spirits and of guns and gunpowder, and the advance
of conquering Europe on the one hand, of proselytising
Islam on the other, are also so inseparably associated
with native life and culture, that, until we have fully con-
sidered these matters, we cannot hope to attain a correct
appreciation of the forces working for good and for evil in
Africa. In the meantime, it is proper in this place to
emphasise the fact that, from what we have so far seen
of native culture generally, the wide-spread institution of
polygamy, and the inherent disposition of the Negro to
lead a life of ease and self-indulgence, are predisposing
causes in favour of all outside influences not antagonistic
to their growth. In a word, if — at the risk of an unfair
comparison — we accept self-sacrifice as the central prin-
ciple of Christianity and self-indulgence as that of Islam,
we see at a glance how it is that Islam gains ground wlicrc
Christianity must retire humbled and mortified.
In the regions populated by the I'agan Ijantu, between
the Sudan and Cape Colony, we may fairly conclude that
the natives, in tlieir piiniiti\'(; and untramniclled state, have
THE INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS. 125
made little or no progress, but evince, rather, an arrested Native
civilisation.
development of culture. When, however, from their im-
pressionable nature, they have come individually or collec-
tively under the domination of relatively stronger tribes,
they have readily assimilated with them ; but this process
of absorption has, of course, raised them no higher than
the stage to which their conquerors had attained.
From the comparative absence of political cohesion The
European
among the Bantu, it is evident that little or no resistance domination,
can be offered against the forces which Europe can control.
By the European domination, therefore, the obstacles to be
overcome in this respect are slight. As the pioneers of
civilisation in Africa, and especially in the Pagan regions,
it is our duty to implant the civilisation to which we
ourselves have attained ; but it must be adapted to its
new home. We must either raise the African up to our
own level, or sink to his ; too often we see the latter
result. Native rights should be respected, of course ;
but wliile " natural rights " are recognised, we should not
risk being carried away by sentiment when drastic mea-
sures are called for. As Professor Huxley points out,*
tigers have a " natural right " to prey on men ; but men
have an equal right to defend their lives. It is, there-
fore, logical to infer that, if we regard it as a duty to
carry our civilisation to those parts of the world where European
responsi-
circumstances have driven us, it may be necessary for its ^iiity.
execution that the few should suffer for the many. Not
that we are at all squeamish in this matter, quite the
reverse ; but our responsibility in adopting force when per-
suasion fails acts in two ways : we ourselves must practise
what we preach. Eor example, if we suppress the Slave
Trade because it is not good for our African proteges, we
must also suppress the traffic in spirituous liquors and
* Nineteenth Century, February 1890.
126 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
effectually control the importation of arms and ammuni-
tion. Our duty in these respects is clear : it were rank
hypocrisy to adopt the one course of action and neglect the
other. By continuing such a short-sighted policy as this,
we ourselves will in the end be the sufferers, for native
interests and European interests are identical in so far as
public morality is concerned. No half measures are pos-
sible ; according as we accept or neglect our responsibilities
we shall inevitably bring about either the assimilation or
the extermination of the natives under our control.
CHAPTER V.
ISLAM AND CHmSTIANITY.
HISTORICAL SKETCH OP THE PROGRESS OP ISLAM AXD THE EXTEN-
SION OP ARAB INFLUENCE — THE BORDER-LAND OF ISLAM IN
THE SOUTH — SIGNS OP THE TIMES HISTORICAL SKETCH OP
THE PROGRESS OP CHRISTIAN MISSIONS — RESULTS OP MISSION-
ARY ENTERPRISE — METHODS OF MOHAMMEDAN PROPAGANDISM
AND ARAB RULE, AS COMPARED WITH THOSE ADOPTED BY
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS AND EUROPEAN RULE : IN THEIR EFFECT
UPON THE PAGAN POPULATIONS — CONCLUSIONS.
MAP.
Religions, and Missionary Stations . . Plate XI.
ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY.
F tlie forces which war against barbarism, and whicli Rival
forces.
are most potent in the promotion of civihsation in
Africa, none are more conspicuous than the propagandism of
Islam and the enterprise of Christian missions. In both
instances the means and the end have proved to be very-
much the same. The propagandists of Islam, who, for
their own material advantage, have imposed their rule on
the Pagan populations, have been inspired by a faith in
their mission equal to that of the Christian missionaries,
in whose train European commerce and conquest have
followed on an ever-increasing scale.
Islam, or Arab influence, advances with the sword in Their
1 1 1 1 T7- -1 1 • weapons.
one hand and the Koran m the other, — as it appears to
us. Christianity, or European influence, advances with tlie
sword or paper-treaties in one hand and the Bible or a
case of gin in the other, — as it appears to the native mind.
It is no use quarrelling with the comparison : it is a just
and faithful one. We should see ourselves as others see
us — in our acts ; and not as w^e too often see ourselves —
in our proclamations. From the time when Prince Henry
the Navigator sent forth his valiant captains to conquer
new worlds up to the present precipitate scramble for
African lands, all the European nations — if we were to
believe them — have been inspired chiefly by love of tlieir
fellow-man in their endeavours to promote civilisation.
Civilisation ! The cant phrase * falls glibly enough from the
* " Progress and Development are the fundamental ideas contained in the
word civilisation." — Histoire de la CivUisaUon (Guizot).
I
I30 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
lips of Europeans, who have sought to liide their own selfisli
designs under the cloak of philanthropy. "VVliat degree of
civilisation have we introduced into Africa, and in how far
have w^e improved the condition of our African brethren ?
It will be our purpose to inquire into this matter : to
trace the progress of Islam and Arab influence, of Christ-
ianity and European influence, and to endeavour to dis-
cover the methods by which both have supplanted paganism
and barbarism. After dwelling upon their methods and
results, we shall be in a better position to arrive at a just
appreciation of the relative merits of Islam and Christianity
in the attempt to raise the indigenous populations of Africa
to the level of nineteenth-century civilisation.
Cross and Without exactly foretelling a crescentade or a crusade in
Orescent*
Africa, it is obvious that these antagonistic elements are
bound to clash wherever rivalries of territorial expansion
may exist. Africa, indeed, bids fair to become the chief, if
not the last, battlefield of Cross and Crescent.
Disposition The whole of the northern portion of the continent has
forces. been held or dominated for ten centuries by the compact
forces of Islam. In South Africa Christianity has a strong,
if a somewhat more restricted, base, and, with powerful
reinforcements in the east and the west, it has boldly
advanced upon the Pagan Interior. Skirmishes at the
outposts of Islam have occurred ; but our main forces
cannot for several generations take up a sufficiently strong
position to venture upon a general attack.
Early Unhappily, of these opposing forces, Islam shows a more
Christ-
ianity, or less united front, whilst Christianity has often under-
mined its strength by dissensions in its own camp.* The
early Christian Church is an example of this disunion. The
• The disunii)n bftween the Christian missions in Uganda — one of the
most glorious and fruitful fields of Christianity in Africa — is a lamentable
example in modern times.
• ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY. 131
sedentary Jews, it is true, were at no time propagandists,
but lived, as they live now, in exclusive communities. To
Cyrenaica, liowever, at the time of the Phoenician culture,
they migrated in large numbers, and also for a long distance
up the Nile Valley. But the early Christians, split up into
innumerable sects, were always wrangling and fighting for
dogmas, and were in consequence unable to exercise any
influence over those they regarded as Pagans, to whose
level they themselves eventually sank. When, therefore, The tide of
Islam.
the tide of Islam, carrying its simple doctrine, swept over
the shores of North Africa, all were engulfed in its relent-
less progress. It even flowed across the desert of the Sahara.
But in the twelve hundred yeais of its supremacy in Nortli
Africa it has obliterated all the earlier culture, of which
only a few monuments now remain.
This advance of Islam from the north and east went on, Later
Christian
as has been indicated, for a thousand years after the lapse efforts,
of the early Christian Church. The attention of Europe
was not again directed to Africa until tlie fifteenth century,
when the pioneer explorers re-discovered the outline of
the lost continent. Roman Catholic missionaries then set
out, and, for a period, achieved brilliant results in the
accomplishment of their high calling ; but before the close
of last century their influence had waned. It has been
reserved for the nineteenth century to witness other
Christian missions enter the abandoned field, not only
with renewed enthusiasm, but with the most far-reaching
consequences. The march of our modern commercial
crusaders will scarcely be impeded until their forces are
collected outside the frowning ramparts of Islam.
The spread of Islam, and with it the extension of Arab spread of
. , Islam.
mfluence in Africa, covers a period of 1250 years, and
may be divided into three distinct, though only approxi-
mately dated, phases. Its progress at the present day in
132 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
the Sudan and in Galla-land proves that its forces are not
yet enervated, though in other parts of the continent they
may appear to be so. For instance, to use the picturesque
and forcible phrase of Mr. Joseph Thomson, Morocco now-
a-days is no more than a " back-water " of Islam : stagnant,
impure, unwholesome.
Islam : The first phase of its extension occurred in the seventh
First phase
ofconquest. ccutury, and covered a period of only about seventy years.
In the year 640, a lieutenant of the Khalif Omar, Amru
Ibn al Aassi by name, invaded Egypt with an army of
4000 men, and in the following year seized Alexandria.
He and his successors earnestly promoted the cause of
Islam, which rapidly extended westwards till it reached the
Atlantic. In short, it took less than seventy years for the
Arabs to become the masters of Xorth Africa. The Berber
tribes offered some resistance, on one occasion at least with
notable success, but in the end they were forced to accept
Islam and to adopt the Arab language. Arab rule at
that time was undoubtedly a beneficial one : not only
did it grant religious tolerance, but all that was best in
the earlier civilisation it supplanted w\as carefully fos-
tered. The large towns were, in consequence, inhabited
by industrious and progressive populations. Outside the
towns, however, and among the masses, Berber customs were
preserved, and in a degree more and more marked from
east to west : for, from Egypt to the Atlantic, the Arabs
decreased in numbers. North Africa in those flourishing
times evinced a higher degree of culture than was found
in iMirope, except Byzantium ; an<l tlie position of women
was very much better than it is now.* Only the nomad
peoples and those living outside the influence of Arab
settlements were untouched by this wave of progress ; and
* The position of wornrn amoii<,r the Berbers of Morocco at the present day
in hij^'her than among the Arabs. They are quite satisfied with one wife.
ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY. 133
only they were spared the dechne that, iii tlie sixteenth
century, followed m the track of the Turk.
Mohammedan influence, in the first phase of its extension, isiam :
stopped short of the desert zone. Here was a natural barrier phase of
conquest.
from sea to sea ; but even tliat was eventually overcome.
The second phase, from the eleventh to the seventeenth
century, was inaugurated by the large Arab migrations from
Egypt westwards. Numerous nomad tribes, with all their
belongings, migrated to North-West Africa. Arab writers
compute their numbers to have been as high as one mil-
lion ; others have estimated them at only 250,000. It is
probable that other tribes soon followed along the road
thus opened up. This migration lasted from the middle
of the eleventh to the thirteenth century, and resulted in
Islam planting its banners in Songliai and Kanem, and on
the East Coast. According to Dr. Lenz,'"" the States of
the Middle Niger have ever since remained the chief bul-
wark of Islam and the centre of an advanced civilisation.
The history of Timbuktu, wdiich was founded in 1077 ^^J
the Tuareg, shows, however, that the progress of Islam was
not unattended by checks of one sort and another. Its
domination over Kanem came somewhat later. As for the
Eulah, they may or may not have come under its influence
at this period : it is not possible to determine.
The Arabs crossed the Eed Sea in the seventh century ;
but it is not until the ninth century that we hear of any
extensive migrations, and not until the eleventh century, or
the commencement of the twelfth, that they reached the
confines of Abyssinia. Somal traditions lead one to infer
that the Arabs also established themselves in their country
and in other parts of East Africa, and warred against the
Pagans in the south. The Portuguese, at least, when they
first reached this coast early in the sixteenth century, spoke
* Timbuktu, vol. ii. p. 162.
134 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
of the powerful and inimical Mussulman rulers of the great
" Adal " kingdom between Tajura and Cape Guardafui.
In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Islam ex-
tended its sway over other of the remaining countries of
the Sudan. In Kordofan there are traces of its influence
having been established as early as the fourteenth century,
if not before. The evidence as regards Darfur and Wadai
is uncertain ; though, as regards the latter, Earth considers
that Islam had no footing there until 1 640. The Bagirmi
received Islam at the close of the sixteenth century, the
Katsena in the seventeenth century, and the inhabitants of
Kano a little later. But Earth states that the Hausa
populations remained Pagans until forced by the Fulah to
make a public confession of their own faith. The influence
of Islam during the second phase of its extension thus
appears to have reached to the ninth parallel of north
latitude, roughly speaking, and to have penetrated along
the East Coast as far south as the Equator.
Islam: The third and last phase of the progress of Islam and
phase of of the Arab domination has had its chief development
conquest.
witliin the present century, and is due to the enterprise
of the proselytising Fulah. Their religious zeal at the
commencement of the century became too great to rest
satisfied with founding agricultural colonies in the Central
Sudan ; they carried their conquests far to the south and
east, and to the shores of the Atlantic. After conquest
followed reconstruction. Through the warlike operations
of the Fulah and the extension of commerce by the Hausa
the Mohammedans have now reached even the Gulf of
Guinea.
Not only is this religious propagandism apparent on the
southern frontier of Islam, but also in the very heart of the
Sudan and in North Africa. In the main it lias been
carried on in th(jse parts by the Senusi, a puritan Moham-
ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY. 135
meJan sect, whose relations, though scattered, are far-
reaching, intimate, and powerful. Their strict discipline
and the abundant resources at their disposal constitute
the Senusi a formidable opponent to European enterprise.
They are well informed as to events transpiring in the
]\Iohammedan world, and do not scruple to adopt any
means for the promotion of their interests. Every year
the present chief of the sect, at the oasis of Jarabub, near
the oasis of Siwah, sends out hundreds of missionaries.
M. Marc Fournel states * that " in Wadai the Sheikh el-
Mahdi could mobilise in a few weeks an army ten times
stronger and more enthusiastic than that which crushed
(sic) the English and Egyptians in the Sudan, and it is
stated that his zaivia contains enough modern fire-arms to
render his forces sufficiently redoubtable against those of any
European powder." Wadai is, in fact, the present centre of
Mohammedan propagandism, and the Senusi are in power
there.t The dominion of the native Sultan extends far be-
yond the limits of Wadai proper. Dr. Nachtigal, one of the
few European travellers in that country who have returned
alive, and upon whose descriptions we largely rely for the
scanty information in our possession, states that the Sultan
of Wadai rules over a country probably 150,000 square
miles in area, and having a population of 2,600,000 souls.
The peoj)le are inimical to the Mahdists, and only recently
we heard of a great battle fought betw^een them, probably
for dominion.
Interesting as it would be to fix the southern limit of Southern
Islam in Africa, it is evident that authorities must differ isiam.
in estimating the actual power and numl)er of the Moham-
* L'Afrlquc Explorie et Civilisec, February iSSS.
t The Maba comprise the aristocracy of the country, and belong to the
Senusi sect. They speak an " isolated " language (F. Miiller), or a language
closely akin to that of Fur (Lepsius).
136
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Cohesion
of Moham-
medan
forces.
Outposts
of Islam.
medans among the semi-Pagan tribes in the border-land
of Arab influence. But we may safely assume that Mr.
Eavenstein, in the map illustrating this chapter, has given
the approximate boundary of Islam in the south.
It is well worth noting that, whereas we are disposed to
imagine the cohesion of the forces of Islam is equally great
all along the line — that is to say, in the southern border-lands
— the most trustworthy European travellers in those lands
have directed our attention to many weak points, where
Islam either has not affected the Pagan populations at all,
or only in so slight a degree that it may be said merely to
have inoculated them. Let us take a few examples. The
Mandingo and the inhabitants of Futa Jallon have adopted
Islam either ^jiro forma or not at all (Dr. Lenz). The Wolof
and Bambara are mostly Pagans (Le Brun-Iicnaud). On
the Coast of Guinea there are Mohammedans on the island
of Sherboro ; there are over 5000 in Sierra Leone; they
outnumber the Pagans in Liberia ; and in the town of
Lagos they number some 10,000. In Bagirmi there are a
number of Pagan tribes (Dr. Nachtigal). And the farther
east we go, the more uncertain becomes the domination
of Islam. Thus, in the source-region of the Nile, where
the political supremacy of the Arab rather than the
extension of Islam has been attempted, we find numerous
Pagan tribes : of such are the Dinka, Bari, Bongo, Madi,
Shuli, and Niam-Niam.* The Sliilluk and others are
only partly Mohammedan ; but the Bagara and Kababish,
to the west of the "White Nile and south of Kordofan,
and the iidiabitants of Galabat and Takcla, are entirely
Moliammedan.
As rc^rards the remaining regions of Africa south of
this Ijorder-land of Islam, it may be stated in general
* Dr. Ratzel, our foriner authority, states, on the otlier hand, that the
Uplier Nile region is under Muiiaminedau don^iiiation.
ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY. 137
terms that Islam has no footing and institutes no syste-
matic propaganda. Of the Eastern Horn it has already
been said that the Somal are in the main Mohammedan,
and that, though some of the Galla have accepted Islam,
there remain several Pagan tribes. The inhabitants of
the so-called Swaheli Coast are Mohammedans ; and we
find Arabs or Mohammedans in almost every large town,
especially in Eastern Equatorial Africa ; but, living in
families or communities, they do not sensibly affect the
populations.
In the last few years, it is true, we have seen something Recent
. hostilities.
very closely resembung concerted action on the part of
Arabs — or so-called Arabs, many of whom were simply
the " sweepings " of the East Coast — to repel foreign in-
fluences ; but it is obvious that this action was inspired
by a desire on their part to protect and maintain the
time-honoured institution of the Slave Trade, and was in
no sense a religious movement. In the Upper Congo, in
the region of the great Lakes, and on the East Coast,
conflicts of this character and significance liave recently
taken place ; but they should be regarded simply as the
death-throes of the Slave Trade and of Arab dominion.
That they were partially successful is evidence of the
impotence of the European Powers in Africa to deal
promptly and effectually at any distance from the coast
with elements subversive of law and order ; but, given
the power to act, it must be merely a question of
time, and, it may be added, of sincerity, on the part of
Europe to successfully suppress all such symptoms of
anarchy.
It is an entirely different matter when we come to strongr-
holds of
consider the elements hostile to European influence, and islam.
too strong for its control — at least, at the present time —
in those regions of Africa where Islam has taken a firm
138 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
strong- stand. It is true tliat in Lower Egypt, where Islam lias
holds of D^ -L '
Islam. penetrated most deeply, Great Britain has exercised, and
is exercising, a wise and beneficent control, and that in
Algeria France has established * the Roman Catholic reli-
gion ; but those countries, as has so often been insisted on
in this book, scarcely belong politically to Continental Africa.
The strongholds of Islam, as far as their power for domi-
nating Africa is concerned, are situated, not on the shores
of the Mediterranean, but in the vast, inaccessible Sudan.
Among the Tuareg of the Sahara the marabut are the mis-
Sudan. siouaries, judges, and teachers ; and in the Sudan the Fulah
have schools everywhere, even in the smallest communities.
The Koran, the Arabic language, and several treatises in the
vernacular are studied ; and one hears even of libraries,
such as that discovered by Dr. Nachtigal in Bornu : so
that, on the whole, one is surprised at the intellectual
culture that is found in many parts of the Sudan. We
have already alluded to tlie high degree of development of
native industries and the organised governments in the
Central and Western Sudan. That these political pheno-
mena are strong elements antagonistic to the introduction
of alien influences cannot be doubted. At the same time
they furnish a substratum of hope that, with the intro-
duction of legitimate — really legitimate — commerce, by
which European intercourse with the Sudan will be pro-
moted, the more advanced peoples wdll come more and
more under our influence. Not all of them are fanatics,
and few would be willing to forego any material advantage
arising out of such intercourse. The treaties which Mr.
Joseph Thomson recently concluded with the Sultans of
Sokoto and Gandu are inspiring examples. Our hopeful-
* In Alfjeria the mufti and imam have little influence ; the mxirahut have
more ; and the kuan (monks) direct the Pan-Islam moveuient : their strong
organisation gives them the power (Kinn).
ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY. 139
ness in this respect is not discounted by reference to local Upper
^ "^ , Nile.
conditions until we enter the more primitive regions to
the east. In Kordofan, according to Wilson and Felkin,
the people are superstitious and have scarcely any religious
ideas. But the fanatics of Galabat, the Mahdists, the Senusi,
— these are very different factors to reckon with. Now
that Emin Pacha has been forced to evacuate his province,
which was so effectively situated for operations in the Upper
Nile territories, we have lost our last footing there ; and
it must be confessed that the outlook is very black indeed.
It is useless to repine ; but it will take years of labour and
lavish expenditure to recover the position we have thus
lost by our own folly and negligence.
Uganda, whose influence in this region is so potent, has Uganda:
'^ ' 1 a modern
in recent years been the battlefield of Paganism, Islam, battlefield.
and Christianity ; it presents an unique and typical example
of the interaction of these forces in Africa. Arab traders
had been at court for many years before King M'tesa,
through Mr. Stanley, invited Christian missionaries to take
up their abode in his country ; but Islam had in the
meantime made little progress, for the Arabs were traders,
not propagandists. That they exercised a certain influence
is true, and that they endeavoured to bring about the
expulsion of European missionaries is equally true ; but it
was on account of their commercial interests, and not for
the Mohammedan faith, that they adopted and pursued
this hostile line of action. M'tesa himself refused to sub-
mit to the distinctive Mohammedan rite, and burnt one
hundred of his young men who had done so ; but neither was
he at heart a Christian, nor were his people for some time
perceptibly influenced by this intercourse with foreigners.
On the death of M'tesa, however, and the ascent to the
throne of the cruel boy-king M'wanga, we witnessed, not
only a political crisis, but one of the most remarkaljle
I40 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Waganda aud simificaiit events in Africa— hundreds of Waganda,
martyrs. ° '-'
Christian converts, dying for their faith at the stake.
That this measure of success should have been obtained by
Christian missionaries is a most encouraging and notable
sign of the times. Not that the Christian missions, Koman
Catholic and Protestant, were themselves entirely in accord :
unhappily this does not ajDpear to have been always the
case ; but that, after the revolutions and the defeat of
the Arab puppet-king, M'wanga himself — the slaughterer
of converts — should have appealed to the Christians for
support and assistance against the usurpers of his throne,
and have promised any number of reforms, worthless as
such promises may be regarded. "We see, in fact, in this
horrible tragedy of butchery and barbarism, glorified as
it was by the native martyrdoms, the elements of progress
which, were European influence more than a name, would
inevitably j^roduce substantial results.
Before turning to the work and progress of Christian
missions in Africa, a passing reference may be made to the
Jews and Copts. And here I may express my indebted-
ness to Dr. Oppel, whose admirable paper. Die religiosen
Verhdltnisse in Afrika* has been of so much assistance to
me in the construction of this chapter, that I may be said
to have based it entirely on his data.
Jews. In spite of their oppressed state the Jews are said to
be increasing in numbers ; but in North Africa, as we have
said, they exercise no influence. In Morocco, where they
are widely distril)uted, and especially in the coast towns,
they pursue an industrious life as artisans; elsewhere they
engage in trade. Their position in Algeria and Tunis, in
consequence of the Prench administration, has been im-
proved ; in otlier parts they appear to lead an isolated but
contented life.
* Zeilschrift dcr Gtsdlschaft fiir Erdkunde zu Berlin (1887).
ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY. 141
The Copts are found more especially in the northern Copts.
towns of Lower Egypt, in Siut and other centres of popula-
tion. In Khartum there is, or was, a Coptic Church. A
relict of the Christian Church, the Coptic is now in a very
corrupted state ; and the same may be said of its daughter
church in Abyssinia. Christianity established itself in
Abyssinia in the fourth century, and at first made great
progress ; but its debased forms in that country at the
present day exhibit scarcely a trace of the old faith :
Pagan, Jewish and Mohammedan influences are everywhere
apparent. The innumerable churches and monasteries,
priests, monks, and nuns in Abyssinia tend to maintain
outward forms. The Jesuits and others have never made
any lasting impression upon them.
"We thus encounter in the province of Islam scattered
oases of Christian sects which have suffered from the un-
favourable conditions of their environment. All attempts
to implant or revive Christianity in North Africa have
so far failed. It is otherwise when we enter the Pagan
lands where Christian missionaries have led the way to
European discovery and settlement.
Missionary enterprise and geographical discovery in Phases of
. . Christian
Equatorial and South Africa are inseparably associated, missionary
enterprise.
and may be divided into two distinct phases. The first
phase is exclusively restricted to the enterprise of the
Eoman Catholic Church in the sixteenth century ; the
second and more important phase, from last century to the
present time, embraces the foundation and growth of other
Christian missions in Africa. Practically the whole of
Eoman Catholic and Protestant Europe, assisted by North
America, has taken part in this movement, the progress and
results of which we may now consider.
All the early Portuguese navigators took with them their First
complement of priests and missionaries. After Diego Cao's
142 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Christian vovage (1484), tliG so-called King of Congo received in-
missionary
enterprise : numerable Franciscans and Dominicans ; and the so-called
first phase.
King of Benin also asked for missionaries to his people.
The experimental missions in Upper Guinea, though they
made many converts, lost them all wlien the Portuguese
settlements were abandoned ; and their apparent tempo-
rary success was due to political expediency on the part
of the native chiefs rather than from religious conviction.
In the kingdom of Congo, on the other hand, Christianity
established itself more iirnily. According to Werner, the
diocese of Mbazi (San Salvador), embracing the kingdoms
of Congo, Angola, and Benguela, was established by Pope
Clemens VIII. in 1596. The early successes of the Eoman
Catholic Church would appear to have been notable, judging
from accounts published at the time ; but it is certain they
feU off considerably with the decline of the Portuguese
dominion and the dissolution of the Jesuit order in 1773.
In 1840 there were said to be 700,000 Negro Christians;
but when Livingstone, in 185 4, visited Angola, he found
the monasteries deserted, though, to his astonishment, there
w^ere numerous Negroes who could read and write. At the
present day all traces of Christianity are merged in tlie
grossest paganism.
Christianity, in the first epoch, would appear to have had
a footing also on the East Coast, between the mouth of the
Zambezi and the Equator ; but data as to its extent and
success are wanting. In the Sudan and in Senegal, in the
islands of Mauritius and Keunion, missions were planted ;
but only in lleunion was any success reaped.
Second No ucvv lioman Catliolic missions were established be-
tween the years 1767 iuid 1829. Protestant missions
had, liowever, taken tlie Held during that period. The
first Dutch missionary lauded at the Cape as early as
16G5, and many olliers i'(jll(jwed ; but it was not before
phase.
ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY. 143
1737 that Protestant missions earnestly entered upon their
work, not only at the Cape, but in Upper Guinea. The
first native church in South Africa was built in iSoo,
from which year dates the practical foundation of the
Christian missions that now hold undisputed sway over
the whole of Cape Colony and beyond.
The following are the spheres in which Christian missions Spheres of
Christian
have been and are most active:— (i.) In West Africa, the missionary
^ enterprise.
coastal lands, and for some distance inland between the
Senegal and Kunene rivers; (2.) in South Africa, all
the territories to the south of an imaginary line drawn
from tlie Kunene to the Limpopo ; (3.) in East Africa,
the coastal lands from the Limpopo to Abyssinia and the
region of the Great Lakes ; and (4.) in North Africa. To
them should be added, to be more explicit, (5) the missions
that have recently sprung up on the track of discovery in
the Congo basin. Each of these spheres may be briefly
discussed.
With the exception of the Ivory Coast,* all the popu- west
Coast
lated regions of West Africa are studded with mission- missions,
stations. English Societies, except in the ancient spheres
of the Catholics, largely predominate, though in Upper
Guinea many of them are American ; and German Societies
are active on the Gold and Slave Coasts and in the Cama-
rons. It would be tedious to particularise any further,
nor need we venture on a computation of the converts
claimed by each mission. In their own way they claim in
different parts, according to the political conditions under
which they work, a success more or less problematical,
but at any rate earnestly striven after. If their efforts
had not been discounted by the immoral and subversive
effects arising out of European political rivalries and com-
mercial greed, it is obvious that the success of Christian
* From Cape Palmas to Cape Three Points.
missions.
144 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
missions in "West Africa would have been much more
marked than it actually is ; but it is not the missionaries
who should be held morally responsible for this abortive
action.
South South Africa may be now regarded as a Christian land :
miss'ion- about half of the entire number of mission-stations in
Africa are located there. It has been found a most fruit-
ful soil for nourishing missions, the success of which has,
however, been due mainly to the more settled and effective
conditions of administrative control.
East Coast Although parts of the East Coast were among the first
of the Portuguese possessions in Africa, their missionary
enterprise there has not met with a tithe of the success
that characterised it in Angola. Any achievements of
Christianity in East Africa have been due to other and
later missions. Indeed, in the province of Mozambique, we
see not only no traces of missionary success, but debased
"vestiges" of its failure. The missionary enterprise of
other nations has endeavoured to enter the Interior from
the coast- lands between the mouth of the Eiver Zambezi
and the port of IMombaza, but more especially from the
coast opposite Zanzibar. Its success, however, has not been
nearly so great as on the West Coast and in South Africa :
in fact, it may be said to have so far failed. Eeasons for
this comparative failure are ascribable to the facts that :
(i.) the East Coast lias been for so long under Mohamme-
dan influence; (2.) the missions have penetrated into the
Interior like exploring parties, without first estabhshing a
base on the Coast; (3.) European influence has not until
quite recently taken any hold on the mainland ; (4.) the
natives arc more warlike, energetic, and untractablc tlian in
West and Soutli Africa; and (5.) wholesale annexations of
territory have caused mistrust of all Europeans.
In the vicinity of the great Lakes, and especially in
ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY. 145
Nyassa-land, the English and Scottish missionaries have other
. . ... missionary
taken up a firm position ; hut there again their power for stations,
good has heen discounted, if not for a time thwarted, by
comphcations of a ]3olitical character. In the basin of the
Congo missionary enterprise is only in its earliest, and
therefore exploratory, stage of growth. In North Africa
the missions are chiefly Eoman Catholic, as one might sup-
pose from the political conditions that exist there.
The Roman Catholic stations in Africa are said to Number of
mission
number 250; those of Protestant missions, 600. As to stations,
•^ ' mission-
tlie number of converts claimed by each mission, it were natlve^"'^
more prudent to avoid statistics. Dr. Oppel asserts that '=°"^®''*^-
during the present century some 10,000 native adherents
to Christianity have annually been secured. But the
Church Missionary Gleaner for February, 1890, remarks :
"In 1885 two American Societies published statistics of
Protestant Foreign Missions, based upon and enlarged from
tables compiled by Dr. E. Grundemann. These gave for
Africa, 600 missionaries, 7000 native teachers, 576,000
native Christian adherents, 160,000 communicants, 190,000
scholars. But Madagascar is included, and also (apparently)
a good many colonists in South Africa. Probably the
number of missionaries should be reduced to 500, and all
the other figures halved." Let us therefore rest satisfied
with the general remark that Christian missions in Africa,
embracing workers from nearly all European countries and
from North America, have planted stations and erected
churches in all the regions of Equatorial and South Africa
to which access can at present be obtained, and they have
made numerous native converts.
It will now be our task to ascertain, as far as we can,
what have been the results of missionary enterprisa
The missions in Madagascar and South Africa have
made good progress, in West Africa moderate progress, in
E
146 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Results of East Africa little progress, and in North Africa no process
missionary i o x o
enterprise. ^\^ all. This appears to be the general result, according to
Dr. Oppel, who partly accounts for the inequality by the
fact that Christianity has found the greatest difficulty in
making any impression on peoples who have been long
under Islam, or in those countries where the attitude of
the native rulers has been hostile. The latter conclusion
is just enough, "but the former is perhaps subject to qualifi-
cation : since, as Dr. Blyden assures us,* not all Moham-
medans are fanatics. In the main, however, Dr. Oj)pers
verdict may be regarded as a true finding. It is chiefly
in the Pagan countries where Christianity has met, and
must continue to meet, with most success. The oppressed
and dispersed peoples of Africa are naturally more accessible
than those living under a strong and despotic administra-
tion. But the chief guarantee of the success of Christian
missions, over and above the character and position of the
native peoples, is, after all, the presence of a strong govern-
ment behind. Security of life and property, just laws, and
good example are the factors which, more than any others,
account for the success of missionary enterprise. These
conditions appear to be improving all round Africa, with
only a few notable and lamentable exceptions. In South
and West Africa, though they vary in value, they are none
the less apparent ; -and in East Africa they are slightly
better than they were. But in North Africa, so long as
Mohammedan rule is tolerated, Christianity cannot expect
to receive much encouragement. Paganism withdraws every
year more and more into the Interior. The Arabs, though
* "We entertain the deliberate conviction — gathered not from reading
at home, but from travels among the jjeople — that whatever it may be in
other lands, in Africa the work of Islam is preliminary and preparatory. . . .
The African Mohammedans, as far as we have observed, are tolerant and
accessible, anxious for light and improvement from any quarter." — Christ-
ianity, Islam, and the Ncjro Race, p. 28.
ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY. 147
numerically stronger and more easily acclimatised, cannot
command tlie means that Europeans so easily secure. Is it
not, then, merely a question of time for Christian Euroj^e
to impose its domination and its creed upon the greater
part of Africa ?
We tread very uncertain ground, on which numerous Methods
adopted by
disputants have fought, when we come to consider the isiam and
^ . , . byClirist-
methods by which Islam has promoted its cause, and to '^nity.
compare them with those adopted by Christianity, — in their
effect upon the Pagan populations. But we cannot shirk
the responsibility of discussing this momentous question.
With Islam we, of course, associate Arab rule ; with Chris-
tianity, the domination of Europe.
In the first place, let us hear what some of the leading
African travellers have to say in the matter.
In general the verdict has been given against Islam ; so verdicts
much is certain. But to this there have been at least two islam,
notable exceptions. In an article in the ConUm'porary
Review, Mr. Joseph Thomson, a close and conscientioiis
observer, states, when comparing the degraded populations
of the Coast of Guinea and the banks of the Lower
Niger with those of the Central Sudan, that what he
saw there gave him a very different impression from what
he had expected to see. He found in the Sudan large
and well-built towns, well-clothed people, behaving with
self-possessed dignity, and signs on all sides of an indus-
trious community, considerably advanced on the path of
civilisation, and carrying on different trades. The various
metals were worked, stuffs were spun and dyed, and the
markets were thronged. Savage tribes had been trans-
formed into semi-civilised nations. Fetishism, with its de-
grading superstitions, had disappeared before Islam, which
had inspired the Negroes with a new and vigorous life.
These were the impressions made on Mr. Joseph Thomson
148 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
during the course of his journey up the Niger to Sokoto
and Gandu. Later on we shall examine his " spectacles."
Dr. Flegel, another competent traveller, in discussing
(Lose Blatter,]), ly) the very same region, points to the
freemasonry of Islam, hy which all Mohammedans are
considered as equal, and which secures to them the con-
sideration tliey expect of others, thus leading to pacific
annexations of territory, &c. But, though true in theory,
this is very far from being the case in practice. Thus, a
Mohammedan cannot legally be made a slave ; but once a
slave, always a slave : so that there is really no sanctuary
in Islam for the Pagan-born. And again, the course of
history shows that, as a general rule, the Pagan tribes have
been conquered in the first instance by the sword, and not
by the Koran.
Verdicts ^^- Oscar Lcuz, on the other hand, states * that Islam
i^am.^ is an enemy to all j)rogress, as compared with European
standards, and that it exists by reason of its own inertia,
when left undisturbed (wenn er vollig intaht Ueibt). The
Koran is the Alpha and Omega of the pious Moslem. The
result is — religious intolerance, expressed in the most
brutal manner to dependants ; and, accompanying this
fanaticism, an unbridled covetousness, often greater than
religious intolerance itself. Moreover, lying to and de-
ception of the " Unfaithful " are, according to Dr. Lenz, the
direct legacy of Islam to its adherents. His opinion, in
short, appears to be that Islam is the greatest enemy to
European culture in Africa.
Dr. Hugo Zoller expresses his views in almost similar
terms, thougli, like otliers, he admits that, in outward
respects, IMoliammedanism grafts great inqjrovements on
the I'agan. He sayst there is no greater promoter of
* TimhiHu, vol. ii. p. 375.
t Die Dcutschen Bcsitiunrjcn, Ic, iii. p. 93.
ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY. 149
barbarism in Africa than Islam. Yet Dr. Blyden states*
that " between Sierra Leone and Egypt the Mohammedans
are the only great intellectual, moral, and commercial power.
The tribes intervening have for more than tlirec hundred
years been under the influence of Islam. It has taken
possession of, and has shaped the social, political, and
religious life of the most intelligent tribes. Its adherents
control the politics and commerce of nearly all Africa north
of the Equator."
Between these diverse authorities who is to decide ? Diverse
authorities.
]\Iissionaries and their supporters at home are naturally
severe critics of Islam : they inveigh against its sensuality
and immoralities.
If we turn to arm-chair geographers and critics, our
judgment is still further confused. M. Elisee Eeclus, for
instance, sayst that since the fall of Carthage and the de-
cadence of Egyptian civilisation, the most notable event for
Africa has been the spread of Mohammedanism. Its simple
doctrine, the zeal of its apostles, its cohesion and numbers,
are the forces which have conquered where Christianity
must fail. The Christian missionary cannot assimilate
with the people : he is an alien ; he will not give his
daughter in marriage with a native Christian. Moreover,
the Arabs speak in the language of the people — the prin-
cipal vehicle of civilisation.
Finally, Canon Taylor apologises : J " Another accusation
is that Islam is sterile and unprogressive. But the same
may be said of other Oriental religions. It is a question
of race and climate rather than of creed."
The only conclusion to which this conflicting evidence The
evidence
seems to lead is, that either all are right or all are wrong, or examined.
* Christianity, Islam, and the Negro Race, p. 260.
+ Nouvclle Geographie Universelle, x., p. 36.
t Leaves from an Egyptian Note- Book, p. III.
ISO DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
The — which is far more reasonable — that there are two sides
evidence . r. i •
examined, to the Cjiiestion, and that the truth will be found m a judi-
cious compromise. Let us, then, endeavour to sift the
evidence.
In the first place, we must eliminate the personal element,
which may fairly be supposed to bias the writers. It is
obvious that the travellers in Africa are our most trust-
worthy authorities, for only they have seen the practical
working of the systems they either extol or condemn.
How, then, do we account for Mr. Joseph Thomson's
views ?
It must be remembered that Mr. Thomson's journey to
Sokoto and Gandu was a flying visit, speed having been
essential to its success; and that he passed rapidly from
the mouth of the Xiger, where the most degraded popula-
tions in Africa are found, and from a coast that has been
debased by the demorahsing traffic in gin, to the • most
advanced centres of Islam. Can we wonder that he was
struck by the contrast in the outward culture and civilisa-
tion of the respective regions, or that, in comparing them to
the East Coast, where Islam has no propaganda and whose
adherents are brutalised Arab slavers, he should have seen
this contrast still further emphasised ? For it is in the
AYestern Sudan and on the Gulf of Guinea that Islam and
Christianity, Arab and European influence, have their
typical development in Africa. No ; the wonder would
have been, had Mr. Thomson not noted the superiority in
the outward culture and civilisation of the Mohammedan
peoples over those of the debased Negroes. Had he, how-
ever, visited some of tlie independent Negro peoples between
the Niger and Benue, whose culture, l*agans though they
are, Dr. Eatzel (VdUcerJcunde, i. p. 635) regards as in many
respects liiglier than that of their ]\Iohannnedan neighbours,
h(j might luive modified his opinions.
ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY. 151
Moreover, iii assuming that this culture and eivilisatiou The
" evidence
of the Mohammedans are outward or external only, we have examined,
the opinion of Dr. Oscar Lenz to support us. Dr. Lenz, an
accomplished traveller, whose experience of the peoples of
the Mohammedan Sudan is unrivalled, says,'" " Islam in its
outward aspects is somewhat imposing when we see it in
all its purity and greatness, but it becomes a caricature when
it stoops to concessions." And its most marked concession
in the Sudan is, according to him, the subordination of
doctrine to unbridled covetousness. We have already seen
the futility of Dr. Flegel's reasoning as regards Moham-
medans being safe against enslavement ; and it is further
to be noted that the domestic immoralities ascribed to
Mohammedans — which are too well known to be par-
ticularised—are in themselves a cause of the Slave
Trade.
When men like Dr. Blyden pronounce in favour of Islam,
we are compelled to recognise the fact that they and their
critics do not argue from the same premises. The authori-
tative judgment of Dr. Blyden on such a question t is
undoubted : for he is a full-blooded N'egro, a statesman, a
scholar, and himself a Christian. When he speaks of Islam
bemg the most intelligent force in the Sudan, he compares
it, no doubt, with paganism and fetishism, on the one
hand, and with the methods of Christianity on the other,
— not Christianity as we know it, but Christianism, if
the term may be allowed, on the West Coast of Africa.
He sees Christian Europe preaching its noble doctrine,
but practising the very reverse of it, by conniving at
slavery whilst pretending to suppress it, and by introduc-
ing the accursed traffic in gin and gunpowder. He sees
* Tlmhultu, vol. ii. p. 375.
+ During a voyage last year from Tenerife to Liverpool I had many oppor-
tunities of eliciting Dr. Blyden's views. We were passengers together.
152 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
The Islam preachino; temperance — the moral .safety of the
evidence j. o x o
examined, natives — aiicl for the most part practising it. Furthermore,
he sees Europeans sinking to the level of the natives,
and Mohammedans raising the latter up to their own level
— whatever that may be.
To turn to the other authorities we have quoted, M.
Elisee Eeclus justly ascribes the remarkable progress of
Islam to its simple doctrine, the zeal of its apostles, its
cohesion and numbers, and its power of assimilation. But
one at least of his arguments is open to attack. The co-
hesion of Islam, though apparently great, and certainly
greater than the cohesion of Christian Europe, has its
weak points, which were indicated in the early part of this
chapter. That its simple doctrine and its power of assimi-
lation are forces in its favour cannot be doubted ; and
that, as an ancient indigenous power, numerically strong, it
has made more rapid strides than Christianity, accompanied
as the latter has been by the alien influence of Europe, is
no less obvious. But time and opportunity, should these
be turned to proper account, will profoundly affect these
conditions : for hitherto we have only experimented in
Africa, whilst now we are called upon to colonise it.
Finally, Canon Taylor's argument, that the sterility and
unprogressiveness of Islam are a question of race and
climate rather than of creed, is one not to be proved or
disproved : the phenomena of race and climate are so in-
separably connected with creed that to dissociate them is
unfair. It is not to be gainsaid that an Oriental religion
is adapted to an Oriental people, to wlioiu Cliristianity must
be, as Mr. Thomson expresses it, " a delicate exotic ; " but
that does not dispose of our responsibility in dealing with
the African natives under our protection, nor of our duty
to raise them up to our own standard of civilisation, if it
Ite possible. It only raises the question as to the best
ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY. 153
methods of acclimatisincp Christianity under the arid and The
° evidence
torrid conditions of Africa. examined.
To speak of acclimatisation implies concession, — a com-
promise of the methods at present in vogue. We do not,
of course, expect the missionaries to assimilate with the
natives, and thereby sacrifice so many centuries of civilisa-
tion, but we do expect them to make greater allowances
for native prejudice and native depravity, and, whilst
themselves living an industrious, educative, and exemplary
life, to endeavour to instil into their charges the principles
and practices rather than the (to them) incomprehensible
dogmas of Christianity. We have no right to expect of
the natives of Africa the miracle of sudden conversion by
the power of faith nor the intelligence to grasp the abstract
truths of Christianity ; at the same time we must pursue
the most direct and intelligent course to their hearts and
minds.
As a conquering power, Islam would appear to have
a certain advantage over Christianity : it is a religion of
forms rather than of principles underlying human actions,
and it can at once raise up the conquered to its own level.
