r jis owvi B ^H l««w«i»»*>iW II l iii .L i . ' . i rjy i .M.. ! , i|ii , ii J »l| »;J ^^ \\^-? { 'C-^ \ Guide m EURS I) a>!d f^ ^^^^^^^^^^^s^^ Ex Libris ( C. K. OGDEX ! ■nTTERN MELHUISH'S COMBINED Carving and Work Bencli Cabinet, £8 14s. made from American liaas Wood, Stained and Jfoliahed, and can be mad« to Harmonise tuith any Furniture, Fitted with the following List of Warranted Tools, pi ecisely the s.une as we supply to Practical Workmen '. I Duplex Iron Plane I Striightedge, 3ft. 6in. ... I Bright Hammer I aft. 2-rotd Rule 3 Twist Gimlets 3 Patent Bradawls I Screwdriver each, lod., 1/6 I Cabinet Scraper 6 Assorted Firmer Chisels 3 Assorted Firmer Gouges I 6in. Combination Square I Bright Bench Holdfast.. 1 Boxed Oilstone. s. d. I 3 I 6 I 6 o 8 I Can Liquid Glue I Beech Mallet I Beech Mitre Block I Frame Bow Saw 1 gin. Tenon Saw I zjin. Jack Plane I 2in. Smooth Plane I Joiner's Hammer I Melhuish's Handsaw ... I Box Drawing Knife ... I Brace, and Set of 24 well- assorted Bright Boring Bits s. d. I 6 I 6 I 3 3 6 3 o 5 o 3 4 I 2 3 6 I 9 I Pair Pincers i I Spokeshave o 1 Becchwood Gauge i 2 Rasps, handled i 1 Pencil o And our Patent Combined Tool, Joinery, and Wood- Carving Work Bench Cabinet, with Vertical Bench Stop and Patent Vice, &c., complete £i to Total ... £8 14 RD. MELHUISH & SONS, 85-87, FETTER LANE, LONDON. JOHN OAKEY & SONS, MANUFACTURERS OF Emery Cloth, Emery Wheels, Black Lead, Glass Cloth, Glass Paper, Emery Paper, Pumice, Putty Powder, Crocus, Rouge, &c. "FLEXIBLE TWILLED" GENUINE EMERY CLOTH For Engineers, Sewing Machine, Lock, and Scale Makers, and all purposes, where great strength, durability, and perfect flexibility are required. Supplied also in rolls 17 inches wide. FLEXIBLE GLASS PAPER, Unequalled for Strength and Durability. Each Sheet stamped " Oakey's," and warranted. EXTRA STRONG GLASS PAPER in Rolls, 24-in. wide. WELLINGTON EMERY AND BLACK LEAD MILLS, LONDON, S.E. HIGH-CLASS JOINERY Mansions, Banks, Offices, Ecclesiastical Buildings, Ships, Yachts, &c. FITTINGS of all kinds fixed by experienced workmen in any pari of the Country, including Polishing, if required. TESTI.HOSIALS FROM MAW KMINKST AKf tllTECTS. Speciality in Design of Hardwood Mouldings, STRUCK Cr.EAN AND SHARP. ELECTRIC WIRE CASINGS & COVERS. Tlluatrnted Ctitnloffues, Samples, ancsf frauds. and genuine articles, and selling at moderate prices things which are not what they seem or pretend to be, has driven the upper strata of the middle classes to find relief in co-operation and co-opera- The Artisan his own Tax-Master. 3 tive societies, very much to the detriment of the fair-deahng tradesman, which is to be sincerely regretted, although the fault lies not in the co-operators, but to those who have driven them to such protective measures in defence of purse and pocket. 6. But there are other ways in which middle-class people, whose income is obtained by other ways than that of buying and selling, have suffered of late years, as, for example, the advanced prices of many things which have not been met by corresponding advances in their incomes. And how have these advances in prices . , Advance in been caused ? Mainly by the action of the lower classes, prices— how caused, who by repeated strikes to obtain increased wages, have contributed greatly to force up the prices of food, clothing, and house rent, and thereby impoverish the middle classes without gaining any soHd benefit for themselves. House rent has been increased notably of late years by the strikes in all branches of the building trade, for when labour and materials rise in price the cost of building a house must both increase pari passu; and the builder or owner must of necessity demand and obtain a higher rent in order to get sufficient remuneration for the money he has sunk in bricks and mortar. And as house rent increases, so do rates and taxes increase, and the weight of the burden falls on the back of the middle classes, who are the chief contributors to the revenues of the country — national and local. 7. I say this advisedly. It has been pretty clearly shown of I;ite years that the artisan is his own tax-master, and may regulate his contribu- tions to the national income by swallowing more or less beer and spirits, and by smoking more or less tobacco, as inclination may lead him. In 1870 about ^89,000,000 was expended in spirits alone in the United Kingdom, of which ^{^58,000,000, or nearly two- thirds, came out of the pockets of the lower classes. Now his own '^ tax-master. as men are obliged neither to drink nor to smoke, the taxation paid in this respect is altogether voluntary ; and the artisan may, if he choose, reduce his fiscal burdens to a minimum, as he pays no income tax, although frequently earning more than the clerk who does ; while the duty still remaining on tea, etc., is inconsiderable. Nor are his payments in the shape of local rates and taxes by any means burdensome, for they are indirect ; that is to say, included in the rent that he pays — weekly in most cases — to his landlord, and therefore not felt in any oppressive degree. The middle-class man, on the contrary, if he be a householder, is compelled Jiolens volcns to pay poor rates, watch, or police rates, and other