A conqueror must either assimilate the conquered or be
assimilated with them. But it is obvious, from reference
to past experience, that our methods of conquest so far
have not been the best possible.
The more we learn of Africa — for the dark clouds that Summing:
up.
have hidden it for centuries have been only gradually dis-
persed — the more vividly is the impression borne in upon us
that, if we cannot at once root wp the noxious weeds that
poison the atmosphere of that great suffering continent, we
can at least plant healthier growths, which may mitigate
the deadly exhalations of barbarism. But our moral plant-
ations must be suited to the climate, or they cannot be
expected to thrive. Our experiments so far have been on a
154 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Summing compaiativelj small scale, so that we can scarcely expect their
iullueuce iu this respect to be great ; but the conviction is
forced upon us that, even in the modest attempts we have
made, not sufficient attention has been paid to the laws of
acclimatisation, to the conditions of life in Africa. We
have been enthusiastic weeders, it is true, but we have not
yet planted the healthiest growths : for surely gin and
gunpowder, and the disregard of native rights and native
prejudices, are not the best means to influence savages.
Living example is to them far more potent than dry pre-
cept ; and, as we shall see later on, we have failed entirely
to carry into our African policy the highest example of
Christian Europe.
Unlike savages in other parts of the world who have
perished at the breath of Europe, the African Negro evinces
a vitality superior to the vicissitudes of his life and a
capacity for taking on a higher civilisation than that which
he at present enjoys. But to expect that at the touch of
Christianity the devil of savagedom shoiild come out of him,
and that — to again quote Mr. Thomson — he should sit at
the feet of the missionary, clothed and in his right mind, is
to expect no less than a miracle. The process of development
must be a much slower one, and not only a slower but a
more natural one than the wholly alien processes that at
the present day are being forced upon him by his well-
meaning but misguided friends. The Negro must be guided
gradually along the lines which Nature herself has pointed
out. His impressionable mind, his child-like character,
and his adaptiveness are all instruments in the hand of his
reformer. He must be provided with something better
and more wholesome to replace wliat all agree in regarding
as tlie poisons of his existence. Polygamy and slavery,
two of his worst enemies, have prevailed in Africa from
time iiiiiiiciii(»ii;tl, and cannot be dcstroved at a bk)W. On
ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY. 155
the other hand, the introduction of spirits and weapons of Summing:
destruction, the most widely spread agencies of European
influence, can be immediately stopped without detriment
to the African.
On the West Coast this abominable traffic * is notorious
for its deteriorating effects on our " customers : " it paralyses
all the efforts of missionary and philanthropic enterprise ;
and it is associated in the native mind with Christianity in
the same way as the Slave Trade is associated by us with
Islam. We support, or at least do not suppress, the one,
and we decry and endeavour to stamp out the other ; yet
both are equally scandalous and blood-guilty : our hypocrisy
in the matter is transparent even to the native mind. In
short, it is no exaggeration to say that progress in Africa
is impossible until the traffic in both these abominations
is destroyed.
In Southern Africa the natives have for the most part
either given way entirely before the advance of a vigorous
alien race, like the Dutch and the English, or they have
become enslaved and deteriorated by absorption : the step
from the one degree of culture to the other has been too
great. Only the strong Zulu tribes have maintained their
integrity, and that not wholly. In the Sudan, on the
other hand, contact with a civilisation in a sense suited
to the conditions of climate and the genius of the people
has resulted in a more natural fusion between Pagan and
Mohammedan. The conditions in this case have worked
for progress. In the Upper Nile territories we have seen
the Egyptian domination fall to pieces by reason of its
utter rottenness ; and in East Africa the Arab ascendancy
has also decayed. Both of them, nourished by the Slave
Trade, have done little or nothing to advance native
culture. With these few examples before us, it is evident
* Statistics will be given iu a subsequent chajiter.
156 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
that no systematic attempt has been made to extirpate
what is worst and to encourage what is best in the native
civilisations of Africa. The Slave Trade, injustice, and
cruelty have characterised Egyptian and Arab rule ; while
Europeans themselves have shown very little advance upon
these methods, and have, moreover, debased the natives
w^ith spirituous liquors and introduced other agencies for
the easier destruction of their homes.
The suppression or adequate restriction of the traffic in
gin, guns, and gunpowder would, therefore, appear to be one
of the first steps to be taken by us, if our desire to reform
the Negro is a sincere one, and not a mask for unbridled
license.
Anti- The Anti- Slavery Conference of i 889-90, after several
Confer- moutlis' dclilicration at Brussels, drew up an admirable
ence,
1889-90. programme for the suppression of the Traffic in Slaves.
The General Act, if ratified, will also go far to regulate the
traffic in firearms, but not far enough towards the sup-
pression of that in spirits. It is gratifying to note that
the Powers represented at the Conference made a genuine
effort to grapple with these two crying evils ; but they were
not strong enough to put aside the " trade interests " involved
by their total suppression. A middle course was therefore
adopted. The traffic in firearms will, it is hoped, be regu-
lated in such a manner as to check the former indiscrimi-
nate distribution ; and it must be confessed, considering the
dinicidties and dangers of this complicated question, the
measures approved by the Conference promise to be as
effective as can reasonably be expected at tlie present time.
]Uit it is greatly to be deplored that more stringent measures
were not adopted for the immediate or ultimate suppression
of the traffic in cheap spirits. It is true that those regions
<»f Africa not already infected are to be protected from the
Jlood of poisonous spirits now being poured into the continent
ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY. 157
by unprincipled merchants ; but the traffic is too vast to be
dealt with in this half-hearted manner : it should be totally
destroyed. Eaising the duty to i|d. per quart will do
little or no good. The trade interests of a few Europeans
should not have been allowed to overrule the spiritual
interests of a continent at the mercy of its invaders.
Sucli a cowardly concession as this augurs impotence in
carrying out other enactments by the Conference, and
engenders the fear that what has been gained in principle
will be lost in practice. In a word, the traffic in firearms
has been more or less effectively dealt wdth, because it
placed weapons in the hands of the natives of Africa
that might at any moment be turned against ourselves ;
but the traffic in spirits, which can only destroy our
victims, though condemned in principle, has been condoned
by the measures adopted for its nominal restriction.
CHAPTER YL
THE TRAFFIC IN SLAVES.
THE SOURCES, CONDITIONS, AND EXTENT OF THE SLAVE TRADE-
DISCUSSION OF REMEDIAL MEASURES.
MAP.
Commercial Products Plate VIII,
THE TRAFFIC IN SLAVES.
rpHE continent of Africa bears evidence of an arrested civilisation
-^ development which no one can satisfactorily explain. °
The civilisation of North Africa, at one time so high, has
decayed ; whilst contact for 400 years with the culture of
Europe at other points on the Coasts has been productive
of nothing more striking than the deterioration of the
natives.
Critics who have endeavoured to account for this pheno- Main
i> • 1 • • . , , ... causes
menon are fairly unanimous m expressing the opinion that of its
the Slave Trade is the principal cause by which the pro- deveiop-
-•■ ment.
gress of Africa has been retarded. Those who have been
among the foremost in effecting her ruin, by maintaining
the Slave Trade, have also been the foremost in workino-
for her regeneration, namely, those whose pride it is, and
always has been, to call themselves freemen — the English.
Other European nations, some generously, some grudgingly,
have in like manner recorded their verdict against man-
hunting. Eirst a murmur of conscience, at witnessing
the patient suffering of a helpless continent ; then a
more heartfelt expression of sympathy ; and, finally, a cry
of horror and of shame : these symptoms have charac-
terised the growth of public opinion in regard to the
inhuman traffic by which countless millions of men, women,
and children have been ruthlessly torn from their homes
and treated with a relentless cruelty that no pen can
fitly describe.
I have before said that the trade in spirituous
L
l62
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Degrada-
tion of
AjGrica.
Slavery
and the
Traffic in
Slaves.
liquors has had an equal, if not a greater, share in the
degradation of modern Africa ; but, as the driiik-traffic
is a European monopoly, its suppression has been per-
sistently shirked. Dosing with vile spirits is, of course,
not exactly the sort of treatment to be applied ; and that
is a point we have yet more thoroughly to appreciate,
when public opinion becomes too strong for the reckless
traders, whose ill-gotten wealth out of the prostitution of
European enterprise in Africa is a scandal of our times
and a li\dng lie to our pretensions of philanthropy. With
this passing anathema — and because enough has been said
on the subject — we may confine ourselves in tliis chapter
to the Slave Trade.
The revolting traffic in human life must be removed
from Africa at any cost. But it has so grown into her
system that it cannot be eradicated in a generation or
two : any precipitate action or ill-considered treatment may,
in fact, result only in sacrificing the life of the patient.
Homoeopathic doses of philanthropy will do no harm, nor
will they do much good. The entire social system of Africa
must be strengthened, physically as well as morally, in order
that she may be able to absorb or throw off the insidious
poisons which have for so long embittered her existence. I
hope to be able to show, after discussing this question of
the Slave Trade, what remedial measures may be safely
attempted in the meantime ; but only Time and careful
nursing can ever win back Africa to a higher life among
the nations.
What, then, is the exact position ?
In one form or another, slavery, and in a greater or lesser
degree the Traffic in Slaves, exist throughout the whole
of Africa. This is not in the least astonishing. Every
country and every race on earth have at some stage of
their existence groaned under the curse of slavery. Only
THE TRAFFIC IN SLAVES. 163
when men have reco";nised in themselves the dignity and slavery
^ O J and the
strength of manhood and of freedom have they been able to J^^^^ '»
° "^ Slaves.
break their fetters and stand up for their rights. And how
long does it take, in the life of a race, in the history of a
country, for this product of moral and social development
to take root and blossom ? Why, it is only the other
day, though we may call it four centuries, that there
were public slave-marts at Seville and Lisbon, and even
at Bristol.* Though slavery in the present year of grace
does not exist in Europe, except in the Turkish dominions,
it is still indigenous in many advanced Asiatic states :
Arabia, Afghanistan, Beluchistan, Borneo, China, Persia,
Siam, Syria, and Turkey. The New World has finally
abolished it, once and for all ; but by its aid were built
up the colonies, republics, and empires that more or less
flourish there. Africa alone is the last continent, as a
continent, where it exists. And the export Slave Trade in
Africa was for a certain period a monopoly! for which the
maritime powers of Europe wrangled and fought, until, by
solemn decree (the " assiento," 1713—39), it was awarded
to Great Britain. To what base uses we turned our
maritime supremacy, in depopulating extensive regions of
West Africa, and in trapping men, women, and children in
our slave-preserves to assist in the rough work of opening
up the American colonies, are facts too notorious to dwell
on. It is estimated that millions and millions were thus
deported to America ; and it would be scarcely possible to
say how many millions at the present day are the direct
descendants of those kidnapped Negroes.
The Abolition of Slavery in 1833, and the noble Act of Abolition of
slavery.
Emancipation, by which the slaves were set free at a cost to
* It is said that at Bristol English criminals — e.g. convicted thieves — were
at one time sold as slaves to Jamaica planters.
t Contract for supplying the Spanish colonies with 4800 Negroes annually.
i64 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Europe the British people of twenty milKon pounds sterling, though
Slave tliey stand to our credit, only palliate the crime against
humanity of which we have been guilty. Our debt to
Africa can only be repaid by continued unselfish devotion
to its service. Other European Powers, who have been
equally blood-guilty, have not had even the grace to do so
much ; at most, they have given grudging consent to any
initiative undertaken by Great Britain for the suppression
of the Slave Trade, and in a few instances have co-operated
in a half-hearted kind of way. At the present day the
people W'hose proud national motto is " Liberty, Equality,
Fraternity," is the one great nation whose refusal to admit
the " right of search " — an absolutely essential measure for
checking the export Traffic — is zealously upheld, though
the implication is denied. Do the French really realise
that they are trafficking in indulgences ? One cannot be-
lieve it ; yet such is the case. The possession of the French
flag,* easily obtained, gives rascally Arabs the practical
right to carry their human cattle from the shores of Africa
into foreign ports. This sort of merchandise is playfully
called " Black ivory." A slave, it seems, has no soul and
no rights : he is only a " thing."
Under these circumstances, it is not surjorising that
slavery, as an institution, and the Slave Trade, in accord-
ance with the natural operation of demand and supply,
should still exist in Africa. The wonder would be if it
did not. "Where " Might is right " the weaker must always
be at the mercy of the stronger, in the absence of an
effective public opinion.
To associate the Slave Trade witli the propagandism of
* At the recent (1SS9-90) Anti-Slavery Conference in Brussels, France,
whilst still maintaining her position in refusing the " right of search," has
nevertheless agreed to increased restrictions and vigilance in regard to
vessels of under 500 tons obtaining the protection of her flag. Only time
and experience can show what results these uew measures may produce.
THE TRAFFIC IN SLAVES. 165
Islam is, as we have already explained, quite as uiijusL as islam and
the Slave
to couple the gin-traffic with the progress of Christianity. Trade.
We have also demonstrated that the profession of the
Mohammedan faith does not in itself protect the Pagan-
born against enslavement. Nor does Islam encourage
slavery ; on the contrary, it attem})ts to regulate this
universal and established custom and advocates manu-
mission.
What, then, is the leading incentive to the Slave Trade ? Funda-
. • CI i> 1-1 mental
Can any one, not ignorant or the true facts nor bmssed cause of the
•^ ' '=' Slave
against their acceptance, refuse to admit that its funda- Trade,
mental cause is — to put it brutally — the desire of gain ?
If there is a demand, there will be a supply, no matter
what the commodity may be. In Africa there is a
demand for slaves : the supply, therefore, is inevitable,
and it is drawn from sources that are nearest to hand.
Destroy the demand, and the need of supply is obviated.
It is of no use forming a " ring " and trying to stamp
out the supply ; for, as surely as water finds its own level,
any obstacle placed in the way of the natural flow of the
supply will not dam its course but only divert it. And
the ndschief is, that by deflecting the course of natural
events, the risk is run of hurting the cause itself.
We may, therefore, consider our subject under the two
vital aspects of demand and supply.
There is a demand for shn'es — eunuchs, women, and Operation
.... of the law
boys — in all Mohammedan countries. It is niimediately of demand
" *' and supply.
supplied. The natives who are hunted down in the
Sudan are taken to Tripoli, Egypt, Turkey, Arabia, and
Persia. Some are retained for home consumption, so to
speak.
There is a demand for slaves on the plantations in the
East African islands and on the East Coast. It is openly
supplied.
i66 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
There is a demand, though a diniiiiished one, for slaves
on the West Coast of Africa. It is easily met.
There was a demand — thongh, hap>pily, it has been
withdrawn — for slaves in the American colonies and lands.
In the absence of this demand, at the present day, no
more slaves are exported from the West Coast. The export-
trade has, therefore, died a natural deatli. The exceptions
to the contrary are comparatively trivial.
Could anything be plainer ?
Adjuncts of Now wc may further consider the suiiply. And in re-
the Slave . "^ ^ ^ ''
Trade. gard to tliis matter we must start with one very important
statement, the truth of which has been fully established :
it is, that the Slave Trade in itself docs not pay. It is
not very romantic, but it is a fact. Tlie Slave Trade not
paying in itself it must, in consequence, be made to pay
somehow, because there is a demand. Hence it is that
the traffic in slaves and the traffic in ivory have always
worked hand in hand. We have only to look at a map
to convince ourselves of this coincidence. All slave-routes
arc trade-routes. As ivory is by far the most valuable
product of Africa, it is traded in conjunction with the
next most valuable product — slaves. If gums were the
most valuable commodity of commerce, they would take
the place of ivory. And besides, the only method at
present in vogue for transporting goods from the less
accessible places of supply to the places of demand is
on the shoulders of men. Few commodities in Africa
would admit of fair wages being given to these human
beasts of burden : conse(piently, carriers must be obtained
somehow.*
Is it not ob\ious, from a consideration of these facts, that
* It is stated tliat hired porters arc not more costly to tlie Traders
than the slaves they impress into their service. This point demands further
inquiry.
THE TRAFFIC IN SLAVES. 167
if we wish to extirpate the African Slave Trade, we must Measures
■*■ against the
use the weapons of commerce and not those of war ? The ^^^^^^
wholly inadequate though well-meaning measure of block-
ading the Coasts has been demonstrated over and over
again to be futile. If we determined to arrest a gang
of burglars, should we despatch to the scene of their
depredations a posse of police escorted by a fire-engine and
a brass band ? Only very few slavers fall into meshes
the exact position of which they know beforehand, though,
of course, those few are better than no prizes at all ;
and, far from discouraging this patrol of the Coasts, I
would advocate that the number of vessels should be
increased. But it is against half-measures of this kind
we should be most guarded, since they are liable to
render us too easily satisfied. ISTor should we adopt
the plan initiated by the Congo Independent State of
setting a thief to catch a thief, — by appointing Tippu
Tib, prince of slavers, Governor of the Stanley Falls
Station.*
Bearing in mind these preliminary observations, we may Condition
'^ , _ _ and extent
refer in the fewest essential words to the actual condition ofthesiave
Trade.
and extent of the Slave Trade in Africa.t
The slave-preserves are situated wholly in Tropical siave-pre-
o serves in
Africa, between latitudes 15 N. and 15 S. For purposes Tropical
of description, the subject may be divided into the following
three natural divisions: (i.) the Eed Sea Traffic; (2.) the
* Mr. Stanley, under orders from Brussels, founded in 1883 the Stanley
Falls Station to check the Arab Slave Trade. The station was attacked
by the Arabs and was evacuated in 18S6. The following year Tippu Tib
was appointed Governor.
t My data and statistics are derived mainly from the Report to the
Brussels Conference (1S89) of Mr. W. H. Wylde, for twenty years Super-
intendent of the Slave Trade Department in the British Foreign Office ;
from a paper in the Revue de Geographie (August 1889) by M. A. Spont ;
Mr. Eastoe Teall's Memoranda; and Mr. James Stevenson's Slave Trade
map (Ravenstein).
1 68 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Desert Traffic; (3.) the West Coast Traffic; and (4.) the
East Coast Traffic.
J^e Red The Eed Sea Traffic has grown out of the demand for
Sea Traffic. °
slaves in Turkey, Arabia, and Persia. At one time it was
satisfied by the supply drawn from Southern Europe ; but
at the commencement of the present century this source
was cut offi Africa, from whence only a few slaves
were formerly drawn, then became the source-region of this
degrading commerce. The agents are chiefly Arabs from
Arabia and the Persian Gulf ; but it would appear that a
certain amount of this export-trade is carried on in driblets
as private ventures. The native craft used for that purpose
carry small consignments only, of from five to thirty or
forty head, and rarely numbering a hundred ; and they know
very well how to elude the vigilance of British cruisers.
The slave-preserves of the Pied Sea Traffic are the Cen-
tral Sudan and the Upper Nile region, Abyssinia and the
country to the south. The chief trade-centres are Abeshr
(Wadai), Fasher (Darfur), Khartum, Galabat, and Dongola.
From thence the slaves are taken to ports and creeks on
the Eed Sea and Gulf of Aden. In Arabia, Jeddah is
the principal port where they are received, and Mecca
and Hodeida are the chief depots whence they are dis-
tributed.*
The Great In the Wcst-Ccntral and Western Sudan, the slaves are
Desert
Traffic. drawn from the regions to the south of Lake Tsad and
between the Mger and Benue. The chief centres are
Timbuktu, Kano (Sokoto), and Kuka (Bornu). From
Timbuktu, Bornu, and Wadai, some fifteen to twenty large
caravans cross by the terrible desert-route to Morocco and
* M. Spont estimates that from 15,000 to 18,000 .slaves go by the Red
Sea route to Arabia and beyond, whereas formerly they found their
way down the Nile to Egypt, a route which is now blocked by British
troops.
THE TRAFFIC IN SLAVES. 169
Tripoli * every year, though Morocco receives only a com-
paratively small number of the slaves. M. Spont estimates
that from 10,000 to 12,000 slaves are annually taken
alive across the desert.
Travellers have given heart-rending descriptions of the
Great Desert Traffic. Bornu derives its wealth from it,
and from thence in the last twenty years the export-traffic
has increased by leaps and bounds. Rohlfs on one occasion
saw a caravan of 4000 slaves set out from Kuka ; a fort-
night elapsed before the last batch took the road. One
can scarcely exaggerate the terrible sufferings of the slaves,
marching across the Desert for 800 miles to Murzuk, under
a burning sun, and exposed to attack from the nomad
Tuareg and to the relentless cruelty of their drivers. It is
estimated that one in five perish on the way. Eohlfs states
that the track is marked on either side by the blanched
bones of slaves, and might easily be followed by a traveller
who did not himself know the way. And these ghastly
mile-stones mark the slave-routes, in other parts of Africa.
The West Coast export-trade having ceased, for reasons The West
^ . Coast
already stated, the slaves drawn from those Equatorial Traffic,
regions are carried mostly to the North and East. Those
brought to the coast are, according to Mr. Wylde, employed
in large numbers by the native chiefs and traders for
domestic and agricultural purposes.
The Traffic on the East Coast has increased in an The East
Coast
alarming manner. We knew nothing of it until the revela- Traffic,
tions of explorers in the middle of this century. But we
are assured that the wdiole of the East Coast Traffic, which
was not very brisk in the last century, has since then grown
into its present enormous proportions. For a long time
* The Slave Trade has more than once been " abolished " in Tripoli ! But
we should not rail at "the Turk," for other European Powers know how to
abolish in principle what they retain in practice, as regards abuses in Africa.
lyo DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
The East the Easteru Traffic was slioht ; the Arabs were content
Coast _ .
Traffic. to w'ait for the arrival of caravans on the Coast ; but
at the present day it is more extensive than any other in
Africa. It has been variously estimated that from 20,000
to 40,000 slaves annually reach the Coast, where a certain
number are retained as domestic and agricultural servants ;
the remainder are exported in dhows to the islands of Pemba
(5000 to 6000 annually), Zanzibar, Madagascar, Comoro,
Eeunion, and to the Persian Gulf. The death-rate of slaves
marched to the East Coast is estimated at one in ten.
" The French Possessions," says Mr. Wylde, " must be
mentioned as places where slaves are absorbed, because it
is notorious that Africans are introduced as free labourers
into the islands mentioned, having been purchased and
redeemed with a view to their introduction." It has
already been stated that a certain amount of this export-
traffic is carried on under the French flag.
The two chief centres of the Eastern Traffic are: (i.)
Unyanyembe (Tabora), where slaves are drawn from as
far west as N'yangwe and from as far north as Uganda ;
and (2.) the Nyassa region. The latter is at present the
most prolific. All the ports and many of the creeks on
the East Coast are more or less used for the export-traffic,
but the caravans from the Interior prefer Kilwa, Dar-es-
Salaam, Bagamoyo, and Pangani.
Total In regard to the total annual number of victims to the
number of Slavc Trade in Africa, authorities differ so widely that
it seems impossible to arrive at any but the roughest esti-
mate. AVe have so far quoted only tlie number of slaves
who safely reach their destination ; but it must be remem-
bered that these represent only a titlie of the victims to
the Slave Trade. Apart from the innumerable deaths on
tlic march, we have to account for the untold thousands who
are butchered in the raids when these slaves are captured.
Victims.
THE TRAFFIC IN SLAVES. 17 r
M. Spout's estimate of the total annual number of victims
is 200,000 to 250,000; that of Livingstone, Cameron,
and others is 500,000; wliilst that of Cardinal Lavigeiie
is as high as 2,000,000. l*robably half a million were
nearest the mark ; and surely they are enough, when one
considers the amount of misery crammed into the life of
a single captive.
Before considering repressive measures, it may be well Predispos-
, . . „ , '"§■ causes
to mention some of the predisposing causes of slavery and of slavery,
the conditions under which the Slave Trade is carried on
in Africa. When people talk of one-half of the population
being slaves to the other half, they must not be taken
literally, although it is perfectly true that slavery, as an
institution, has deep-seated roots in Africa. If domestic
slavery were alone the demand which it is the province
of the slave-trader to supply, nothing like the depredations
which now characterise the Traffic would be necessary. As
in other countries and other times, so in Africa, captives
of war are enslaved ; but mere bondage is better than
butchery, and even marks a certain advance in the social
life of savages. In the Central and Western Sudan
religious intolerance or zeal may be one incentive to the
enslavement of the Pagan populations ; but, as we have
already seen, it is entirely subordinate to the utilitarian
purposes to which the slaves are turned. In the Upper
Nile region, the Slave Trade is, more strictly speaking, a
commercial venture to meet the large demand made for
slaves in Asia. In the Eastern Traffic, ivory, which so
largely controls the remuneration of slave- raiding, is its
Alpha and Omega, for it would never pay to bring slaves
empty-handed to the Coast. Ivory, in fact, throughout tlie
greater part of Africa, is one of the predisposing causes of,
if not the chief incentive to, the Slave Trade.
Later on, when we come to consider the commercial
172 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
products of Africa, we shall see not only that the trade-
routes by which ivory is carried to the coasts and the
slave-routes are identical, but that the same coincidence is
observable in regard to the elephant-hunting grounds and
the slave-trading preserves.
Methods of The mctliods by which the Arabs * of the East Coast
man-hunt- . .,...,
ing- carry out their razzias are simplicity itself. They settle
down near to peaceable communities, and acquire land
and property, ivory, &c. Openly they plant their useful
vegetable seeds, but in secret they sow the seed of dis-
cord : so that tribe is set against tribe, and individual
against individual, while the Arabs themselves daily in-
crease in public estimation, power, and wealth. When the
time of their vile harvest arrives, that is to say, when they
have collected a sufficient amount of ivory, the blow is
struck. Upon some pretext, or upon no pretext, a quarrel
is picked, and, either alone or with assistance, an attack
is made by them on their inoffensive and too confiding
neighbours. Those wlio offer resistance are shot down ;
the rest are dragged into slavery, — men, women, and
children. Witli their superior arms, the Arabs have an
easy victory. We thus see that, besides pursuing their
nefarious trade, the Arabs sow discord and dissension
wherever they go. Extensive regions to the west of the
Great Lakes have been depopulated in this manner. In
the Sudan, on the contrary, and especially in the Upper Nile
territories, the methods pursued by tlie slavers were at one
time, whatever they may be now, even bolder in conception
and execution : zerihas were formed with the avowed object
of slave-hunting, which was carried out in a business-like
and wholesale way.
We liave already mentioned that the slave-traders also
• We call them Arabs by courtesy, but most of them are the "scum" of
the Coast or half-caste Portuguese.
THE TRAFFIC IN SLAVES. 173
employ nomad and warlike tribes to raid for them, while Resources,
individual natives, under this demoralising influence, occa-
sionally do a little slave-catching on their own account.
Professor Drummond amusingly says : one cannot send
three men on an errand without running the risk of two
of them conspiring together and making a slave of the
third. And quite recently we heard of a caravan in East
Africa which, falling short of supplies, paid its w^ay by sell-
ing one another into bondage.
Dr. Livingstone refers to the following sources of slavery
in East Africa : (i.) criminals who are sold for their crimes ;
(2.) witchcraft; (3.) reprisals and kidnajjping.
It may be asked, how is it that the slave-traders, who The supply
of arms and
are numerically so insignificant, have the power to work ammunu
such havoc ? The answer to this very natural question is,
that they and their followers are well armed with weapons
of precision and have plenty of ammunition ; so that the
natives, being provided only wdth primitive arms, have
little or no chance against them. Hence the imjDortation
of arms and munitions of war into Africa is one of the
principal things to control, if Europeans honestly intend to
suppress the Traffic in Slaves. Attemj^ts have been made
and are being made in this direction ; but they can never
be altogether successful. It has been found absolutely
impossible to prevent guns and gunpowder from being
imported, or smuggled into, such an immense continent
as Africa. And besides, by placing obstacles in the way,
one runs the risk of altogether shutting off the suj)ply
of arms and ammunition, upon which Europeans in the
Interior themselves depend for their j)i'otection. "We
must, therefore, rest satisfied with the recent enactments
of the Brussels Conference for counteracting this evil.
The consideration of these questions fittingly introduces
the measures which have been undertaken in the past and
Slaves.
174 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
those now proposed for the suppression of the Slave
Trade.
Measures Shice the first years of this century to the present day
Traffic in^ the objection to slavery has gradually grown into a feeling
of abhorrence which no nation dare defy. The European
Powers, beginning with Denmark and followed by Britain,
one by one have declared against the Slave Trade, and have
emancipated the slaves in their respective colonies. Con-
ference after Conference, at which the question was dis-
cussed, has passed Eesolutions and enactments against the
Traffic* The Anti- Slavery Society of London has persist-
ently kept the subject alive, and, besides educating public
opinion, has done much in the fifty years of its existence to
bring about favourable results. Sierra Leone and Liberia
were created chiefly as a nucleus against slavery and the
Slave Trade. The navigation of the Niger, and the opening
up of commerce in those regions, were undertaken with
much the same prospects in view, and the Congo Independent
State was founded with similar objects. Nor should we for-
get the operations of Sir Samuel Baker, of General Gordon,
and of their successors, in the Upper Nile territories. Their
aim was to raise there barriers against the Slave Trade,
Ijy planting the rule of Egypt, by opening up routes, and
by encouraging legitimate commerce. Treaties and agree-
ments between Great Britain and native chiefs, such as
those concluded with the sultans of Zanzibar, and political
action in the coastal lands, besides the partial blockade of
the Coasts, are among the other measures that have been
imdertaken with the main object of suppressing the Slave
Trade. Yet, as we have seen, the Traffic still exists ; and
* The Conferences and Congresses at which questions relating to slavery
and the Slave Trade have been di.scussed were the following : — Vienna, 1815 ;
Aix-la-Chapelle, 1818 ; Verona, 1822; Brussels, 1S76 ; Berlin, 1S78; Berlin,
1885 ; and Brussels, 18S9-90.
THE TRAFFIC IN SLAVES. 175
not only does it exist, but in some regions it is actually
increasing.
That, following upon the repeated " alx)lition " of slavery, Theiegai
status of
and the fines and penalties to which slave-traders have slavery.
been subjected in various parts of Africa, there should have
grown up a sort of legaUsed Slave Trade or compulsory
labour in its stead, is no more than might have been
expected. Those who are best able to judge state that the
export Slave Trade can never be effectually suppressed until,
by unanimous agreement, if not by international law, it
be proclaimed piracy, or equal to piracy, to engage in it.
Moreover, all are agreed that the legal status of slavery
must be abolished : for they argue that, as long as this
legal status is recognised, so long will escaped slaves be
under the power of their captors and masters ; and that,
unless slave-traders are summarily dealt with as pirates,
they will not be deterred, by the infliction of a fine,
from pursuing their abominable calling. The Sultan of
Zanzibar, in August last, issued a proclamation which, if
realised, will doulitless lead to the ultimate abolition of the
legal status of slavery in East Africa. Similar measures
have, it is true, been approved of or adopted by former
sultans of Zanzibar ; but there is room for hope that, with
a British Protectorate over the island, this final enactment
will be carried into effect.
What to do with manumitted or freed slaves is another Manu-
mission,
serious question. The danger of releasing a large section of
the community from the obligations, however unjust, which
slavery imposes upon them, is very great ; but it is a danger
that has been faced in other countries and other times,
and one that it should not be impossible to overcome, pro-
vided the Powers are sincere in their philanthropic objects.
Some method of gradually relaxing the bonds of slavery
might surely be found. A kind of servitude or serfdom.
176 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
for instance, by which slaves can work out their freedom
within a certain number of years, has before now been
tried with success. Old men and children might safely
■ be released at once. By gradual stages the new order of
things might be made to replace the old. But, as we have
too frequently experienced, it is no use making regula-
tions of this kind unless we see them faithfully observed ;
and it is worse than useless framing laws that offer a
loophole through wdiich guilty parties can escape their
penalties.
"We may, in conclusion, specially apply the principles
laid down by these observations in regard to the various
regions of Africa harried by slave -raiders.
Suppres- At the outset we are met with one very serious obstruc-
sion of the
Traffic in ^iou : the Rrcatcr part of the Sudan is closed to Europe.
various ox i
regions. ^Y\Q Central regions have always been, and for many years
are likely to remain, a sphere in which European influence
must be insignificant. The Eastern regions have been
the theatre of serious, and to a certain extent successful,
operations against the slave-traders. At one time, shortly
after the appointment of Emin Pacha to the Egyptian
Equatorial Provinces, the Slave Trade was crushed or
crippled in most of the Territories of the Upper Nile ;
and the Eed Sea Traffic was considerably hampered by the
vigilance of our cruisers. But now that Emin has fallen,
we have lost our last hold on the region which his position,
had it been rendered more stable, might have dominated.
He himself stated that, with outside support, he could
easily have retaken Khartum. Many years must elapse
before our position on tlie Upper Nile can be regained.
Under favourable circumstances, however, with the Eed Sea
or the East Coast as a base, it would a])pcar quite possible
to gradually introduce legitimate commerce and to check
the Slave Trade by its pacific means, sui:»ported by police
THE TRAFFIC IN SLAVES. 177
supervisi(jn. But our greatest hope lies, for the present, fj^PP^^f^e
iu tliose parts of the Sudan which are accessible from thef^^adein
Xiger and Benu'j, and which arc l)cing rapidly opened up gfon°"^ ''^'
by commerce.
In the Equatorial regions and the Lakes country to tlie
south we have a more hopeful, if somewhat more compli-
cated, task to perform. The export-trade is not beyond our
control, provided the Traffic in Slaves be declared equal
to piracy, and that at least a limited " right of search "
be accorded by international agreement. Unfortunately,
matters have been complicated on the Coast by the rash
and ill-considered action of the German East Africa Com-
pany, which led to a general rising of the Arabs and the
destruction of European influence. The drastic military
measures of ]\Iajor "VYissmann, the German Commissioner,
have resulted so far in the restoration of German rule at
certain coast towns, at the cost of much bloodshed. But
measures of this sort, though at times tliey may become
necessary, are the very worst for the development of the
country, upon the success of which, after all, will depend
the power of Germany to deal with the Slave Trade.
In regard to the regions to the south it may be safely
assumed that, though very little effective assistance can be
expected from Portugal on the Mozambique Coast, as soon
as British rule is consolidated in Xyassa-land the Traffic
there will be promptly checked.
It is not improbable that the question as to the suppres-
sion of the Slave Trade in Southern Equatorial Africa will
first be solved by the Congo Independent State.* On the
* The Slave Trade is rife within the basin of the Congo. Excellent
enactments against the Traffic have been made by the State, though these
remain for the most part a dead letter, owing to the impossibility of
enforcing them beyond the restricted limits of the few stations on the river.
With the increased powers derived from the Brussels Conference (1S89-90)
it is to be hoped that something will be done to deserve the confidence of
Europe in this respect.
M
1 78 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
The coming: Upper Coiigo, betweeii Stanley Falls and Xyanf^fwe, the
struggle for ^^ *=" , _ " . J )d ' ^
supremacy. Aiabs hold a stroiig position. At their head stands Tippu
Tib, the uncrowned Sultan of Central Africa. On the lower
reaches of the Congo, the Independent State is slowly con-
solidating its administrative system — -so slowly, and at such
immense cost to its sovereign, King Leopold, that, by a
recent deed of gift, his Majesty, in consideration of financial
support, has relinquished his acquired rights in favour of
Belgium, into whose liands the government of tlie State
will thus ultimately fall. With Arabs in the East and
Europeans in the West — slave-traders and anti- slave-
traders — is it not obvious that sooner or later there must
come a final struggle for supremacy ? It will not be a con-
test between Cross and Ci'escent but between the ivory-
traders and legitimate commerce ; and upon its issue will
largely depend the future of the Slave Traffic. I am not
one of those who believe that, by the extinction of the
elephant, and therefore of ivory, the Slave Trade must
die a natural death ; on the contrary, I am convinced
that some other export-commodity would at once take the
place of ivory.
Pacific And now, beyond the merely legal course of under-
mining the Slave Trade, what are the best pacific measures
to Ijc adopted in the Interior ? We may put altogether
out of account, as likely to do far more harm than good,
the scheme of Cardinal Lavigerie, in so far as armed
expeditions against the slave-traders are concerned. Even
if it were possible for European expeditions to carry out
effective operations in the Interior, the conditions of climate
would nn'litate against their permanent success. I am con-
\-iiiC('il that the process of undermining and destroying the
Slave Trade must be a mucli slower and a much less romantic
one. It must be controlled by sound ccjunnercial principles.
Witli a iirm base on the coast, it should seek to advance
measures.
THE TRAFFIC IN SLAVES. 179
into tlie 1 11 tenor step by step, takiiij^ advantage of the Pacific
^ "^ ^ " " measures
liealtliiest sites for the establishment of settlements, whicli
could and must be made self-supporting. We should
send out to Africa vigorous young men — not worn-out,
disillusioned adventurers — who are able and willing to turn
their hands to anything. They would take possession of
the best lands— such as in Usambara and Kilima-njaro —
and develop them and the commerce of the surroimding
districts. A chain of settlements, within touch of one
another and the coast, could thus be formed right across
the continent, such as it was the object of the Berlin
Conference (1884—85) to achieve. They w^ould give pro-
tection and assistance not only to European travellers and
explorers but also to the natives in their neighbourhood,
who could then rest in some degree of security against
the slave-raiders, and have at least a chance of cultivating
their own lands.
In connection with, and as a protection to, this com- Police
mercial and agricultural scheme, it would of course be neces-
sary to organise a system of police, — native levies under
European command, whose duty it would be to protect the
stations, uphold order, and keep careful watch over the
Slave Traffic. The Eastern slave-routes at the present time
intersect the chain of Lakes almost at right angles. With
gunboats on the Lakes, it would therefore be a compara-
tively easy task for such a vigilant supervision being exer-
cised that very few of the native craft carrying slaves could
escape unobserved.
Tliese and other obvious measures are perfectly feasible
and practicable within a limited degree, provided the
European Powers who claim authority over the regions
inider consideration recognise their responsibilities and
cordially co-operate in discharging them. The most serious
obstacle to their fulfilment is, of course, that of climate.
maasures.
I So DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
It has yet to be jDroved that EurojDean settlements are
possible in the less favourable districts of Tropical Africa.
On the other hand, the stations need not be large, and
the number of Europeans required for their administration
need not be great. Doubtless, if a call for such men were
made, it would be generously answered.
Conquest In laying these proposals before the reader, and in
by assimi-
lation, advocatmg their adoption, I do not presume to have dis-
covered any original policy. Some of them Imve been
the result of independent inquiry, but all of them are
apparently supported by the best authorities, even if we
have occasionally to read between the lines of their
pubhshed statements. It is not too much to say that,
until these or similar measures are introduced for the
suppression of the fSlave Trade — namely, by assimilation
and not by conquest— no permanent success is likely to
be achieved.
CHAPTER VIT.
PROGRESS OF EXPLORATION.
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY AND OF EX-
PLORATORY WORK IX AFRICA — LIMITS TO OUR PRESEXT KNOW-
LEDGE — THE TASK OF THE FUTURE, ITS PROBABLE DIRECTION,
AND THE SPIRIT IN WHICH IT SHOULD BE UNDERTAKEN.
MAP.
Progeess of Exploration .... Plate XII.
A
PROGRESS OF EXPLORATION.
LTHOUGH it is true, to a qualified extent, that the Expiora-
modern exploration of Africa partakes of the nature Africa,
of re-discovery, we do not require to go very far back to
determine the genesis of our present accurate knowledge.
The scientific exploration of the continent falls almost
exclusively within the last hundred years.
It is a subject of controversy, and one into which we do Ancient
geography.
not reijuire to enter at any length, as to how much or how
little of Africa was known to the ancients. That many of
the broad features of its geography were familiar to Hero-
dotus (B.C. 450), Eratosthenes (B.C. 200), Ptolemy (a.d. i 50),
Edrisi (a.d. 1154), and others, we have cartographical evi-
dence at these dates to prove. The most conspicuous and
best known instance is that afforded by Ptolemy's descrip-
tion of the source-region of the Nile. His lake-reservoirs
and " Mountains of the I\Ioon " — regarded up to D'Anville's
time (1761) as absolute facts, and subsequently as dubious
or mythical — have been finally revived and re- christened by
modern explorers.*
The Mediterranean and Ped Sea lands, Egypt, and the
Lower Nile regions were, of course, fairly well known many
centuries ago ; but the desert zone presented then, as in a
lesser degree it presents now, almost insuperable difficulties
to the exploitation of Inner Africa, — difficulties which the
Arab incursionists, by the introduction of the camel or
" ship of the desert," were able only partly to overcome.
* Mr. Stanley claims for Lis recent discovery, Ruwenzori, that it is
identical with the "Mountains of the Moon."
i84 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Of exactly how much or how httle of the East and
West Coasts was familiar to the ancients it is not possible
to say. But the probability is that the West Coast was
known to the Senegal or Sierra Leone {cf. Feriplus of
Hanno), and the East Coast down to 7° S. latitude (cf.
Perijylus of the Erythrccan Sea and Ptolemy's Geography).
Even beyond those limits the coast was not quite unknown,
though it is doubtful whether Phoenician mariners ever
circumnavigated the continent.
Portuguese It was uot Until after the ej)och-making voyages of the
pioneers. . • • p t-. • tt j i
1 oi'tuguese pioneers — the ennssaries of Prmce Henry the
Xavigator — that we may be said to have acquired any pre-
cise information in regard to the coasts of Africa south
of the desert zone. These bold mariners were the first to
outline its shores, to open up the continent to the enterprise
of Europe, and to break down the barriers between East
and West.* They discovered a new world in the route
to India, and established themselves at the most favour-
able localities, though on the East Coast of Africa they had
to displace or fraternise with powerful Arab chiefs, whose
predecessors had built imposing cities for themselves, and
for centuries had been nursing a thriving trade. In their
wake followed the maritime nations of Europe, who planted
their colonies in the coastal lands.
The systematic, scientific exploration of Africa t dates from
* Cape Bojador was doubled in 1434, Cape Blanco in 1441, Cape Verde
in 1445 ; Fernando Po was reached in 147 1 ; the Congo was discovered by
Diego Cao in 1484 ; the Cape was passed (unseen) by Diaz in 1487 ; in
1497 and 1498 Vasco da Gama discovered the ports of the South-East
Coast ; Sofala and Kilwa were taken in 1505-6.
t My data in this respect are derived mainly from Dr. Supan's admirable
review of Ein Jahrhundert der Afr t/ia- Forschunr/, in Pctermanns Mitteilungen
(vol. xxxiv. No. 6), to which I am greatly indebted ; and some passages are
taken direct from my own report on The Achievements of Scotsmen during
the Nineteenth Century in the Fields of Geographical Exploration and Research
to the Paris Geographical International Congress (1889).
PROGRESS OF EXPLORATION. 185
the foundation in London, in the year i 7S8, of the African System-
"' atic scien-
Association. It is, however, to be noted that between the p\orat^on
years 1768-73, James Bruce led the first great scientific
expedition into Africa ; on which occasion he travelled from
JMassawa to the sources of the Blue Kile, and from thence
through Sennar and the Nubian Desert back to Egypt.
Other though less important journeys had also been made ;
but it was due to the African Association that, in place of
isolated individual effort, a system of connected scientific
exploration was introduced.
At that time (1788) our acquaintance with Africa was Our ac-
quaintance
restricted to the coastal zone. Even at the best known with Africa
up to 1788.
parts, where missionaries and traders were settled, our
knowledge of the Interior extended for about only two or
three hundred miles. In Egypt and Senegambia alone had
any serious attempts been made in the scientific exploration
of the country. The Gold and Slave Coasts were, and had
been for centuries — precisely on account of the gold and
the slaves — the chief points of colonial attraction ; but of
the vast Interior little or nothing was accurately known,
and that little was based mainly on the reports of Jesuit and
other missionaries. It was the policy of the Portuguese and
other pioneer colonists to keep all information concerning
new countries as far as possiljle to themselves, and to regard I
their discoveries as exclusive fields for commercial ventures.
The only notable exceptions to this uncertain knowledge of
African lands were Egypt and the Nile Valley.
In those brilliant days for the discoverer and the buc-
caneer, the West Coast was more or less the sjohere of com-
mercial, and the East Coast that of missionary, enterprise.
The fabled riches of Timbuktu in the west, and the far-
f'^med though mythical kingdom of Prester John (Abys-
sinia) in the east, were originally the respective goals. The
foundation in 1 6 1 8 of an English company of merchants.
1 86 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Our ac- whose object was to reach Timbuktu, and the despatch in
quaintance
with Africa 1400 of the PortuQ-uese mission to Abyssinia, may be said
up to 17S8. ^-^ o J > J
to have kindled the torch of knowledge which subsequent
emissaries of Europe have borne into the darkest recesses
of Africa.
Up to the second half of the eighteentli century, then, we
were mainly dependent on the Jesuit and other mission-
aries for our information in regard to Inner Africa ; while
the Portuguese had been the first to obtain any precise
knowledge of Tropical South Africa. But, as we have said,
the interests of the traders were in no sense geographical,
and in most cases were confined to the slave-preserves
and gold-fields of the coastal lands. At the Cape a
very different set of conditions existed ; for there, onwards
from the year 1652, the Dutch in large numbers had
entered the interior lands, — not as exploiters and robbers,
but as genuine colonists. The expeditions undertaken by
the Dutch Government into the unknown regions were, it
is true, kept strictly secret ; and it is therefore difficult to
ascertain how far their knowledge of the Interior really
extended.
In a word, we may summarise and define our precise
knowledge of Africa in the year 1788 as having been re-
stricted to a narrow border of the coastal zone. A more
extensive acquaintance with Inner Africa was enjoyed
only in Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, Senegambia, the CJold and
Slave Coasts, Lower Guinea, the Cape, the Lower Zambezi
Valley, and the region between the Ped Sea and the Nile
A^allcy.
Fields of I''tniii ilic peculiar configuration of the continent, the
exploratory c i • i t • i i i i ^
enterprise, ellect 01 wiiicli u]ion political sctUciiu'iit lias been demon-
strated, we are i)re])ared to observe certain well-defined
fields or spheres of exploratory enterprise. Access from
the coasts into the Interior lias in the main l)eeii 1)V
PROGRESS OF EXPLORATION. 187
way of the great river-valleys, wliieh iireseut the fewest Distinctive
•^ ° J ' i. spheres of
natural obstacles to the advance of caravans. The dis- a'scovery
and explo-
tinctive spheres of discovery and exploration in Africa '■*'^'°"-
may be defined as follows: — (i.) Morocco, Algeria, and
Tunis, as far south as the Atlas ]\Iountains, Tidikelt and
Ghat ; (2.) Tripoli, as far south as Ghat and Murzuk ;
(3.) Lower Egypt, the ]\Iediterranean shores as far west
as the Barka peninsula, and the entire Nile Valley district
to the shores of the Eecl Sea, as far south as the Welle
liiver and the Victoria Nyanza, and as far west as the
Libyan Desert and the Tsad water-parting ; (4.) the Galla
and Somal Coast-lands ; (5.) the East Coast, between the
Equator in the north and the Zambezi in the south, and as
far west as the L^pj)er Congo, along, say, the 25 th meridian
of E. longitude ; (6.) South Africa up to the banks of the
Zambezi ; (7.) the West Coast, from the Camarons in the
north to the Eiver Kunene in the south, including the
valleys of the Congo and its tributaries and the upper course
of the Zambezi ; (8.) the LTpper Guinea Coast, the valleys
of the Lower and Middle Xiger and of the Benue ; (9.) the
Central Siiclan ; and (10.) the Western Sahara Coastal zone
and the country between Senegambia and Timbuktu, mainly
in the valley of the L'"pper Niger.
As regards the character and extent of the work accom- character
TIT- 1 • 1 ^ • I'll 1 ^"'^ extent
plished, it may be said that the regions which have been of expiora-
thoroughly explored, to a large extent through oflicial
agencies, are few and restricted. They are mainly the
following: — (i.) Algeria and Tunis; (2.) the Lower and
Middle Nile valleys, the Egyptian Sudan, Abyssinia, and the
source-regions of the Nile; (3.) patches of country between
tlie East Coast and the Lakes region ; (4.) South Africa up
to the Limpopo; and (5.) patches of country on the West
Coast, chiefly in the French Congo Territories, in Senegambia,
and on the immediate shores of the Gulf of Guinea. In
i88
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Unknown
or unex-
plored
lands.
Periods of
explora-
tory work.
the remaining, and especially in the interior parts of
Africa, threads of topographical knowledge intersect like
so many channels of communication, and mainly follow the
great river-valleys. To the south of the Equator explorers'
routes cross and recross one another in every direction.
Patches of unexplored or unknown country occur here
and there, but are chiefly confined to the following regions :
— (i.) The Sahara, where there are immense areas of
unexplored country, especially in the east and contiguous
to the Sudan border-land; (2.) inland from Liberia;* (3.)
within the basin of the Congo, in the lands intervening
between the main arm of the river and its numerous tribu-
taries ; (4.) the interior lands behind the Camarons and
the French Congo Territories, contiguous to the Congo
watershed ; (5.) numerous patches of country between
the routes of explorers, in the central regions of Southern
Equatorial Africa, but mainly between the watersheds of
the Congo and Zambezi ; and (6.) some of the Somal lands
of the Eastern Horn.
It is, therefore, evident that plenty of work remains for
the African explorer to accomplish. And of all these
regions the most interesting is likely to be found to the
north of the Congo, in the lands which form the water-
sheds between the Congo, Nile, Sliari, and Niger, in the
very heart of Africa.
Dr. Supan thus divides the periods of exploratory work
in Africa : —
I. Epoch 1 7 88-1 8 50. Periods of individual explora-
tirin in the north and south.
(a.) 1788-1830. Niger pit iblcm.
(L.) 1830— 1850. Slow progress in Nile Terri-
tories and in South Africa.
* ^^an(lingo-lan(^, howevor, has more recently (18S9) been revealed by
Captain liinger, a French traveller.
PROGRESS OF EXPLORATION. 1S9
2. Epoch I 8 50-1 888.* Periods during which tlie ex-
plorations in Northern and Southern Equatorial
Africa were connected with one another.
(a.) 1850— 1862. Nile and Zambezi problems.
Explorations in the Sahara Desert and
in the Sudan.
(h.) I 862-1 877. Congo problem. Connection
between explorations in Eastern and
Western Equatorial Africa,
(c.) I 877-1 888. Filling in of details, and the
extension of colonisation in Tropical
Africa.
The above afibrds an excellent index to our subject.
We may now proceed to systematically review, as far as Progress of
possible in chronological order, the progress of exploration tw". 1788
in Africa. It will be necessary for us to refer only to
those travellers whose pioneer work may be regarded as
instrumental in breaking new ground. As far as possible
we shall ignore supplementary work.
The main object of the African Association was to The Niger
problem.
promote the exploration of Inner Africa. The problem of
the Niger, the solution of which had been attempted for
over a century, was, for utilitarian as well as for scientific
purposes, the first to engage their attention. Simultaneous
attempts to reach Timbuktu, the fabulous wealth and
power of which exercised an unfailing attraction, were
made by Ledyard from the Nile, by Lucas from Tripoli,
and by Houghton from the Gambia. Alexander Gordon
Laing, who had travelled on the Sierra Leone Coast and
in Tripoli, was, however, probably the first European to
* The date 18S8 is not a fixed quantity, but simply indicates the cen-
tenary of the foundation of tlie African Association, in honour of which
Dr. Supan's paper was written. The present arrangement is, however,
retained, subsequent explorations being detailed apart.
J, 190 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
TheNigrer reach Timbuktu ( I 8 26).* Verj great uncertainty existed
as to the actual course of the Upper Niger, though most
geographers made it flow to tlie east ; and the wildest
speculations were entertained as to its lower course, some
connectino; it with the Nile, and some with an inland sea.
Although the final identification of the Quorra with the
lower course of the Niger was not actually estahlishecl
until, in 1830, the brothers Lander traced the river to its
mouth, the problem of the Niger was long before solved
in its main features. The first journey (1795-97) of
the distinguished Scottish explorer, Mungo Park, through
the vast unknown lands of the Niger basin, proved the
existence of a watershed between that river and the rivers
of the West Coast, and also that the Niger, in its upper
course, flowed to the east. As the agent of the African
Association, ]\Iungo Park undertook his second journey
(1805), from which he never returned. Although he
himself did not actually solve the so-called problem of
the Niger, his name and his fame are most intimately
associated with the exploration of the river, and have
earned for him the title of its " discoverer."
No less remarkable was the journey (1798) of Horne-
mann, from Cairo to Murzuk, for a great part through
unknown lands. His object was to reach the Niger ; but
he was diverted to Tripoli, whence he made a fresh start
south (1800), and was never again heard of. Numerous
tliougli al)ortive journeys, with the same object, ensued.
The most important were those of Tuckey and Peddie
(1816), the former proceeding up the Congo, the latter
following Park's route down the U])per Niger, in tlie
* A Kailor named Adams was supposed to have reached Timbuktu in iSio ;
and the French asstal that Caillie entered the town befure the advent of
Laing. The following are other claims to this distinction : — the Portuguese,
]Jenedetti Dei (fiftee^nth century); the Frenchman, I'aul Imbert (seventeenth
century) ; and the English sailor, Riley (1815).
PROGRESS OF EXPLORATION. 191
hope of tlieir eventually meeting' somewhere in tlie In-
terior.
The actual and final solution of the Niger problem was Final
solution.
due to Clapperton and his servant, Kichard Lander. In
company with Denham and Oudney, Clapperton made tliat
still famous jonrney (1822—24) from Tripoli across the
Sahara to the jVIohammedan States of the Central Sudan.
x\t Bornu, Denham and Clapperton separated, the former
going south, the latter — in company with Oudney (who died
on the way) — proceeding west. Clapperton and Denham
returned together to England in 1825. They were the first
Europeans after Hornemann to cross the Great Desert, to
see and describe the great inland lake (Tsad) of whicli
tlie Arab geographers had spoken, and to bear witness to
the extent and power of the Mohammedan States of the
Central Sudan. Although they were able only partly to
solve the hydrographical problems of the regions through
which they passed, their careful astronomical observations
gave to the map of Xorth Africa an accuracy it did not
before possess. Clapperton's second journey (1825—27)
was made under the auspices of the British Government, for
the purpose of opening up commercial relations with the
Sultan of Sokoto ; and he hoped at the same time to dis-
cover the unknown course of the Niger. Accompanied by
three companions, who died on the way, and Eichard Lander,
Clapperton started for the Interior from the Bight of
Benin, and reached Sokoto. His death (at Changary,
1827), from the vexations and hardships of the journey,
defeated his cherished purpose ; but it is to be noted that
he was the first European to reach the Niger and the Sudan
from the south. It was reserved for Eichard Lander, as
we have said, and his brother John, to prove subsequently
that the Quorra or Niger emptied its waters through several
mouths into the Bight of Benin. This long- vexed prolilcm
192 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
was thus solved in its leading features, and entirely through
the agency of British exploreis.
Mainincen- Although the cliief incentive to tlie exploration of the
tive to ex- . i • t i • •
pioration of ^iger WES the desire to open up the inland territories to
the Niger. * / ^
our commerce, the ostensible purpose was the suppression
of the Slave Trade. The British Government and a com-
pany of Liverpool merchants, at whose head stood Mac-
gregor Laird, despatched several expeditions to open up
the navigation of the Niger. Baikie commanded the Pleiad
(1854), which ascended the Chadda (Benue) for 150 miles
beyond a point previously reached ; and he afterwards con-
ducted (1857-62) expeditions on the Niger proj)er.
French Tlic Freiicli, with the object of securing commercial
enterprise.
supremacy, were making similar, and in a sense more suc-
cessful journeys, from Senegambia to the Niger. They
made sustained efforts to reach Timbuktu ; and, up to
the present day, they have persisted in the task of open-
ing up a route thither. This phase of their activity was
ushered in by the discovery (18 18) of the sources of the
Senegal and the Gambia by Mollien. De Beaufort failed
to reach Timbuktu in 1824. Two years later, the Paris
Geographical Society offered a prize to the explorer who
should penetrate to this coveted goal. This led to the
remarkable overland journey of Caillie (1827—28) from
the Upjier Niger, vid Timbuktu, across the Atlas Moun-
tains to Tangiers,
The conquest of Algeria by the French in 1830 was
a decisive event in the history of North Africa. Tlie
native resistance necessitated expedition after expedition
being undertaken, tliereby leachng to excellent geographical
results. Moreover, the attenli(jn of Eur(i])C was for a time
directed to Africa.
In 1 845-46 Ikicliardson made bis journey to Murzuk,
(iliat, and ( ihadaines. Three years later, he proposed to the
PROGRESS OF EXPLORATION. 193
British Government to undertake from Tripoli a journey Sahara and
across the desert to the Sudan, with the object of promoting
commercial relations, and thereby contributing to the suj)-
pression of the Slave Trade. The geographical results of
this journey were, however, due rather to his German com-
panions, Earth and Overweg. Earth, between 1850 and
1855, traversed and carefully examined some entirely new
country : he twice crossed the Desert, reached Adamawa
and discovered the Upper Benue, explored Kanem and the
country to the south of Lake Tsad, and visited Timl)uktu.
Other wortliy compatriots and followers in his patli, from
Tripoli to the Central Sudan, were: — Yogel (1853—56),
who determined astronomically several important positions ;
Piohlfs ( I 865-67), who crossed from the Gulf of the Syrtes
to the Gulf of Guinea, after having previously (from 1862)
travelled in ]\Iorocco, Algeria, and Tunis ; and Nachtigal,
who was the last explorer to use the caravan-route from
Tripoli to Kuka, from whence he started on his remark-
able journeys through unknown lands to Tibesti (1869),
Borku (1871), Wadai (1873), and thence through Darfur
and Kordofan to the Nile.
The discovery of the Benue raised high expectations a pause in
/- 1 A c • -r-i discovery,
of a new route into Central Africa. Between 1879-85
some excellent work was accomplished by Flegel, who
obtained precise cartographical data for the Adamawa
j)lateau. But on the Guinea Coast, for so long the scene
of European enterprise, relatively slight progress was made
in the survey of interior lands. Explorations in Sierra
Leone and Senegambia were carried on intermittently, but
rarely passed beyond the watershed. Attempts to reach
the Niger from Senegambia resulted, between the years
I 85 5-65, in revealing a considerable extent of new country.
The hope of connecting Senegambia, by railway or other-
wise, with Algeria, has been the dream of the French from
194 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
1850 to the present day, and has led to several journeys
being made across the intervening desert.
The Nile After the solution of the Niger problem, the attention of
problem. _ ^.
explorers was directed to the Nile. In i 8 3 i the African
Association was absorbed by the Royal Geographical Society
of London, by whom the new hydrographical proljlem was
energetically attacked. Bonaparte's expedition into Egypt
(1798- 1 801) had already focussed the attention of Europe
on Africa, and French savants began earnestly to study that
ancient land. Mehemet Ali initiated (1805-48) a vigor-
ous and enterprising policy, in the wake of which numerous
travellers and adventurers flocked into the Kile Valley.
The exploration of the Eastern Siidan was not seriously
undertaken until after the conquest of Kordofan in 1823.
The prospect of finding gold lured the Egyptians farther
and farther into the Sudan. It would be tedious to
enumerate the countless journeys undertaken by the early
travellers in the Upper Nile territories. Step by step the
countries were explored and made known. From 1772,
when Bruce left Abyssinia, up to 1830, only British expe-
ditions visited (1805 and 1 8 10) that country. But after
1830 the exploration of the Abyssinian highlands steadily
progressed, and arose largely from the jealousy betw^een
France and Britain for political and commercial supremacy
on the Eed Sea. Both these Powers, and more recently
Italy, have now secured there the best strategical positions.
Blue Nile. Bcke ( I 840-4 3) Settled the question as to the sources
of the Blue Nile. But the brothers D'Abbadie, wdio resided
in Abyssinia between 1837 and 1848, contributed more
tlian any other explorers to the accurate cartography of that
country. The British expedition (1867—68), which led to
the overthrow and dcatli of King Theodore, was fruitful in
geogra])hi('al results. Sul)se(iuent explorers filled in topo-
graphical details. To the south of Abyssinia, for instance,
PROGRESS OF EXPLORATION. 195
the Ituliuus have accomplished excellent work within the
last twelve years. Route after route from the Eed Sea to
the Nile basin has been opened up.
As regards the exploration of the White Kile, reference White Nile,
has been made to the earliest views concerning the source-
region, Ptolemy described the river as issuing from two
lakes (the one in 6° S. and 25^° E. ; the other in 7° S.
and 33° E.) and (according to Agathodtiemou) its tributaries
as flowing from the "Mountains of the Moon" in I2|° S.
and between 25° and 35° E. Up to D'Anville's time
(say, 1 761), cartographers, while allowing these data to
stand, regarded the Blue Kile as the true source-stream,
and frequently associated the Lake region of the "White
Nile with the Niger system. D'Anville, however, sharply
dissociated the two arms of the Nile, and brought the
" Mountains of the Moon " to the north of the Equator.
Even Caillaud, in 1 8 2 i , when he stood at the confluence,
imagined that the White Nile came from the west. The
Egyptian Government, though it founded Khartum (1823),
had no scientific interest in the question. The modern
exploration of the river commenced in 1827 with the
travels of Linant de Bellefonds, an agent of the African
Association, wdio reached 13° 6' N. lat., and attested
that the White Nile, from the nature of the deposits held
in solution, must issue out of a large lake, the latitude
of which, however, was regarded as in about 7° N. The
parallel of 13° N. was not passed in 1839, when Mehemet
Ali fitted out two expeditions: the first (1840) of these
reached 6h° N., and the second (1841) 4° 42' N. The sup-
posed locality * of the " Mountains of the Moon " was thus
passed ; but opinions continued to be diverse in regard to
the precise course of the river. As the ivory-trade ex-
tended westwards along the White Nile, a portion of the
* Compare D'Anville's, Browne's (1799), and Caillaud's maps.
196 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Bahr-el-Ghazal became known. retlierick"s journey in the
Upper Nile region (1858) carried our knowledge to 4° N.
lat., and furnished the most trustworthy observations on
those parts ; but the discovery of the western tributaries
served only to confuse the main question of the true course
of the Nile proper.
Here we must turn aside, in order to preserve as far as
possible the chronology of events, and refer to the progress
of discovery in Equatorial Africa.
Discoveries In the early p)art of this century it was supposed that
in Equa-
toriai Southern Equatorial Africa was entirely deficient in fine
Africa. ■■■ "^
waterways. Karl Eitter, writing in 1 8 1 7 {Erdkunde, i.
"/y), emphasised this particular point. Tuckey's abortive
expedition (1816) up the Congo discouraged Europeans,
who little dreamt of the magnificent network of rivers that
lay beyond his furthest point. Yet, up to 1840, Tropical
South Africa was the sphere of Portuguese political, com-
mercial, and geographical enterprise. The most notable
contributions were the maps of Bowdich, who himself had
carried out explorations in the Gabiin country ( 1 8 1 7).
Those of Congo, Benguela, and Angola (1824) were based
on the MSS. maps of Mendes (1785) and Eurtado (1790).
By investigating old Portuguese reports it was found that
two pomleiros, or half-caste traders, had, as early as 1802
and 1 8 1 4, actually crossed the continent, passing through
the Muata Yanvo's kingdom, from Angola to Tete, on the
Zambezi. But the results of Portuguese explorations in
Southern E(piatorial Africa, whether great or small, were
not suliiciently known ; and it was reserved for British ex-
plorers to independently discover, or rediscover, the regions
in question.
The existence inland from Mozambique of a large lake,
called " Maravi," was believed in from 1 5 i 8 onwards ; and
it was in turn assDciuted with the hydrographical systems
PROGRESS OF EXPLORATION. 197
of the Nile, Congo, and Zambezi. Cooley, whose diligent
researches in this direction were embodied in his maps
(1845 and 1853), was probably the first to introduce the
native appellation of Nyassa. Tliis mysterious sheet of water
was made alternately to expand and contract in order to
accommodate its position to the views of geographers. The
discovery (1849) of the snow-capped mountains of Kilima-
njaro by Eebmann and of Kenia by Krapf, together with the
information these explorers elicited as to the surrounding
lands, gave the impulse to the decisive journey (1858) of
Burton and Speke. Having together reached Tanganika, and Discovery
^ 00 ... of the true
Speke alone the southern shores of the Victoria Nyanza, it sp"rce of
i ■'the Nile.
was ascertained that there were two lakes instead of one.
Speke and Grant in 1862 definitely established the out-
flow of the Victoria Xyanza to be the true source of the
Nile ; and their successful labours were further completed
by Baker's journey (1864) to the Muta Nzige (now called
the Albert Nyanza).
With the extension and temporary consolidation of Further
Egyptian rule in the lands of the Upper Nile, the work tions in the
'='^ J- . . Upper Nile
of exploration received renewed impulse, especially (from region.
1874) under Gordon. Stanley bore witness (1875) to the
vast size of the Victoria Nyanza, and, by circumnavigat-
ing it, to its unity. Baker had established the connection
of the Muta Nzig(^ with the Nile system ; and Mason and
Gessi afterwards circumnavigated the lake. Emin and
Lupton carried out capital work (from 1880) on the Bahr-
el-Jebel and in the country to the south of Lado.
Schweinfurth's journeys (i 869—7 iii ^^^e Bahr-el-Ghazal
were of the gTcatest interest and importance. In 1870
he crossed the Nile- Congo water-parting and discovered
the Welle Ptiver, wdiich at that time he regarded as the
upper course of the Shari ; and in the following year he
broke entirely new ground in Dar Fertit. Junker's travels
198 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
in the Balir-el-Gliazal and Niam-Xiam countries were of
equal value. His first journey (1877-78) took him into
the source-region of the Welle, and his subsequent travels
(i 880—86) in the basin of that river were, to a large extent,
through little known or entirely unknown lands.
The Mahdist rising in 1884, however, closed the whole
of the Upper Nile region to the explorer.
We may now turn to South Africa. Cape Colony be-
came a British possession for the first time in 1795.
Barrow, who was entrusted by the Government with the
task of surveying the colony, was the first to give (1797—
98) reliable information in this respect ; and his map was a
fairly good one. Travellers and missionaries contributed to
the increase of our geographical knowledge, which coincided
with the progress of colonisation in the north and east.
During the opening years of this century, the land of the
Bojesmans (Bushmen) was first entered, the Orange Eiver
was crossed, and a route into Bechuana-land was opened up.
Campbell, a Scottish missionary, determined (18 12) the
course of the Orange River, and subsequently reached the
source-region of the Limpopo (Kurichane, 24 j° S. lat.). After
the withdrawal of the Boers (about 1835) from the Cape
Colony proper, exploration and colonisation advanced rapidly.
The Orange Eiver practically limited our l^nowledge of
the inland countries in the west until Alexander revealed
(1836—37) portions of Namaqua-Lind and Damara-land.
The 23 rd parallel of south latitude, which marked the limit
of our knowledge of South Africa towards the close of 1840,
was in 1849 passed by Livingstone, who, in comjmny with
Oswell and Murray, braved the dangers of the dreaded Kala-
hari Desert, and discovered the long-sought Lake N'gami.
From this date a new epoch of discovery commenced
for T)()])ical Soutli Africa. FilUid with enthusiasm at his
success, Livingstone re-visitcd Lake N'gami in the follow-
PROGRESS OF EXPLORATION. 199
ing year (1850). In 1851 he discovered farther north
a mighty Hiivial system (the Zambezi), of the extent of
which no anticipation had previously existed, and the chief
or main artery of which native report designated as the
Liambai. Two years later he ascended this river, crossed
the upper courses of the western tributaries of the Congo,
and reached (1854) the West Coast at Loanda. After a
brief rest, he set himself the task of solving the Liambai
problem. Turning eastwards, and following with few
deviations his former route as far as Sesheke, he discovered
tlie magnificent fall of water on the Zambezi which he
christened the Victoria Falls, and came out (1856) on the
East Coast at Kilimani (Quilimane). This notable journey
won for him tlie distinction of being the first European to
cross the continent of Africa.
But the Liambai problem was still unsolved. Living- The
. . Liambai
stone had no doubt that the Liambai was the upper course problem,
of the Zambezi, which the early cartographers had made to
take its rise in the Monomotapa Mountains (Matabele-land).
His hypothesis was subsequently (about i860) proved to
be correct, after the unknown regions of the Zambezi had
been explored.
These valuable additions to our knowledge of the Zambezi Living-
,. . )T • 1 stone in the
basin were enriched by Livingstone s discoveries and ex- Lakes
. . region.
plorations farther east, in the Lakes region. At the head
of an expedition entrusted to him by the British Govern-
ment, and accompanied by his brother, Charles, and Kirk,
Livingstone again started for the Zambezi in 1858. The
expedition lasted five years, and was fruitful in results.
Lake Shirwa was discovered, and Lake Nyassa, though not
actually discovered, was made known and accurately mapped
for the first time.
Livingstone's journeys during 1866-73 were devoted Problem
of the
to solving the problem of the Luapula, a river which at Luapuia.
200 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
one time was thought to be the ultimate source of the
Nile. Ascending the Eovuma Eiver, of which he had
previous knowledge, he reached Nyassa, and, in 1867, the
south end of Tanganika, the true orientation of which was
due to him. He was the first European, since Monteiro
(183 1-32), to enter Kazembe's kingdom. On this journey
he discovered Lake Moero, and (in 1868) Lake Bangweolo *
and the head-waters of the' Congo (Luapula). In 1870
he crossed Manyuema, reaching Nyangwe (Congo) in the
following year. This was the period when universal anxiety
was felt for news of his existence.
Stanley After Stanley, on his famous iourney of discovery (187 1-
and Living- '' o j j \ /
stone. 72), had met Livingstone at Ujiji, the two explorers together
visited the north end of Tanganika, and found that the lake
had no outlet into the Nile basin. l*tolemy's hypothesis (as
understood at that time, at least) was thus disposed of. In
the midst of preparations in Europe to follow up the dis-
coveries of Livingstone in the Luapula-Lualaba hydrographic
system, the great missionary-pioneer and explorer died (ist
May 1873) ^t the south end of Lake Bangweolo.
Expiora- Excepting tlie results of Von der Decken's journeys
tions in .
Eastern (1860-05), Comparatively slow progress was made, after the
Africa. return of Speke, in the country between the East Coast and
the Lakes. Stanley, in his search for Livingstone, started
from Bagamoyo and for some distance followed a new path
to Tanganika. Cameron (1873-75), '^^^^^^ starting from the
East Coast, was the next to break new ground. He explored
Tanganika and discovered its outlet (the Lukuga) into the
Congo basin, reached Nyangwe, and, striking south-west,
completed his remarkable overland jmniicy by coining out
on tlie West Coast at Benguela. To a large extent his
* It is claiiii'il l)y tlio Portuguese that their o.irlicr travellers had visited
these lakes. Livingsttinf! at least, was the first, not only to discover them to
Europe, but also to map them accurately.
PROGRESS OF EXPLORATION. 201
route led through unknown country. Among other results,
he was enabled to establish the fact that the Lualaba, from
its altitude above sea-level and from the volume of its
discharge, could not belong to the Nile system.
Simultaneously with this brilliant period of discovery in Explora-
tions on the
Eastern Equatorial Africa, attempts were being made from West
the West Coast to reach the Congo bavsin. Up to 1850
several concomitant conditions had contributed to restrain
or repel geographical exploration on the West Coast: of
such were the political and social reaction ensuing from the
decadence of Portuguese power, the depredations of the slave-
traders, and the immense difficulty of organising caravans.
It should be added, that the configuration of the coast-
lands, by which the rivers, in forcing their way down from
the inland plateau, are rendered unnavigable in their lower
courses by rapids, was yet another cause of hindering the
advance of European travellers and pioneers. The modern
history of exploration on the West Coast dates from the
foundation of the Erencli colony on the Gabiin (1843) and
the travels in that country of Paul Du Chaillu, which
attracted a great deal of attention.
Several journeys were undertaken from Benguela into the
Interior, Magyar carried out explorations (1850-51-55)
on the upper courses of the Kubango and Zambezi, and
penetrated for a considerable distance north into the basin
of the Kasai. Silva Porto established (1853) a connection
between the old Bihe route and the Upper Zambezi. Bastian,
starting from Ambriz, visited (1857) San Salvador, and
thereby attracted the attention of his compatriots, leading
to the foundation of the German African Association. The
work of this Association deserves as honourable mention
as that of its sister association in London ; but it has now
ceased to exist, its programme being performed by the
Imperial German Government,
203 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
The Congo Tlie niiojlitv ConfTO system was discovered, not from the
problem. o J o J
West Coast, as might have been expected, but from the
East. The lower course of the river was well known, and
had often been visited up to 1 870 ; l)ut beyond that region
everything was uncertain. It was the honourable task
of Stanley, in a single journey (1874-77), to reveal this
magnificent hydrographical system to the world. Starting
from Bagamoyo, he marched to the Victoria Nyanza ; cir-
cumnavigated the lake and visited Uganda ; explored the
Muta Xzige (Albert Edward Nyanza) and the Congo-Nile
water-parting; proceeded south to Tanganika, which he
circumnavigated ; and from thence, by the Lukuga outlet,
reached Nyangw^e, and entered the threshold of the un-
its solution, known Congo basin. He traced the river down to its mouth.
The brilliant achievement of this journey, besides estab-
lishing several vital points in regard to the hydrography of
the source-region of the Nile and the water-parting between
that river and the Congo, most effectually solved the last
great hydrographical problem in Africa— the origin, course,
and magnitude of the Congo Elver.
Practical Liviugstouc's travcls had previously awakened a li^'ely
results.
and universal interest in Africa, but Stanley's feat resulted
in riveting the attention of Europe to the " Dark Continent."
In 1876 the International African Association was estab-
lished, and His Majesty the King of the Belgians, its
foumlcr, l)ecame its chosen head. Ecjually important, in
tlieir practical bearing on the development of Africa, were
the consolidation of the Erench Congo Territories, the
tVjundiiig of the Congo Independent State, and tlie ensuing
dcHiiiitaLiou (jf "spheres of iiilhu'uce" in Africa l»y the
Signatory INjwers at the Berlin Conference (1884-85).
Expiora- 111 'I'l'Dpiciil Soiit h AfHca the basin of tlie Congo became
tions in tlie
Congo tlic cliicl' doiiiuiii of uxi)lorali()ii. Tin; (Jerman African
basin. '
i\ssociation was l)usy in the south, with its base of operations
PROGRESS OF EXPLORATION. 203
on the West Coast. The impression that the main southern
tributaries of tlie Congo flowed parallel to each other in a
north and north-west direction was corrected by the dis-
covery (1885) of the magnificent Kasa'i-Sankurvi system,
through the explorations of Wissmann, von Frangois, Gren-
fell, "Wolf, Ivund, antl Tappenbeck. Stanley, who, at the
instance of the King of the Belgians, returned to the Congo
to set up the administration of the infant State, discovered
(1882-83) Lakes Leopold and Mantumba. Grenfell navi-
gated (1884-85) the M'bangi, and Van Gele finally estab-
lished (1887) the identity of that river with the Welle.
Numerous minor journeys were at the same time carried out
in the basin of the Congo by Belgian officials and others.
In the French Congo Territories, De Brazza initiated
(from 1876) a most important series of explorations. He
himself established (1877) the unity of the Ogowe, and
reached (1880) the Congo itself. Details were rapidly filled
in by competent French surveyors.
Even the Portuguese, in this golden period of activity, New routes
*=" '^ -^ . . . opened up.
were roused to deeds worthy of their past history in Africa.
Serpa Pinto crossed the continent (1877—79) by a route
which traversed some new country, between Benguela and
the Upper Zambezi ; and Capello and Ivens accomplished
a still more important overland journey, which was mainly
through unknown lands, between the Luapula and the
Zambezi. The southerly-flowing tributaries in the little-
known country to the west of the Zambezi system were
rapidly investigated.
In response to the representations of Livingstone regard- Occupation
. and survey
ing the introduction of missionary efibrt and commercial of the
enterprise in the highlands round Nyassa, as being the region,
best or only method to check the hateful Traffic in Slaves
and to emancipate and elevate the native populations, the
Established and Free Churches of Scotland created mission-
204 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
stations, and the African Lakes Company was founded
(1878) in Glasgow with the object of opening up, by way
of the Zambezi and Shire Pavers and the great Lakes, a
new and ahnost continuous fluvial highway into the heart
of xifrica. Between 1877 and 1880 Stewart thoroughly
surveyed the shores of Lake Nyassa ; and details were
subsequently filled in by the zealous officers of the African
Lakes Company.
Further In Eastcm Equatorial Africa, the thread of exploration
discoveries -L
Eq^,a?orS ^^^^ ^'<^^Q^^ up by Joseph Thomson, who succeeded to the
Africa. leadership of the expedition which started under Keith
Johnston, junior. Thomson explored (1878-80) the coun-
try between Dar-es- Salaam on the East Coast and the north
end of Xyassa, and between the Xyassa and the south end
of Tanganika, skirting the western shores of the latter
lake up to its outlet, the Lukuga, which had at the time of
his arrival resumed its drainage functions. Proceeding to
the west, along the banks of the Lukuga, and subsequently
to the south-west through Urua, but driven back when
within a day's journey of the Congo, he reached the south
end of Tanganika, and returned to the East Coast by way
of Eipa and Unyanyembe. He was the first European to
see Lake Hikwa, which, owing to its numerous appellations,
he re-christened Lake Leopold, after His Majesty the King
of the Belgians. The districts through wliich he passed
on the above journey were thus explored and mapped for
the first time, though at parts he crossed the routes of
Livingstone.
New routes 111 tlic couutry betwccn Lake Xyassa and tlie Mozam-
opened up. . _ ^
bi(pie Coast, in which only the IJovuiua basin was fairly
well knriwn, a numlicr of new routes were 02)ened up after
1880 by .l(.Iiiist(.n (1880 82), Ma])les (1881), O'Xeill
(1883-84), and Serpa Pinto and Cardo/o (1885-86).
Parthcr west, in the Congo basin, the (Icrnian East
PROGRESS OF EXPLORATION. 205
African Exjjedition under Kaiser, Luhm, and iJeichard
carried out explorations (1880-84) l^etween the Upper
Lualaba and LuapuLi, across the route of Giraud, wlio was
the first after Livingstone to visit (1883) Lake Bangweolo.
The repeated but ineffectual attempts to pass from the
East Coast to the Lakes region through Masai-land did not
deter Joseph Thomson, who, in the course of his successful
journey (1883—84), explored the country lying between
Mombaza and the north-east corner of the Victoria Nyanza.
He was the first to map the northern aspect of Mount
Kilima-njaro, the plateaus of Kikuyu, Kapt^, and Guaso
ISTgishu, the mountain-masses of the Aberdare Range and
Kenia, and the lakes Naivasha, Nakuro, and Baringo.
Dr. Fischer about the same time (1883) reached Kilima-
njaro and Lake Naivasha ; and later (1885-86) connected
the Masai route with that in the south between Uo;ogo
and Kageyi.
The exploration of Kilima-njaro thus received a new Ascents of
impulse. Since Von der Decken's time (1862) it has Kilima-
njaro,
been repeatedly climbed : to the snow-line by New (1871);
a little higher by H. H. Johnston (1884), and by Ehlers
(1888); and twice by Meyer (1887 and i 8S9), who, on the
second occasion, reached the summit of Kibo (19,680 feet).
Between the Eiver Tana, which the Denhardts navigated Somdi-iand,
in 1878, and the Eed Sea, several attempts to explore
Somal-land have been made since 1S80. The most suc-
cessful was that of James, who, starting from Berbera — ■
and not from the East Coast — penetrated (1885) as far
south as the Eiver Webi.
We have yet to refer to the progress of exploration to Expiora-
r-w , f f tions south
the south of the Zambezi and Kunene Elvers. The dis- of the
Zambezi.
covery of Lake N'gami, as already indicated, led to the
exploration of Damara-land, which had been neglected.
As early as 1850-51, Galton and Charles Anderssen had
2o6 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
endeavoured, though unsuccessfully, to open up a route to
Lake N'gami from Walvisch Bay, and to them we owe our
first knowledge of the eastern portions of Damara-land and
Ovampo-land. Anderssen in 1853 w^as finally successful
in reaching the Lake. Since that time, South-West Africa
has been frequently visited and to a large extent exploited,
Damara-land and Great Xamaqua-land have more recently
been explored by German missionaries.
South The progress of exploration at the Cape and in the
country to the north went, as before mentioned, hand in
hand with colonisation and political expansion. We re-
quire, therefore, to give only a few dates in order to roughly
indicate its march. The Orange Elver was not crossed
until 187 I, when the discovery of diamonds in Griqua-land
attracted general attention. Farther east, British dominion
had been extended over a portion of Kafraria (1853),
Basuto-land (1868), &c. The upper course of the Limpopo
w^as known as early as 1830, but its subsequent course was
a problem that engaged considerable attention, and was
not solved until the journey (1868) of Erskine, who traced
the Olifant Pdver to its confluence with the Limpopo, and
followed the latter river to its mouth. Elton, two years
later, substantiated these results by navigating the Limpopo.
Zoutpansberg was the most northerly Boer settlement in
1 85 1. From i860 onwards, the Transvaal was topo-
graphically examined by three German travellers : Jeppe,
Mauch, and Merensky. The discovery of gold-fields in
Matabele-land and in the Transvaal, and of diamonds on
the Yaal 1 liver, gave fresh impulses to tlie exploration of
South-East Africa. Mauch's journeys (1865-69) in the
Central plateau-country to 17^° S. lat., and (1872) from
the Limpopo to Sena, on the Zambezi, were the first to
open u]) new vistas to tlie explorer and exploiter. Details
were rajiidl}' filled in.
PROGRESS OF EXPLORATION. 207
So far, our survey of the progress of exploration in Africa
has not included tlie results of the past two or tliree years,
it having been based on, and largely drawn from, Dr. Supan's
paper on the centenary (1788-1888) following the foundation
of the London African Association. But in a few words
we can bring this record up to date.
The most characteristic feature of geographical progress Progress of
in Africa during the last two or three years has been the tions
between
steady work initiated by the various European Powers and '^ss and
Chartered Companies, not only in the survey of their
territories, but also in prospecting for railways, concluding
treaties with native chiefs, and defining boundaries. This
initial work in the development of a country has been carried
out with spirit in the French possessions on the Senegal
and on the Congo, the German West African possessions,
the Congo Independent State, and the British possessions
in South and East Africa.
The Chartered Companies in particular have not allowed west
the grass to grow under their feet. Mr. Thomson's spirited
journey (1885) to Sokoto and Gandu, with the sultans of
which countries he concluded treaties on behalf of the
Eoyal Niger Company, is an example of a forward policy
that has been followed by others in the various regions of
Africa. The French, on their part, have steadily pursued
their aim of opening up trade-routes between the Senegal
and the Niger, and have despatched several gunboats to
Timbuktu. Colin's work in Bambuk, which had important
geographical results, and that of Crampel and Fourneaux
in the Gabiin, are only isolated instances of French activity.
Perhaps the most important journey w^as that of Binger
(1887-89) within the great bend of the Niger. Binger,
besides correcting our previous ideas as to the extent of
the basin of the Upper Niger, by showing that the Comoe
and Volta rivers, among others, drained a large tract of
2oS DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
1883-90. cuimtr}' sloping to the Guinea Coast, demonstrated that the
watershed is not nearly so high as has hitherto been sup-
posed : it is simply a gently rising land or plateau, and the
-f " Kong Mountains " as a range do not exist. His information
in reo-ard to the almost unknown parts of Mandingo-land
is of the highest geographical interest. The Germans, on
their part, with very much the same incentive — the desire
to acquire political and commercial supremacy in the Niger
basin — have been equally active. Among their travellers in
West Africa, von Francois, AVolf, Zintgraff, Zoller, Kund,
Tappenbeck, and Weissenborn have all done excellent work.
In the Camarons especially, the Hinterland is being rapidly
surveyed, and Zintgraff has recently been successful in
opening up a route to the Benue. Yet, no further back
than 1887, the country inland from the Camarons Coast,
excepting the course of the Campo Eiver, was a blank on
the map.
Congo In the Congo Independent State we note the survey for
a railway now in process of construction past the rapids on
the lower course of the river, the valuable explorations of
Eouvier on the Kwilu and in the country to the north of
Manyanga, and of Cambier along the south bank of the
Congo, between Matadi and Leopoldville. Lanuoy de Bissey's
excellent maps embody a vast amount of conscientious work
carried out by the French officials in the Congo Territories.
In other parts of the basin of the Congo, the officials of
the State, e.g. Coquilhat, have done good work ; while inde-
pendent travellers, like Grenfell and Baumann, have been
equally active. iJelcomnmne's navigation of the Lomami,
up to the latitude of Nyangwc, revealed an important new
hio-hwav into Central Africa.
Farther south, the independent work of the missionary
Arnot, who lias spent over seven years in Central Africa,
chiefly in Katanga (Garenganzc) and the Barotse A^alley,
basin.
PROGRESS OF EXPLORATION. 209
has been instruniental in revealing a large extent of new isss 90.
country, and in solving some of the hydrographical problems
of this interesting region. He has proved, for instance, that
Livingstone's " Leeba " is the Zambezi itself, and not the
stream which flows out of Lake Dilolo.
In Eastern E({uatorial Africa, O'Neill obtained an im- Eastern
. , , . , . . Equatorial
portant series or astronomical observations during a journey Africa,
he undertook from Kilimani to the north end of Lake
Nyassa, which showed that the lake had been placed too
far to the west by about from 6' to 8' of longitude. The
discovery by Eankin of an unused navigable channel (E.
Chinde) in the delta of the Zambezi may prove to be
valuable for commerce.
The Arab disturbances in Eastern Equatorial Africa and
the rising on the Zanzibar Coast have interrupted explora-
tion to a certain extent. But the agents of the British East
Africa Company have been busy within their sphere of
interest, and have enabled Mr. Kavenstein to construct a
large new map of their territories. The most important of
recent discoveries in that region have been those of Teleki
and Hohnel (1887-88), to the north of Lake Baringo, where
what was formerly known vaguely as Lake Samburru has
been accurately mapped by them and christened Lake
Eudolf. Borelli's work south-west from Tajura Bay, in Shoa
and its tributary states, has been valuable ; he succeeded
also in penetrating for some distance into Galla-land.
Stanley's most recent journey (1887-89), undertaken for
the relief of Emin Pacha, has been of the highest geo-
graphical importance. At the head of a large expedition,
he proceeded up the Congo, and, by way of its tributary,
the Aruw^imi, reached the Albert Nyanza. The Aruwimi,
or, as it is called in its upper course, the Ituri, was dis-
covered to flow through a densely afforested region of
indefinite extent. At the south end of the Albert Nyanza,
2IO DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Eastern Stanley traced the course of the Kikibbi (which Eniiii had
Equatorial
^^o previously examined at its confluence with the lake), and
he discovered that it flowed from the Muta Nzige (Albert
Edward Nyanza) — that, in fact, the two lakes were there-
by connected. The Kikibbi, otherwise called the Semliki,
was found to receive innumerable tributary streams from a
mighty snow-capped mountain-mass, the Paiwenzori, which
possibly rivals even the mountains of Kilima-njaro and
Kenia in altitude, although it was actually ascended by
Lieutenant Stairs only to 10,677 f^^t. The Muta Nzige
— or, as it is now named, the Albert Edward Nyanza
— was found to include the " Beatrice Gulf," previously
discovered by Stanley, and to be of lesser area than was
formerly supposed ; it is thus the south-western source of
the Nile. On the homeward journey to the East Coast,
via Uniamwesi and M'pwapwa, the south-western shores
of the Victoria ISTyanza were ascertained to have a con-
siderable southerly extension beyond the limit formerly
assigned to them.