local taxes, and house duty and income tax to the national taxes ; and as all taxation of this 4 Household Carpentry and Joinery. nature is direct, and paid in lump sums, the burden is all the more hard to meet and all the more oppressive. Surely, as far as contribu- tion to national and local rates and taxes is concerned, the artisan is far better off than the middle-class householder, as the former has the power of paying as much or as little as he pleases within certain limits, while the latter has not. 8. All strikes, as it has been remarked, have a tendency to thrust up prices, and when prices once go up it is very hard to say when they will come down again, for the high prices are frequently raise maintained when there is no reasonable excuse to justify prices. ... r. -i their mamtenance. Strikes tend, moreover, in some cases to send trade out of the country, and by causing an increase in the poor-rate they too frequently increase the burden of the actual ratepayer, who at the best of times is heavily taxed. 9. The incomes of the clergy, professional men, clerks, and others who do not derive the money on which they live from actual trading, are, generally speaking, either fixed or very inelastic. Oc- Incomes of clergy, etc., casionallv a professional man may make his fortune, but inelastic. with most men in the grades of life that have been men- tioned the annual income fluctuates but slightly, and if it tends to increase, as in the case of clerks in banks and in the civil service, the annual increment is but very small, and a maximum is at length reached, beyond which the income he enjoys is not likely to advance. 10. Now the question that we have to consider, and that most earnestly, is, Hoiv can men in such a case best help themselves f And to this the only answer worth having that can possibly be possible and given is. By learning to use their hands as well as their desirable. *' ' -^ * head! By determining, in fact, to do at home many things which they have hitherto been accustomed to hand over to an artisan, and for which — to use a phrase far more expressive than elegant — they have had to pay through the nose. In short, let all who have the wiU to help themselves (and if the will to do is good the doing is well- nigh sure to be attended with success) determine to become — Every Man his own Mechanic. Yes, reader, mend your broken chairs and crippled furniture ; put fresh panes of glass into your broken windows ; do your own repairs as far as it is practicable, indoors and out of doors ; look after your own locks and fastenings ; make your own garden plant and appli- ances ; put up your own sheds, greenhouses, and garden buildings, and I will answer for it that if you check what you save on each job, Broken Window — How to Mend it. 5 you shall find yourself in pocket at the end of the year merely through resorting to self-help. 11. Let us take a simple case of common occurrence, as for example, a broken window, and see, by comparing the cost of repairs when executed by a glazier on the one hand, and done by the ^ ^^^^ householder himself on the other, how much may be saved "^ pomt. by means of a little practical knowledge and self-help. 12. We will first look into the cost of the work when the house- holder is his own mechanic. The man who lays himself out to do odd jobs of this kind will of course have at hand the tools Broken win- necessary for carrying out the work, namely, a hammer, dow— how to mend it. a suitable knife for hacking out or cutting away the hardened putty and fragments of glass still remaining in the window frame, and a putty knife. The first thing to be done is to clear the rebate in the sash-frame for the reception of the new pane of glass. The next step is to measure accurately the length and breadth of the aperture, including the rebate, and procure a piece of glass of the required size from any painter and glazier or oilman who cuts glass for those who may require it. A little putty must also be procured. Now supposing, for the sake of argument, that the glass measures i8 in. by 12 in., or, in other words, contains one and a half super- ^^^^ ^j ficial feet, the cost of the glass will be 4Kd., as the price J^a-t^riais. of common Belgian glass for ordinary glazing purposes is 3d. per foot super. The cost of the putty may be reckoned at J4d., putty generally speaking being 2d. per pound, though it may be frequently purchased at the oilman's for i>^d. per pound. The expense, then, of putting things as they were before to the householder who can use his hands is no more than 5d. 13. But suppose, on the other hand, that a painter and glazier is desired to send a workman to mend the aroken window. In the first place he may not have a man on the premises to send, and the householder must wait and his family suffer inconvenience, or patch up the hole with brown paper or a piece of pasteboard as best they can, until the job can be attended to. The mode of procedure will then be something as follows : — The workman will first come up and look at the window, and take the measurement for the What the new pane. He will then return to the shop, cut the neces- workman sary piece of glass, and come back to the house with the glass, some