Conclusion. Wliilc the abovc have been the most notable contributions
to the progress during the last hundred years of geographi-
cal discovery and exploration in Africa, we have been con-
strained by the limits of our space to greatly restrict our
view, so that much excellent work and many profitable
jouiiieys have been entirely overlooked. We have but to
compare the maps of each decade since 1788 to see how
rapid this progress has been, and in order to estimate the
activity of our explorers, travellers, and colonists. How
great in this respect is our debt to missionary-pioneers we
may recall with gratitude, for, in many instances, they have
been the first to enter the unknown.
Tliough it may be held soinewliat iiivichous to institute a
comparison between the results wliieh the various European
PROGRESS OF EXPLORATION. 211
nations have contributed to the discovery and the precise
exploration of Africa in modern times, we may safely confine
ourselves to a few general remarks.
- The Portuguese were the first to open up Continental compara-
1 • 1 1 T £ ^'^^ view of
Africa to the policy of Europe ; but, smce the declme or European
^ '' ^ ' exploration
their power, they have done comparatively little to promote '" Africa,
exploration. The French have been eminently practical in
the efforts they have made to open up new lands, by con-
fining their activities to the districts where, with an effective
base on the coasts, their colonies have been established. To
them, also, we owe the earliest precise topographical infor-
mation in regard to Lower Egypt, during the Occupation. —
Elsewhere in Africa, French travellers have contributed
comparatively few results. The continent has only once
been crossed by a Frenchman, Trivier, and this was accom-
plished in 1888-89. In the main, the work of French ex-
plorers, in the territories over wdiich the national flag flies
or is adventurously carried, has been scientific, valuable,
and permanent. The Germans, now that they have colonial
possessions of their own, are following the example of the
French ; but, before this comparatively recent departure,
German travellers explored in all parts of Africa, and the —
work they accomplished is unrivalled for its thoroughness,
its accuracy, and its importance. Though we may claim for
British explorers the principal pioneer- work in Southern
Equatorial Africa, it is to German travellers we chiefly owe
our knowledge of the Sahara and Sudan. The activity of
the Italians has been more restricted, and has in the main
received its impulse through political aspirations. Between
the Eed Sea and Ethiopia they have appropriated a profit-
able field for their labours. The Belgians have done some
good work in tlie Congo basin, under the a^gis of their -
philanthropic king. Finally, British explorers, though more
recently directing tlieir attention to practical ends, have
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Unknown
regions.
Character
of expedi-
tions.
been active in all parts of Africa. They have been inspired
by the spirit of adventure and discovery no less than by the
desire of commercial gain. It is to them we mainly owe the
pioneer discoveries, from which nearly all the European
nations have derived benefits equal to or greater than those
that Britain has retained for her guerdon.
It will be observed that the regions of Africa still
to be regarded as " unknown " lie behind the spheres of
European influence on the coasts. It is a curious fact that,
so far, in the exploration of the continent, all the great
hydrographical discoveries have been made, not by the more
obvious process of tracing the great river-systems from
their mouths to their sources, but in precisely the reverse
way. The task of exploration in the future, however,
will be to fill in details from the coasts inland. It is
a task that will be all the more readily undertaken on
account of the new impulse that has been given to coloni-
sation, and because — the continent having been so rapidly
partitioned off among the European Powers — it will become
more and more necessary not only to adjust boundaries but
also to define their precise limits. The interior lands will
thus gradually be explored and exploited.
Mention has been made of the character of the work
accomplished in the exploration and survey of African
lands, and it is well to bear in mind how much more
supplementary work will be required before we can regard
oui' maps with any degree of satisfaction and confidence.
I'jven for pioneer journeys there is plenty of scope left.
Witness Stanley's last journey and that of Binger.
A word as to the cliaracter of expeditions. The ideal
African traveller is lie who adventures ahme, or with a small
personal escort, into the unknown, and returns with an
accurate survey and su})p]emcntary infcjrmation. Those who
follow in his footsteps may be faiily confident of a friendly
PROGRESS OF EXPLORATION, 213
reception by the indigenous populations. In a number of
notable instances it has been such men who have brought
out of Africa the most valuable and permanent geographical
results. The larger the expedition the greater the difficulty
of obtaining — at least, by honest and pacific means — the
necessary supplies, and the greater the danger of arousing
the hostile passions of the natives. At the same time, there
are some parts of Africa through which a traveller accom-
panied by only a small escort or a weakly-armed caravan
could never penetrate. Happily, such regions are few, and
they are becoming fewer every day.
These remarks are introduced with the object of record- Smaii ex-
peditions
ing the fact that, in the past, independent travellers have the best,
been able to accomplish — what big fighting expeditions could
never have achieved — the best result of exploration in
Africa, namely, the discovery of new fields for pacifxC
occupation and development.
CHAPTER VIIL
COMMERCIAL RESOURCES.
TROGRESS OF EXPLOITATION COMMERCE THE MOST IMPORTANT
INITIAL FACTOR IN AFRICAN POLITICS COMMERCIAL SUPREMACY
RATHER THAN EMPIRE THE UNDERLYING MOTIVE OF EUROPEAN
ENTERPRISE THE REIGN OF COMMERCE THE VALUE OF
AFRICAN LANDS — GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PRODUCTS,
AND THE MOVEMENTS OF COMMERCE GEOGRAPHICAL DIS-
TRIBUTION OF IVORY COINCIDENCE OF SLAVE-ROUTES WITH
TRADE-ROUTES, IVORY BEING THE PRINCIPAL ARTICLE OF
EXPORT THE LIQUOR TRAFFIC — THE LABOUR PROBLEM
COLONISATION CHARTERED COMPANIES — " ROBBER- ECONOMY "
HONESTY THE BEST POLICY.
MAP.
Commercial Pkoducts Plate VIII.
COMMERCIAL RESOURCES.
THE development of Africa as a field for European com- Report of
^ _ _ _ progress,
mercial enterprise has been very rapid in the past few
years. It was not so long ago that Dr. Schweinfurth, in
comparing the zones of social culture with the movements
of commerce in Africa^ divided the continent into three
domains: (i.) the sphere of fire-arms, nearest to the coasts,
in which intimate commercial relations were maintained
with Europe ; (2.) the transition region inland, into which
native traders carried the cotton goods and manufactures
of Europe ; and (3.) the heart of Central Africa, into which
European enterprise had not penetrated. Africa thus
presented, in those days, the picture of a fortress, which
was being stormed by the pioneers of commerce ; but, since
then, rampart after rampart has been broken down, redoubt
after redouljt has been taken, and Commerce, entering by
the great river valleys, has planted its flag in the very
heart of the continent. The popular myth that the simple
requirements of the indigenous peoples of Africa could be met
with "moral pocket-handkerchiefs" is no longer tenable
throughout the greater portion of the interior regions.
Perhaps, in the cycle of social evolution, the natives may
" hark back " in this respect, just as in our own day and in
our own country the possession of a pocket-handkerchief
marks an individual stage of social progress. But what
with competition among the European Powers for political
and commercial supremacy in Africa, and the growth of
their colonies as markets for home manufactures, we have
2i8 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
now to deal with very different conditions of demand and
supply. The exploitation of Africa has, in the passage of
time, besides revealing mineral riches in many parts of the
continent, opened up prospects of commercial development
which have been eagerly seized upon by chartered com-
panies ; and though relatively few regions have shown any
immediate return for the capital introduced into them,
capitalists have not been daunted, but, on the plea of
philanthropy and patriotism, have advanced Ijoldly upon
new conquests, in the hope perhaps of their ultimately
yielding some material advantages.
Value of In the present chapter we shall deal with the marketable
African . ,.,,..
lands. commodities of Africa. By definmg the geographical distri-
bution of the leading products in reference to the physical
and political conditions of each distinctive region, we may
be enabled to estimate, if only approximately, the value of
African lands. We cannot pay too great attention to this
subject, since it is commerce that takes us to Africa, and
by commerce only that we can remain there, at least with
any profit to ourselves. For, with the exception of a few
strategical points, mainly on the Mediterranean and Eed
Seas — the route to the East — and at the Cape, the possession
of African territory is of no special value at present in inter-
national politics, except, it may be, as a lever against the
interests of one's neighbours. Unless the colonies in Africa
can be self-supporting, it is difficult to see the value of
them to the mother-country.* It is by commerce also, if our
motive in colonising Africa be purely philanthropic, that
we can l)est influence the indigonous populations, and it is
by commerce that we can root up the evils that embitter
The factor thclr cxistcnce. Thus we see that, from whatever point of
merce. vicw wc regard the development of Africa, commerce must
* Portugal, however, a])poars to derive a kind of patriotic satisfaction in
meeting the heavy annual delicit of her Mozambiijue province.
COMMERCIAL RESOURCES. 219
be reckoned with as an important political factor. It is,
of course, rather too soon to speak with confidence of the
commercial possibilities of the continent — we still know
so little of it and its inhabitants — but the more vigorous
nations of Europe are not likely to fail in subduing to
their use any new field for enterprise, no matter what the
initial cost may be. And so we may fairly conclude, now
that some of them have finally entered in earnest upon
commercial and political campaigns in Africa, that success
will be to the valiant and to the successful. It has been a
race — in the last few years a breathless race — not altogether
for empire, nor for a crusade, but for commercial supremacy.
AVhat prospects, then, does Africa offer as a field for
European commercial enterprise ?
In the southern shores of the Mediterranean we again Mediter-
ranean
recognise in this place a transition region between Africa Littoral.
and Europe, in which the climate and products approxi-
mate to those of the southern parts of Spain and Italy.
Consequently, we find that colonisation by the people of
those countries has been more successful than by the people
of Northern Europe : only they, up to the present, have
become in part acclimatised, and only in their case has the
birth-rate exceeded the death-rate.
Algeria and Tunis may be considered together, though, Aig-eria and
in respect of their economical progress, they stand in
striking contrast. Algeria has been a French province for
sixty years, Tunis a French protectorate for nine years ;
yet the latter, even apart from its more favourable natural
conditions, would appear to have the more hopeful future.
It is true that, during the French administration, Algeria
has been converted from a desert into " a smiling pro\ance : "
thousands of miles of road have been made, railways have
been constructed, w^ells sunk, and all kinds of improvements
introduced. Yet, even to-day, Algeria costs the mother-
220 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Algeria couiitry from seventy to eighty million francs annually,
and Tunis. . , . —,..
the expenditure nearly always exceeding the receipts. The
European element — for the most part composed of Italians,
Spaniards, and Maltese, besides the French themselves —
though it has doubled its numbers, still bears a small propor-
tion (about 10 ]3er cent.) to the native populations, composed
of Berbers (Kabyles) and Arabs; while the latter show no
signs of assimilation. And the reason of this comparative
w^ant of success in Algeria would appear to be " red-tape."
The native populations are in turn either persecuted or sup-
ported, or attempts are made at assmiilating them with the
European colonists. By being persecuted they are driven
away ; by being supported they obtain an undue supremacy ;
and attempts at assimilation have failed because of the
exceedingly varied ethnic elements. Colonisation is at one
time promoted, at another time obstructed; and for the
most part it remains under Government auspices. Thus,
Algeria is neither a settlement nor a plantation.* Tunis,
on the other hand, is a commercial colony ; there is no
official immigration, and private enterprise has more scope,
as is evidenced by the numerous local undertakings at pre-
sent on foot. Though, as in all new colonies, the imports
have exceeded the exports in Tunis, this is due to the Army
of Occupation, which has to be provided for. By comparing
Algeria and Tunis, therefore, we have a good example of
officialism and private enterprise working side by side.
Tunis, so far at least, appears to have fully realised the
expectations that were formed of it in France.
In both Algeria and Tunis, and indeed in North Africa
generally, viticulture would, according to Sir Lambert Play-
fair, appear to be the most hopeful industry for the future.
Some, too, speak of wheat, for the growtli of which many
districts — such as the Nalley of the Mejerda — possess suit-
* Jj Algiric ct la Tuniilc (P. Loroy-Buaulieii, 1S87).
COMMERCIAL RESOURCES. 221
able soils and climate. Alfa or esparto grass grows wild, and
is, or was at one time, largely exported to Great Britain
for the manufacture of paper. Wool and early potatoes are
also valuable export-commodities. Cork in the forests and
iron ore in the mountains, besides other natural riches,
are among the remaining resources of the country. It there-
fore cannot be doubted that, in time, France will develop
her African possessions, which lie almost at her door, even
if she fails to extend her empire to the south and west.
Very different is the prospect in the fanatical Moham- Morocco.
medan State of Morocco, which, in spite of its supposed
mineral riches, its highly fertile soil, and favourable natural
conditions, lies stagnating " in the name of Allah." The
magnificent squalor of the towns, the dumb evidences of
a down-trodden people, whose only advantage under politi-
cal rule is the opportunity to escape it — these and other
phenomena of a decaying and subversive power cry out
for reparation. Christians are desj)ised, and can only live
with security and independence under the eegis of their
political representatives ; foreign imports are crushed by
heavy dues; exports are crippled by a prohibitive tariff;
and the native industries are paralysed. If a native display
prosperity, far less wealth, he is at once made the victim
of courteous attentions on the part of the Sultan and his
officials. Under such political conditions it is not to be
expected that Morocco could possibly develop its great
natural resources ; though Sir Henry Drummond-Hay, in
a recent report, speaks of a slight improvement in the
movements of commerce. France and Great Britain have
participated for the most part in the exterior commerce
of Morocco, but Germany is now taking a foremost place.
The chief exports are cereals and leather.
Between these countries and Egypt, the Turkish province Tripoli,
of Tripoli is so barren that, beyond esparto grass, fruits
22 2 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
and vegetables, its products are not at present of any
considerable value. The port of Tripoli is, however, the
terminus of the caravan-trade across the Sahara, and the
oasis of Murzuk, in Fezzan, is another important trade-
centre. Fez and Morocco city are other centres of the
caravan-traffic of the Sahara, the principal " commodity " of
which would appear to be slaves.
Sahara. The camcl-caravans that cross the Sahara, coming from
the Sudan, trade also in ostrich feathers, spices, gums, rock-
salt, &c., wdiich are exchanged for the manufactures of
Europe. In the "Western Sahara, the salt mines and deposits
are the chief w^ealth of the country ; and the salt finds its
way in the first instance to Timbuktu, one of the chief
centres of its distribution. Ghadames and other oases in the
Sahara are also objective points for caravans. But, owing
to the unsettled political state and the predatory habits of
the tribes in the Sahara, not to speak of the insecurity of
life and the adverse conditions of climate, it is not possible
for this caravan- traffic to be largely used in the future by
European commerce ; far less is it likely to compete with
other and more practicable routes from the coast. Thus,
even though the French may eventually establish some sort
of communication between Algeria and Senegambia, it is
difficult to see what advantages they hope to reap thereby,
beyond the more or less illusory one of political aggrandise-
ment. Elsewhere we have shown that the true access to
the Central Sudan is by way of the Eiver Niger.
Tiie Nile In the Nile Valley we have the most striking example of
tlic value of water in Africa, and how, l)y a judicious system
(»f ii'iigalion, barren Luid can l)e made fertile. The Nile,
j)eriodically overflowing its banks, is the life-lluid of the
(hisert country through which it passes ; the regularity of its
rise and fall can absolutely be relied upon, though on occa-
sions, of course, an aljuonnally liigh or low Nile may be
COMMERCIAL RESOURCES. 223
experienced, i^t Khartum the river begins to rise towards
the end of June, in consequence of the heavy monsoon rains
that fall on its upper catchment-basin ; before the first day
of Septeml)er it is at its fullest, but after the last day of
that month it decreases regularly, until the next summer
solstice. All along the banks of the Nile, from Khartum to
the Delta, advantage is taken of these inundations by the
riverain people to reclaim from the desert a narrow parallel
zone of cultivable land. In no place does this zone of
artificial cultivation exceed four miles in breadth, whilst at
several spots the desert rules supreme.
In Lower Egypt the advantage which the Nile offers for Lower
. Egypt-
irrigation purposes has been turned to exceptional account,
and extensive works have been erected by the English and
Scottish engineers in charge. By the restoration of the
barrage* which had been in disuse for twenty years, and
the construction of numerous interlacing canals, the Deltaic
lands have been converted into a rich agricultural region,
supporting a dense population. According to Mr. Chisholm
{Handbook of Com-mcrcial Geography, p. 348) — " Though the
distance in a direct line from Wady Haifa to the shores of
the Mediterranean is about 6S0 miles, equal to the distance
from the Scilly Isles to the northern extremity of the
Shetland Islands, the entire area fit for cultivation is less
that 10,000 square miles, or about two-thirds larger than
Yorkshire ; and in this area is crowded a population of
nearly 8,000,000, almost wholly dependent on agriculture."
The labour for the up-keep of the embankments in this
system of irrigation was at one time supplied by the natives
themselves, who were subject to the corvde ; but this system
of forced labour is now abolished. The initial cost of con-
struction must have exceeded one million pounds sterling,
* The barraye is a dam thrown across the two heads of the Nile branches
at the apex of the Delta.
224 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Lower but it liiis already been met by the profits derived from
Egypt. .
the cviltivators themselves. When Egyptian finances are
sufficiently elastic to bear the strain or experiment of
more extended schemes of irrigation, some of these may
be adopted.
Cotton is now one of the most valuable crops of Lower
Egyjjt, which, besides, raises maize and wheat ; in Upper
Egypt dates and various gums are the principal products.
The British Under British control, Egypt has in part recovered from
Occupa-
tion, the paralysis she suffered under Turkish mismanagement,
and the condition of the Fellahin has been vastly improved ;
the kourhash and all kinds of abuses have been abolished,
and something like financial stability established. The
commerce of the country is practically in the hands of
Europeans, whose principal trade-centre is at Alexandria,
and who only await more settled political conditions in
order to greatly extend their operations. Should those con-
ditions assume any degree of permanence, and be guaranteed
by some sort of European control, the future prosperity of
Egypt would be assured ; but international rivalries, even at
the present day, retard the true development of the country.
From its geographical position, as, in a manner, commanding
the route to the East, Egypt naturally assumes in the eyes
of Europe an importance it would not otherwise possess;
but there are critics who point out, with some degree of
justice, that the value of the Suez Canal as a route to the
East is not so great as is generally assumed, since the pos-
session of territory or islands — such as our island fortress
of Perim — at the southern end of the Eed Sea, must
largely, if not entirely, counterbalance political domination
over the Isthmus of Suez. The inter-nationalisation of the
Canal would, therefore, appear to be a desirable step in the
common interests of the European Powers.
liei'ereuce has been made in a former chapter to trade-
COMMERCIAL RESOURCES. 225
routes in Egypt and to tlieir relative value and chief centres Trade-
routes,
of distribution. But trade-routes are a variable quantity to
reckon with. The revolution that is caused by a change of
conditions or altered circumstances in the routes taken by
commerce is illustrated in a recent report by the British
Consul at Port Said, who demonstrates that that port is
rapidly increasing in importance at the expense of Suez,
because of vessels preferring to touch there for stores and
coal. But though the trade of Suez has also been profoundly
affected in consequence of the disturbances in the Sudan, the
pilgrim traffic is said to have increased to 22,000 annually.
Such fluctuating conditions are bound to attend every im-
portant political movement ; but, with our modern resources,
it should not be an impossible task to guide any given traffic
in its natural channels.
In the basin of the Upper Nile we encounter lauds very Upper NUe
. . basin.
unequal m respect of their chief natural productions, but all
of conspicuous value. In the highly fertile country through
which flow the Abyssinian tributaries of the Nile, the alluvial
soil, with the simplest means of irrigation, is capable of pro-
ducing heavy crops, not only of durrah and maize, but also
of cotton and tobacco : at present, only the two former are
cultivated to any extent. As for Abyssinia, anything could
be grown in the highland regions, according to altitude and
the suitable conditions of climate ; yet agriculture is back-
ward, and the industries, where l)y courtesy they may be
said to exist, are acknowledged to be of no account.
What effect the Italian domination may have on theRedSea
•^ Littoral,
commercial development of Abyssinia it is too soon to pre- &<=.
diet ; but doubtless trade, which at present finds its way
direct to Tajura and Berbera, and formerly went through
Shoa, will be deflected more and more to Massawa. In
spite of its loss of trade, Shoa still deals largely in cattle,
hides, coffee, &c. Harar also sends caravans to Berbera.
p
2 26 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
In the depressions between the mountainous regions and
the Eed Sea the salt-deposits are a vahiable commodity ;
the salt, sold in small blocks, is even used as currency.
Mahdi- Khartum, which used to be the converging point for
land. o o J.
caravans and a great commercial centre, has for so long been
outside the sphere of European influence that it is difficult
to judge what may be its present condition ; but it is reason-
able to infer that, although it may no longer obtain European
goods in exchange for grain, gums, and cotton, its traffic in
ivory and ostrich feathers and the trade from the south are
still maintained. Immediately south of Khartum, in Kor-
dofan, the soil is arid and impregnated with iron, and the
herds do not thrive very well except in the neighbourhood of
springs. Farther south still, in the abandoned Equatorial
Province, the country is in every way suited to pastoral
pursuits. "Only think," Emin Pacha once wrote, " what a
trade could be opened up in ivory, oil of all kinds, skins,
corn, ostrich feathers, india-rubber, wax, iron, &c., &c." *
Sudan. In the border-land between the Sahara and the Sudan
a considerable native trade is maintained by caravan, the
chief commodities of exchange or barter being slaves, ivory,
salt, ostrich feathers, wheat, and cloth. West of Lake Tsad
we encounter the prosperous and densely populated Moham-
medan States, the natural products of which are very varied.
They are thus detailed by ]\Ir. Joseph Thomson : -f — " Of
minerals, gold is found in the western districts, and silver,
lead, antimony, and copper in tlie eastern. All these
valuable articles are more or less worked at present, for
the native thoroughly knows their value. Ivory is to be
obtained in large f[uantities to tlie soutli of the Pjcuuc and
around Lake Tsad. Ostrich feathers even now constitute a
liirge trade in tlic Southern Saliara and north and east of
* JJniin Pacha in Ccn(r<il Africa, p. 431.
t ScoUink Gco'jraphical Maijazlne, vol. ii. p. 595.
COMMERCIAL RESOURCES. 227
Bonm. In the same parts, valuable gums, musk, and hides
are yielded in profusion. Over the entire region enormous
quantities of indigo, cotton, shea-butter, palm-oil, ground-
nuts, india-rubber, and several valuable medicinal plants are
produced. Great herds of cattle are found everywhere, and
the trade in hides should be one of much importance. As
showing the character of the country, it may be mentioned
that the Central Sudan produces capital wheat, rice, onions,
dates, limes, pomegranates, bananas, and numerous other
fruits, vegetables, and grains." Moreover, horses, camels,
and donkeys thrive in the higher-lying regions.
The Ptiver Niger and its tributary, the Benue, are the Niger
_ _ basin.
natural highways into this part of Inner Africa. As a
channel for commercial operations, the Niger is unrivalled ;
and the possession of the Deltaic lands is consequently
of immense importance. Eegular steam-communication is
maintained on the river. Vessels of 600 tons can ascend
beyond the Benue confluence to Piabba, a total distance
of 600 miles, during seven or eight months of the year ;
whilst the Benue itself is navigable for an equal distance.
Within the basin of the Niger there are densely populated
districts, under more or less settled and advanced govern-
ments, possessing immense natural resources, and capable
of yielding an immediate return for any capital expended on
their economical development.
That there should be some competition for this trade is
natural. The French, from their base in Senegambia, and
the Germans, from the Camarons, are making bold bids for
commercial supremacy. That, under these circumstances,
a certain amount of trade will be deflected from its more
natural outlet by the mouths of the Niger is obvious ; but
it may also lead to healthy competition, which in the end
will stimulate European commercial enterprise. The trade
of Timbuktu and the Upper Niger, by the recent territo-
228
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Niger
basin.
Products
of West
Africa.
Labour.
rial arrangement between Great Britain and France, must
eventually fall into the hands of the French. Timbuktu
of itself has no industries, but from time immemorial it
has been a market of great importance, and one of the
chief distributing centres. The trade of the Middle Niger,
benefiting from the activities of the great Hausa States,
is, however, of far greater value, and is entirely in British
hands. Kano and other commercial centres offer unlimited
possibilities ; and the trade of Bornu might easily be tapped
by way of the Benue.
The palm-oil industry, which is the most valuable of
West Africa, has its centre in the Niger Delta, or, to be
more explicit, in what is called the Oil Elvers District. The
geographical distribution of the Ulais guineensis, or oil-
palm, may be seen on our map ; but although it flourishes
over so extensive a region, it is cultivated in certain districts
only : on the West Coast, for example, chiefly or exclu-
sively in the vicinity of the villages. Cotton is also grown,
and during the American civil war was largely cultivated
along the Guinea Coast. Moreover, there are many valuable
medicinal plants, and others yielding gum and resin, besides
coloured woods (campwood, barwood, redwood), &c., which
are rising exports of the West Coast. Kola-nuts are of
increasing importance, and take the place of the coffee
berry, though coffee, as well as tobacco, could be cultivated
much more extensively. A good market for tea should be
found in the Mohammedan Sudan.
It must also be remembered that, though the ivory of
the Ivory Coast is a thing of the past, the gold of the Gold
Coast is by no means exhausted. The country is rich in
gold, in spite of tlie numerous companies that have failed
to work it profitably. The great drawback in the case of
mining, as in all other commercial ventures, is that native
labour is so incompetent and unreliable. But if the Kru
COMMERCIAL RESOURCES. 229
could be brought to work in larger numbers, surely there
would be some prospect of success ?
At first sight one might suppose that the basin of the Congo
basin,
Congo, with its unique system of waterways, was by far the
most important field for commercial enterprise in Africa ;
but for various reasons this view is untenable. The Congo
is undoubtedly a region of immense possibilities, but it has
not yet been sufficiently exploited or developed to warrant
the sanguine views which some take of its present resources.
The administrationof the State has, unfortunately, not been
based on commercial principles : there has been too much
" red-tape " and " make-believe " and too little conscientious
work. This has been the fault, not of the generous-hearted
sovereign who is the nominal head of the State, but of his
advisers and officers.
The leading commodities of the Congo are ivory, caout- Trade and
chouc, and gum-copal ; but there are, of course, many other
sources of wealth. Ivory is the most important article of
commerce, though, according to Oscar Baumann,* two-thirds
of it is what is known as fossil-ivory. Markets for its
periodical disposal have already been opened in Belgium.
Beyond the Aruwimi confluence, there appears to be little
or no actual commerce ; for this is the Arab hunting-ground
for slaves. The regions drained by the M'bangi and Kasai
tributary systems of the Congo are equally important, the
latter presenting, according to the Eev. George Grenfell,
special facilities on account of the " ready-made commerce
waiting for an outlet," and because the people are more
industrious and their work is of a much higher order than
on the Congo proper. At Luluaburg the State has made ex-
periments in raising flocks and herds — it is said, with some
success — and in rice-plantations. That the natives them-
selves have made progress in their methods of cultivating
* Handel und Ycrlcthr am Congo.
commerce.
230 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
the soil has been attested by Wissmann and other explorers
who have had the opportunity of judging.
Congo Between the Kasai and Lomami there is an immense
basin.
prairie region of great fertility, and in other parts of the
Congo basin similar districts occur. Van Gele points to the
Lower M'bangi as one of the most fertile and populous
districts he has seen in Africa : woods and plains, maize-
fields, sugar-cane and banana plantations alternate without
immber, and attest the value of the land. That tobacco,
coif'ee, cocoa, vanilla, and other articles of commerce could
be extensively cultivated in the basin of the Congo is
certain. No doubt, when the railway between the cataracts
is finished, greater impulse will be given to its commerce ;
but, in the meantime, there are numerous initial difficulties
to overcome before any immediate return for capital can be
expected.
Com- At the end of i88q there were some twenty-eight Euro-
mercial -^ •/ o
mentk^on" V^^^ establishments on the Congo between Stanley Pool
the Congo, j^^^j Stanley Falls : seven belonging to the State, two to the
French, three to the Eoman Catholic missions, six to the
Protestant missions ; and four Belgian factories, four Dutch,
and two French. Some eighteen steamers were at that
time said to be plying on its waters : seven belonging to
the State, three on the French Congo, five belonging to the
Belgian Commercial Company, one to the Dutch Company,
and two to the Anglo-American Mission. All these vessels
diuw only 2 ft. 6 in. of water, or under. Of their inadequacy
to cope with any brisk movement of commerce we have
had frequent illustrations ; but their number will no doubt
be duly supplemented. It must be remembered, it was not
so long ago, that it took five years or so for European manu-
factures to reacli Lht; rpiici; Coiig(j from the West Coast, in
consequence of their having to run tlic gauntlet of lionya,
or black-mail, iullicLed by the intervening tribes.
COMMERCIAL RESOURCES. 231
The iiii.suilability of the climate to European settlers,
the unstable and ineffective state of the political administra-
tion, the difiiculty of obtaining steady and efiftcient labour,
and the ravages of the Slave Trade, are among the chief
reasons why the Congo basin has not been even more rapidly
developed as a field for European enterprise. With more
rational administrative measures will come more ilourishing
times for commerce.
The recent arrangements in regard to the Congo Inde- The future
of the
pendent State wdiich have been announced from Brussels, Congo,
if ultimately given effect to, should go far to remove the
disability it has hitherto shown in performing what was
originally expected of it at the time of its inauguration.
These arrangements include a duty (10 per cent.) on im-
ports — with the ostensible purpose of providing the sinews
of war against the slave-traders — and the ultimate reversion
of the administration to Belgium.
The French, on their part, situated between the Congo The French
. Congo
and the AVest Coast, have met with much the same initial Territories,
difficulties in building up their colony, but they have made
steady efforts to overcome them. M. de Brazza, speaking
of the prospects of the French Congo, in reply to an inter-
viewer, is reported to have said : " From my nine years'
experience in the country, I have come to the conclusion
that our West African Territories and the basin of the Congo
must be left to be developed by the original inhabitants, and
not be colonised by emigrants. This new country must
be perfectly studied and fully organised before European
traders enter it." That there is some truth in this state-
ment, and that it underlies the vital principle of the econ-
omical development of all African lands, cannot be doubted.
And yet, how very little do we recognise this in practice !
The Portuguese colony to the south of the Congo is Angela,
more prosperous than the sister colony of Mozambique, on
232 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Angdia. the Opposite side of the continent. A railway is now
open between Loanda and Ambaca, and another has been
projected from Mossamedes across the Chella Mountains
for 200 miles into the Interior; but only slow progress is
made. The cultivation of the ground-nut (Arachis hypogcra),
which is crushed for oil, besides being a staple nutriment,
of coffee, sugar, and cotton, and of other commercial pro-
ducts, though they might be unlimited, is pursued with
only relative success. The coffee of Cazengo is of first-
rate quality ; and elsewhere it is widely grown, as also
are india-rubber plants. There can be no doubt that, were
adequate transport provided, the trade in rubber and other
products could be immensely increased. Though the coast-
lands are bare, the higher-lying regions are specially suitable
for cultivation. Eecently the Portuguese Government have
been making the experiment of bringing colonists from
Madeira, chiefly agriculturists, and estal)lishing them in the
Interior, giving each colony a subsidy under a five years'
contract. This plan appears to be a step decidedly in the
right direction, and to have already met with gratifying
success ; for there is no doubt that the inland districts of
Angola are rich in natural resources.
South- Before proceeding to examine the Temperate regions, we
Eastern n m • i * r> •
Africa. may complete our survey of Tropical Atrica by passing
over to the other side of the continent, to the East Coast.
And first as regards the Zambezi basin : though an area
of transition, it may at once be said that its commercial
relations come chiefiy and naturally under Tropical Africa,
and it may best be considered in conjunction with the
Lakes region, from wliicli it coiKhicts.
Nyassa- Nyassu-laiid has so far been exclusively developed by
Uritish missionaries and traders,* in spite of tlie exacting
* The four mission- stations on Nyassa ami Tunganika cost yearly about
;^29,000.
land.
COMMERCIAL RESOURCES. 233
and hostile tariffs of tlie Portuguese. Coffee, which is in-
digenous and lias been successfully cultivated at Blantyre,
is said to l)e a hopeful product, upon which alone, according
to Mr. Buchanan,* the success of the country might depend.
But Consul Hawes reports (1887) the success of coffee as
" doul)tful,"' and speaks of ivory as the chief export. Then ,
there are tea, cinchona-bark, rubber, cloves, medicinal plants, — '
oil-seeds, and indigo. Almost anything_couMJbeffrown in ^
the highland regions. The country is, moreover, supposed
to be ricli in minerals. To the west of the Lakes, iron
and copper are found in ab^^ndance, and silver and gold
are not absent. But what is wanting is greater security
for life and property. Political embroglios and constant
strife with the Portuguese officials have in recent years
crippled all the efforts that have been made for the opening-
up of the Lakes region. With their final adjustment and
the consolidation of British supremacy, we may confidently
anticipate the almost immediate success of the commercial
operations that have already been started, and which
at one time were so hopeful. By her recent Agreement
(August 1890) with Portugal, Britain, besides securing the
freedoni-of the, Zambezi to the ships of all nations and the y ,
recognition of her Protectorate over ISTyassa-land and the
Shire Highlands, obtained a reduction of the Portuguese -t
tariff to 3 per cent, ad valorem on transit dues. But this
Treaty requires ratification.
Commercial enterprise on the East Coast, between the East
Zambezi and the Gulf of Aden, has long been paralysed by
the blighting influence of the Slave Trade, which has almost
entirely destroyed legitimate commerce. The British Indian,
or Banyan, traders, wdiose commercial talents have contri-
buted so much towards the development of the country, are
themselves parties to this nefarious Traffic, of wliicli the
* The Shire Uighlands.
234 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
East Arabs of Zanzibar and those Arabs of the Interior not
Coast.
engaged in agriculture are tlie chief instruments. Thus,
ivory and slaves have always been the chief commodities
of the East Coast. And yet, some of the countries inland
behind the dry and unhealthy coastal zone are capable of
raising all Tropical products, while the plateaus, besides
serving as excellent pasture-grounds, yield good crops of
wheat and other cereals. There are splendid prospects for
gums alone. The cloves of Zanzibar and Pemba islands
are world-famous ; and the hides of Somal-land, the gums
of the Swaheli Coast, and the ivory of East Central Africa
generally, are important articles of export. Among other
native products are india-rubber, indigo, copal, orchilla, oil-
seeds, copra, myrrh, Indian-corn, wax, &c. Moreover, there
are fine agricultural regions, as, for example, in Usambara
and around Kilima-njaro, wdiere almost any vegetable product
might be raised.
The Arab settlements in the Interior, such as Kavele, on
Tanganika, and Tabora, maintain constant communications
with the Coast, some of the chief ports of which, as out-
lets for trade, are Kilwa, Bagamoyo, and Mombaza ; whilst
Berbcra is the chief port on the Culf of Aden.
The caravan-routes leading to the East Coast are, as we
have said, at the same time slave-routes, since the traffic
in ivory and that in slaves go hand-in-hand. They are
consequently liable to change ; Ijut Zanzibar, from its
favourable geograpliical position, is, and always has been,
the chief emporium of commerce : it is the " Liverpool '"' of
the East Coast.
In addition to tlie sul)versivc effects wliich tlic Slave
Trade has bad on the economical development of this part
of Africa, there liave been other hostile elements : of such
are the climatic conditions and the insecure iind iuimoral
jjolitical a(biiiiii.stialioii. I'uLil all these tUsad\antages are
COMMERCIAL RESOURCES. 235
removed, or mitigated, there can Le very little progress for East
East Africa ; and it is therefore gratifying to recognise
a somewhat healthier state of })ul)lic opinion and inter-
national action in these respects.
Easy and safe communication between the coasts and
the Interior being essential for the development of African
lands through the agency of Europeans, it is obvious that
the absence of large rivers debouching on the East Coast,
north of the Zambezi, is another serious disadvantage,
which must be overcome by building railways in their
stead or by constructing highways for wheel-traffic. Since
the coastal lands are now under the domination of Euro-
pean Powers, the construction of such roads or railways
— connecting, as they naturally would, the European
depots in the most healthy inland regions — is the first
and most effective step to be taken for the " opening-up "
and pacification of the country. Erom their excellent
harbour of Momljaza, the British East Africa Company .^ I
have, with an enterprise that deserves commendation, com-
menced the construction of a railway to Taveta (which ^
it is hoped will be reached not later than July 1891),
whence it is. to be continued to the Victoria Nyanza,
upon which steamers will be placed. The comparative
absence of suitable harbours on the East Coast is, how-
ever, another great drawback.
We now turn to the Temperate regions of South Africa, South
^ '=' . Africa.
where we enter what is by far the most valuable commercial
sphere of any we have considered, — and by South Africa
I mean the entire country south of the Zambezi. Apart
from its favourable geographical position and its mineral
riches, the chief reason why South Africa has proved of such
outstanding importance as a sphere of European enterprise
is because it is ca]3able of colonisation by white men, and
is already endowed with fairly adequate political organisa-
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
South
Alrica.
<
V
Minerals,
a
tions, so that it is ready to receive any number of skilled
immigrants. European influence has, in short, a strong
base on the coasts, and none Ijut political oljstacles to its
further expansion inland.
Exception may be taken to the scanty rain-supply in the
north-western region of South Africa ; but much may be
done to remedy this defect by introducing an adequate
system of irrigation, more especially as'^ large areas have
an abundant supply of underground waters. '' Another
exception must be made : there is an almosttotal^bgence
of means of fluvial communication, neither the Orange Eiver
nor the Vaal being suitable for navigation ; but, even in this
ease, engineers may be able to effect something, and the
construction of railways will accomplish the rest. The rich
pasture-lands of the inland plateau and the extraordinary
wealth of its mineral resources are elements of future pros-
perity which nothing but political suicide can destroy.
The discovery of valuable and extensive mineral deposits
/ at once attracts a large population, which has to be sup-
ported in some way : consequently an impetus is given to a
[V great many industries. Eailways and roads are constructed
\ and ports are opened. For first opening up a new country,
therefore, mining is a most effective medium. Now, South
Africa is extraordinarily rich in minerals. In the gold-
producing regions, moreover, the reef-mining requires steady
and skilled laljour, and in consequence does not encourage
the social evils that are characteristic of alluvial mining.
Fortunately, the gold deposits so far occur in reef forma-
tions, and the mining towns are consequently filled with
industrious and competent workmen. As an extreme
example of the rapid growth of such towns, we may in-
stance Johannesburg, the capital of the richest gold-fields,
the Witwatersrand, a town wliich a little over two and a
half years ago (Hd not exist, but jiow possesses handsome
COMMERCIAL RESOURCES. 237
public ])uil(liiigs and slroets, with a pupulatiuii of over
20,000 souls.
The Transvaal, or South African Eepublic, has other rich South
Africa.
gold-fields, such as the De Kaap, with Barberton, another ^-
mushroom town. And tliere are auriferous regions ex-
tending from the northern border of Mashuna-land south-
west to Tati and south-east to the E. Sabi and Manica.
Kimberley has the most prolific, diamond-fields in the world. x'
Copper is found in the north-west, at O'okiep, and coal in
the south-east, in the Stormberg Mountains and in Natal.
The South African coal-seams may yet prove important
and to extend continuously under large areas.
In addition to its mineral riches. South Africa has vast Pasture-
lands admirably adapted to stock-raising. Ostrich-farming,
which was originated here, has been pursued with success ;
and w^ool has for a long time been one of the leading
articles of export, coming chiefly from the karoos, or inland
tablelands of 3000 feet or more in elevation. Wine has of
late been produced for export. All kinds of fruits thrive
under cultivation, while cereals could be raised over wide
regions. Damara-land and Bechuana-land possess some of
the best pastures of South Africa, and a practicable route
from them to the "West Coast is not wanting.
Several railways have been built or are in course of con- Railways,
struction between the ports of the South and South-East
Coasts and the chief commercial centres of the Interior ;
and it is absolutely essential that their extension should
proceed rapidly, in order to feed the wants of the growing
industries, and to act as outlets for the exports. Kim-
berley is already thus united with Cape Town and Port
Elizabeth ; and it is now intended to extend the railway
^
northwards to Vryburg, Mafeking, Shoshong, and Victoria
Ealls, whilst another line is projected to cross Matabele-
land into ]\Iashuna-land. It is further proposed to con- ^
238 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
struct a railway from Colesberg to Bloemfontein, and thence
to the Yaal Paver. The British South Africa Company
have taken over the railway to Vryburg, which will be
reached in October 1890, and it is hoped the extension to
Maf eking will be completed by May i 8 9 1 . The progress
of the line from Delagoa Bay, owdng to political machina-
tions, is proceeding very slowly. Great expectations have
A been formed of this enterprise in building railways ; but
A the relative absence of fine harbours round the coasts of
V South Africa is undoubtedly a serious drawback to the
^' commercial development of the interior lands.
African Of the islauds of Africa very little need be said. Mada-
gascar, though it has little or no commerce, could raise
most vegetable growths ; and it could also serve as a vast
storehouse, wdiich, from its geographical position, should
prove of immense value to France, wdiose Protectorate over
the island we have finally acknowdedged and recognised.
Its soil is fertile and it has mineral riches. E^union
and Mauritius have fine plantations of Tropical produce.
The other small islands, especially in the Atlantic, are
chiefly valuable to commerce as ports of call and coaling-
stations.
Geogrraphi- So far we have purposely said very little of ivory.
bution of" Our intention is now to go into the subject in some detail,
ivory. . ...
because of its supreme importance, ior not only is ivory
the cause, if not the sole cause, of the Slave Trade, which
on all hands is considered most detrimental to legitimate
commerce, but, like minerals, it affords the prospect of an
iiiiiiKMliate return for capital in tliose regions where it is
found, and which WT)uld not otherwise pay for their initial
development. As the elephants are driven farther and
farther into tlie Interior, retreating before the advance of
civilised coiiitiniiiitics, ;iii(l arc gradually becoming rarer,
it is essential f(ir us to take I'lTcctive measures, wliich are
COMMERCIAL RESOURCES. 239
increasino-ly difficult, to control the trade in ivory and to Geo^raphi-
o J ' "^ cal Dis-
preserve the elephant from rapid extinction. By thus pro- Y^^^^]°'^ °^
tecting a valuable marketable commodity, we should at the
same time render more effective service in suppressing the
Slave Trade than by causing the combined fleets of Europe
to l)lockade the coasts.
Dr. Paul Eeichard, in an admirable article in the Gco-
graphische Blatter/'' goes exhaustively into the sul)ject ; so
that my task is a light one. On the map wliich accom-
]mnies Dr. Eeichard's paper, the elephant is shown to
range over the greater part of Africa south of the desert
zone, — or, say, south of the latitude of Khartum. In some
regions it has been exterminated, and in most regions, but
more especially in the south, it has been gradually driven
back from the coast-lands into the Interior.
Dr. Eeichard distinguishes between what is known in Hard and
■- _ soft ivory.
European markets as soft ivory and hard ivory, the former,
of a milk-white colour, being the more valuable. A half-
hard quality is also recognised, but we need not take that
into account. The soft ivory comes from the elephants that
feed in the open and dry woodlands and in the savannas
covered with short grass ; the hard ivory from those which
range exclusively through the damp primeval forests and
over the savannas covered with long grass. Upon the
nourishment of the elephant depend, therefore, the quality
and character of its tusks. We may dwell in a few words
upon its geographical distribution and frequency.
Eoughly speaking, the elephants that yield hard ivory
are confined to the basins of the Niger, Benue, and Congo ;
while they occur most frequently in the country inter-
vening between the Benue and the Congo and in certain
regions of the Upper Congo. Elephants yielding soft
* Das afrikanische Elfcnhcin und sein Uandel. Band xii. Heft ii.
(1889)-
240
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Ivory
trade-
centres.
Ivory
collectings-
grounds.
Ivory
trade-
routes.
ivoiy are found in two distinct regions: (i.) in the Upper
Nile, Abyssinia, and the country to the south, with greatest
frequency in the Equatorial parts east and west of the
Victoria Nyanza, and (2.) in the South-Central plateaus,
with greatest frequency to the west of Lake Nyassa.
The chief focus of the ivory trade in Africa is Zanzibar,
whose collecting-ground extends over an immense area,
embracing the entire Lakes region, with Tabora as a centre.
The East Coast trade is in the hands of the Arabs. On the
opposite side of the continent, with the residence of the
Muata Yanvo as a collecting-centre, the ivory trade, which
is in the hands of the Portuguese, finds its outlets at St.
Paul de Loanda and Ambriz, or at Benguela.
The other collecting-grounds to the north and south of
these Central regions, and their outlets on the coasts, may
also be mentioned ; for not only does the elucidation of this
traffic afford a key to the understanding of the Slave Trade,
but it also defines approximately the trade-routes.
A certain amount of ivory comes out at the Congo ; but
to the north, the ports on the Gulf of Guinea receive their
supplies from the Interior. The ivory collected in the
countries to the south of Timbuktu is taken there for dis-
tribution, and is sent across the desert either to Mogador or
to Tripoli. The latter port also attracts the ivory gathered
round Lake Tsad. The ivory of the Upper Nile region finds
its way to Khartum and Alexandria, — or rather, it did at one
time ; and that of Abyssinia comes out at Massaw^a. South
of the Zambezi basin, the ivory collected in the plateau
regions is carried to Port Natal or Cape Town ; whilst that
of the entire Zambezi Valley, including Southern Nyassa-
land, finds its way to Kilimani or ]\Iozambique.
These, then, roughly speaking, are the chief trade-routes
for ivory and other leading commodities of export from
the Interior. It should be noted that to a certain extent
COMMERCIAL RESOURCES. 241
they lead through the most unhealthy regions, for the slave-
traders seek the back slums, so to speak, for their inhuman
traffic, so as to avoid the healthier and more vigorous tribes
who might oppose them, en route. But they vary from
time to time in accordance with political conditions.
Considering the important role played by the traffic in Amount of
. annual
ivory, and consequently in slaves, in the economical and exports.
political development of Africa, and remembering the
enormous sacrifice of human life it entails, the marvel is
that the commercial results are so slight ; for, according
to Westendarp,* the annual value of ivory exported from
Africa amounts only to about seven or eight million pounds
sterling.
Dr. Eeichard is of opinion that, unless some measures be Preserva-
tion of the
undertaken for the preservation of the elephant, this noble elephant.
animal will become extinct in Africa in perhaps 150 or 200
years' time. It is estimated that over 65,000 elephants
are killed annually. If only a fraction of this working
power could be turned to account, how much more valuable
it might become ! Though we are aware the elephant does
not breed in captivity, or even in proximity to civilised
communities, some experiments might be made in its em-
ployment as a draught animal, or, as in Burma, for work
in the forests. It ought to be preserved, too, as in India
and Ceylon. It is true we do not yet know whether the
African elephant is as tractable as its Asiatic brother.
Although the Eomans used elephants in Africa for war
purposes, it may be assumed they were brought from the
East, since, in all the pictures of them, the drivers are
represented as carrying in their hand the Indian anJcush.
As a pendant to the export-trade in ivory, which is so The Hquor-
, , . 1-1 traffic.
inseparably associated with Arab ascendancy, we may add
a few remarks to what has elsewdiere been said on the
* Geographische Blatter, Baud xii. Heft ii. p. 168.
242 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
The liquor- import-trade in spirituous liquors, which goes hand-in-hand
trafific.
with the European domination. North, south, east, and
west a flood of the most poisonous spirits is being poured
into Africa by European traders. One may judge of its
quality by a glance at the price-list. Here are a few
examples : * —
Spu'its sold at Sierra Leone, . 4s. 6d. per doz. bottles.
Superior gin (best quality), Lagos, 2s. 6d. „ „
Hamburg gin, . . . .4s. 6d. ,, ,,
Rum (Sierra Leone), . . , 12s. od. ,, ,,
Prom 1883 to the end of 1887 over thirty million gallons
of this sort of stuff were imported into Africa Most of
the European Powers partici23ate in this abominable trade.
The native chiefs have, in some instances, even begged and
prayed for the exclusion of the liquor-traffic from their
territories, but in vain. An earnest effort was made at the
Berlin Conference (1885) to put a stop to it, but it was
thwarted by interested parties.
At the recent Brussels Conference (1889-90), though,
as we have seen in a former chapter, certain restrictive
measures were adopted, they are wholly inadequate to meet
the case. The natives have gone down before the extension
of the traffic as under the scourge of a plague, — but what
does that matter, so long as a few traders can thereby en-
rich themselves ! The short-sightedness of such a policy
is obvious, because the natives are entirely demoralised by
drink. Several of the chartered companies have very wisely
l^rohibited or greatly restricted the importation of spirituous
liquors into tlie territories under their control. Similar
elforts have been made also in the Congo Independent State,
* From a pamphlet issued by the "Native Races and the Liquor Traffic
Committee," Loudon, liut the prices will be raised, no doubt, when the
duty (ijd. per quart) fixed by the recent Brussels Conference comes into
operation.
COMMERCIAL RESOURCES. 243
at the Cape, in British Bechuana-land and Zuhi-land. But
the traffic still thrives, and will continue to thrive until,
by international agreement, effective measures are under-
taken for its total suppression.
Associated with the liquor-traffic is the Labour Problem. The
rm • • 1 • • • Labour
This IS one of the most important questions for Africa, and Problem,
its solution will profoundly affect the ultimate development
of the continent as a field for European enterprise. The
indigenous populations, upon whom we must mainly depend
for supplying the needful labour, are either demoralised
by the liquor-trade or decimated by the Slave Trade ; and
of the two processes, many eminent authorities are agreed
that the former, though slower in operation, is ultimately
more effectual in its results : in both cases the natives are
rapidly killed offi
The diversity of opinion in regard to the Labour Problem Divided
is naturally very great. Some say that Africa should be
for the Africans ; but others deny that the native Africans
are capable themselves, or even under European supervision,
of developing their countries.
Emin Pacha, whose experience has been unique and whose
judgment is reliable, says:* — "A few hundred Chinese
established in any suitable place, under the direction of
practical Europeans, will form a better nucleus for the
civilisation of Africa than any number of Lidian elephants
and ironclad steamers." And he asks : f — " Would not the
introduction of Chinese settle the Slave Trade once and for
all ? " Emin Pacha, therefore, believes in the Chinese as
the best workmen for opening up the country, and that to
employ them would " repay a thousand-fold such undertak-
ing." He does not believe in the regeneration of the Negro
by the Negro. That the Chinese can live under any clime
* Emin Pacha in Central Africa, p. 417.
t Ibid., p. 419.
2 44 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
The is undoubted. They thrive in the pestilential swamps of
Labour
Problem, the Malay Peninsula, and have been taken to the "West
Indies as labou.rers ; they are strong, and make excellent
carriers ; they are thrifty, expert with their hands, and are
excellent artisans. But that they would make better field-
labourers than the natives of Africa may be questioned,
though doubtless their industry is greater. In the Sudan,
along the West Coast, and in South Africa, the natives
are capable of labour and willing to supply it ; while on
the East Coast they have been trained for centuries as
carriers. There remains the question : Under what con-
ditions should they be employed ?
Consul Johnston bears testimony to the fact that the
Portuguese Government apprentices at Sao Thome, in the
Gulf of Guinea, are well cared for and happy, and that this
system of apprenticeship works better and is more justifiable
than the coolie-traffic or the Pacific labour-traffic. There
is always a danger of the coolie-traffic degenerating into
a modified system of slavery ; and, in any case, by their
temporary engagement, coolies are not the best colonisers,
because they do not become permanent settlers.
Under these circumstances, there is a great deal to be
said in favour of Dr. Blyden's scheme of bringing from the
United States of America those Negroes who are willing to
return to the home of their ancestors, and of making them
nuclei of native settlements, more or less under the
control of Europeans.
It has already been demonstrated that Europeans them-
selves, except by a very gradual ]irocess of acclimatisation,
will never be able to colonise Tropical Africa, and can only
live with safety in the healthy plateau-regions.
In the earlier part of this chapter it was stated that to
ojtcii up Africa it is essential to w^ork on commercial prin-
ciples. From what we liave now seen of the value of the
COMMERCIAL RESOURCES. 245
various African lands, it is obvious that in most regions commer-
it is possible, by enterprise and judicious management, to veiopment
get a fair return, in the long-run, for the capital expended
upon tlieir development.* Consequently, for the rough
work of opening up the new countries in Africa, chartered
companies are the best agencies. They can advance with
boldness where the national flag dare not venture for fear
of suffering indignity or repulse. Of course, by entrust-
ing them with governmental powers, the danger is run of
establishing monopolies or of sacrificing native interests
to the interest of the shareholders. A careful supervision
of their administration should, therefore, be the duty of
their respective Governments, who should retain the
power (as in the charter granted to the British South
Africa Company) to control their native and foreign policy.
Great Britain, Holland, France, and latterly Germany,
have worked with chartered companies : we know with
what results. Spain and Portugal have been jealous of
crown monopolies : we see wath what effect. In the
former cases it has been abundantly shown that the
adoption of a rational, generous, and continuous policy
has always succeeded, though failures have been brought
about by unwise governmental interference, or have arisen
from non-continuity of policy, neglect, and injustice. The
Government, in short, should exercise over the chartered
company a wise parental control. Considering the great
and dearly-bought experience of Great Britain in dealing
with native races, it is astounding to observe the errors
into which the Foreign Office, even at the present day,
is constantly falling. No excuse for these failures can be
advanced except that of sheer ignorance.
* The total trade of the Briti.sh Empire with British Africa amounts to
about ^^25,200,000 yearly, exclusive of the annual trade, nine or ten millions
Sterling, with Egypt. (H. H. Johnston, Nineteenth Century, August 1S90.)
246 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
By the introduction of new industries into Africa, hj
teaching the natives to work for themselves and not for
others alone, and by giving them freedom and security of
life and property, the European Powers will themselves be
the gainers. By checking abuses, such as the wholesale
traffic in poisonous liquors, and by introducing legitimate
commerce, most of the evils under which the Negroes
are suffering, of which the Slave Trade is only one, will
be more effectually removed than by all the sham philan-
thropy and mock administrative measures under cover of
which Europe is at present advancing into Africa, like a
thief in the night,
"Robber- Hitherto, in the Tropical regions of Africa, few serious
economy.
attempts have been made in the systematic cultivation of
products intended for export. The method followed by
Europeans is that which has been adopted by the Arab ivory-
traders — to destroy what furnishes the product, or what
the Germans so happily call " robber-economy." * This will
assuredly not pay in the long-run. If we go on reaping
where we do not sow, we cannot expect the virgin resources
of a country to last very long.
Conclusion. In a word, it is only by adopting sound commercial
principles that the African lands, the intrinsic value of
which is undoubted, will ever be turned to profitable
account ; and it is only by the exercise of justice that
Europeans will be justified in acquiring those riches for
themselves and their posterity. To quote a homely saying :
" Honesty is the best policy."
* Handbook of Commercial Geographij (Chisholm), p. 358.
c
CHAPTER IX.
THE EUROPEAN DOMINATION.
RELATIVE ABSENCE OF NATIVE POLITICAL RULE — SURVEY OF THE
EUROPEAN COLONIES, PROTECTORATES, AND SPHERES OF INFLU-
ENCE — THE POLITICAL SITUATION COMPARATIVE ABSENCE OF
EFFECTIVE OCCUPATION BY THE EUROPEAN POWERS — OBSTA-
CLES TO EUROPEAN POLITICAL SETTLEMENT NOT NECESSARILY
INSUPERABLE, BUT LIMITATIONS TO BE OBSERVED.
MAPS.
Political Partition (showing Territorial Bodndaries)'' . Plate XIII.
Forms of Government „ XIV.
A
THE EUROPEAN DOMINATION.
GLANCE at the political map of Africa reveals the Relative
absence of
somewhat remarkable phenomenon that, with relatively native pou-
•^ tical rule.
few exceptions, the countries — at least along the coasts —
are dominated or possessed by European Powers. The only
important and unquestionable exceptions are the Native
States in the Sudan, There remain others, it is true,
such as Morocco, Abyssinia, the South African Eepublic,
and the Orange Free State ; but these are all States more
or less under the influence of European Powers. Their
future destiny cannot fail to be profoundly affected by the
expansion of the European Possessions and by the new
political conditions growing up in their midst. Liberia
may be said to exist by the courtesy and good-will of its
neighbours and well-wishers ; Dahome and Ashanti are
only political bugbears ; and the Congo Independent State
should more correctly be classed apart, in the meantime.
The remaining portions of the continent, not actually pos-
sessed by the European Powers, can scarcely be said to
have yet entered the political arena.
The aspect of our subject now to be considered is the
European domination as it exists at the present day in
Africa. The partition of the continent, since the Berlin
Conference (1885), is of sufficient importance to be dis-
cussed apart, in the next chapter.
Commencing with the countries of North-West Africa, North-
West
lying at the gate of Europe, under the shadow of the Africa.
mighty Atlas Mountains, we have, existing side by side, the
250 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
North- fanatical Mohammedan State of Morocco, the French colony
West . • .
Africa. of Algeria and the French Protectorate of Tunis. These
countries are separated from Egypt by the barren coastal
strip of territory belonging to Turkey : Tripoli, and the
oases of Fezzan. France is undoubtedly the dominant
political Power in those regions, though in Morocco she
cannot yet compete against British commerce, which mono-
polises about three-fourths of the trade of that country.
The dream of empire in which France indulges never-
theless bids fair to be realised, to a qualified extent, should
the present rate of progress be maintained.
Algeria and Mcutiou has already been made of the political con-
Tunis.
ditions in Algeria. In Tunis, which, as we have said, is
more of a commercial colony, French policy has been
more enUghtened and relatively more successful. The
Protectorate is not throttled by " red tape." Sir Lambert
Playfair, at the Bath meeting (1888) of the British
Association, speaking of Tunis, said : " Xo State assistance
of any kind is given, not an immigrant has been im-
ported, not an acre of Arab land has been confiscated ;
and the whole civil charges borne by France do not exceed
£6000 a year."" A very short time ago, the interior of
the country was a terra incognita ; now it is being rapidly
opened out to European enterprise." It is evident that,
with these encouraging prospects, French dominion in North
Africa must continue to expand.
The new The acquisition by France, by the terms of her recent
French
sphere of Agreement with Great Britain, of the Saharan regions
intervening between Algeria and Tunis in the north and
Senegambia and the Niger basin in the south is an event of
greater significance tlian Lord Salisbury seems disposed to
* On the other hand, Algeria costs France annually, including military ex-
penses, as much as from seventy to eighty million francs, though a proportion
of this sum can fairly be reckoned under capital account.
mfluence.
THE EUROPEAN DOMINATION. 251
allow. The consolidation of the French Empire in Nortli-
West Africa would have been seriously hampered had not
this unity of her possessions been recognised by us. As
it is, France practically secures the trade of the Upper
Niger and dominates the caravan-traffic between the Sudan
and North Africa. Even the Sahara Desert itself is not so
valueless as is popularly supposed. The projected railway
across the Sahara is now being seriously discussed in France ;
but it appears to me highly problematical whether such a
railway could be made to pay, or indeed whether it could
be constantly maintained. It would be a difficult matter
for France to control the lawless triljes of the Sahara.
Enough has been said of Tripoli, a Turkish dependency, Britain in
.... . Lower
to argue its comparative insignificance as a colonial pos- E&ypt.
session. We may at once pass on to Lower Egypt. And
there we enter a land of vast possibilities, a land which
might almost be regarded as a British province, but for the
very natural jealousies of the European Powers. The present
comparatively flourishing state of Egypt is due entirely to
the British Occupation, and very little to its own recupera-
tive powers. British arms and statesmanship have re-
stored .the Khediv to power, and since 1876 have brought
about reforms of a most beneficial and far-reaching char-
acter. Abuses under which the Fellahin formally suffered
have been gradually abolished, while the irrigation and
other public works have produced favourable results in the
development of the country. The Egyptian army has been
reorganised, and can now boast of excellent materials.
Egyptian soldiers can at least be relied upon behind earth-
works. It has been stated that our aim in the manage-
ment of her affairs has been to make Egypt stand alone.
But, as the Marquis of Salisbury said, at the Lord Mayor's
banquet on 9th November 1889: "We have undertaken
the guardianship of Egypt for a time, on account of the
252
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Britain in
Lower
Egypt.
Upper
Egypt.
terrible dangers to which, partly through the action of this
country (Great Britain) she was exposed. These dangers
have not ceased during the present year. . . . The dangers
still exist. ... It is necessary we should remember these
things, for there are people who suggest to us that the time
has come when, with safety to our honourable pledges, we
can evacuate Egypt, which we have undertaken to sus-
tain until she is competent to sustain herself against every
enemy, foreign and domestic. We can see that that time
has not arrived, . . . but, whether the day comes sooner or
later, our policy remains unaltered still, ihat we shall pursue
our task to the end." * That, so far, it has been a thankless
and costly task it is evident ; and that we shall reap where
we have sown is doubtful, owing largely to the jealousy of
the Powers. In Egypt, as elsewhere in Africa, it is this
international jealousy which stimulates all the subversive
elements in the development of the continent. This is a
point that will be amply illustrated as we proceed.
In Upper Egypt (we continue to use the term from force
of habit) a very different set of conditions exists. The
political geography of that part of the Nile Valley is insepar-
ably connected with the Eed Sea Littoral, and the key to
it is undoubtedly Sawakin. But here we open a chapter
of history the pages of which — where not obliterated by
stains of blood — convey a story of misery on the one hand
and of criminal blunders on the other.
Elsewhere we have shown that political administration
from Cairo must inevitably stop short of the Nubian Desert,
* A well-infonricd writer in the Cimtrmporary Rcrinv (September 18S9)
says : — " As long as tlie present political position in Egypt undergoes no
radical change, it would take a series of untoward events to seriously endanger
the stability of Egyptian finance and the solvency of the Egyptian Govern-
ni<nt." He also states that " JCgyptian credit has outpaced all competitors
for jiublic favour in the last five years." Yet, when Sir Edgar Vincent went
to Egypt (18S4), she could not borrow at 7 per cent.
THE EUROPEAN DOMINATION. 253
and that Wadi Haifa is the scieutific and natural frontier Middle
Nile region.
of Lower Egypt. The whole of the Middle Nile region
has its most effective hase on the Eed Sea Littoral. The
nomadic tribes of that part of the Sudan, the nature of
whose life inculcates habits of independence and the utmost
intolerance of restraint or taxation of any kind, can only be
controlled — as Sir Samuel Baker assures us — by those who
have the power of seizing and occupying the wells : for to
these nomads water is the most valuable and essential com-
modity. General Gordon, writing in 1884,* classified the Eastern
"^ ° _ Sudan.
peoples of the Sudan as follows: — (i.) Bedwin Arabs, living
a nomadic life in tribes; (2.) Arabs settled in districts
adjoining the river (Nile), who, before Mehemet All's con-
quest, were under their own Sultans, and whose families
still exist ; (3.) the mercantile classes occupying the towns ;
(4.) em'ployis of the Egyptian Government; and (5.) the
adherents of Zebehr (Ziber), — slave-hunters driven out of
the Bahr-el-Ghazal.
Whatever may be the present political situation in the Political
"' ■"■ -^ situation in
Sudan, the classes i and 2 must doubtless still exist. The ti^e Sudan.
Mahdi's supporters were recruited from class 5, and in-
cluded deserters from the Egyptian army. All alike, except
class 4, have been haters of the Egyptian Government,
though it were wrong to infer that therefore they sympa-
thised with the Mahdists. General Gordon went on to say
that " the evacuation of the Siidan by the Cairo Govern-
ment cannot but array the Sudan in two camps : the one,
the Mahdi and his followers ; the other, the Bedwin nomad
tribes, the Arabs who live by agriculture and who were
formerly under separate Sultans, and the mercantile classes.
These two camps are united only because they equally hate
the Cairo Government. Of the two camps, the one which
offers most hope of tranquillity to the Sudan is the latter,
* Published by Mr. Clifford Lloyd in Nineteenth Century, November 1SS9.
254
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Sawakin.
Massawa.
Italy en
the Red
Sea.
and I think that our efforts should be to give over the
country to them. Nothing can be hoped for from the
Mahdi and his party, while we may hope for some degree
of settled government from the native sultans and the
sheikhs of the great tribes. As for the Slave Trade, it will
go on, whether the Mahdi's party gains the ascendant or
whether the two camps remain antagonistic, for both are
equally interested in its continuance." This is the post-
humous verdict of one who fought and died for the Sudan,
and it were difiicvilt to dispute it. The only material point
on which we are inclined to differ from so high an authority
as the late General Gordon is that concerning the continuance
of the Slave Trade. For if, as is confidently and reasonably
asserted, the introduction of legitimate commerce and a
spirited commercial policy wxre to be the death-blow to the
Slave Trade in other parts of Africa, it is only logical to assume
that the Sudan w^ould prove to be no ultimate excej)tion.
From whatever point we regard the matter, Sawakin
presents the most effective base of operations, whether for
commercial enterprise, the suppression of the Slave Trade,
or as a political centre. In spite of its unhealthiness — the
causes of which might be partially removed — Sawakin is
also an admirable site for a great naval or coaling station.
Farther south, at Massawa, we enter a new sphere of politi-
cal action. The dominating Power there is Italy, our ancient
ally, whose policy in Africa would appear to be identical
witli our own. But even old friends sometimes quarrel ;
and it w^ere well to realise in good time the preponderating
infiuence which Italy will be able to exercise in the Sudan
when the moment for action arrives.* The route from
Massawa vid Kassala to Khartum is practically in the hands
* This passage was written several months a<^o ; at the present moment
(17th October 1890), I'ritain and Italy, after discussing their relative interests
in that part of Africa, have failed to arrive at an understanding.
THE EUROPEAN DOMINATION. 255
of Italy, and is one of the best and healthiest hi2:liways into itaiyonthe
the Sudan. Indeed, had it been selected by the British
expeditionary force in preference to the desert routes,
Khartum might to-day have been in European hands. But
sheer contrariness at the time defeated the adoption of
this route. It is still open to us, or at least to Italy. Tlie
Italian Possessions on the Eed Sea Littoral — now united
under the name of Eritrea, and placed under the adminis-
tration of a military Governor — have been steadily expand-
ing. But that is not all : an Italian Protectorate has been
proclaimed over Abyssinia and Shoa, and some intervening
districts have been occupied. The present Negus of Abyssinia,
Menelek, is the " creature of Italy." He owes his position
to Italy in the same way as King Johannes partly owed his
crown to Great Britain.
From these few indications we are able to estimate the
immense influence which Italy has secured for herself on
the Eed Sea, and, by implication, in the Sudan also. The
French and British stations on the Gulf of Aden are of
relative insignificance as a base for operations in the interior
parts of Africa, though, as halting-places on the route to the
East, they may continue to prove invaluable.
As for Ecfypt — whose dominion before its downfall was The loss of
'='-' ^ the Siidan.
gradually creeping south — at the present day she has abso-
lutely no hold whatever upon the Sudan, though a stronger
Power behind her. Great Britain, is endeavouring to save
some of the Jlotsajii and Jetsam from the wreck. The Sudan
is a closed book to us ; but when it is re-opened, there
should be stirring incidents to chronicle in its pages.
Of the course of events in the Upper Nile territories The
f ^• ^ Mahdi's
since the fall of Khartum very little trustworthy news has dominions,
transpired. The original Mahdi, whose followers braved
British bayonets, is dead, and of his successor we know
little. The revolutionary — or, should we say, patriotic ? —
256 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
The party must, however, as an essential condition of its exist-
Mahdi's r J ' > ^ 1 c i • •
dominions, ence, be doing something. We have heard of the invasion
of Wadai, which met with temporary success, and we know
— only too well— that Emin's Province has at last fallen.
But no man can foretell what will be the outcome of these
events. Only this much seems certain : the recon quest of
the territories in the Sudan were a task fitter to be under-
taken by the pacific means of commerce than by force of
arms. The bases of operations in the future will in all
likelihood be on the Eed Sea Littoral and the East Coast.
From these points of vantage our first messengers into the
Siidan should be, not trains of war, but caravans and trains
of commerce.
Of the Central Sudan States sufficient has already been
said, to indicate their vast power and resources.
West Before proceeding farther south in our survey of the
European domination over African lands, we may turn to
the West Coast. No other part of Africa is divided amongst
such a great number of different European Powers. The
great bend of the West Coast north of the Equator is
occupied at various points by all the European Powers
possessing territories in Africa, except Italy ; while several
Xative States have at the same time managed to uphold
their integrity.
Britain and Tliis portiou of tlic Wcst Coast has from the earliest
France on. niiPT->'-i i-r-' 1
tjie West times been the chosen field or -british and h reiich enter-
prise, and they have only recently been disturbed by the
entrance of a powerful competitor, — Germany. We have
seen how, fur centuries past. Great Britain and France
have been endeavouring to monopolise the trade of the
Niger ; but Timbuktu, the original objective point, is no
lunger the sole goal of their ambitions : the field of action
has been enlarged. Tlie French in Senegambia and the
British chartered Cuinpaiiy on the Niger are pursuing an
Coast,
THE EUROPEAN DOMINATION. 257
energetic and enlightened policy, with the aim not only of
attracting the trade of the Interior, but also of developing
their possessions on the Coast. The British Possessions
between Seneganibia and Liberia have never been sufficiently
supported by the Home Government to be able to compete
against the French : they appear to have remained stationary,
or in a state of coma. Much the same may be said in
respect of the British colony on the Gold Coast. But in
the Niger Territories a vigorous commercial company have
proved equal to their responsibilities, and have boldly seized
every opportunity. Their only serious competitor, except on Germany
the Upper Niger, is, as we have said, Germany ; and the west
German colony of Camarons, from whence to the Benue a
route lias recently been opened up, bids fair soon to become
a thriving province.
The chief British Possessions in this part of Africa are British
' Possess-
undoubtedly those on the Niger. Between the colony of ions on
"^ ° . ''the West
Lagos and the Camarons frontier, the coastal lands full Coast,
under two political divisions: (i.) the Oil Ptivers District,'"
comprising the intricate network of channels in the Deltaic
lands, and beyond ; and (2.) the territories of the Eoyal
Niger Com2)any. The Niger itself, being an international
highway, is open to the flags of all nations. For a definite
distance up the valleys of the Niger and Benue, and over
the intervening countries of Sokoto and Gandu, the Eoyal
Niger Company possess certain rights of sovereignty and Royai
extra-territorial jurisdiction. The Company may thus be Company,
regarded as the chief political power in those regions.
It is true they occupy the anomalous j)osition of being
traders and administrators at one and the same time. Tlie
machinery of government is expensive, and the cost has to
be met by imposts, by far the greater part of which is re-
mitted by themselves as traders. This is like taking money
* So called from the nature of its staple export.
R
258 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Royal out of One pocket to put into another. Though the Company-
Niger . . . ....
Company, mvitc traders to enter their territories, imposing a fee of
£$0 for the license, it is natural that they themselves should
monopolise the commerce of the entire region. In conse-
quence of this exercise of a monopoly, the German traders
have sought protection from their Government ; but the
position they have taken up is an unreasonable one : because
it should be remembered that the Company bought up the
British and French trading concerns before they received
their Eoyal Charter, and from 1882, as the National African
Company, they have themselves been , the principal traders.
It seems impossible to prevent a monopoly of trade falling
to the Company, constituted as it now is. Only by con-
ferring on them purely administrative functions, and thus
destroying their dual position, could this monopoly be
broken down. Disputes have also occurred between the
Company and the Liverpool merchants in the Oil Elvers
District, over which there is now a British Protectorate.
The Eoj^al Niger Company are pursuing an intelli-
gent policy in restricting or prohibiting the importation
of ardent spirits into the territories under their control.
Though they do not publish trade-returns, it may be in-
ferred from the value of their stock that they are able to
pay their way. The affairs of the Company are controlled
from London, and the administrative staff on the Niger is
fairly effective. Owing to the unhealthiness of the Lower
Niger, innumerable difficulties occur in the way of settle-
ment, and therefore of administration ; but these have
been met so far in an enlightened wa}'. The Company
are very proud of their small military force (400 or 500
strong), and have occasionally undertaken punitive expedi-
tions. They possess also a small fleet for maintaining order
and upholding the machinery of government in the Deltaic
water-ways. That the C jmpany have a great future before
THE EUROPEAN DOMINATION. 259
them, provided their somewhat equivocal position be reUeved
by the Home Government, cannot be doubted. Whatever
may be their actual rights over Sokoto and Gandu, the
countries of the Sudan, as has been demonstrated, should
provide a valuable market for British manufactures, quite
apart from the virgin resources of the intervening regions.
At present the Oil Pavers District would appear to be even
more valuable ; but trade with the Si'idan can scarcely yet
be said to have been created.
The position of the British colonies at Lagos and on the British
Colonies
Gold Coast is complicated, not only by the presence of ^^^^
the French but also of the Native States of Ashanti and Coast.
Dahome. Hereditary feuds have been among our chief
legacies in those parts. Lagos itself is a busy port, and,
now that it has a constitution of its own, the colony may
be regarded as a valuable possession. The history of these
colonies is so inseparably associated with the Slave Trade,
foreign intrigue, and native troubles, that, apart from the
inimical climate, their administration has been hampered by
endless difficulties. The Home Government has at no time
retained a strong hold over them, and has always shirked
its responsibilities and discouraged enterprise. Much the
same political conditions obtain in Sierra Leone, where
there is a thriving port, and on the Gambia. The action
of the French all along the line is tending to shut out
British trade from the Interior, though at places their
political moves have been checked. Though the Britisli
West African colonies pay their way fairly well,* their
want of enterprise leaves them in a state of stagnation.
We have repeatedly alluded to the progress of the French The
o 1 • -K-r 11 T French in
m Senegambia. JNot only have they now connected their west
° ./J Africa.
* Consul Johnston estimates the entire trade of Great Britain with the
British Possessions in West Africa, durinj,' the year ending ist December
188S, to have amounted to over ;/^5, 000,000, — almost equally divided between
imports and exports.
26o
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
French
Possess-
ions on the
West
Coast.
PortugTiese
Possess-
ions.
Spanish
Possess-
ions.
Western
Sahara.
Liberia.
possessions on the Senegal with tlie Upper Niger, on
which they have founded stations, and Lake Tsad, but they
have also cut off the British and Portuguese colonies from
the Interior by entirely surrounding them, and, in defiance
of the " Hinterland " doctrine, have extended their sphere
to the coast on the other side of them. A glance at the
map will elucidate this anomalous situation. A French Pro-
tectorate has been proclaimed over the Futa Jallon high-
lands, and the French sphere of influence has been advanced
southwards to the Gulf of Guinea. The consolidation of
the French territories on the West Coast may be confidently
anticipated in the near future. Possibly the Portuguese may
consent to be bought out, since their domination is a mere
shadow; and we ourselves have practically relinquished our
equivocal position on the Gambia.
The islands held by Portugal in the Gulf of Guinea,
Principe and Sao Thome, are the only valuable possessions
she has on or off the "West Coast north of the Equator, if
we except Madeira and the Cape Yerde Islands. Of these,
Sao Thome is the most prosperous.
Spain holds the islands of Fernando Po and Annobon in
the Gulf of Guinea, and the Canary Islands in the Atlantic.
The latter may prove to be valuable as a coaling-station.
Opposite the Canaries, at Cape Juby, on the African main-
land, a Piitish Company have acquired certain political and
trading rights, and are endeavouring to promote intercourse
wilh the Interior. To the south of their sphere Spain also
lias an extensive establishment on the Coast.
The experiment of creating in Liberia an independent
Xesro State on the basis of the United States constitution
lius proved, so far, most disappointing. The Negroes are said
to have relapsed into semi-barbarism, and their form of
government is regarded as a caricature of its prototype. The
llepublic, which was founded l»y the American Colonisation
THE EUROPEAN DOMINATION. 261
Society (1822-23), continues to receive support from its
friends in the United States, whence detachments of Negroes
are sent out as emigrants. It became an Independent State
in 1847. The exact colour of affairs in Liberia is, probably,
not so black as it is commonly painted ; but Dr. Blyden
and his friends will have a difficult task in obtaining the
necessary support to carry out their scheme of introducing
into Liberia a steady flow of American Negro immigrants.
The Eepublic is, however, still young ; and the hope of even-
tually moulding it into a strong Negro community should not
be altogether abandoned. Even a measure of success should
justify every effort being made to make Liberia the nucleus
of a civilised Negro State, the influence of which upon Pagan
Africa might be of the most beneficial character.
Between the Niger and the Congo the German colony of Germany
in the
Camarons and the French Congo Territories occupy posi- Cama-
o . '■"IS.
tions favourable to the rapid development of the interior
lands. In no other part of Africa does Germany possess a
more valuable field for colonial enterprise. Situated at a
convenient part of the "West Coast, with a healthy sanatorium
on Mount Camarons, and not too remote from the threshold
of the Sudan, the Colony has every chance in its favour.
At the present time trade is at its most primitive stage,
being carried on mainly by barter. Until quite recently
the interior lands were a blank upon the map. Repeated
expeditions have now partly explored the country ; stations,
both scientific and commercial, have been founded and
plantations established. From the reports that have been
published it is clear that German action in the Camarons
has been undertaken in an intelligent spirit, and has met
so far with encouraging results.
The French Possessions on the Congo and Gabiin, now The
,.. . ,. .,,.. French
united for administrative purposes, having reached their m- Congo
. . Territories.
terior limit, are creeping up the right bank of the M'bangi.
262 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Steady progress appears to have been made in developing
their resources; but, being restricted to the coast, France
is disposed to regard her Congo Possessions as a cul-de-sac.*'
Not that this is, by any means, the case : on the contrary,
the products of the country (caoutchouc, ivory" metals, &c.)
should defray initial expenses and encourage the further
introduction of capital.
Bei^um In regard to the founding of the Congo Independent
and the
Congo State, we have seen that its orio-in was due in the first
Independ- °
ent State, instance to the discoveries and enterprise of Mr. H. M.
Stanley, and in the second instance to the philanthropy
and munificence of its sovereign, the King of the Belgians.
The subsequent development of the State has been primarily
due to his Majesty, who, out of his private means, is said
to have provided an annual subsidy of two million francs.
But, by a recent deed of gift, the King has transferred all
acquired rights to Belgium, into whose hands the adminis-
tration of the State will thus ultimately fall. Financial aid
by its legatees will consequently be given without delay.
The recognition of the independence of the Congo State
by the Berlin Conference (1885) invested it with a nominal
entit}', but officials of nearly every European nationality
were at first employed in its organisation. Latterly, Belgian
subjects have been almost exclusively entrusted with its
administration. The results have been freely spoken of as
unsatisfactory. The Congo officials have at times been
sliar])ly criticised and charged with incompetence, negli-
gence, or malpractices, whilst the machinery of the State
is commonly regarded as either incomplete or bad. But
critics of the State too easily forget that in other parts of
Africa European administration is bad, or at least imperfect
and ineffectual. To exercise eirective control over such an
immense area as the Congo basin is, of course, quite impos-
* La France Culonialc, i8S6, p. 262 (M. Alfred Kambaud).
THE EUROPEAN DOMINATION. 263
sible fur the present stall' uf otlicers : many more would be
required to carry out adequately the orders from Brussels.
For this reason it seems evident that, if any progress is to
be made, some radical changes must first be effected in the
political organisation of the State. Owing to its geographi-
cal position and its natural resources, the basin of the Congo
offers a unique field for European enterprise in Africa. Its
resources may have been overrated, as, undoubtedly, they
are in many (quarters ; but no one can dispute the value of
the Congo river and its magnificent tributary systems as
highways into the Interior, which will at once be thrown
open to the commercial enterprise of Europe as soon as the
railway past the rapids has been completed.
No firm hold can be kept on the Upper Congo while Tippu Tib
Tippu Tib and his Arab colleagues and supporters reign Upper
supreme. This African Bismai'ck, as he is sometimes called,
is perfectly well aware that the Congo State is at present
unable to oust him from his slave-preserves and planta-
tions, or in any way to exercise any effective control over
his actions. He himself, with his own eyes, has seen the
weakness as well as the strength of the State. His astute
diplomacy has, it is true, given him some temporary security,
and has even invested him with the cares of office as
Governor of the Palis Station. Perhaps during his life-
time the political situation will undergo no radical change,
but after his death his mantle may not fall on equally
robust shoulders. It must be plain to him, as it is to us,
that it were quite impossible for the European domination
and Arab rule, under their present relations, to exist per-
manently side by side. For they are as oil and water
together : legitimate trade on the one hand, and the Slave
Trade on the other. These inimical conditions may or may
not bring about a precipitate conflict : that will depend
upon events : in either case, they are quite irreconcilable
264 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
with European notions in regard to the development of
Africa.
Adminis- The administration of the Congo State looks fairly satis-
tration of n J
the Congo factorj On paper. Excellent enactments have been drawn
up, but they remain for the most part a dead letter, in con-
sequence of the inability of the resident officials to enforce
them. The common mistake is also made of endeavouring
to control local affairs from Europe, direct from Brussels.
The consequence is that no effective action is possible ;
because, in the time that it takes to receive instructions
from home, opportunities are lost, and affairs on the spot
naturally undergo rapid changes of front.
Europe Under these circumstances, it is highly desirable, in the
Congo interest of Africa in general and of the European Powers
State. ^ ^.
in particular, that every support should be given to the
Congo Independent State. All would benefit from the
establishment of a strong and efficient government in the
basin of the Congo. The State has for too long been a sort
of drill-ground for Belgian officers and officials, who have
generally been content to let things take their course. It is,
therefore, not too much to say that, until a vigorous com-
mercial policy governs the affairs of the State, very slow
progress will be made in the development of the Congo basin.
Portugal in Tlic Portuguesc Posscssious in Lower Guinea have, since
1885, shown a slight tendency towards improvement. The
marvel is that, with such resourceful lands, their progress
has not been more marked. Portuguese colonies all over the
world, taken together, are a very expensive luxury to the
mother-country, since their administration involves a heavy
annual deficit, and those on the African mainland are no
exception. Of them all, Lower Guinea is, however, the most
valuable.
The chief reason of tliis failure to achieve colonial success
is ascribed to Portugal's sellish fiscal [xilicy, by which she
THE EUROPEAN DOMINATION. 265
herself is tlie loser. Her position in Africa is that of
the fal)led " clog in the manger." Yet, were she to evince
more energy and less ambition, her Possessions might be
made, not only to pay their own way, but also to return
handsome profits to the Lisbon Exchequer. The dream of
empire in Africa in which Portugal indulges is fatal to her
own interests, and no less inimical to the more enterprising
and wealthier European Powers, who are quite prepared to
develop African lands, and much better able to do it. Her
long-cherished ambitious claims to the territories intervening
between Angola and Mozambicpie could never have been
substantiated, and appeared ridiculous in the light of Portu-
guese action in Africa. Her resources and energies would
be better applied, and indeed entirely absorbed, in the work
of developing those lands to which she has incontestable
right ; and, until this obvious fact be recognised by Portugal,
nothing but disaster to herself and inconvenience to others
are likely to ensue. At the same time, it is necessary to
accept Portugal as a helpmate to Europe in Africa. We
should not forget how much is due to the earlier enterprise
of the Portuguese. Poverty is said to induce pride ; and the
poverty of her resources renders Portugal the more tena-
cious of her African Possessions, even though they may be
"white elephants." A proud people like the Portuguese
are not to be coerced by high-handed proceedings, and very
properly resent injustice of any kind.
The German Protectorate in South-West Africa occupies Germany
All !• ^ n nx-M '" South-
a curious position. Although it was the first of German West
^ . ° Africa.
colonial acquisitions, it is, at the present day, by far the
most backward. Troubles with the natives and the rivalry
of individual Englishmen and of Great Britain, though they
may have interfered wdth the extension of German influence,
are not the causes of the backward state of the colony.
Germany began her colonial campaign in Africa by securing
266 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
from Britain the possession of Angra Pequena ; but Walvisch
Bay remains British and the key to the political situation.
All the best routes into the Interior diverge from Walvisch
Bay, which is also by far the best harbour on that coast.
Indeed, with the exception of Angra Pequena, there is no
other serxiceable harbour between the Kunene and Orange
Eivers. The desert character of the coastal lands— arid soil
and little rain — renders their possession of slight value,
although the climate is fairly healthy. Grazing-grounds
there may be, but, except in the north, there are no agri-
cultural prospects. At the same time, as we have pointed
out in another place, the higher lands of the Interior may
possibly prove to be of value.
Walvisch It is difficult to sce the intrinsic value of Walvisch Bay
to Britain except as a thorn in the side of the Germans ;
and it were therefore desirable to effect an exchange between
it and some German possession of equal worth elsewhere in
Africa. The opposition of the Cape Colony to such ex-
change might surely be overcome. To Germany Walvisch
Bay is absolutely essential, if it be her intention to remain
in South-West Africa.
Political The political situation in South Africa is of so intricate a
South°° '" nature that we must permit ourselves the use of only very
general terms in attempting to define its fundamental con-
ditions. South of the Zambezi, in the plateau-countries
between German South-West Africa and the Portuguese
Possessions on the East Coast, there are British Colonies
and protected Xative Territories, British Protectorates and
a Sphere of Inlhience, existing side by side with Dutch
Pepublies ; and the ensuing inter-relations are of the most
complicated cliaracter. The recent foundation of a power-
ful chartered Com]:)any, to take over what has been called
" Zanibezia," iutnjduci'S a new factor of the highest poli-
tical significance ; fur the vigorous programme of the
THE EUROPEAN DOMINATION. 267
Company, Ijy providing for the construction of railways,
and thereby quickening the development of the region,
must necessai-ily aiiect the economical conditions of all the
countries of South Africa. This will become clearer to us
as we proceed.
Within this sphere of British enterprise we have the old
colonies of the Cape and Natal, to which must now be added
the crown colonies of Basuto-land and British Bechuana-
land. Zulu-land is practically a crown colony. There is
also a British Protectorate in Northern Bechu ana-land, and
over Pondo-land and Tonga -land. The Transvaal, or South
African Kepublic, and the Orange Free State form enclaves
between these British possessions and Portuguese East
Africa. Between them and the Zambezi River in the north
lies the British sphere of influence.
In Cane Colonv the political situation may be said to be Political
, situation
based on the numerical predominance of the Dutch or Boers i? fape
^ Colony.
over the British, and of the native races over both in con-
junction. We are in a minority almost everywhere except
in Natal, which prides itself on being the most " English "
portion of South Africa. In Kafraria there is a strong
contingent of Germans, the nucleus of which was formed
by the so-called " Legionaries."
The Afrikanders, or Dutch-speakino- colonists, exercise Afrikander
. . . . Bund.
a dominant influence, which no political combination can
wholly destroy. The Afrikander Biand, as Sir Charles Q I
Dilke points out,'" should not be regarded as essentially \
inimical to British ascendancy ; on. the contrary, it would
appear to be a patriotic league, of which loyal Englishmen
are themselves members, and to promote an intelligent policy.
This policy may in the main be described as advocating
an united South Africa under the British flag ; although
it is natural that, in the bitterness of party spirit, it may
* rroUems of Greater Britain, vol. i. pp. 474-76.
268 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
South at times be otherwise affected. The ill-feeling between the
Africa :
Wanted British and the Boers, aggravated as it has been by actual
a pro- ^ "^
gramme, conflicts, is easily understood ; but the aim of far-seeing
statesmen on either side should be to establish a modus
vivcndi, since the community of interests in several vital
respects is obvious. The Dutch party, which eventually
may be absorbed, is at present too strong to be either
neglected or coerced. A conciliatory policy towards the
Boers, and one providing for co-operation as against diver-
gence, would therefore be the most statesmanlike attitude
for Great Britain to maintain, since we are apparently
unprepared to carry out a vigorous Imperial programme
in South Africa. The pursuance of such a policy need not
necessarily imply concession, but only consistency.
The Boer The Boer Republics themselves are not in accord with
Republics.
regard to their mutual interests or in their foreign rela-
tions. The Transvaal assumes a bullying attitude towards
^ ( the Orange Free State. The latter, which is pr otected b y a
. , kind of British suzerainty, is prepai^ed to entertain British
pr()[)<is;ils. Ijiit llic I'oniicr will have little or nothing to do
with them. This divei-gence of feeling is the outcome
of political events, for which we ourselves are in the
main responsible. Our policy in South Africa, if it can
be called a policy, has, notoriously, been characterised by
being " too late ; " but, in the case of the Transvaal, it was
too precipitate. Had it been otherwise, the Transvaal at
the present day might have been in the same position as
its sister Republic, if not an actual ]')ritish dependency.
We have been consistent only in shirking responsibility,
or acting in a half-hearted manner — in short, neglecting
to perform our accepted duties towards the natives and the
colonies themselves. I5ut the position is not necessarily
irretrievable. Indeed, one of the healthiest signs of the
inauguration of a now era for South Africa is the recent
THE EUROPEAN DOMINATION. 269
appointment of Mi-. Cecil liLodes, an " Elizabethan "
Englishman, to the Premiership of Cape Colony.
In the Transvaal (South African Republic) there is The
-r, . . 1 . 1 • 1 T • 1 Transvaal.
growing up a British contingent, which, attracted 111 the
first instance by gold-mining interests, now out-numbers
the Boers in several large districts : it is a pacific British ^
invasion, in fact. The time is not far distant, therefore,
when this alien population of British subjects will demand,
with justice, what is practically denied them at present —
a share in the government of the country.
The rapid development of the country is daily becoming Tariffs.
m.ore rapid. The conflict of customs' dues and freights
has superseded ■ the conflict between armed forces, and
fiscal revolutions are producing a profound effect on the
political situation. The universal cry appears to be : " Save
us from Downing Street ! " It is therefore obvious that
political action of some kind cannot be long delayed. A
railway war is now raging in the Transvaal and surround-
ing regions, and races to reach the most coveted districts
are taking place on all sides.
The charter granted to the British South Africa Com- British
pany is, fortunately or unfortunately, very vague in its de- Africa
finition of territorial boundaries. But the Company stands
in the van of progress in South Africa, and is not likely
to let the grass grow under its feet. Its ideal aim, as is
well known, is to effect a connection between the spheres
of British influence in the Zambezi Valley and the Lakes
region. It will altogether depend on the diplomacy of the
Company and the support it receives from the British
Government whether these aims be eventually realised.
To sum up : we observe, and have repeatedly seen in British
the course of this book, that the British Possessions in Africa.
South Africa are by fai' the most valuable in the whole
continent, and that there exist there organised political
lyo
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Imperial
interests
in South
Africa.
Portugal
on the
East
Coast.
forces which, properly utilised, slioukl promote the rapid
development of the country and its profitable use as a
colony.
Its future government and ownership are points we need
scarcely discuss. Till quite recently events were making
for Federation, — au united South Africa to some extent.
That this union would be brought about by a Zollvcrein or
some political confederation was vaguel}^ felt. But with
!Mr. Cecil Rhodes at the helm and an awakened feeling of
interest and responsibility in African affairs prevailing at
the Foreign Office, there is room for hope that, instead
of encouraging an independent or semi-independent con-
federacy we may retain South Africa as one of the most
valuable possessions of the British Empire. Whatever may
be the ultimate issue, Great Britain, as an Imperial Power,
has one duty she cannot afford to neglect. Simons Bay
and Table Bay must at all hazards be reserved as naval
and military stations : consequently, a certain well-defined
portion of the Cape must continue to remain under the
direct control of the Home authorities, for the loss of those
stations would imperil the safety of our Indian Empire.
Portuguese dominion over the Sofala and Mozambique
Coasts is as unsubstantial as a sbadow\ Not only does
it not extend for any distance into the Interior, but it
is said to be restricted to the range of her guns at the
few fortified places on the East Coast and on the Zambezi.
The administration of the colony of IMozambique shows
an annually increasing deficit. This deficit, if capitalised
at 4 per cent., would represent a sum of over two million
pounds sterling. Its foreign commerce is of less value
than llie turn-over of a small private firm, whilst British
trade in the province is itself five times as great. The
remarks already made on the administration of Portuguese
colonies in general a])ply with double force to Mozam-
THE EUROPEAN DOMINATION. 271
bique. Efforts Lave been constantly made to cripple the
foreign coniniorce entering by the Zambezi. Portugal, it
is true, has been content to sit at the receipt of custom,
but she has been too blind to lier real interests to foster
trade which she herself cannot create, and which might
bring in a steady income to her empty coffers. Even by
fixing prohibitive dues and interposing every imaginable
kind of political obstacle, Portugal has been unable to stem
the steady stream of British enterprise, which, entering
the Interior by way of the Zambezi and Shire Pivers, has
finally established itself in Nyassa-land.
A British Protectorate having now been proclaimed British
Nyassa-
over a portion of Nyassa-land and in the so-called Shire ^^'^'^■
Highlands, it remains to be seen what will be made of
this region. It is essentially the sphere of the Scottish
missions and trading companies, by whom it was originally
opened up.'"
The Portuguese have long held posts on the Zambezi — Portugal
'^ : on the
at Zumbo, Tete, Sena, and in the Deltaic lands. Kilimani, Lower
' Zambezi.
on the Kwakwa, is the chief port; and there is a custom-
house at the confluence of the Shire. The line of com-
munications between the Zambezi and the Lakes, extend-
ing more or less effectually to the northern end of Lake
Tanganika, is, however, maintained by the British mission-
ary and commercial stations, which are established at the
most convenient localities. At various points these com-
munications have of late been temporarily interrupted by
Arab hostilities and political plots ; but the restoration
of order is only a question of time, and will doubtless be
effected as soon as international difficulties have been
fi n ally ad j u sted . f
The English mission on Lake Tanganika carries on the
* Over ;{!'400,ooo has already been spent towards this end.
t The Anglo-Portuguese Convention (1890) requires formal ratification.
272 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
chain of settlements by which this valuable land-and- water
route can eventually be controlled.
German On the Zanzibar Coast, for so long the exclusive field of
East . T-i p •
Africa. British enterprise and influence, the German East Africa
Company established itself in 1885—86, but only, after
a brief period of maladministration, to be forcibly ejected
by an Arab insurrection. A few months of German mis-
rule resulted not only in the entire overthrow of the
administration, but also in the total destruction of com-
merce and the paralysis of every European enterprise on
the Coast and far inland within the German sphere of in-
fluence. Retaliations only embittered the natives still more
against Europeans in general. The Company, on the verge
of ruin, was eventually rescued from extinction through
the intervention of the German Imperial Government. A
Commissioner (^Major Wissmann) was despatched to East
Africa at the head of a small force. He at once laid siege
to the coast towns held by the insurrectionists. Some
degree of order was gradually established along the Coast
and for a distance inland, though not without bloodshed.
It remains to be seen what eflfect these military operations
will have, and what kind of Phoenix administration will
be raised on the ashes of the former one.
The extension of the German sphere of influence to-
wards the Lakes, the western limit of which has now been
definitely fixed, was both natural and inevitable. Emin
Pacha, shortly after his arrival on the Coast in the train
of Mr. Stanley, was promptly impressed into the German
service ; a hasty peace was patched up with the " rebels,"
and pacific overtures made to the Arab leaders : the ob-
vious aim of such action being the fresh acquisition of
territories in the Interior. We have yet to learn the out-
come of this enterprise, the objective point of which would
a])])<'ar to Ijc tlic shores of the Vicloria Nyauza.
THE EUROPEAN DOMINATION. 273
The British East Africa Company have been more fortu- British
nate and adroit in the government of their territories, Africa.
In spite of the unsettled political conditions surrounding
them on all sides, they have up to the present made steady
progress, and have not been hampered by native disaffec-
tion of any kind. On the contrary, they have been well
received everywhere, mainly because their administration is
based on justice and common sense, and has been carried
out with a firm hand. Exploring expeditions are rapidly
opening up the country and founding commercial stations.
The recent extension of the Company's territories westwards
and northwai'ds, by agreement with Germany, places the
trade of the Upper Nile within their sphere of operations.
As was set forth in their first prospectus, the Company,
being in possession of the valuable harbour of Mombaza,
relied on this natural outlet to the trade which gravitates
from the Upper Nile Territories. But unfortunately, owing
to the evacuation of the last Egyptian Equatorial Province
and to the civil war in Uganda, the extension of the Com-
pany's sphere inland suffered a severe check. Their ideal aim
would appear to be to build a railway from Mombaza to
the Victoria Nyanza, upon which steamers are to be placed ;
but, until the countries bordering on the lake have been
pacified and brought under British influence, even the con-
struction of such a railway would be of little avail, though,
trusting to the future, it has already been commenced.
The lawless and predatory Masai will also have to be
reckoned with. But as the success, if not the very exist-
ence, of the Company depends on the possession of the
Upper Nile territories, or at least on the monopoly of trade
in those regions, it is obvious that, unless deserted by the
British Government, the Company must eventually establish
their rule there. Ample scope for extension is left towards
the north.
2 74 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Britain and Botli tliG British aud German spheres of influence on the
Germany -r-i /~i
in East East Coast are connected by regfular steamship-communi-
Africa. J g i
cation with Europe. The trade of that region requires
but little fostering care in order to attain to its former
magnitude. The Banyans, if they can be kept from
dabbling in the Slave Trade, will continue to prove valu-
able intermediaries between Europeans and natives. What
would appear to be the most serious obstacle to the de-
velopment of the region is the senseless jealousy between
the German and British agents. There is ample scope
for the energies of both, and there are well-defined limits
to their ambitions, if only they would loyally recognise
them ; but their activities so far appear to have been
directed to outwitting one another. The Germans, with an
enterprising Government behind them, have in several cases
encroached upon the rights of the British Company, whose
support by the Home Government has been not only most
uncertain, but also decidedly opportunist in character. Yet,
the German and British Governments affect the friendliest
mutual feeling, and pretend to recognise an identity of
political aims in Africa. Considering all things, it is diffi-
cult to justify, or even excuse, German intrigue and diplo-
macy in East Africa : they have been unworthy of a great
Power.
In view of this mutual attitude of hostility, it was with a
deep sense of relief and gratitude that all who are concerned
in the welfare of Africa heard of the recent Anglo-German
Agreement. This equitable arrangement redounds to the
credit of its negotiators. By it Great Britain, too, obtains
— what few could have ventured to anticipate — a Protec-
torate over the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba.
The German colony of Vitu was by the same Agree-
ment handed over to the British Company, thus securing
to them the unity of their possessions, which is in every
THE EUROPEAN DOMINATION. 275
respect desirable. The Benadir ports on the Somul Coast, itaiyin
^ o • SomAl-
which were originally ceded by the Sultan of Zanzibar to land,
the British East Africa Company, were subsequently placed
under Italian protection.
Finally, over the larffe island of Madagascar France France in
•'' *=^ , , '=' Mada-
has eventually succeeded in establishing her Protectorate, gascar.
which has now been recognised by Great Britain. Her
first settlement on the island was erected some 250 years
ago.
The EuroiDeau domination in Africa, even from what Limits
.... , to the
has so far been said of it, is obviously very unequal in European
' J J L domina-
extent and uncertain in kind. Except in the sub-Tropical *'°°-
portions of the continent, the climatic conditions of which
are not actually hostile to European colonisation, political
settlement has in fact been relatively ineffective. To ad-
minister and develop the interior lands of Tropical Africa
requires such great sacrifice of life, and such an enormous
outlay of capital, that European settlement has consequently
been restricted to the coastal lands, except in those regions
where local conditions have favoured the expansion of an
enterprising colony. The quest for new markets and the
somewhat illusory ambitions of empire have in a few cases
partly overcome these adverse circumstances. Neverthe-
less, it is no exaggeration to say that, throughout the whole
of Tropical Africa, effective occupation by the European
Powers is recognisable only in the coastal lands, and for
a relatively short distance up the great river valleys. In
the strictly Tropical lands of the Interior effective occupa-
tion, if it be judged by the standards of other continents,
cannot be said to exist, for the natives have pretty much
their own way, and few Governments would be rash enough
to guarantee the security of life and property. But it will be
found that in most respects our standard of moral obligation
in Africa is not a high one. It is, in fact, lower than
276 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
The almost anvwhere else. We cannot therefore aflford to be
European
domination, very exacting.
It is said, and said with truth, that Portugal has done
very little to develop her African possessions, and in some
cases has done practically nothing. But if we admit this
we must also concede the analogy, that the other European
Powers have accomplished very little more in their own
possessions, except in the sub-Tropical portions of the
continent.
Limitations The inference to be drawn from these considerations is
to the de- . rn . „ . „
veiopment clearly this : Tropical Africa, for certain reasons, is unsuited
of African •' '■
lands. iq European colonisation. These reasons have, I trust, been
accurately stated in the earlier chapters of this book ; they
are mainly of a physical nature. But though hostile physical
conditions undoubtedly prevail, it has been contended that
in the more favourable regions they are not insuperable :
that it must be merely a question of time and of prudence
for Europeans to eventually overcome them, in part or
altogether. It is only by refusing to recognise the limita-
tions that beset the development and colonisation of African
lands that we are likely to be repulsed in the near future.
These limitations are, of course, at present insufficiently
known, and even when known they are rarely observed :
experience has been for the most part the sole guide in
Africa. But surely the time has arrived when it were
more judicious to use a little foresight and circumspection
rather than to go blundering on in the old haphazard style.
The Powers of Europe are groping about in the dark-
ness of Africa, and knocking their heads together in the
most ridiculous fashion. More light is wanted ; even the
glimmer of a rushlight, such as this book may afford, were
better than nothing, for at least it may make the dark-
ness visible.
CHAPTEIl X.
POLITICAL PARTITION.
CAUSE AND EFFECT METHODS — DEFINITIONS — THE BERLIN CON-
FERENCE OF 18S4-S5 TERRITORIAL BOUNDARIES IN AFRICA
PRIOR TO THE CONFERENCE, AND THOSE SETTLED AT OR IMME-
DIATELY AFTER THE CONFERENCE PROGRESS OF THE PARTITION
OF AFRICA DIPLOMATIC NEGOTIATIONS, TREATIES, CONVEN-
TIONS, ETC. — FIXED BOUNDARIES — UNDEFINED TERRITORIAL
LIMITS.
MAP.
Political Paktition Plate XIII.
POLITICAL PARTITION.
AFTER centuries of neojlect, Africa has of recent years The
° _ awakening
become the arena of European rivalries. Most of the °f ^''"ca.
European Powers have entered the lists, and are striving
earnestly after political ascendancy. The general public have,
in consequence, learnt more about that unhappy continent
than at any previous time. And yet — and yet the British
Premier humbly admitted that the Powers were forsooth
dividino: among themselves lands that had never been ex-
es o
plored or were little known, and fixing boundaries the pre-
cise delimitation of which could not, in some cases, be made
for many a long day.
The moral to be drawn from the consideration of these The dawn
of better
facts is of a twofold character. In the first place, the value days.
of African lands has been universally acknowledged ; and,
in the second place, the danger of collision between the
Powers who have entered upon commercial campaigns, being
at last recognised, has been avei'ted, or is being averted,
by defining the limits of their respective spheres of action.
All true friends of Africa must have rejoiced on learning
the terras of the various agreements and conventions which,
during the summer that is past, were concluded between
the Powers, more especially as they applied to some of the
most valuable and hotly contested regions. The good-will
thus shown by them in coming to an understanding between
themselves, no less than the tact and ability with which
the negotiations were conducted, appear to be among the
most hopeful signs of better days for Africa.
2So
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
The
scramble
for African
lands.
"Sphere of
Influence."
" Hinter-
land."
Annexa-
tion by
Caint-
rush.
The breathless scramble for African lands, in \Yhich all
dignity, even diplomatic usages, have occasionally been laid
aside, has resulted in the coinage or current use of at least
two terms. It is necessary that we should understand
them before entering further upon our theme.
The first term is " sphere of influence." This is applied
to certain regions set apart for the exclusive political action
of the Power to whom they have been awarded, or to
whom they have been recognised as belonging by incontest-
able right. It is as if two doctors were to agree between
themselves to divide off a village, wherein no other doctors
were practising, into districts for their respective operations.
A better term than sphere of influence was that originally
employed, and still used in Germany, namely, sphere of
interest.
The other term would appear to be indefinable — I mean
" Hinterland." Of the full force of its significance some of
the Powers affect a child-like ignorance : according to them,
it means " as much as one can get," But its legitimate appli-
cation can never be misunderstood. " Hinterland " applies
to the interior parts of the continent, which, geographically
or politically, may be justly regarded as the extension or
field of expansion of territorial possessions on the coast.
Nevertheless, to illustrate the absurdity with which the
Hinterland principle is either advanced or disregarded,
we may cite the example of France, who, having entirely
surrounded the British possessions on the Gambia at a
short distance from the coast, gravely advanced the Hinter-
land theory as an apology for the extension of her political
sway from the Mediterranean to the Niger.
The partition of Africa has proceeded so rapidly in the
last few years that no sooner has a map been published than
it has been out of date.' We seem at last to have arrived at
a stage when map-makers may be assured of a little more
POLITICAL PARTITION. 281
repose. Annexation by paint-brush marked only the
incipient stage of the African fever, and serious politicians
no lonofer reo'ard such acquisitions as lewitiraate. Claimants Treaties
° ° . , . , , . with
have now to produce actual treaties made with the native native
^ chiefs.
potentates whose territories they propose to annex or
protect. Such documents are, of course, easily obtainable ;
but they satisfy the public conscience : they afford indis-
putable evidence that a responsible person has been in the
country in question.
In describing the various stages at which the continent
of Africa within the last few years has been partitioned off
among the European Powers, it is not my intention to
define every boundary-line : I must trust to the map (Plate
XIII.) showing this in detail. But it may serve a useful
purpose to cite chapter and verse for every diplomatic
transaction of importance.*
It is absolutely essential to distinguish between acquisi- inland
, ... •iTj-mi boundaries.
tions by treaty T and acquisitions by paint-brush. T The
vast area of Africa and the relative absence of natural
frontiers — except on a very large scale — have in the main,
apart from our comparative ignorance of the interior lands,
rendered the determination of inland boundaries a matter
of no little difficulty and uncertainty.
* My data have been derived chiefly from the following sources : — Le
Partaje Politique dc V Afrique (June liSS), by Emile Banning, which gives in
a convenient form the texts of the treaties and other international transac-
tions and agreements between the years 18S5 and 1888 ; from the two
articles which, previous to the publication of M. Banning's book, were
c(mtributed by me to the Scottish Geographical Magazine (vol. iv., 18SS, pp.
152 and 29S) on The Partition of Ccnti-al Africa and The East Central
African Question; and from British and foreign ofEcial sources.
t Treaties vary also in their international significance. A distinction is
to be observed between treaties binding the contracting parties alone and
treaties binding non-contracting parties whose concurrence has been obtained.
X " Acquisition by paint-brush " simply indicates the ambition of territorial
extension, and, like the "confidence trick," was only practised by desperate
characters.
282
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
The parti-
tion of
Africa.
Awards
at the
Berlin Con-
ference,
1884-8S.
Founding'
of the
Congo In-
dependent
State.
The partition of Africa may be said to date from the
Berlin Conference of 1884—85. Prior to that Conference
the question of inland boundaries was scarcely considered :
the necessity for such had hardly arisen. But the frontiers
between the possessions of European Powers on the coasts
had in a majority of cases been defined with some degree
of certainty.
Outstanding disputes were settled at or shortly after the
Conference. Only two instances need be given. Portugal
received some recognition of her historical pretensions south
of the Lower Congo, and also obtained the enclave of Kabinda,
to the north. To France was awarded an important ac-
cession of territory on the Lower Congo, The basins of
the Niger and Congo were declared free to the flags of
all nations. And, finally, the International Association,
founded by the King of the Belgians, was, under its new
title, recognised by the civilised world as a sovereign State,
and took possession of the conventional basin of the Congo.
The founding of the Congo Independent State was pro-
bably the most important result of the Conference, apart
from the excellent enactments that were drawn up in
regard to the development of Africa as a field for European
commercial and philanthropic enterprises. The formal re-
cognition of the Congo Independent State by the Powers,
its delimitation and neutralisation, and the creation of an
immense free-trade * area, were undoubtedly events of the
highest importance ; for, in the heart of Africa, there was
thus created a neutral " Mediterranean " State, the pi'ogress
of which was, and always must be, intimately associated
with the interests of its neighbours.
Tlic boundaries of the Congo Independent State are
* Differential duties are, nevertheless, enforced within this zone. More-
over, tlie Congo State, by the consent of tiie Powers at the Brussels Con-
ference (1889-90), will itself impose direct taxation in order to carry out
the enactments of the General Act.
POLITICAL PARTITION. 283
sliown on our map. They were roughly defined at the Boundaries
Berlin Conference, but their more accurate delimitation was Congo
' State.
adjusted by separate treaties concluded with contiguous
States. Some uncertainty still exists as to the precise boun-
daries at certain points, but, when the occasion demands,
these uncertainties can easily be cleared up. The title-deeds
of the State are clearly and, I believe, accurately given in
M. Banning's Fartagc, Politique dc VAfriquc (pp. 89-152).
Two months after the Conference had concluded its Dispute
between
labours, Great Britain and Germany had a serious dispute Britain and
"^ ■"■ Germany.
in regard to their respective spheres of influence on the
Gulf of Guinea.
The basin of the Lower Niger had long been under the Argument.
exclusive influence of Great Britain, who possessed also
colonies to the west of it. In the Camarons region British
missionaries had for forty years laboured in a promising
field, and, incidentally, had sown the seed of British sove-
reignty. But Germany also shared the ambition of occupy-
ing a country which her subjects had assisted in discovering
and opening up. Her merchants were said to enjoy the
monopoly of trade on the Camarons Eiver. The Imperial
German Government, therefore, decided to take possession of
the country and to establish a naval station on the Coast.
Prince Bismarck, although not a " colonial man," assumed Action.
a resolute attitude. In those days, when Prince Bismarck
resolved to pursue a definite course, his object was as good
as accomplished. Dr. Nachtigal was dispatched with in-
structions (dated 19th May 1884) ^o conclude treaties
with the native chiefs between the Niger and Gabiin and
in the district of Angra Pequefia. Britain, with similar
objects in view, also issued instructions (i6th May 1884) to
Admiral Hewett. But Dr. Nachtigal was the first to arrive
on the scene of action. The German flag was hoisted (5 th
July) at Togo and (14th July) at Camarons. Admiral
284 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Hewett arrived on 19th July, in time to register Lis
protest.
"Too late." This is how things were done in the good old days.
The hesitation of the British Cabinet, which had been dis-
cussing the question from October 1883, was the apparent
cause of Admiral Hewett being " too late."
Triumph of On 13th October 1884, Prince Bismarck notified to the
Germany.
Powers the fait accojnjdi of a German Protectorate, not
only in the Camarons but also at Togo (Slave Coast) and
in South- West Africa, between the Orange Eiver and Cape
Frio, — Walvisch Bay excepted.
British The British Cabinet bowed to its fate, but endeavoured
to retrieve its position. On 19th July Admiral Hewett
placed the Mission Station at Victoria under British pro-
tection and concluded treaties (July to September) with
the native chiefs on the littoral between Victoria and Old
Calabar.
Results. This action on the part of Admiral Hewett was dis-
pleasing to the Iron Chancellor, who expressed his views
very clearly and forcibly in his note of 7th December 1884.
To add to the complication of affairs, the natives of the
contested regions rose against the German Occupation and
attacked the Europeans. The revolt was, however, promptly
suppressed (20th to 22nd December) by German gunboats.
Diplomatic Diplomatic documents were freely exchanged between
negotia-
tions. London and Berlin during the next few months. The most
important were Lord Granville's despatch (29th April 1885)
to Count Miinster, the German Ambassador at the Court
of St. James's, and the reply (7th May) of the latter.
These despatches laid the basis of an accord between the
two Powers, and were supplemented by the Declarations of
I 6th May and 2nd June.
A com- The compromise thus arrived at placed the Mission
promise. r- • n
Station of Victoria within the German sphere of influence,
POLITICAL PARTITION. 285
in consideration of an indemnity (;^400o) to be paid to
the Englisli Baptists by the Basel Missions.
But the frontier between the two spheres of influence The Angio-
on the Bight of Biafra remained undefined. Despatches frontier,
were exchanged between Lord Rosebery (27th July 1886),
on the part of the British Government, and Count Hatzfeld
(2nd August), on behalf of the German Government, which
resulted in a line being drawn from the Coast to Yola, on
the Benue.
On the 1 0th July 1886, the National African Company Royal
. . Niger
received a royal charter under its new title of the Royal Company.
Niger Company, and was given administrative powers over
the territories covered by its treaties. The regions thereby
placed under British protection are defined on our map.
Apart from the Oil Rivers District, which is directly ad-
ministered by the Crown, they embrace the coastal lands be-
tween Lagos and the northern frontier of German Camarons,
the Lower Niger (including the territories of Sokoto and
Gandu), and the Benut^ from Yola to its confluence.
Germany, having settled the northern boundary of her Germany
/-( • 1 • ... ^"d
Camarons colony, was m the meantime negotiating its France.
southern frontier with the French Congo. Dr. Nachtisral's
treaties extended almost to the Equator and overlapped
French claims. Prince Bismarck, however, in his despatch
of 13th September 1884, showed himself accommodating
to French susceptibilities, and was met in an equally
diplomatic spirit by Baron de Courcel (despatch of 29th
September). All danger of friction being thereby removed,
France and Germany eventually signed the Protocol of 24th
December 1885, which defined their respective spheres of
influence and action on the Bight of Biafra, and also on
the Slave Coast and in Senegambia.
This Convention between Germany and France fixed the
inland extension of the German sphere of iufluence (Cama-
286
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
A provision
01 the
Franco-
German
Conven-
tion, 1885.
France and
Portugal.
Mutual
accommo-
dation
schemes.
rous) at 15° E. longitude, Greenwich. It is important to
remember tliis, because at present it allows the French
Congo Territories to expand along the western bank of
the M'bangi,* which is their conterminous boundary with
the Congo Independent State, and gives access to the
Sudan.
France at about the same time was engaged in adjust-
insT certain territorial difficulties with Portugal. A Mixed
Commission, having assembled at Paris, held sixteen sittings
between 22nd October 1885 and 12th May 1886. The
deliberations of the Commission resulted in the Franco-
Portuguese Convention of 12th May 1886. France there-
by secured the exclusive control of both banks of the Casa-
manza (in Senegambia), and the Portuguese frontier in the
south was advanced approximately to the southern limit of
the basin of the Casini. On the Congo, Portugal retained
the Massabi district, to which France had laid claim, but
both banks of the Loango were left to France.
An attempt at mutual accommodation was made in
regard to certain schemes of aggrandisement which, at the
same time, were interesting to third parties. Portugal
recosfnised a French Protectorate over Futa Jallon,t thus
consenting to her own possessions in Upper Guinea being
surrounded, and admitting France dangerously near to the
British " Hinterland " behind Sierra Leone. In return,
France was prevailed upon to make a qualified admission
of the right of Portugal to exercise her " sovereign influence
and civilisation " — whatever those may be — in the countries
separating the provinces of Angola and ^Mozambique. Such
a concession, however, incidentally affected the interests
• Proviiied no otlicr tributarj- of the IM'bangi-Conr^o is found to the west,
in which case, acc()rdin<,' to the Berlin Treaty of 1SS4-S5, the conventional
basin of tlie Congo would gain an extension.
f By virtue of treaties concluded in iSSi between the French Government
and the Aluiamy.
POLITICAL PARTITION. 287
of Great Britain and the Congo Independent State. But
the modesty of the Lisbon Cabinet was not to be sup-
pressed. In a note of 12th December 1885, Portugal
defined the extent of the Trans-Continental empire to which
she laid claim. A more flagrant instance of " annexation
by paint-brush " never occurred, even in Africa. France,
however, proved herself equal to the occasion, and at the
same time displayed her humour of the situation : she
accepted the limits, as defined, " it litre cV information^^
but attached a rider reserving the rights of third parties,
Portugal, nothing daunted by this reservation on the part
of France, which she was unable to overcome, next pro-
ceeded to " try it on " with Germany, with results that will
be subsequently mentioned. The negotiations, having the
same object, with her historic ally, Great Britain, were of
an even more animated and interesting character. They
were provisionally settled only in August last, — so that we
may be permitted to refer to them in another place.
While map-makers were busy keeping pace with political East
changes on the West Coast of Africa, their attention was
equally demanded by events on the East Coast,
Germany, having entered upon a colonial career, and being The ex-
fired with the ambition of founding an African empire, grave German
° . 1 ' & Africa.
every encouragement and support to her pioneers. Germans
at home argued to themselves that, as their compatriots
were spread all over the world, engaged in developing
colonies for others, they might just as well, whilst there
was time, secure a few colonies for themselves. Consequentlv,
the continent of Africa, being a promising and open field,
was simultaneously attacked at three points. Their methods
of territorial acquisition were of the most approved modern
style, in which flags, chartered companies, and gunboats
played conspicuous parts. And it should be added that, Binding- the
whilst German agents received the support of their Govern- Lion.^
288 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
ment, British agents were put under restraint and bound
fast with " red-tape."
German In September 1884 there landed at Zanzibar three
Argonauts, . , .
innocent German excursionists, whose names will long be
remembered by their countrymen. They were Dr. Peters
(the " Jason " of the expedition), Dr. Jiihlke, and Count
Pfeil. It was hardly presumed that they had come to Zan-
zibar for the benefit of their health, for there are healthier
places than Zanzibar nearer to Berlin. But being discreet
and resolute men, and the pioneers of a Colonisation Com-
pany, they kept their own counsel, and, before any one wag
made aware of their intentions, treaties had been concluded
with the chiefs of Usesfuha, Ukami, N^uru, and Usagfara,
by which those territories were " acquired " by the Society
for German Colonisation.
Zanzibar Incidentally it may be mentioned that, prior to 1884,
and Great . . .
Britain. the Continental lands facing Zanzibar were almost exclu-
sively under British influence.* The principal traders were
British subjects, and the Sultan's Government was adminis-
tered under the advice of the British Resident. The en-
tire region between the Coast and the Lakes was regarded
as being under the nominal suzerainty of the Sultan : the
various chiefs acknowledged his claims to a certain extent,
and his aid was invariably invoked if any European tra-
vellers fell into trouble. Still, Great Britain had no terri-
torial claims on the dominions of the Sultan. Though
her influence was felt far and wide, it had been exercised
solely in the cause of law and order, and with no ulterior
ol;ject whatever.
Prociama- Dr. Petcrs, thcn, armed with his treaties, returned to
tion of a
German Berlin lu February 1885. On the 27th February, the day
ate. following the signature of the General Act of the Berlin
* In spite of the Anglo-French Convention of loth March 1S62, regarding
the nominal independence of Zanzibar.
POLITICAL PARTITION. 289
Conference, an Imperial Schutzbrief, or Charter of Protec-
tion, secured to the Society for German Colonisation the
territories which had been acquired for them through Dr.
Peters' treaties : in other words, a German Protectorate was
proclaimed.
When it became known that Germany had seized upon Protests.
the Zanzibar mainland, the indignation in colonial circles
knew no bounds. The British Foreign Office championed
the cause of the Sultan, and his Highness himself made a
formal protest. But it was useless to invoke shadows. The
iron hand of Germany was exposed ; its velvet glove was
boldly discarded. A German fleet was promptly despatched
to Zanzibar, in order, as a German periodical explained, " to
show clearly the meaning of an Imperial Schutzbrief." It
was the first Schutzbrief that had been issued ; consequently,
it was reasonable to infer that its meaning was not clearly
comprehended.
It appeared that an Imperial Schutzbrief, unlike som.e Meaning
diplomatic documents, really meant what it said. Now imperial
Schutz-
the Schutzbrief in question had referred to certain regions b"^*'-
in East Africa over which a German Protectorate had been
proclaimed ; and it was obviously absurd — even dangex'ous
— to affect any misunderstanding in the matter. It was,
therefore, not to be wondered at that Sir John Kirk
received instructions to fall in with the views of his
German colleague at Zanzibar, "where the interests of the
two countries were identical," — though, by the light of
subsequent events, we shall see how little identical those
interests really were.
Thus it came to pass that Great Britain, weary of her British
mission, resigned it in favour of Germany. But, in be-
queathing the results of many years' labour, she recom-
mended to the favourable consideration of Germany certain
British subjects, capitalists, who had conceived the plan of
290 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
creating a Britisli establisliment — quite a modest one, of
course — in the region situated between the Coast and the
lake-reservoirs of the Nile, through which it was hoped to
run a railway some fine day.
Apology. In reviewing the political situation at this point of our
narrative, I have quite unconsciously fallen into a tone of
irony unsuited to the serious character of my task. But,
upon my word, the style appears to me to suit the subject,
for a more unconventional way of acquiring colonies has
never been known to this century.
Submission Abandoned by his former protector and threatened by
of the
Sultan of a hostile fleet, the Sultan of Zanzibar bowed to the will of
Zanzibar.
Allah. He recognised (14th August 1885) the German
Protectorate over the four inland provinces and over Vitu.
The Anglo- Thereupon, a Delimitation Commission was appointed to
German . ^ _ , . ^ ^ ^
Convention apportion the spoil. But it was not until the end of Octo-
of 1886. ^ ^ ^
ber 1886 that the British and German Governments were
in a position to exchange identic notes. This exchange of
identic notes, commonly designated as the Anglo-German
Convention of 1886, had the following for its main pro-
visions: — (i.) The sovereignty of the Sultan of Zanzibar was
recognised over the islands of Zanzibar, Pemba, Lamu, and
Mafia ; as also, on the mainland, («) over an uninterrupted
coastal zone, ten nautical miles in breadth, between —
roughly — Tunghi Bay and Kipini, and (&) over the stations
of Kismayu, Barawa, Merka, Mukhdisho, and Warsheikh,
each with a small land-circuit. (2.) The countries within
which the provisions of the treaty were regarded as appli-
cable were defined as being situated between the Tana and
Itovuma llivers ; and the frontier between the British and
German spheres of influence was drawn, as shown on
our map, from the Wanga or Umbe Ptiver to the Victoria
Kyanza. (3.) Great Britain entered into an engagement to
make no territorial acquisitions, to accept no Protectorates,
POLITICAL PARTITION. 291
and not to compete with the spread of German influence to
the south of the said line, whilst Germany undertook to
observe a similar abstinence in the territories to the north
of the said line. (4.) Both Powers recognised as belonging
to Vitu the coast stretching from the north of Kipini to the
north end of Manda Bay. And (5.), Germany became a
party to the Protocol signed by Britain and France (loth
March 1862) recognising the independence of Zanzibar.
It is to be observed that in this Agreement no internal
boundaries were fixed, nor was the extension of the Anglo-
German frontier and the German-Portuguese frontier, in
the same or in any direction, even alluded to.
By separate arrangements with the Sultan of Zanzibar, Lease of
custcms in
Germany secured (20th December 1S85) the lease for a Coastal
period of fifty years of the customs in the coastal zone
belonging to the Sultan within the German sphere of
influence, whilst Britain obtained (30th April 1 8 86) a
similar concession in her zone.
On 8th December 1886 the Sultan gave in his adhesion Adhesion
of third
to the General Act of the Berlin Conference, reserving to parties,
liiraself the principle of commercial liberty. The same day
France recognised the Anglo-German Convention.
The German eagle thus became a full-fledged bird of The
K r • 1 • • • • German
prev m Africa, and it was instructive to witness the manner East
. " . . . . Africa
in which it first used its wino^s. Not contented with a Assoda
° tion.
modest flight into space, it essayed to soar, but, being an
inexperienced colonial bird, it fell heavily to the earth.
This unfortunate mishap may be briefly alluded to.
After receiving the Schutzbricf, the Society for German
Colonisation transferred (April 1887) their rights to the
newly-founded German East Africa Association, at whose
head stood Dr. Peters. Expedition after expedition was
despatched by the Association to make fresh acquisitions of
territory. Relations were also opened up with some of the
292 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
East Somal tribes ; and Dr. Peters himself headed a large expe-
Coast. ,. . .
dition into East Africa.
In view of these active operations, German map-makers
coloured as German the entire Hinterland between the
Coast and the confines of the Congo Independent State.
Obviously this was going too far, and such unfounded
claims were never recognised by responsible persons ; but
they are mentioned here as an example.
The same precipitate haste characterised the conduct
of German agents in taking over the administration of
their actual sphere of influence : they wished at once to
transform the ancient home of Arabs and Negroes into a
Arab German colonv. Their hicjh -handed action in this respect
revolt. ^ ° -^ , , ^
led to the inevitable result of a general rising. Massacres
and retaliations ensued. The Arab chiefs on the Coast, who
resented the action of their suzerain, the Sultan of Zanzibar,
in transfei-ring their allegiance to Germany, took up arms
against their common enemy, the usurper. In a few months
not a German was left in the mainland districts ; all had
fled to Zanzibar.
When affairs had reached this crisis, the Imperial German
Government interfered. Gunboats were despatched ; and a
special Commissioner, Lieutenant (now Major) Wissmann,
set out at the head of a small military force. The rebels
were driven from their positions and the coast towns were
re-occupied. After months of desultory fighting, something
like law and order were finally introduced. But in the
achievement of this end all trade was paralysed for a time,
and the Europeans in the Interior, behind the German
sphere, were in imminent danger of their lives.
These details of the miscarriage of German attempts at
colonisation are given mainly for the purpose of illustrating
the fact that the art of governing native tribes and terri-
tories is not learnt in a day. We ourselves, a veteran
POLITICAL PARTITION. 293
colonial power, have experienced reverses of a similar kind.
Had Germany respected native prejudices and customs, and
been less overbearing and less precipitate, her rule might
have been welcomed in East Africa. But when we hear
of German petty officers, "booted and spurred," strutting
into Arab mosques, followed by their dogs, we cannot wonder
at Arab susceptibilities being aroused.
As a contrast to this tragic picture of German East Africa, The
• 1 • p • 1 „ British
we may point with satisfaction to the course of events East
. . . Africa
in British East Africa. Although that region lay in the Company.
path of the wave of unrest that swept along the Coast, its
calm was unbroken by the sound of hostile elements. The
British East Africa Company, having taken over the con-
cessions granted by the Sultan of Zanzibar to Sir William
Mackinnon, assumed the administration of the territories
with the good-will of the natives. The Company was not
formally incorporated until i8th April 1888, and on the
3rd of September it received a royal charter. One of its
first public acts was to liberate a large number of slaves
at a considerable cost. Caravans were despatched into the
Interior, and the machinery of local administration was
promptly and unostentatiously erected. Being a record of
successful effort, we have little to say of the founding of
British East Africa.
We shall have occasion to return to East Africa further South
West
on ill our narrative. In order to preserve as far as pos- Coast,
sible the chronology of events, we must now refer to
the progress of German colonial enterprise in South-West
Africa.
Undeterred by the fact that the natural and widely German
action.
known desire of Cape Colony was to expand northwards
to the Zambezi, and that since 1878 Walvisch Bay had with
that object been occupied as a British naval station, an
enterprising Bremen merchant, Herr Liideritz, and subse-
294 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
quently the German Consul-General, Dr. Nachtigal, con-
cluded a series of political and commercial treaties with
native chiefs, whereby a claim was instituted over Angra
Pequeua, and over vast districts in the Interior between the
Orange Eiver and Cape Frio. It was useless for the Cape
colonists to protest : the will of the Iron Chancellor was
not to be moved, far less moulded to the desires of Cape
Acquisition politicians. On 7th August 1884 the German flag was
of Angra
Pequeria. hoistcd at Angra Pequefia, after the " submission " of the
British Foreign Office had been received.
For the third occasion within a brief space of time
Germany had thus dispossessed Great Britain in Africa.
German On the I ^th October 1S84 Germany forQiallv notified to
Protector- -r J ^ ^
ate over the Powsrs her Protectorate over South-West Africa. A
South-
Africi. Mixed Commission met at the Cape (14th March to 4th
September 1885) to adjust rival claims. Its duty was not
to define territorial limits ; but Her Majesty's Government
permitted it to be understood that the British Protectorate
over Bechuana-land extended in the north to 22° S. latitude,
and in the west to 20° E. longitude.
Expansion. The chief inland boundaries being thereby defined, Ger-
many had no further room for expansion except on the coast
between Cape Frio and the mouth of the Kunene : and this
tract of country she promptly seized. On 3rd August 1885
the German Colonial Company for South-West Africa was
founded, and, after tlie lapse of ten days, received \^iq Im-
perial sanction for its incorporation. But in August 1886
a new Association was formed — the German West Africa
Company — and the administration of its territories was
placed under an Imperial Commissioner.
Germany Bv extending her coast-line in South-West Africa from
and r^ " ■ ^ , ,
Portugal. Cape Frio to tlie Kunene, Germany encroached upon Portu-
guese claims. On the East and West Coasts of Africa
Germany hid become a neighbour of Portugal ; so that a
POLITICAL PARTITION. 295
precise delimitation of their frontiers was in any case neces-
sary. Portugal claimed Cape Frio as the southern limit of
her province of Angola, whilst Germany advanced her claims
up to the banks of the Ivunenc in order to incorporate the
whole of Ovampo-land, over which she had secured certain
rights. The dispute between the two Powers dragged on
lor six months.
In the meantime, the Franco- Portuguese Commission Negotia-
tions,
was sitting at Paris. On the 27th July 1886, Baron
Sclnnidthals proposed as the Portuguese frontier the Eiver
Kunune, with an extension eastwards to the Zambezi, ou
the parallel of Humbe.* Then it was that Portugal endea-
voured to extract from Germany, what she had partially
succeeded in obtaining from France, a recognition of her
claims to a Trans-Continental empire. Germany, however,
was not prepared to go to the length required of her. She
simply declared that the Eiver Rovuma formed the southern
boundary of her East African Possessions. Portugal then
consented to the Kunene serving as the southern boundary
of her Angola province, and adopted the latitudinal line
previously laid down to the Kubango ; its extension east-
wards was traced by the course of the latter river up to
the neighbourhood of Andara, whence it was projected to,
and in the same latitude as, Katima.f
Portugal also approved of the Pdver Eovuma, up to the German-
Portug'uesc
confluence of the M'sinie, forming the German-Portuguese frontier in
•i ' o O East
frontier in East Africa, and went so far as to obligingly Africa,
prolong this boundary-line westwards, on the same latitude,
across the Nyassa to the " confines of Angola." But realising
the danger of being thus entrapped, Germany modestly
accepted Lake Nyassa as the western limit of the conter-
minous frontier, thereby gaining from Portugal a slight
* Near which, on the Kunen^, rapids occur.
+ On the Zambezi, where there are rapids.
Africa.
296 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
extension of boundary that was not recognised by the
Anglo-German Agreement of 1886.
German- On the basis of this mutual understanding, Germany
Portugruese
conven- and Portugal affixed their seals to the Convention signed
tion, 1886. O °
at Lisbon on 30th December 1886.
Thus we have seen that both Germany and France re-
fused to recognise Portuguese claims to a Trans-Continental
empire irrespective of the rights of third parties. The third
party in this matter was Great Britain, to whose case we
may now refer.
Expansion The intrusioii of Germany into South-West Africa acted
of British "^
South as a check upon, no less than a spur to, the extension of
British influence northwards to the Zambezi. Another
obstacle to this extension arose from the Boer insurrec-
tion. The treaty of 3rd August 1881 gave autonomy to
the Transvaal, under British sovereignty ; but these bonds
were slackened by the treaty of 27th February 1884. The
Transvaal, with increased independence, then adopted the
proud title of South African Kepublic ; although, in regard
to its foreign relations — the Orange Free State excepted —
and dealings with native tribes, the Eepublic undertook
to submit any treaties or engagements for the approbation
of Her Majesty's Government.
Zulu-land, having lost its independence, was partitioned :
a third of its territories, over which a republic had been
proclaimed, was absorbed (October 1887) by the Transvaal;
the remainder was added (r4th ]\Iay 1887) to the British
possessions. Amatonga-land was in 1888 also taken under
British protection.*
Bechuana- By a Convcntiou with the South African Pepublic, Britain
acquired in 1884 tlie Crown colony of Bechuana-land ; and
in the early part of 1885 a British Protectorate was pro-
claimed over tJie remaining portion of Bechuana-land — the
* Treaty willi Zaniljili, similar in kind (o tliat with Lobciigula,
land.
POLITICAL PARTITION. 297
western and provisional northern limits of which have
already been defined by us. Sir Charles Warren, after
subduing the infant Eepublics of Stella and Goshen, and
placing the country up to the River IMolopo under Britisli
sovereignty, had established a provisional protectorate over
Khama's country. At that time, by an agreement between
Britain and Germany (January 1885), it was understood
that the 20th degree of east longitude should mark the
Anglo-German frontier; but this boundary extended north
only to the 22nd degree of south latitude. To the south
of this latitudinal boundary lay the British Protectorate ;
to the north of it all was unsettled. The South African Matabeie-
land, &c.
Eepublic, with, the intention of stealing a march upon Great
Britain, despatched a mission to Lobengula, King of Mata-
bele-land, &c., but its object was frustrated by the prompt
action of ]\Ir. Moffat, wdio, acting under instructions from
the Home Government, concluded a treaty of amity be-
tween Britain and Lobengula. Similar treaties having been
concluded with Khama, chief of the Bamangwato, and
]\Ioremi, a chief of N'gami-land, a British Protectorate
was instituted over the country bounded by the Zambezi
in the north, the British Possessions in the south, " the
Portuguese province of Sofala" in the east, and the 20th
degree of east longitude in the west. It was at this juncture Founding-
that Mr. Cecil Rhodes came forward, and, having obtained British
. . South
certain concessions from Lobengula, founded the British Africa
o ' Company.
South Africa Company.
For some time both before and after the declaration of a The case
between
British Protectorate south of the Zambezi, Portugal endea- Britain and
' ° Portugal.
voured to substantiate through every means in her power
the shadowy claims she possessed over Mashuna-land, to
portions of the Zambezi basin, to Nyassa-land and the Shire
Highlands. Into the validity of these claims we need not
enter at any length ; it is necessary only to record the fact
298
DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
British
South
Africa
Company.
Swazi-
land.
that they have been disallowed by competent authorities.
In no case were they based upon occupation; and Her
Majesty's Government protested * against any claims in no
degree founded on occupation, and stated that they could
not recognise the sovereignty of i'ortugal in territories where
she was represented by no authority capable of exercising
the ordinary rights of sovereignty. In similar terms the
protest was renewed f by Lord Salisbury on 21st Novem-
ber 18S9. His Lordship at the same time recalled the
agreement between Great Britain and Lobengula (nth
February 1888), which recorded the fact that Lobengula
was the ruler of Mashuna-laud and Makalaka-laud.
On the 29th October 1889 the British South Africa
Company was granted a royal charter. It was declared
in this charter that " the principal field of the operations
of the British South Africa Company shall be the region of
South Africa]: lying immediately to the north of British
Bechuana-land, and to the north and west of the South
African Eepublic, and to the west of the Portuguese
dominions."
It will be observed that no northern limit was given, and
the other boundaries were only vaguely defined ; but they
were sufficient to serve the purpose in view. The British
South Africa Company entered boldly upon its career, and
the most encouraging reports have since been received of
its activity and enterprise.
The position of Swazi-land was definitely settled, after a
great deal of public discussion, by the arrangement between
Great Britain and the South African Eepublic, which was
accepted by the A^'olksraad on 8th August 1890. This Con-
* Memorandum from Lord Salisbury to Senhor Barros Gomes, 13th
August 18S7.
t Despatch from Lord Salisbury addressed to the British Minister at
LiBbon.
* The " District of Tati " excepted.
N
\
POLITICAL PARTITION. 299
vention provides for the coutiuued independence of Swazi-
land* and a joint-control over the white settlers. The
Eepublic is to be permitted to realise its long-cherished
desire of building a railway of its own through Swazi-land
to the sea (at or near Kosi Bay), provided that, within a
period of six months from the date of the Convention, it
enters into the existing customs' union with Cape Colony,
the Orange Free State, and Bechuana-land.
Mention has been made of the further claim of Portugal Nyassa-
land and
to Nyassa-land and the Shiru Highlands, countries that for the shire
•^ " ' Highlands.
over thirty years have been the exclusive sphere of British
missionary and commercial enterprise. In a paper published
by me in the Scottish GeograpJdcal 3Iagazine (vol. iv., p. 298),
I discussed at some length the question at issue between
Great Britain and Portugal. As the problem has now re-
ceived a more or less definite solution, it seems unnecessary
here to revert to it. The discussion of claims on either side
dragged on for several years, and was varied by local dis-
turbances and other unpleasant incidents. The British
Foreign Office was at first indisposed to back British claims
with any material support ; but the storm of indignation
thereby raised in Scotland, and subsequently in England, in-
duced — if I may permit myself that expression — the Foreign
Secretary to reconsider the case. Nothing, however, could
have been more loyal, more statesman-like, than the manner
in which Lord Salisbury subsequently championed the cause
of British enterprise in general, and of the Scottish missions
and trading companies in particular. The result, it may be
remembered, was that a British Protectorate was proclaimed
over Nyassa-land and the Shire Highlands in iSSg-QO.f
The course of events in these parts of Africa have so
* As recognised by the Convention of 1 884.
t Consul Johnston's Protectorate-treaties, and most of the others, were
concluded between August and January 1SS9-90. But further treaties were
300 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
European far engaged our attention that we have omitted to mention
transac- _
tions with several important enragements made between the European
natives. j. o o i
Powers and native chiefs in other parts of the continent.
Italy on the Italv, cujoving the sympathy and support of Great
Red Sea ■ "^ " ^t
Littoral. Britain, has eventually succeeded m extending her sway
over what may prove to be a valuable African empire.
On 5th July 1882, Italy took formal possession of the bay
and territory of Assab. The Italian coast-line on the Eed
Sea now extends from Eas Kasar (t8° 2' X. lat.) to the
southern boundary of Raheita,* towards Obok. During
1889, shortly after the death of King Johannes, Keren and
Asmara were occupied by Italian troops. Menelik of Shoa,
who succeeded to the throne of Abyssinia, after subjugating
all the Abyssinian provinces except Tigre, despatched an
embassy to King Humbert, the result of which was that
the new ISTegus acknowledged (29th September 1889) the
Protectorate of Italy over Abyssinia, and its sovereignty
over the territories of Massaw^a, Keren, and Asmara.-f- The
Italian possessions on the Red Sea subsequently received
the name of " Eritrea."
Italy on the Italy has also succeeded in establishing herself on the
Som^l
Coast. Somal Coast. By treaties concluded (8th February 1889)
with the Sultan of Obbia, who belongs to the powerful Mijar-
ten tribe, and (April 7th) with the Sultan of the Mijar-
ten himself, the coastal lands between Cape Warsheikh
(about 2° 30' N. lat.) and Cape Bedwin (8° 3' K lat.)
— a distance of 450 miles — were placed under Italian pro-
tection. Italy subsequently extended (1890) her Protec-
torate over tlie Sonuil Coast to the Jub River, l)y taking
made (i) with all the chiefs of the west, south, and north coasts of Nyassa,
(2) along the Stevenson Road, (3) on the south and south-west coasts of Tan-
gaiiika, and (4) inland, round liangweolo and Moero.
* This boundary has not yet been defined.
t The treaty thus concluded was similar in kind to the l-'rench treaty with
the Ilova Government in Madagascar. Frontiers were provisionally settled.
POLITICAL PARTITION. 301
over the ports of Kisinayu, Barawa, Merka, j\Iukhdisho, and
Warsheikh, which the British East Africa Company had
secured (in addition to Laniu, Manda, and l*atta, which the
Company retained) through a concession from the Sultan of
Zanzibar.*
The ]>ritish Protectorate on the Sonuil Coast facing Aden Britain
on the
now extends from the Italian frontier at Eas Hafiin to Itas somdi
Coast.
Jibute (43° 15' E. long.). The island of Sokotra, which was
originally acquired by treaty in 1876, was formally annexed
in 1886.
In regard to the West Coast of Africa, we have still one France on
° . . . . the West
or two territorial arrangements to notice. The activity of Coast.
France in her Senegambian province, which, during the
last hundred years, has been marked by notable success, has
finally resulted in a considerable expansion of her territories.
The native chiefs, one after another, have been forced to
submit to the French ascendancy. Captain Binger, by the
treaties he concluded with native chiefs during 1887-89,
advanced the French sphere of influence down to the Ivory
Coast. Thus, the French have established a claim over the
country intervening between our Gold Coast Colony and
Liberia. A more precise delimitation of the frontier be-
tween Sierra Leone and Liberia resulted from the treaty
signed at Monrovia on i ith November 1887.
In 1888 Portugal withdrew all rights over Dahome, her Portugal
and
possessions on the Slave Coast having been restricted to the Dahome.
insignificant post of Ajuda, a factory at Whydah.
Between Cape Blanco, which is regarded as the northern The
^ ° Western
coastal limit of Senegambia, and Cape Bojador, Spain has f^^^ffj^-
been endeavouring since 1885 to secure her hold on the ^"^^^^^^'[^1^
Saharan Coast as a j^icd a terrc on the African mainland
* The concession was originally made by Said Barghash and was renewed by
Said Khalifa. It was disputed by Germany ; but, the case being referred to
the arbitration of Baron Lanibermont, the British Company was awarded its
rights. Subsequent disputes delayed the concession being effected.
302 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
for the Canary Islanders; whilst an EngUsh company has
obtained treaty-rights, by which a claim has been insti-
tuted over the remaining coast-line between Cape Bojador
and the frontier of Morocco.
Anglo- These claims to the Littoral of the Sahara will require
trench
Agree- somc adjustment ; for, quite recently, a French sphere of
influence has been instituted over the whole of the Saharan
regions between Algeria and Senegambia. This proclamation
resulted from negotiations with Great Britain. By the recent
Anglo-German Agreement — to wdiich we shall presently
refer — no account had been taken by the Contracting Powers
of the old Anglo-French Agreement (1862) respecting the
independence of Zanzibar. Utilising this omission as a lever,
France very shrewdly negotiated her interests in other parts
of Africa, where the complaisance of Great Britain was
necessary. Declarations were exchanged * between the two
Governments, with the following results: — (i.) France be-
came a consenting party to the Anglo-German Convention
of ist July 1890. (2.) Great Britain recognised the French
Protectorate over the island of Madagascar. This island,
which had long been the theatre of colonial rivalry between
France and Britain, had been placed under French protec-
tion by the treaty of 17th December 1885 (wdiich had prac-
tically secured the sovereign rights of France), but it had
never been formally recognised by Britain. And (3.) Great
Britain recognised " the sphere of influence of France to the
south of her Mediterranean possessions, up to a line from
Say on the Niger to Barrua on Lake Tsad, drawn in such a
manner as to comprise in the sphere of action of the British
Niger Company all that fairly belongs to the kingdom of
Sokoto ; tlio line to be determined by the commissioners to
be a])poinied."
* The Anglo-French Agreement, sitpioj at London, 5th Angust 1S9C.
Parliamentary Paper: Africa, No. 9, 1S90.
POLITICAL PARTITION. 303
France thus obtained the formal recocrnition of the unity France the
~ •' dominant
of her empire in North-West Africa, which she has been so NoTtl^-'"
long planning to effect by railway schemes ; and, when the Afrka.
time comes for partitioning Morocco, she will be in the
position of the dominant European Power in that region.
But perhaps the horizon of the British Foreign Office does
not extend as far as Morocco.
Of even greater importance than the above arrangement Angio-
German
with France was the Ancrlo-German Agreement of July Conven-
'=' ^ _ "^ tion, 1890.
1890. This Convention attempted to adjust the outstanding
rival claims of Great Britain and Germany in Africa. The
arrangement was an equitable one and a diplomatic triumph
to its negotiators. The following were the main provisions,
which have been given effect to on our map (Plate XIII.) : —
(i.) The Anglo-German frontier in East Africa, which, by
the Convention of 1886, ended at a point on the eastern shore
of the Victoria Nyanza, was continued on the same latitude
across the lake to the confines of the Congo Independent
State ; but, on the western side of the lake, this frontier is,
if necessary, to be deflected to the south, in order to include
Mount M'fumbiro within the British sphere.* (2.) The
southern boundary of the German sphere of influence in East
Africa was recognised as that originally drawn -f- to a point on
the eastern shore of Lake Nyassa, whence it was continued
by the eastern, northern, and western shores of the lake to
the northern bank of the mouth of the Paver Songwe. From
this point the Anglo-German frontier was continued to Lake
Tanganika, in such a manner as to leave the Stevenson
Eoad within the British sphere. (3.) The northern frontier
of British East Africa was defined by the Jub Piiver and
* Treaties in that district were made on behalf of the British East Africa
Company by Mr. Stanley, on his return (May 1SS9) from the relief of Emin
Pacha.
t Anglo-German Convention, 1SS6, and German-Portuguese Convention,
1886.
304 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Anglo- tlie conterminous boundary of the Italian sphere of influence
German
c^vention in Galla-land and Abyssinia up to the confines of Egypt ;
in the west, by the Congo State and the Congo-Xile water-
shed. (4.) Germany withdrew, in favour of Britain, her
Protectorate over Vitu and her claims to all territories
on the mainland to the north of the Eiver Tana, as also
over the islands of Patta and Manda. (5.) In South-
West Africa, the Anglo- German frontier originally fixed up
to 22° south latitude, was confirmed; but from this point
the boundary-line was drawn in such a manner eastwards
and northwards (see Plate XIII.) as to give Germany free
access to the Zambezi by the Chobe Eiver. (6.) The
Anglo-German frontier between Togo and Gold Coast Colony
was fixed, and that between the Camarons and the British
Kiger Territories was provisionally adjusted. (7.) The Free-
trade zone, defined by the Act of Berlin (1885), was re-
cognised as applicable to the present arrangement between
Britain and Germany, and its stipulations as binding upon
both parties. Thus " it is specially understood that, in
accordance with these provisions, the passage of goods of
both Powers will be free from all hindrances and from all
transit dues between Lake Nyassa and the Congo State,
between Lakes Xyassa and Tanganika, on Lake Tanganika,
and between that lake and the northern boundary of the
two spheres." (8.) A British Protectorate was recognised
over the dominions of the Sultan of Zanzibar within the
British coastal zone and over the islands of Zanzibar and
Pemba, Britain, however, undertook to use her influence to
secure (what have since been acquired) corresponding ad-
vantages for Germany within the German coastal zone and
over the island of Mafia. Finally (9.), the island of Heli-
goland, in the North Sea, was ceded by Britain to Germany.
The tact and ability with which conflicting claims were
thus adjusted by Lord Salisbury were equally conspicuous
POLITICAL PARTITION.
505
in his negotiation of the Anglo-Portuguese Convention of Angio-
Portuguese
20th AuQ-ust 1 890. We have ah^eady alluded to tlie chief Conven-
° ^ _ , "^ tion, 1890.
points in dispute between Britain and Portugal, Their
adjustment — if, perchance, it may be regarded as final —
formed the last of a chain of treaties which, it may be hoped,
will bind down the European Powers in Africa to "keep
the peace " for some time to come.
The boundary-lines laid down by the Anglo- Portuguese
Convention are approximately shown on our map : some
time must, however, elapse before any precise delimitation
of the territories can be made.
The adjustment of rival claims, though on the whole
favourable to Portugal, has been very fairly carried out.
Portugal has obtained the recognition of some of her histori-
cal pretensions, and now has ample scope for any possible
expansion of her Eastern and Western possessions. In a
few words we may broadly distinguish what Britain and
I'ortugal have gained by their compact.
Great Britain acquired a broad Central sphere of in-
fluence for the expansion of her possessions in South Africa
northwards to and beyond the Zambezi (which, between
the Zumbo District and the Katima Eapids, flows entirely
through the British sphere), up to the confines of the Congo
Independent State * and German East Africa.
Portugal, on the East Coast, secured the Lower Zambezi
from Zumbo, and the Lower Shire from the Kuo confluence,
the entire Hinterland of Mozambique up to Lake Nyassa,f
and the Hinierlaiul of Sofala to the confines of the South
* The "confines" of the Congo Independent State require more precise de-
limitation, since treaties have quite recently (January to June 1890) been con-
cluded between British agents and native chiefs, as follows : — In the Barotse
country, and between Nyassa and the Loangwa ; in the Angoui country
(British South Africa Company) ; and in Msiri's kingdom (Katanga) by Mr.
Alfred Sharpe, acting under instructions from Consul Johnston.
f As far south as latitude 13° 30', whence the frontier is deflected south-
east to the eastern shores of Lakes Chiuta and Shirwa.
U
3o6 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
African Republic and the Matabele kingdom. On the West
Coast, Portugal received the entire Hinterland behind her
provinces in Lower Guinea, up to the confines of the Congo
Independent State * and the upper course of the Zambezi.
Application Lord Salisbury, in his negotiations with Germany and
of the Free-
trade Portugal, very wisely upheld the principle of free-trade
which was laid down by the Act of Berlin, 1885, in regard
to the free transit of goods through territories in which two
or more Powers are indirectly interested. Thus, by the
Anglo- German compact, the Contracting Powers reserved
for their respective subjects a " right of way," so to speak,
along the main channels or routes of communication.
Through the application of the same principle in the recent
Anglo-Portuguese Convention, Portugal obtains not only a
" right of way " across the British Zambezi zone, but also
the privilege of constructing railways and telegraphs. She
thereby secures free and uninterrupted connection between
her possessions on the East Coast and those on the West
Coast. A similar concession is made to Britain in the Zam-
bezi basin, within the Portuguese sphere, finally, the Zam-
bezi itself has been declared free to the flags of all nations.
Britain has stipulated for the right of pre-emption in the
event of Portugal wishing to dispose of territories south
of the Zambezi. The transit-dues over Portuguese territories
and waterways are not to exceed 3 per cent, ad valorem —
the same as fixed by the Portuguese Tariff of 1877.
* Belgium, however, disputes the claimfs of Portugal to Lunda, Kasanje,
and other territories to the east of the River Kwango, on the strength of a
treaty concluded on 14th February 18S5, between the African Association
and Portugal, which fixed the Kwango as the conterminous frontier, and of
treaties with native chiefs alleged to have been recently made by Belgian
explorers. Portugal, on the other hand, disputes the Belgian interpretation
of the Treaty of 18S5 and advances prior claims [ticc Appendix : " Notes on
the Maps "]. Meantime, on lotli June 1890, the district was incorporated (on
paper) with the Congo State, under the designation of " Western Kwango."
Portugal, however, proposes to extend the railway from Ambrose to Kasanje.
POLITICAL PARTITION. 307
This concludes our review of the political partition of Conclusion.
Africa. As a result, it will be seen that, south of the
Equator, the whole of the continent has been divided
among the European Powers ; but north of the Equator
the internal boundaries are nearly all unsettled. In other
words, Pagan Africa is at the present day under the domi-
nation of Europe, but Mohammedan Africa remains under
Arab or native rule. This striking contrast, viewed in
the light of what has already been said in regard to the
relative progress of Christianity and Islam in Africa, offers
an instructive and suggestive study. It also lends support to
the hypothesis already advanced by me, that the civilisation
of Africa will come from the south, and proceed along the
main continental axis, which now is dominated by Britain,
Germany, and Italy, but chiefly by Britain.
We are tempted to close this chapter with a moral.
The reader will have observed that, in the partition of
Africa, Jacob has occasionally supplanted Esau, and ob-
tained the blessing he was not entitled to receive. We
need not mention any particular names or cite examples.
Furthermore, by mutual concessions and the exercise of a
little tact, prudence, and forethought, Esau and Jacob have
afterwards got on very well together. Let us hope, there-
fore, they will continue to work side by side in brotherly
love and mutual confidence ; for it is only by co-operation
that they can hope to subdue the hostile elements which for
many years to come must of necessity imperil not only their
success, but their very existence in Africa.
CHAPTER XL
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA
ALONG NATURAL LINES, DERIVED FROM AN EXAMINATION OF
THE VARIOUS ASPECTS UNDER WHICH THE CONTINENT IS
KNOWN TO EUROPE AT THE PRESENT DAY.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.
TTAVING completed our survey of the continent of Africa
-^-^ as a field for European enterprise, it may be con-
venient to those who have been unable to follow step by
step if, in this place, we summarise the general results.
The following is a rdsumS of each distinct aspect of our
subject and of the conclusions to which we have been
led :—
I. Political settlement has coincided with the areas of The con-
solidation
the oceanic drainao-e-basins. The inland drainage-basins, of Euro-
^ ° pean politi-
being barren and unprofitable, are unsuitable for European ^^^ ™^^-
settlement.
European political rule in Africa requires, for its con-
solidation, a sea-board as an effective base, and, for its
expansion, easy access into the Interior. It naturally
follows the lines of least resistance ; and these, in a physical
sense, are afforded by the great river-valleys. But, owing
to the configuration of the continent and the consequent
disposition of its river-systems — all of which are fully de-
veloped heJiind the seaward border of the inland plateau —
free access by river from the ocean is interrupted by the
cataracts and rapids that are formed in the beds of all the
streams where, at comparatively short distances from their
mouths, they finally break through the rim of the inland
plateau in order to reach the sea.
312 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Limits. Hence, European political rule in Africa, after its con-
solidation in the coastal zone, for the most part in contiguity
to the mouths of the large rivers, has not yet succeeded in
penetrating for any great distance into the interior lands.
Hostile II. Climatic conditions, however, have in the main
elements of
climate. excrcised the most potent repellent force against the ex-
pansion of European political rule and the extension of
European settlement.
The climate of the coastal lands, being the most dangerous
for Europeans, and the least favourable for their acclima-
tisation, has generally paralysed or crippled the settlements
that have been established thereon.
The unfavourable climatic phenomena have also raised
natural barriers in the way of easy access into the Interior :
— (i) in the Kile Valley, where the Nubian Desert occurs;
(2) south of the Mediterranean Littoral, where the Sahara
and Libyan Deserts occur; and (3) between the Eed Sea,
parts of the East and West Coasts, and the interior lands,
where deserts or steppes intervene.
Natural
barriers.
Natural
highways.
III. The Huvial highways, on the other hand, being so
favourably situated in certain parts of Africa, the initial
physical obstacles to the extension of European political
rule have been eventually overcome: — (i) in the Niger basin,
where access into the Sudan is both practicable and easy ;
(2) in the Congo basin, which offers an unrivalled system of
waterways conducting into the Interior; and (3) in the Zam-
bezi basin, wliich gives access by the chain of great Lakes to
the most valuable land-and- water route across the continent.
Trans-Con- IV. Laiid-aiid-watcr routes — of wliich (i).the Zambezi and
tinental
land-and- thc cluiiii of great Lakcs is l)y far the most imi)ortant — are
water o j i
routes. found elscwhcrc in Africa : — namely, (2) from the Lower Xile
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. 313
Valley or from the Eed Sea, by at least two practicable routes, Trans-Con-
aud from the East Coast, into the basin of the Upper Nile, |^^('g^"'^-
where a junction with Eoute No. i can be effected ; (3) by '■°"*^^-
the Niger, joining the ordinary caravan-routes («) into the
Central Sudan and (&) across the Sahara to the Mediterranean
sea-board ; (4) by the Congo and Stanley's most recent path
to the East Coast ; and (5) from Cape Colony northwards by
land, and ultimately by railway, to the great Lakes. These
are only the chief, and for the most part trans-Continental,
highways ; but other practicable routes into the Interior
also occur.
As regards the respective merits of these natural high- Compared,
ways:— ( I.) the Sahara caravan-route has been shown to be
less valuable than, and not at all able to compete with, the
route by the Niger ; (2.) the Lower Nile route is not so
feasible as that from the Eed Sea or East Coast ; and (3.) the
Congo route is not nearly so good as that by the Zambezi
and chain of Lakes. Finally, the best route of any has been
demonstrated to be that which starts from Cape Colony and
joins the great Lakes.
V. European colonisation of the coastal lands within the obstacles
to Euro-
Tropics has been proved to be impossible without ( i ) the pean
•"- ^ -^ ' colonisa-
institution of sanatary precautions, such as the draining or *'""■
flooding of marsh-lands, (2.) exceptional attention to health,
and (3.) a very gradual process of acclimatisation. European
colonisation of the high-plateau countries has, on the other
hand, been shown to be fairly practicable. Wliilst, also,
in Temperate South Africa colonists are able to thrive, only
the people of Southern Europe show an increase of the
birth-rate over the death-rate in Temperate North Africa.
VI. The indigenous populations, in their migratory move- Migratory
. (. T-, move-
ments, have taken directions the very reverse of European ments.
314 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
conquest: they have either been (i.) thrust back and dis-
possessed of their lands, or (2.) assimilated, and so have
deteriorated, or (3 ) annihilated, — rapidly by the sword,
Develop- slowly by vile intoxicants. Nevertheless, they have evinced
ment of
the Negro a Capacity not only for nourishing an original culture, but
for taking on and assimilating higher alien forms. What
we understand by civilisation, or progress, has scarcely yet
been planted in Africa. The Negro race must be developed
along natural lines.
The Euro- Erom the comparative absence of political cohesion in
pean do-
mination. Bantu Africa, the European domination has met with slight
resistance. It is otherwise in the Llohammedan States of
the Central Sudan, where European conquest has been
checked wherever it has deeply penetrated ; but, up to the
present day, no concerted movements have been made against
the strongholds of Islam.*
Islam and VII. Islam and Christianity, or Arab and European rule,
Christ-
ianity : and their attendant evils — namely, the Slave Trade and the
methods. _ ''
traffic in drink, respectively — have resulted in the adoption
of very much the same methods of propagandism and con-
quest. But, in their effect upon the Pagan populations,
Islam and Arab rule have succeeded in places where Chris-
tianity and European rule have failed.
Reasons of The main reasons of such relative success and failure
success and appear to be : — (i.) because Islam, now so long established as
to be virtually an indigenous force, has been able to rapidly
assimilate the conquered peoples and raise them up to its
standard, whilst Christianity, an alien force, with insuffi-
cient material power behind it, demands of the natives an
impossible standard ; and (2.) because Arab rule is suited to
* It is here understood, and has been repeatedly demonstrated in the
various chapters of this book, that the Mediterranean lands may be
regarded as practically outside of Continental Africa.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. 315
the conditions of life in Tropical Africa, whilst European rule,
which has been inconsistent with the teaching of its pioneer
missionaries, has introduced social revolutions, followed by
moral degradation, of the most far-reaching character.
At the same time it has been shown that, even in the Compara-
tive success
comparatively short time of effective missionary enterprise 9^ christ-
among the impressionable Bantu, a certain measure of sue- Afdc".'^'^
cess has been attained. This degree of success would have
had permanent and important results but for (i.) European inimical
international rivalries in, and the ineffective administra-
tion of, the territories in Africa, (2.) the immoral practices
of traders, and (3.) above all, the debasing and destructive
traffic in cheap spirits. Thus, the efforts of the missionaries
at ameliorating the lot of the natives or at inculcating a
higher life have been either discounted or entirely thwarted.
For it has been shown that, wherever the European domina-
tion has obtained some degree of permanence, the natives
have deteriorated or died out, — the relatively few exceptions
only emphasising this phenomenon.
It is, therefore, pleaded, in the interests not only of a piea
humanity, but of national honour — if for no higher reason — natives,
that the European Powers in Africa should immediately
stop the indiscriminate trade in intoxicating liquors, by
which their " customers " are slowly but surely being
driven either into sodden barbarism, which can have no
desires for other European manufactures, or into untimely
graves, which will be imperishable monuments of European
hypocrisy and disgrace.
VIII. The Slave Trade has been another mischievous The slave
Trade.
factor against the healthy development of Africa, for it has
undermined its social fabric and introduced a potent element
against legitimate commerce. However, it has been shown
that the Slave Trade does not pay in itself, but only in
3i6 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
conjunction with the ivory-trade — ivory being the most
vakiable export-commodity. As one proof of this statement,
it has been pointed out that all slave-routes are trade-
routes.
Suppres- For the suppression of the Traffic in Slaves it is, there-
sion of the
Slave ioxQ, essential to adopt, in addition to the ordinary and
obvious legislation and police measures, a sound commercial
policy, with the object of undermining the Slave Trade by
legitimate commerce, and thereby introducing an inimical
factor over which the European Powers have complete
control.
Value of IX. The value of African lands appears to be sufficiently
African
lands. promising to guarantee their profitable development in
those regions where mineral resources or ivory are abundant.
All such regions are able to offer an immediate return for
capital. In the absence of those resources, however, or
failing the presence of a strong and effective European
government, the initial cost of opening up new lands is
not likely to meet with a fair return for capital in the
immediate future.
The X. Commerce, it is advanced, is the dominant factor in
factor of.„. ,.. , ., .,
commerce. African politics ; and commercial supremacy is the under-
lying motive of European enterprise in Africa.
XI. The commercial exploitation of Afiica must there-
fore determine its political destiny. African lands must,
and can, be made to pay eventually. The initial difficulties
to be overcome arise mainly from : (i) tlie Traffic in Slaves,
(2) the traffic in alcoholic liquors, and (3) the absence of
skilled native labour. Upon the solution of these problems
will depend the ultimate development of Africa as a field
for European enterprise.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. 317
XII. Chartered companies have proved invahiaLle for chartered
companies
tentative or experimental efforts, because (i) commerce is as pioneers,
the natural instrument for effecting the true development
of Africa, and (2) because they can advance boldly where
it is not expedient for the national flag to venture. But
chartered companies, for this very reason, and because
native interests might be sacrificed to the interests of the
shareholders, should have the strict parental supervision
of their respective Governments.
XIII. The progress of discovery and exploration, the Discovery
greatest achievements in which have occurred within the ^tion.
last hundred years, has been shown to have been inspired
by the desire on the part of the participating nations of
Europe, first, to reach some desired goal in the Interior, the
riches and resources of which have been either fabulous
or well founded ; secondly, to acquire a commercial mono-
poly over those favoured regions ; thirdly, to open up routes
thither; and lastly, to develop the country. Commercial
aims have, in fact, inspired the action of most European
entrepreneurs in Africa. At the same time, scientific
travellers of all nationalities — but mainly British, German,
French, Portuguese, and Italian — have independently dis-
covered and explored various regions of Africa. The
Germans in Northern Equatorial Africa and the British in
all the regions south of the Equator have been the leading
discoverers and explorers ; but the roll of British explorers
includes the names of the larger number of the most dis-
tinguished and successful men. The great hydrographical
discoveries have all been achieved, not by the more natural
method of tracing the river-systems from the coasts inland,
but by the reverse way. From the fact that the unknown or
unexplored regions of Africa at the present day lie behind
the European Possessions on the coasts, it is argued that,
31 8 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
Future in conseoueiice of the necessity of the Powers to fix their
direction of
expiora- inland boundaries, and to explore and exploit the Interior
regions, the march of exploration in the future will be
directed by and precede colonisation and political settlement.
Furthermore, it has been shown that there is ample scope
left in Africa, not only for the surveyor and explorer, but
also for the pioneer discoverer ; and that small pacific
expeditions, or individual explorers with small personal
escorts, having in the past achieved some of the best results,
would in the future be better suited than big fighting ex-
peditions for finding out new fields for European enterprise
and capital.
Effective XIV. Tlic European domination over African lands is
European
occupa- intermittently felt throughout the greater part of the con-
tinent; but only in the Temperate regions and at isolated
points in the coastal zone has it been followed by effective
occupation. Throughout Tropical Africa European political
administration is practically restricted to the coastal lands
and to the lower portions of the valleys of the great rivers.
But wdiilst it has been shown that the obstacles to European
political rule are not necessarily insuperable, it is contended
that existing limitations should be judiciously observed, in
order that they may eventually be overcome, in part or
altogether. In place of haphazard administrative experi-
ments, the European Powers would do better to adopt a
systematic programme, based on the best principles that
experience and knowledge teach us ought to determine
the development of African lands.
Political XV. Finally, it has been seen that the partition of African
partition _, ^ • ^ • -n
of Africa, lands among the European Powers, which practically com-
menced after the Berlin Conference of 18S4-85, has pro-
ceeded so rapidly that by August 1 890 the whole of Africa
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. 319
south of the Equator had been appropriated by them, whilst, Future
on the other hand, to the north of the Equator very few European
civilisation.
internal boundaries are yet fixed. In other words, Pagan
Africa is now exclusively dominated by the European
Powers, whilst Mohammedan Africa remains for the most
part under the rule of Arab and native chiefs. IMore-
over, it has been pointed out that, from south to north,
along the main axis of the continent, by which route it may
be expected the civilisation of Europe will chiefly advance,
the territories are under the control of Britain, Germany,
and Italy, but chiefly of Britain.
Thus, from an inquiry into the past, and from an Concluding
estimate of the future of Africa, I have endeavoured to
arrive at the general principles that underlie the develop-
ment of the continent along what may be regarded as
its natural lines. My arguments are, of course, open to
criticism ; but it is precisely the discussion of this im-
portant subject that is so urgently needed at the present
time, and by more competent critics than myself. To
challenge criticism has been one of the objects of my
task, and I believe I have laid myself open to attack on
very nearly all sides.
Africa is not a continent to be developed by the hap-
hazard means which have been employed up to the present.
Its conditions and its necessities are dilTerentiated from
those of every other continent. These conditions should
be recognised, and the necessities provided for, by all the
Powers who have interests in Africa. The desiderata most
urgently needed are the recognition by them of a community
320 DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA.
of interests and the adoption by them of a common pro-
gramme. For, until these ends are attained, we can scarcely
hope that the European domination in Africa — at least, in
Tropical Africa — will tend either to the ultimate benefit of
the natives or to the credit of Europe.
APPENDIX.
NOTES ON THE MAPS
E. G. RAVENSTEIN, F.R.G.S.
NOTES ON THE MAPS.
IjST the fourteen maps whicli follow, an attempt lias been made
to give a graphic representation of the outstanding features
of the physical and political geography of Africa. The utmost
care has been taken to utilise all the available information extant.
The maps are necessarily imperfect, owing to the absence of
precise data, but their error in detail is not so great as to detract
from their ti'ustworthiness : they give a correct idea of certain
leading features in the geography of Africa which mere verbal
descriptions could scarcely convey.
The maps explain themselves, but the following remarks are
added in elucidation of certain points that might otherwise
remain obscure.
No. I. Height of Land. — By referring to Plate XII., illus-
trating the progress of exploration, it will be seen to what extent
this map is hypothetical. It is quite possible, for instance, that
the areas of relative depression in the Sahara are of greater
extent than that shown on the map. The series of "troughs"
in Masai-land, including Lake Rudolf and other lakes, is a very
remarkable phenomenon.
No. II. River-hasins arid Ocean currents. — Our delineation of
river-basins includes in many instances areas which are actually
riverless, but which, nevertheless, as far as the general slope of
the country and of its torrent-beds is concerned, belong to the
basin to which they are accredited. Much still remains to be
known before we can be in a position to divide the Saharan region
into catchment-basins.
Nos. III., IV., AND V. Plienomena of Climate. — These maps
have been designed to illustrate the more remaikable features of
the climatology of Afi'ica.
324 APPENDIX.
No. III. (Mean Annual Temperatures) is an attempt to repre-
sent the actual temperature in contradistinction to that pre-
vailing at sea-leveL A knowledge of temperatures reduced to
sea-level is, of course, indispensable for investigating the laws
governing the distribution of temperature over the globe ; but
that of the actual temperature is more immediately useful when
it is desired to obtain a general notion of the climate of any-
given region. Owing to the few stations at which observations
for temperature have been made, our map is almost certain to
contain many errors as to detail ; but, nevertheless, we believe
it to be a trustworthy index to the subject. On examination
it will be seen that a mean temperature of over 80° Fahr.
prevails along the East Coast, from the Red Sea as far south
as Sofala, beyond the Zambezi ; whilst, on the West Coast, owing
to the proximity of the cold waters of the South Atlantic, and of
the cold currents flowing south along the Saharan Coast, the
domain of 80° Fahr. of mean annual temperature is much more
restricted. Temperatures uniform with those of Southern Europe
prevail over only a small extent of country, and are mainly
confined to the Barbary Coast and to extra-Tropical South
Africa. This is not to be wondered at. In order to enjoy
a mean temperature like that of London (51° Fahr.) in any
country the seaboard of which has a mean temperature of 80°
Fahr., it would be necessary to ascend to as great a height above
the sea-level as 10,000 feet. There are no plateaus of that
height in Africa, and even mountains of that altitude are rare.
Even at Gondar, on the Abyssinian plateau, at an elevation of
6200 feet above the sea, the mean annual temperature is 67°
Fahr. ; whilst at Kakoma, in Unyamwezi, 3700 feet above the
sea, it is 72°, and in Uganda it is 70° Fahr.
Turning to Map No. IV. (Mean Annual Range of Tempera-
ture), we find that the difference between the coldest and hottest
months of the year is very slight. Over a large portion of the
Congo basin it does not amount to as much as 5° Fahr. ; whilst
a range of 20° Fahr. is observable only in North and South
Africa. This restricted annual range of toinperatiu-e is com-
pensated for, to a (pialiflcd extent, by an unusually large diurnal
range; but it may be doubted whether the latter phenomenon
makes up for the entire absence of a " cool season." The pre-
valent popular idea that, in order to enjoy a temperature con-
NOTES ON THE MAPS.
325
genial to northern Europeans, we have merely to ascend a
mountain-side in a Tropical country, is at all events not supported
by an examination of our maps.
The climate of Tropical Africa is all the more trying to
Europeans on account of its relative humidity, which, over a
great part of the continent, exceeds 70 per cent.
On ]\Iap No. V. (Annual luiinfall) many I'ecent ohservations
have been utilised for the first time.
I append a few climatological data in illustration of the maps.
London
Vienna
Algiers
Cairo
Elmina (Gold Coast)
Akasa (Niger) .
Bismarckburg (Togo
Land)
Kuka (Bornu) .
Sibange (Gabon)
Vivi (Congo)
Loanda
S. Salvador (Congo)
Luluaburg
Lado (Upper Nile)
Massawa .
Gondar
Zanzibar .
Kakoma .
Uganda
Tete .
Blantyre .
Cape Town
Kimberley
Alti-
tude.
Temperature.
Relative Humidity.
Mean of
Annual
Rain.
Year.
Annual
Year.
Range.
Range.
Feet.
Degrees F.
Degrees P.
Inches.
Per Cent.
Per Cent.
120
SI
26
25
81
20
640
49
40
23
72
21
70
65
23
31
64
28
100
70
30
I
56
28
60
79
7
31
85
7
7S
5
138
91
12
2300
75
TO
59
75
42
S50
83
20
63
40
76
5
89
90
370
76
9
43
75
13
190
74
12
13
82
10
1900
73
8
39
2000
78
2
5S
78
30
1500
Si
9
37
71
48
86
17
4
6200
67
12
34
80
II
9S
82
13
3700
72
16
39
62
48
4000
70
3
51
250
80
II
34
62
28
3320
66
16
S3
68
36
63
15
25
74
13
400
65
27
18
58
6
No. YI. Geology.- — This is a mere sketch, based upon the map
in Berghaus' Physical Atlas and supplemented by more recent
326 APPENDIX.
data. Certain parts have been filled in conjecturally, in order
to obviate blanks. Perhaps the most striking feature in the
geology of Africa is the belt of Archaic and volcanic rocks
composing the main axis of the continent and prevailing between
the Pted Sea and Cape Colony.
JSTo. VII. Zones of Vegetation. — The references to colouring
sufficiently explain the scope of this map. Forests are indicated
only where they cover extensive areas. Elsewhere belts of trees
fringe many rivers, and timber is abundant even in some parts
of the steppe-countries. A comparison between this map and
Ko. Y. (Annual Rainfall) will prove instructive.
No. VIII. Commercial Products. — On this map we have shown
the continually decreasing area of regions yielding ivory, the
distribution of the oil-palm [Elais guineensis), the products of
which play so important a part in the commercial development
of Africa, and the region within which the date-palm is culti-
vated. The map also shows the pi-incipal gold-pi'oducing regions
that have so far been discovered and exploited, and the available
coal-fields.
Railways at present open or in course of construction have also
been indicated. It will be observed that only in British South
Africa, Algeria, and Egypt have the railway-systems been at
all developed. Railway-lines of secondary importance — either
built or in course of construction — are to be found in Senegambia
(Kayes, on the Senegal, to Bamaku, on the Niger), on the Lower
Congo (Matadi to Stanley Pool), in Angola (Loanda to Ambaca),
in Mozambique (Delagoa Bay to the Transvaal), in British East
Africa (from Mombaza into the Interior), and in the Italian
Possessions on the Red Sea Littoral (from Massawa to the foot
of the plateau).
The distance to which rivers are navigable from their mouths
has been indicated by a bar.
No. IX. Densdij of Popidation. — Trustworthy data in this
respect are absolutely wanting for the greater part of Africa.
Census reports are available only for Algeria, Egypt, the British
Colonies, and the Boer Republics. Elsewhere we are dependent
for our information on the accounts of travellers. Even for a
NOTES ON THE MAPS. 327
country so near to us as Morocco we have the most conflicting
estimates. This much, however, appears certain : the most
densely populated region of Africa, apart from Lower Egypt, is
that of the Lower Niger, including Yoruba. I have estimated
the total population of Africa {vide ante, pages 86 and 87) to
be but little over .127,000,000, which shows a density of 1 1 to
the square mile.
No. X. Lamjuages. — Much remains to be done before it were
possible to classify the infinite number of African tribes either
on the basis of language or in accordance with anthropometric
characteristics. Our map is intended simply to illustrate broad
features, and has been constructed on strictly linguistic prin-
ciples. In consequence of this classification, many tribes portray-
ing distinctly Negroid characteristics, but who have adopted the
language of their conquerors or co-religionists, have been regarded
as Semites. The distribution of the Masai, and the Dinka and
their relations, who occupy the border-land between the un-
doubted Hamites (the Galla and Somdl), is shown by a pale
blue tint. The Bushmen (Bojesmans) have been separated from
the Hottentots ; but no account has been taken of the nume-
rous scattered tribes of Pygmies, which are found throughout
Africa as far north as the Ogow^, the Well6, and Southern
Abyssinia.
The number of Europeans residing in Africa probably amounts
to 1,000,000. Of these, 430,000 are in British South Africa,
172,000 in the Boer Republics, 245,000 in Algeria and Tunis,
and 92,000 in Lower Egypt. Actual settlers are found only in
South Africa and in Algeria, to a small extent also in Angola.
No. XI. Religions, and Missionary Stations. — This map gives
the general distribution of Christians, Mohammedans, and Pagans.
The colouring, however, is intended to indicate simply the domi-
nant faith in the various regions. AVithin the Christian sphere,
for instance, numerous Pagans and many Mohammedans are to
be found ; while the populations of the so-called Mohammedan
countries include large contingents of Pagans. Ancient Christ-
ianity, which at one time was the dominant faith in North
Africa and in the Nile Valley, has left a survival in Abyssinia ;
whilst modern Christianity is being propagated from hundreds of
328 APPENDIX.
Missionary stations, only the chief of wliich have been giv'en on
the map.
No. XII. Progress of Exiiloration. — Five periods of progress
in the exploration of Africa have been distinguished on our map.
Each period is represented by a distinctive colour, whilst those
parts of Africa still unexplored have been left blank. The map
illustrates the discoveries of European travellers only. No notice
has been taken of a number of early travellers, who undoubtedly
peneti^ated far into the Interior, but of whose achievements no
detailed record has been handed down. As instances of this kind
we may mention the Florentine Benedetti Dei, who visited
Timbuktu during the second half of the fifteenth century, the
Portuguese Joao Fernandez, Pero d'Evora, Rodrigo Eeinel, Joao
Louren^o, and others who ventured into the Sahara or visited
the Negro kingdoms on the Upper Niger. Nor has any notice
been taken of the Portuguese traders of more recent times who,
long before the days of Livingstone and Cameron, travelled from
Bihe to the Upper Zambezi, to Lunda, and even to Urua. The
only exceptions noted by us are the journeys of Conceicao, Gra^a,
and Silva Porto, who have published intelligible itineraries.
No. XIII. The Political Partition of Africa. — The territorial
arrangements illustrated by this map have been made, for the
most part, without the knowledge or irrespective of the wishes
of the native chiefs and rulers whose lands have been thus ap-
portioned among the European Powers. Many parts of Africa
designated as European " protectorates " or " spheres of influ-
ence " have never even been seen by European travellers. These
international arrangements are, moreover, far from complete,
as they at present stand : the blanks on our map sufficiently
attest this fact. Only a certain number of the territoi'ial
boundaries claimed by European Powers has been fixed by inter-
national agreement, whilst the possession of several lands is
disputed between two or even three Powers.
For instance, Lunda and other territories to the east of
the Kwango are claimed both by Portugal and the Congo
Independent State. The conterminous frontier between Loanda
and the Congo State was, it is true, fixed by the Convention
of 14th February 18S5. This convention stipulated that the
NOTES ON THE MAPS. 329
boundary-line in question should follow the parallel of Noki
to the Kwango, and from thence follow the course of that
river ; and it was at first interpreted in the same sense by the
contracting parties. Colonel Strauch, in a letter to Dr. R
Kiepert (dated 26th February 1885) stated that the boundary
to the east of the Kwango followed the 6th parallel (as
defined in the Convention with Germany) ; and M. E. van
Eetvelde, in a circular addressed to the European Powers on
ist August 1885, accepted the same interpretation. Moreover,
in all the maps published by M. Wauters in the periodical
issues of Le Mouvement GeograpTiique, from 5th May 1885 "P
to and including 6th July 1890, the frontier of the Congo
Independent State was thus delimitated. Portugal, on her part,
on 12th December 1885, claimed the ancient empire of Lunda
as lying within her sphere of influence. It was only in
August 1890 that the Congo Independent State, pretending
to regard Lunda as No-man's Land, claimed possession of
it on the strength of explorations recently carried out within
its limits and of treaties concluded with native cliiefs by
Belgian travellers. On both of these grounds, however, Por-
tugal has undoubtedly anticipated the claims of the Congo
State. The dispute, it is understood, is to be definitely settled
by arbitration.
Elsewhere, and more especially in regard to the British
Possessions, the conterminous boundaries of the Congo State with
those of other spheres of influence have not yet been defined by
international agreements {vide ante, page 305). The northern
boundary of the State has been drawn on our map up to the
Congo-Nile water-parting, as far west as longitude 17° E., —
an extension formerly claimed but, apparently, subsequently
abandoned.
British Possessions are coloured as if the recent Convention
with Portugal (20th August 1890) had been ratified. The small
enclave behind Cape Juby is coloured British, although its acquisi-
tion by a private company has not yet been sanctioned by the
British Government ; the territory, moreover, is claimed by both
France and Spain. The territories of the Imperial British East
Africa Company (" Ibea ") are coloured a dark-red up to lati-
tude 5° N., whilst their probable extension northwards is indi-
cated by a paler tint. The total area thus defined is 1,065,000
330 NOTES ON THE MAPS.
square miles, of wliicli 245,000 squai-e miles are included within
the territories lying to the south of latitude 5° N.
No. XIV. Forms of GovernmeyiL— Whilst Map No. XIII.
exhibits what may be regarded as the aspirations of the Euro-
pean Powers in Africa, Map No. XIV. is intended to show the
actual state of affairs. It will be seen that European rule
has as yet been established only in Algeria, in a large part of
British South Africa, in the Boer States, in some of the Coastal
districts, and at a few localities in the Interior, which happen
to be occupied by small garrisons capable of enforcing the autho-
rity of the nominal " sovereigns " of the country. The greater
part of Africa is still ruled by native chiefs and in accordance
with native laws, even although many of these chiefs have
signed treaties with, or accepted the "protection" of, European
Powers.
The few native States with Christian rulers are coloured blue.
They include Abyssinia, Uganda, Liberia, Khama's kingdom,
and Madagascar. Among Pagan States, that of the Muata
Yanvo (Lunda) has i-ecently suffered disintegration, and thus
offei's an easy j^rey to its neighbours.
INDEX.
INDEX.
Abyssinia, description of, 25; inoiin-
tains of, 26 ; inland drainage-area
near, 27 ; geology of, 59 ; malaria
in, 75 ; area and population of, b6 ;
colour of the people of, 114 ; Arabs
arrive in, 133; Christianity in, 141 ;
Portuguese mission to, 186 ; ex-
ploration in, 194 ; British expedi-
tion against, 194 ; agriculture in,
225
Acclimatisation, 76
Adamawa plateau, 193
Africa (as a continent), geological
antiquity of, 3 ; coast-line of, 4 ;
geological systems of, 4 ; its con-
formity to continental type, 5 ;
characteristic physical features of,
6 ; coastal zone of, 6 ; inland
plateau of, 6 ; continental axis of,
7 ; elevation of the land-masses of,
7 ; highest summits of, 7 ; vast size
of, 8 ; embossment of, 8 ; drainage-
areas of, 9 ; lakes of, il ; rivers of,
II, 18; inland drainage-areas of,
10; absence of harbours in, 37;
East Coast of, 43 ; climate of, 51,
71 ; mean annual temperature of,
51 ; prevailing winds in, 53 ; rainfall
of, 55 ; sources of the river-systems
of, 56 ; rainy seasons in, 57 ;
snow-line in, 57 ; soils of, 58 ;
distribution of vegetation in, 60 ;
desert zone of, 62 ; forests of, 65,
67 ; savannas of, 68 ; fauna of,
68 ; faunal regions of, 69 ; insect
pests of, 71 ; diseases of, 74 ;
malaria in, 74 ; habitability of, 78 ;
settleable and unsettleable regions
of, 78 ; Cross and Crescent in, 81 ;
essentials towards effective occupa-
tion in, 81 ; distribution of the in-
digenous populations of, 85 ; area
and population of, 86 ; languages
and dialects of, 85, 90 ; total
European possessions in, 87 ; classi-
fication of the races of, 87 ; occupa-
tions of the natives of, 89 ; arche-
ology of, 89 ; Negro linguistic
systems in, 92 ; Negroes of, 96 ;
representative peoples of, 105 ;
light -coloured peoples of, 1 16;
one effect of missions in, 119 ;
Negro kingdoms of, 120; culture
of the natives of, 123 ; disturbing
influences on native culture in,
123 ; native civilisation of, 124 ;
European dominion in, 125, 311,
314 ; rival religious forces in, 129 ;
Jews in, 140 ; Islam in, 132 ;
cohesion of Mohammedan forces
in, 136 ; Pagan tribes of, 136 ;
recent Arab hostilities in, 137 ;
Copts in, 141 ; phases of Christian
missionary enterprise in, 141 ;
spheres of missions in, 143 ;
number of mission-stations, mis-
sionaries, and native converts in.
145 ; results of missionary enter-
prise in, 145 ; Slave Trade in, 161 ;
civilisation of, 161 ; causes of the
arrested development of, 161 ; de-
gradation of, 162 ; abolition of
slavery in, 163, 174, 176; funda-
mental cause of the Slave Trade
in, 165 ; conditions and extent of
the Slave Trade in, 167 ; methods
of slave-hunting in, 172 ; slave-
traders of , 173 ; suppression of the
Slave Trade in, 177 ; pacific mea-
sures against the Slave Trade in,
178; exploration in, 1S4, 317;
ancient geography of, 1S3 ; Portu-
guese pioneers in, 185 ; systema-
tic scientific exploration of, 185 ;
Jesuits in, 1S6 ; distinctive spheres
of discovery in, 186 ; character and
extent of explorations in, 187 ;
unexplored regions of, 188, 212 ;
periods of exploratory work in,
188 ; first European to cross, 199 ;
134
INDEX.
practical results of exploration in,
202 ; chartered companies in, 245,
317 ; comparative view of Euro-
pean exploration in, 210 ; character
of expeditions in, 212 ; commercial
resources of, 217 ; value of land
in, 218, 316 ; the factor of com-
merce in, 218 ; commercial outlook
in, 219 ; labour in, 243 ; islands of,
238 ; geographical distribution of
ivory in, 238 ; liquor-traffic in, 242 ;
commercial development of, 244 ;
European dominion in, 249, 275 ;
political partition of, 279 ; European
spheres of influence in, 280 ; inland
boundaries in, 281 ; obstacles to
the colonisation of, 313 ; migratory
movements in, 313
Africa, East, physical features of, 38 ;
vegetation of, 67 ; fauna of, 69 ;
climate of, 78 ; linguistic groups
in, 90 ; Christian missions in, 144 ;
Slave Trade in, 169, 176 ; explora-
tions in, 1 87, 200, 204, 209; com-
mercial resources of, 233; European
domination in, 270 ; German, Com-
pany', 272 ; British, Company, 273
Africa, Equatorial and Central, rain-
fall in, 55 ; vegetation of, 65 ;
climate of, 80 ; linguistic groups
in, 90; tribes of, 166; Islam in,
135 ; Christian missions in, 141 ;
slave-preserves in, 167, 177) early
discoveries in, 196 ; commercial
resources of, 226 ; distribution of
ivory in, 238
Africa, North, phj'sical features of,
17 ; vegetation of, 61 ; fauna of,
69 ; climate of, 78 ; archaeology of,
80 ; linguistic groups in, 90 ; Islam
in, 132 ; Christian missions in, 145 ;
Slave Trade in, 168 ; explorations
in, 187 ; commercial resources of,
219 ; European domination in, 250
Africa, South, physical features of,
37 ; vegetation of, 67 ; faima of,
7c ; climate of, 78 ; linguistic
groups in, 90 ; Christian missions
in, 144 ; explorations in, 187, 198,
206 ; commercial resources of, 235 ;
political situation in, 266 ; British,
Company, 269 ; expansion of British,
296
Africa, West, physical features of,
27 ; vegetation of, 67 ; fauna of,
69 ; climate of, 78 ; linguiKtic
groups in, 90; tribes of, 118;
trade and commerce of, 1 19, 227;
Christian missions in, 143 ; Slave
Trade in, 169 ; explorations in,
187, 201 ; European domination
in, 256
African Association, foundation of
the London, 185
African Lakes Company, foundation
of the, 204
Africander Bund, 267
Ahaggar highlands, drainage of the,
19
Akka, heiglit of the, 96
Albert Edward Nyanza, elevation of
the, 23 ; discovery of the, 210
Albert Nyanza, description of the,
23 ; Baker's visit to the, 197 ;
Stanley at the, 209
Alexander, explorations by, 198
Alexandria, trade of, 224
Algeria, highlands of, 17 ; rivers of,
18 ; vegetation of, 62 ; malaria in
75 ; area and population of, 86 ;
Jews in, 140 ; conquest of, 192 ;
economical progress of, 219; pre-
sent state of, 250
Amazons and Congo Rivers com-
pared, 1 1
Anderssen, explorations by, 206
Angola, rainfall of, 57 ; descent of
the Negroes of, 1 19 ; maps of, 196 ;
resources of, 231
Angra Pequena, Germany obtains,
204
Anti-slavery Conference (1889-90),
Arabs, descent of the, 9 1 ; in Africa,
132 ; ivory trade carried on by the,
241 ; recent revolt of the, on the
East Coast, 292
Area of Africa, 86
Arnot, referred to, 40 ; explorations
by, 208
Aruwimi River, Stanley's journey on
the, 209
Ashanti, 120
Assuan, cataract near, 26
Atbara River, sediment carried by
the, 26, 59
Atlantic Ocean drainage-basin, 27
Atlas IMduntaius, description of the,
18 ; influence of the, on the rain-
fall, 56
Atmospheric pressure over Africa, 53
Babisa, origin of the, no
Bagirn)i, adoption of Islam by the,
J
134
INDEX.
335
Bahr-el-Ghazal, confluence of, with
the Nile, 24
Baikie, explorationf? by, 192
Baker, journey of, 197
Bakoba, origin of the, 109
Bahinda, characteristics of the, 1 17
Bamangvvato, character of the, 107
Bambuk, Colin's work in, 207
Banana, the Congo at, 34
Bangweolo Lake, the source of the
Congo, 31 ; elevation of, 33 ; dis-
covery of, 200
Bantu, manners and customs of the,
93
Bari, characteristics of the, 115
Baringo Lake, see Rudolf Lake
Barka, anciently Cyrenaica, 17 ; soil
of, 62
Barots^, strength of the, 109
Barrakunda rapids, 28
Barrow, surveys by, 198
Barth, explorations by, 193
Bastian, journeys of, 201
Basuto, character of the, 107
Basuto-land, Great Britain in, 206
Batoka, position of the, 109
Baumann, explorations by, 208
Bays, relative absence of, from the
coasts of Africa, 4
Beatrice Gulf, as the source of the
Nile, 210
Bechuana-land, plateau of, 37 ; man-
ners and customs of the natives of,
107 ; opening-up of, 198 ; political
situation in, 296
Bed win, Arab descent of the, 92
Behm. Dr., on the vegetation of
Africa, 60
Beke, explorations by, 194
Belgian Possessions in Africa, area
and population of, 87
Belgium and the Congo State, 262
Benguela, early maps of, 196
Beuue River, description of the, 29 ;
discovery of the, 193 ; as a trade
route, 227 ; see also Chadda
Berber, route to the Nile from, 26
Berbera, trade of, 225
Berbers, manners and customs of
the, 91
Berlin Conference (1885) and the
liquor-traffic, 242 ; awards of the,
262, 282
Bih^, mixed population of, 1 19
Binger, explorations by, 207
Blue Nile, at Khartum, 24 ; sources
of the, 24
Blyden, Dr., referred to, 97, 149, 151
Boer Republics in Africa, 268 ; area
and population of, 87
Bohm, explorations by, 205
Boma, port of, 36
Bonaparte's expedition into Egypt, 194
Border Craig, near the sources of the
Zambezi and Congo Rivers, 40
Borelli, explorations by, 209
Bowdich, maps by, 196
British, Possessions in Africa, area
and population of, 87 ; explorers in
Africa, 211 ; South Africa Com-
pany, 269, 298 ; East Africa Com-
pany, 293 ; see also Great Britain
Bruce, explorations by, 185
Brussels Conference( 1889-90) and the
liquor-trafBc, 242
Buccaneer, soundings by the, 34
Buchan, Dr., referred to, 51
Buchanan, Mr. J. Y., referred to,
27, 35
Burton, explorations by, 197
Bu.fhmen, or Bojesmans, character-
istics and customs of the, 94
Caillaud, explorations by, 195
Caillie, journey by, 192
Camarons (Cameroons), Germany in
the, 261
Cambier, explorations by, 208
Cameron, Lovett, explorations by, 200
Cameroons, see Camarons
Cannibalism among the Central tribes
116
Cape Colony, rivers of, 37 ; political
situation in, 267
Capello, explorations by, 203
Caravan-traflac, 105
Cardozo, explorations by, 204
Carthaginians in North Africa, 60
Chadda River, exploration of the, 192;
sec also Benue
Chartered companies, work of the,
207, 245
Chinde River, a mouth of the River
Zambezi, 41, 209
Chinese immigration recommended,
243.
Christian missionary enterprise, 141
Christianity and Islam, 129, 314
Clapperton, explorations by, 191
Climate, of Africa, 51 ; factors of, 71 ;
modifications of, 72 ; effects of, 79
Climates, comparison between, 72
Coast-line of Africa, 4
Colin, work of, 207
Colonies in Africa, true value of, 21S
3o^
INDEX.
Colonisation (European), obstacles in
the way of, 313; see also Climate
and Settlements
Colour of the skin of African peoples.
Commercial resources of Africa, 217;
development of, 244
Congo compared with the Amazons,
II ; physical features between the
Kiger and the, 29 ; basin of the, 30 ;
obstructions in the bed of the, 31 ;
bird's-eye view of the basin of the,
31 ; sources of the, 31 ; orographi-
cal features of the basin of the, 32 ;
northern arm of the, 33 ; southern
arm of the, 33 ; lower course of
the, 34 ; cataracts of the, 34 ;
estuary of the, 34 ; submarine canon
of the, 34 ; sediment carried by
the, 34 ; soundings off mouth of
the, 34 ; width of the, 34 ; means
of communication by the, 35 ; navi-
gable waters of the, 35 ; orographi-
cal features between the Orange
River and the, 36 ; compared with
the River Zambezi, 39 ; rainfall in
the great forest region of the, 56 ;
great forest of the, 65 ; Tuckey's
exploration of the Lower, 190, 196 ;
maps of the Lower, 196; Living-
stone on the western tributaries
of the, 199 ; discovery of the head-
waters of the, 200 ; problem of the,
solved, 202 ; explorations in the
basin of the, 202, 208 ; De Brazza
on the, 203 ; Stanley on the, 209 ;
Belgian explorers on the, 21 1 ;
trade and commerce of the, 229 ;
commercial establishments on the,
230 ; political future of the, 231 ;
French Possessions on the, 231 ;
Tippu Tib and the Upper, 263
Congo State, founding of the, 202,
282 ; Belgium and the, 262 ; ad-
ministration of the, 264 ; bound-
aries of the, 282
Cooley, researches of, 197
Copts in Africa, 141
Crampel, explorations by, 207
Cast, Dr., referred to, 85
Cyrenaica, now Barka, 17 ; Jewish
migration to, 131
D'Ahbadie, explorations by the
bnjthers, 194
Dahome, army of, 120; Portugal in,
301
Damara-land, discoveries in, 198
205
D'Anville, referred to, 183, 195
De Bellefonds, travels of, 195
De Bissey, maps by, 208
De Brazza, explorations by, 203
Delagoa Bay, 39
Delcommune, explorations by, 208
Denham, discoveries by, 191
Desert regions, rainfall, 56 ; zone of
Africa, 62 ; climate, 73 ; Traffic in
Slaves, 168
Detritus, effects of, on the coasts of
Africa, 4 ; carried by the Atbara
River, 26, 59
Development of Africa : summary and
conclusions, 311-320
Dialects of Africa, 85
Diebo Lake, an enlargement of the
Niger, 29
Dilolo Lake, passage of the Zambezi
through, 40
Diseases of Africa, 74
Drainage-areas of Africa, 9 ; relation
between political settlement and,
12
Draken Berge, height of, 37
Dualla, their capacity for trading,
IIQ
Du Chaillu, discovery of Pygmies by,
96 ; explorations by, 201
Dutch colonisation of Africa, 1S6
Edrisi, knowledge of Africa at the
time of, 1 84
Egypt, malaria in, 75 ! area and
population of, 86 ; exploration of,
1 85; Bonaparte in, 194; the French
in Lower, 211 ; important geo-
graphical position of, 224 ; British
occupation of, 224, 251 ; commercial
resources of Lower, 223 ; state of
Upper, 252 ; natural frontier of
Lower, 253
Ehlers, explorations by, 205
Elephant, preservation of the, 241
Elton, explorations by, 206
Emin Pacha, explorations by, 197 ;
on the Labour Question, 243
Erskiue, explorations by, 206
Ethiopian tribes, 112
Europe, area of, compared, 4 ; influ-
ence in Africa of, 125 ; the Congo
State and, 264 ; dominion in Africa
exercised by, 249, 275
European exploration in Africa, 210
Exploration of Africa, 1S4-213
INDEX.
337
Faona of Africa, 68
Felkin, Dr., referred to, II4
Fellata, sec Fulah
Fillani, see Fulah
Fischer, explorations bj', 205
Flegel, survey by, 193
Forest, great Congo, 65
Forests, effect of, on rain-supply, 60 ;
primeval, of Africa, 67
Fourneaux, explorations by, 207
Fournel, Marc, quoted, 135
France, area and population of the
Possessions of, in Africa, 87 ; mis-
sionary efforts of, 138 ; and the
Slave Trade, 164; enterprise of, 192 ;
and exploration in Africa, 21 1 ; in
Algeria and Tunis, 219 ; the domin-
ant political Power in North Africa,
250, 303 ; on the West Coast, 256,
301 ; Congo territories of, 261 ;
Germany and, 285 ; Portugal and,
286 ; Great Britain and, 302
Fulah, manners and customs of the,
92 ; characteristics of the, 122
Furtado, maps by, 196
Futa Jallon, highlands of, 28
Gabdn River, estuary of the, 30
Gabiin, foundation of the French
colony on the, 201 ; French activity
in the territory of, 207
Galla-land, description of, 45 ; area
and population of, 86 ; tribes of,
III
Galton, explorations by, 205
Gambia River, source of the, 28 ;
discovery of the source of the, 192
Gandu, Joseph Thomson at, 207
Geology of Africa, 4
Germany, area and population of the
Possessions of, in Africa, 87 ; the
Slave Trade and, 177 ; explorers
from, in Africa, 193, 211 ; African
Association of, 201 ; on the West
Coast, 257 ; in the Camarons, 261 ;
in South-West Africa, 265 ; and
Great Britain in East Africa, 274,
303 ; dispute between Great Britain
and, on Bight of Biafra, 283 ;
France and, 285 ; expansion of, in
Africa, 287 ; East African Asso-
ciation of, 291 ; Portugal and, 294
Gessi, explorations by, 197
Ghadames, Richardson at, 192
Giraud, journey of, 205
Gold, in the Sudan, search for, 194 ;
in South Africa, 236
Gordon, General, work of, 197
Grant, explorations by, 197
Great Britain, in Lower Egypt, 138,
251 ; on the West Coast, 256;
Germany and, in East Africa, 274 ;
dispute between Germany and, on
Bight of Biafra, 283 ; Portugal and,
297, 305 ; in Souuil-land, 301 ; see
also British
Great Karoo plateau, 39
Great Lakes, total area of the, 87
Grenfell, explorations by, 203, 208
Griqua-land, discovery of diamonds
in, 206
Guardafui, Cape, 44
Guinea Coast, Upper, described, 28 ;
diseases of, 76
Gulf of Aden, modifications under-
gone by the, 27
Gulf of Guinea, description of, 27
Gulfs, absence of, from the coasts of
Africa, 4
Haie of African peoples, 87
Harar, trade of, 225
Hausa, language and characteristics
of the, 121
Hawash River, 27
Henry, Prince, the Navigator, 129
Herodotus, knowledge of Africa at
the time of, 183
Hikwa, Lake, Captain Storms on, 33 ;
discovery of, 204
Hinterland defined, 280
Hohnel, discoveries by 209
Hornemann, explorations by, 190
Hottentots, position of the, 93 ;
manners and customs of the, 93 ;
dispersal of the, 95
Houghton, expedition under, 189
Humidity and soil, 75
Huxley, Professor, referred to, 125
Ighasghak River, dry bed of the, 21
Independent Africa, area and popu-
lation of, 87
Indian Ocean drainage-basin, 38
Islam in Africa, 121, 314 ; Chris-
tianity and, 129, 150; progress of,
131 ; southern limit of, 135 ; out-
posts of, 136 ; strongholds of, 138 ;
verdicts for and against, 147, 148 ;
the Slave Trade and, 165
Islands of Africa, area and popula-
tion, 86 ; resources, 238
Italy, ascendancy on Red Sea Lit-
338
INDEX.
toral of, So, 254 ; area and popula-
tion of the Possessions of, in Africa,
87 ; explorers from, in Africa, 211;
on the Red Sea Littoral, 254,
300 ; on the Somal Coast, 300
Ituri River, see Aruwimi
Ivens, explorations by, 203
Ivory, geographical distribution of,
238 ; trade in, 240
James, explorations by, 205
Jarabub, oasis of, 135
Jeppe, journeys of, 206
Jesuits in Africa, 185
Jews in Africa, 131, 140
Johnston, H. H., explorations by, 205
Johnston, Keith, junior, expedition
by, 204
Jolof, characteristics of the, 120
Junker, Dr., referred to, 1 14; ex-
plorations by, 197
Jur, characteristics of the, 1 15
Kafir tribes, 105
Kafraria, Britain in, 206
Kaiser, explorations by, 205
Kalahari Desert, winds of the, 56 ;
description of the, 64 ; climate of
the, 73 ; exploration of the, 198
Kalunda, see Balunda
Kanein, Islam at, 133
Kano, Islam at, 134
Kasai River, obstructions in the beds
of tributaries of the, 31; advan-
tages of the, 229
Katsena, Islam adopted b}' the, 134
Keane, Professor, quoted, 86
Kenia, Mount, height of, 7 ; snow on,
57 ; discovery of, 197
Khartum, the Nile at, 24 ; cataracts
between, and Assuan, 26 ; Copts
in, 141 ; foundation of, 195 ; trade
of, 226
Kibo (Kilima-njaro), height of, 205
Kikibbi River, sec Semliki
Kiliniani River, .sv/' Kwakwa
Kilima-njaro, height of, 7, 205 ; snow
on, 57 ; discovery of, 197 ; explora-
tion of, 205
Kirk, referred to, 199, 289
Kordofan, Arab influence in, 134
Kraj)f, discovery of Kenia ])y, 197
Kru, characteristics of tlic, 120
Kund, exijlorations by, 203, 20S
Kwakwa liiver, commercial import-
ance of the, 41
Kwamouth, the Congo at, 32
Kvvanza River, navigable waters of
the, 37
Labour Problem, the, 243
Lagos, number of Mohammedans at,
136 ; price of gin at, 242 ; port of,
259
Laing, explorations by, 189
Lakes of Africa, 1 1 ; total area of,
87 ; see also various designations
Lakes Region, Dr. Livingstone in
the, 199 ; occupation and survey
of the, 203 ; see also various desig-
nations
Land-breezes, 54
Lander, explorations by the brothers,
190, 191
Languages of Africa, 85, 91
Ledyard, expedition by, 189
Lenz, Dr., referred to, 133
Leopold Lake, discovery of, 203
Liambai, sec Zambezi
Liberia, present state of, 260
Libyan Desert, described, 63
Limpopo River, description of the,
39 ; discoveries on the, 206
Liquor-trafBc, 125, 129, 156, 241,
31S
Livingstone, Dr., on Negro character,
98 ; on slavery, 173 ; explorations
by, 198, 199 ; death of, 200
Livingstone Mountains, average
height of the, 43
Loangwa River, a tributary of the
Zambezi, 40
Lomami River, value of the, 36
Lualaba River, affluents of the, 31
Luapula River, 31 ; problem of the,
199
Lucas, expedition by, 189
Lujenda River, 44
Lunda, 306 ; see also Balunda
Lupton, explorations by, 197
Madagascar, 8 ; rainfall of North-
West, 56; malaria in, 75 ; linguistic
group in, 90 ; mission stations in,
145 ; value of, 238 ; France in,
275, 302
Madi people, characteristics of the,
115
IVladredane Channel (Zambezi), 41
Magyar, explorations by, 201
Maluli, dominions of the, 255
Makololo, cliaracter of the, 107, 109
INDEX.
339
Malarial fevers, 74
Malayo-Polynesians of Madagascar,
93
Maiiibunda, strength of the, 109
Mandingo, characteristics of the, 121 ;
religious faith of the, 136
Manganya, characteristics of the,
109
Manners and customs of the Central
African tribes, 116; see also vari-
ous tribal names
Mantumba, Lake, discovery of, 203
Manumission of slaves, 175
Maples, explorations by, 204
Maps, Notes on the, by E. G. Raven-
stein, F.R. G.S., 323-330
Maravi, Lake, see Nyassa
Masai-land, people of, III; explora-
tion of, 205
Mashuna, oppression of the, in
Mashuna-land, gold in, 237 ; partition
of, 297, 305
Mason, explorations by, 197
Massawa (Massowah), trade of, 225 ;
political situation at, 254
Matabele, government of the, 100 ;
manners and customs of the, in
Matabele-land, discovery of gold in,
206 ; opening-up of, 237 ; partition
of, 297
Matadi, cataracts between, and Stan-
ley Pool, 34 ; shipping facilities
at, 36
Mauch, explorations by, 206
M'bangi River, 32 ; navigable waters
of the, 35^
Medine, rapids near, 2S
Mediterranean Littoral, commercial
outlook on the, 219 ; see also vari-
ous countries
Mejerda Valley, 221
Mendes, maps b}', 196
Merensky, explorations by, 206
Meyer, expedition by, 205
Military organisation of certain tribes,
113, 106, 120
Minerals of South Africa, 236
Missions. Christian, results of, 119,
145
Mocro Lake, description of, 31 ;
elevation of, 33 ; discovery of, 200
Mohammedans, distribution of, 136 ;
see also Islam
Mollien, discovery by, 192
Mombaza, harbour of, 273
Monbuttu, characteristics of the, 88 ;
cannibalism of the, 116
Monsoons of Africa, 55 ;
Moors, characteristics of the, 92 ;
treatment of slaves by the, 120
Morocco, 18; vegetation of, 61 ;
malaria in, 76 ; area and popula-
tion of, 86 ; races of, 91 ; Jews in,
140; commercial resources of, 221,
250
Mountains, see various designations
" Mountains of the Moon," 183, 195
Mozambique, 270
Muata Yauvo, former kingdom of
the, 117
Murchison cataracts, 42
Murray, journey of, 19S
Murray, Dr. John, on the discharge
of rivers, 1 1
Murzuk, Hornemann at, 190 ; trade-
centre at, 222
Nachtigal, on Wadai, 135 ; explo-
rations by, 193
Naivasha, Lake, elevation of, 45
Namaqua, characteristics of the, 95
Namaqua-land, discoveries in, 198 ;
acquisition of, by Germany, 265,
Negroes, linguistic systems in Africa,
92 ; characteristics of, 96; domestic
life of, 100 ; character and morals
of the, 98 ; labour by the, 98 ;
government of the, 100 ; war cus-
toms of the, loi ; weapons of the,
loi ; dwellings of the, 102 ; dress
of the, 103 ; practices of the, 103 ;
religious ideas of the, 104 ; super-
stitions of the, 104 ; trade carried
on by the, 104 ; social develoj)-
ment of the, 97, 314
New, journey of, 205
N'gami, Lake, fluctuations of, 12 ;
description of, 38 ; discovery of,
198
Niam-Niam, cannibals, 88 ; colour
and characteristics of the, 114, 116
Niger, River, description of the, 29 ;
problem of the, 189; Mungo Park
and the, 190 ; final solution of the
problem of the, 191 ; the Landers'
discoveries on the, 191 ; incentives
to the exploration of the, 192;
Baikie on the, 192 ; Binger's ex-
ploration in the basin of the, 207 ;
German activity in the basin of
the, 208 ; commercial resources of
the basin of the, 227 ; British
chartered company on the, 257,
2S5 ; routes by the, 313
340
INDEX.
Nile, length of the, li, 23 ; valley of
the, 23 ; sources and lake-reservoirs
of the, 23, 210 ; hydrographic sys-
tem of the, 24 ; tributaries of the,
25 ; means of communication by
the, 26 ; cataracts of the, 26 ;
vegetation of its basin, 62 ; Pto-
lemy's knowledge of the source-
region of the, 183 ; Brace's explora-
tions on the, 185 ; hydrograjAical
problem of the, 194 ; discovery of
the true source of the, 197 ; com-
mercial resources of the valley of
the, 222 ; rise and fall of the, 222 ;
basin of the Upper, 225 ; routes
by the, 313
North, W., on malaria, 75
Nubia, malaria in, 75
Nubian Desert, 27, 78
Nuer, characteristics of the, 115
Nyassa, Lake, elevation of, 33 ; de-
scription of, 43 ; Livingstone re-
discovers, 199 ; survey of, 204
Nyassa - land, resources of, 232 ;
British, 271 ; political situation in,
299
Ocean, influence of the, on tempera-
ture, 53
Ogowe River, description of the, 30
Olifant River, exploration of the,
206
O'Neill, explorations by, 204 ; obser-
vations by, 209
Oppel, referred to, 140
Orange River, orographical features
between the Congo and the, 36 ;
description of the, 37 ; communica-
tions by the, 38
Oswell, journey of, 198
Oudnoy, explorations by, 19 1
Ovaherero, characteristics of the, 108
Ovampo, manners and customs of
the, loS
Ovampo-land, exploration of, 205
Overweg, explorations by, 193
Pagan tribes of Africa, 136, 307
Park, Mungo, explorations by, 190
Partition, political, of Africa, 279-307
Pasture-lands of South Africa, 237
Peddie, explorations by, 190
Peters, in East Africa, 288
Petherick, journey of, 196
Pinto, Serpa, exjilorations by, 203,
204
riayfair, Lambert, on North Africa,
220 ; quoted, 250
Political partition of Africa, 279-307
Population of Africa, 86
Porto, Silva, explorations by, 201
Port Said, increase in the importance
of, 225
Portugal, area and population of the
Possessions of, in Africa, 87 ; ex-
plorers from, in Africa, 133, 184,
185, 211 ; the Slave Trade and, 177;
Possessions of, in Africa, 260, 264,
270 ; France and, 286 ; Germany
and, 294 ; Great Britain and, 297,
305
Products of Africa, sec Commercial
resources
Ptolemy, knowledge of Africa at the
time of, 183, 195
Pygmy tribes, 95 ; occupations of
the, 96
Races of Africa, classification of the, 87
Railways, projected or in course of
construction, in the Congo State,
20S, 230; in Algeria, 219; in
Angola, 232 ; in East Africa, 235 ;
in South Africa, 237
Rainfall of Africa, 55
Rainy seasons in Africa, 57
Rankin, explorations by, 41, 209
Ratzel, Dr., referred to, 96, 99, 105,
120
Ravenstein, E. G., on the area and
population of Africa, 86 ; see also
Maps
Rebmann, discovery of Kilima-njaro
by, 197
Red Sea, drainage-area of the, 27 ;
Arabs cross the, 133 ; Slave Trade
on the, 168 ; Italy on the, Littoral,
254, 300
Reichard, expedition of, 205 ; on
the distribution of the African
elephant, 241
Richardson, expeditions by, 192
Rivers, lengths of various, 1 1 ; dis-
charge of, 1 1 ; of the Cape, 39 ;
sources of African, 56 ; sec also
rivers of Africa, under their vari-
ous names
Rohlfs, explorations by, 193
Romans in Africa, 60 ; use of ele-
pliants by tlie, 241
Rouvier, explorations by, 20S
Rovuina River, description of the,
44 ; Dr. Livingstone on the, 200
INDEX.
34^
Rudolf Lake, mapping of, 209
Ku wenzori Mountains, probable Iieight
of the, 7 ; snow on the, 57 ; dis-
covery of the, 210
Sahara, difficulties presented by the,
12 ; description of the, 18, 63 ; water
supply of the, 21 ; salt deposits of
the, 21 ; want of means of com-
munication through the, 22 ; rain-
fall of the, 56 ; fauna of the, 69 ;
climate of the, 73 ; malaria in the,
76 ; area and population of the,
86 ; people of the, 91 ; wild tribes of
the, 92 ; Islam in the, 131, 133, 135,
138 ; the Slave Trade in the, 168 ;
exploration of the, 191 ; overland
journeys across the, 192 ; German
travellers in the, 211; commercial
resources of the, 222, 226 : state of
the Western, 260 ; British and
Spanish settlements in the, 301
Saldana Bay, a natural harbour,
38
Salisbury, Marquis of, on Egypt, 251 ;
on the Anglo-Portuguese contro-
versy, 29S ; as negotiator of trea-
ties with Germany and Portugal,
306
Samburru, Lake, see Rudolf Lake
Sankuru River, 31, 33
San Salvador, early Christian mis-
sions at, 142 ; results of Bastian's
visit to, 201
Sao Thom^ position of labourers at,
244
Savannas of Africa, 68
Sawtlkin, proposed railway at, 26 ;
climate of, 79 ; as a base, 254
Schweinfurth, referred to, 88, 217 ;
explorations by, 197
Sea-breezes, 54
Semliki River, description of the, 24 ;
exploration of the, 210
Senegal River, description of the, 28 ;
discovery of the source of the,
192
Senegambia, exploration of, 1 85 ;
France in, 259
Senusi, power and propagandism of
the, 134
Settlements, and drainage-areas com-
pared, 12 ; European, 78, 80, 180
Shari River, description of the, 22
Shark Point, the Congo at, 34
Shilluk characteristics of the, 115
Shinde River, see Chinde
Shire Highlands, political situation in
the, 299
Shire River, description of the, 41
Shirwa, Lake, description of, 43 ; re-
ferred to, 44 ; discovery of, 199
Shoa, trade of, 225 ; Italy and, 300
Shuli, characteristics of the, 115
Sierra Leone, rainfall of, 56 ; the
population of, 118; number of
Mohammedans in, 136 ; price of
spirits at, 242
Siut, Copts at, 141
Siwah, oasis of, 135
Slavery, on the West Coast, 1 19; in
Africa and elsewhere, 163 ; aboli-
tion of, and Act of Emancipation,
163 ; predisposing causes of, 171 ;
the legal status of, 175
Slaves, demand for and supply of,
165 ; Red Sea Traffic in, 168 ; the
Great Desert Traffic in, 168 ; West
Coast Traffic in, 169 ; the East
Coast Traffic in, 169 ; methods of
obtaining, 172 ; measures against
the Traffic in, 174; manumission
of, 175 ; conclusions concerning
the Traffic in, 174-180, 315
Slave Trade, public opinion on the,
161 ; in Africa, 162 ; Eui-ope and
the, 164 ; Islam and the, 165 ;
causes of the, 165 ; adjuncts of the,
166; measures against the, 167;
condition and extent of the, 167 ;
total annual number of victims to
the, 170; incentives to the, 171 ;
resources of the, 173 ; measures
against the, 1 74 ; suppression of
the, 176 ; the Congo State and the,
177 ; pacific measures against the,
178; police measures against the,
179
Snow-line in Africa, 57
Sobat River, description of the, 24
Soils of Africa, 58; humidity and, 75
Sokoto, Clapperton's journey to, 191 ;
Thomson at, 207 ; resources of,
227 ; Britain and, 259, 2S5, 302
Somal-land, description of, 45 ; area
and population of, 86 ; people of,
III ; traditions concerning the
Arabs in, 133 ; discoveries in, 205 ;
Italy and Gi'eat Britain in, 275,
300;
"Sphere of influence," defined, 280 ;
Spain, area and populati(m of the
Possessions of, in Africa, ^"j ; Great
Britain and, 260, 301
Speke, explorations by, 197
342
INDEX.
Spirits, trade in, 125, 129, 156, 162,
241, 315
Stairs, Lieutenant, on Mount Ruwen-
zori, 210
Stanley, referred to, 36, 139; on the
Great Congo forest, 65 ; discovery
of Pygmies by, 96 ; search for Dr.
Livingstone by, 200 ; explorations
by, 197, 202, 209
Stanley Falls, 31
Stanley Pool, cataracts between, and
Matadi, 34
Stevenson Road, length of the, 42 ;
awarded to Britain, 303
Stewart, surveys by, 204
Storms, Captain, on Lake Hikwa, 33
Suakin, see Sawakin
Sudan, malaria in the, 75 ; access to
the Central, 80 ; area and popula-
tion of the, 86 ; Islam and Arab
influence in the, 134, 138 ; educa-
tion in the, 138 ; search for gold in
theEastern, 194; German travellers
in the, 211 ; trade of the, 226;
political situation in the, 253 ;
loss of the, 255 ; see also various
countries
Suez Canal, 4 ; and Europe, 224
Swazi-land, political situation in, 29S
Tana River, description of the,
45 ; navigation of the, 205
Tanganika, Lake, overflow waters of,
31 ; description of, 33; Burton at,
197; Livingstone at, 200; Cameron
at, 200 ; Thomson at, 204 ; Eng-
lish mission on, 271
Tappenbeck, explorations by, 203,
208
Tariffs in South Africa, 269
Tattooing, custom of, 103
Teleki, discoveries by, 209
Thomson, referred to, 18, 132, 226 ;
treaties made by, 138, 207 ; explo-
rations by, 204
Tibesti Mountains, height of the, 19
Timbuktu, the Niger at, 29 ; history
of, 133 ; a goal of early exploration,
186 ; first reached by Laing, 190;
French efforts to reach, 192 ; trade
of, 222
Tippu Tib, referred to, 167 ; influence
of, 263
Tizi-n-Tamjurt (Atlas Mountains),
height of, 18
Trade-rout(;H, 166, 225, 24O
Trade-winds, 54
Transvaal, progress of discovery in
the, 206 ; discovery of gold in the,
206 ; mining in tlie, 236 ; political
situation in the, 269
Treaties, with native chiefs, 281, 300 ;
between European Powers in
Africa, 282-306
Tripoli, vegetation of, 62 ; malaria
in, 75 ; area and population of, 86 ;
Slave Trade in, 169 ; commercial
resources of, 221
Trivier, overland journey by, 211
Tsad, Lake, 10, 12; basin of, 21;
discovery of, 191
Tsana, Lake, 24
Tuareg, the, 91, 121 ; at Timbuktu,
133
Tuat, area and population of, 86
Tuckey, explorations by, 190, 196
Tunis, highlands of, 17 ; flora of, 62;
area and population of, 86 ; Jews
in, 140 ; commerce of, 219 ; political
situation in, 250
Turkey, area and population of the
Possessions of, in Africa, 87
Uganda, a modern battlefield, 139 ;
see also Waganda
Ujiji, meeting of Livingstone and
Stanley at, 200
LTnyoro, see Wanyoro
Vaal Rivee, discovery of diamonds
at the, 206 ; proposed railway to
the, 238
Van Gcle, explorations by, 203
Vegetation of Africa, 61 ; climate
and, 72
Victoria Falls, description of the, 42 ;
discovery of the, 199 ; projected
railway to the, 237
Victoria Nyanza, the source-reservoir
of the Nile, 23, 197 ; Speke and
Grant at tiie, 197 ; Stanley at the,
202, 210 ; projected railway to,
235. 273
Vitu, Great Britain and, 274, 304 ;
Germany and, 291
Vogel, explorations by, 193
Volta River, drainage by the, 207
Von der Decken, explorations b}',
200
Von Fran9ois, explorations by, 203,
20S
Vryburg, projected railway to, 237
INDEX.
343
Wadai, power of the IMahdists in,
135 ; area and population of, 135 ;
Nachtigal's journey to, 193
Wadi Haifa, the natural frontier of
Lower Eijypt, 253
Waganda, characteristics of the, 1 13 ;
sec also Uganda
Walvisch Ijay, 37, 206, 266, 284, 293
Wa-Nyassa, characteristics of the, 109
Wanyoro, characteristics of the, 113
War customs of the Negroes, 10 1
Warren, Sir Charles, referred to, 297
Weapons of the Negroes, loi
Weissenborn, explorations by, 208
Welle River, discDvery of the, 197
Westendarp, on ivory, 241
Wissmann, referred to, 177, 230, 272,
292 ; explorations by, 203
Witwatersrand, rapid growth of, 236
Wi>lf, explorations by, 203, 208
Wollo-Galla, characteristics of the,
II I
Wolof, the, 136
Zambezi, compared with the Congo,
39 ; as a commercial highway, 39,
42 ; catchment-basin of the, 40 ;
delta of the, 40 ; Rankin's discovery
on the, 41, 209 ; means of communi-
cation by the, 42 ; ethnography of
the valley of the, 108 ; tribes of the,
109; discovery of the, 198 ; problem
of the, 199 ; Great Britain, Portu-
gal, and the, 233, 271 ; ivory trade
in the basin of the, 240 ; freedom of
navigation to all nations on the,
306 ; value of the routes by the, 312
Zanzibar, mainland and island of, 45 ;
disturbances on the Coast, 209 ; com-
mercial resources of, 233 ; Slave
Trade of, 234 ; products of, 234 ;
Great Britain and Germany on,
272, 289 ; German acquisition of,
290; Anglo-French Agreement con-
cerning, 302
Zintgraff, explorations by, 208
Zoller, explorations by, 208
Zoutspansberg, Boers at, 206
Zulu, characteristics of the, 106
Zulu-land, partition of, 296
Zumbo, Portuguese district of, 305
THE END.
GEORGE PHILIP AND SON, LONDON AND LIVERPOOL.
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