putty, and the tools that he requires, and put in the pane. Possibly the glazier's shop is a mile away from the house at which the repairs are to be done, and what with going and returning iwt'ce over 6 Household Carpentry and Joinery. the ground and putting in the pane, at least two hours will be taken up ; for, it must be said, the workman as a rule never hurries himself, and his master has but little power to compel him to do so. All he can do it" he finds that a journeyman is persistently long over his jobs is to discharge him, a lemedy that may be as bad, if not worse, than the disease, as he may get another in his place who may be even more dilatory. Let us now look into the cost. For the materials used, the master will charge, for ordinary window glass, about gd., or nearly double the prime cost to the householder if he does the work himself; Professional ^"^ ^^ ^ glazier is paid at the present time Qd. per hour charges. £qj. j^jg time, IS. 6d. must be added to the cost of the glass and putty, and, as the master always charges for his men's time at a somewhat higher rate than that at which they are paid, the house- holder will find when his bill is sent in that the job is charged at 2s. 6d., and he has got to pay just sz'x times as much as he would have done if he had bought the materials and done the work himself. 14. It must be understood that we are by no means finding fault with the charges made by the master, nor with the amount paid per«hour to the workman, for " the labourer is worthy of Labour ^ ' ■' must be his hire." Labour must be paid for, and should at all paid for. times be remunerative to him who performs it ; and the master is entitled to interest on money paid out for materials and labour. The only thing to which objection can be taken in the case under consideration is that pretty nearly twice as much time was expended in doing the job as was necessary. If the workman had taken some glass and all his tools with him on his first visit to the house, just half the time taken up in walking backwards and forwards from shop to house and from house to shop might have been saved — for, as we have said, in this part of his work the British workman never hurries himself, for it is manifestly not to his interest to do so — and the householder need not have been charged more than is. 6d., or at the utmost IS. 9d., for the labour expended and the materials used. 15. It is to be hoped that the above example has made it suf- ficiently clear that it is the cost of LABOUR which makes all build- ing operations and repairs, be they what they may, so rations— why expensive to those who have to pay for them ; and that, if expensiTO. . . a man has sufficient energy and determmation to do such work himself as far as it is practicable, he will not only save a con- siderable sum in this respect, but also in the cost of materials, which, as it has been broadly shown, can be purchased at a far cheaper rate than that at which they are supplied by the master. Wages now Paid to Workmen. 16. It will be well to pause awhile here and look at the wages which are paid in the present day to artisans and mechanics in the building trades. The prices given are those which are paid in the metropolis and its vicinity, where they are invariably the highest. In Artisans' the country, prices rule somewhat lower, and they will ■wages. even differ slightly in different parts of the country. It is safe, how- ever, in calculating the cost of a job according to the number of hours that may probably be employed in it, to take London prices as given below for the basis of calculation. Again, when the cost of a job per time is under consideration, it will be as well to increase Q^gj ^^ j^^ the estimate arrived at by half as much again, or even p®'' *'*™®- to multiply it by 2, as in course of carrying it out it will be found that many contingencies will happen to prolong the time employed in it that it were almost impossible to anticipate. 17. The following is a full list of workmen employed in the building trades, and the rates of wages charged by builders per g^^^j^ ^^ hour at the present time, compiled from the best autho- ■wages, rities. The prime cost of wages per hour, that is to say, the wages paid by builders, ranges from 6d. for labourers to 8^d. for painters, gd. for masons, bricklayers, carpenters, plasterers, and slaters, and lod. for plumbers. Excavator o 8 Bricklayer o loi Labourer o 7 Fire-brickiayer i o Labourer o 7 Scaffolder o 8 Mason o loj Carver 1 i Labourer o 7J Pavior o 10 Labourer « 7 Slater and Tiler ... o loj Labourer o 7 8. d. Slate Mason i o Labourer o 8J Plasterer o loj Modeller i 2 Labourer o 7 Carfenter & Joiner o loj Labourer o 7J Smith o 11 Labourer o 7§ ZiN"c Worker o io| Labourer o 7 Bell-hanger o io§ Labourer o 7 o 7* s. d. Wire-worker ... o 9J Labourer o 6 Plumber o 11 Labourer . Gas-fitter Labourer o 7* Paintek o loj Grainer i 3 Decorator i 6 Gilder o 10 Glazier o loj Labourer o 7 Paper-hanger ... o 9^ 18. It must be understood that the decorator, on account of his artistic skill, is paid at a higher rate than the ordinary house-painter, while such work as graining in imitation of various kinds Decorator's of wood, painting in imitation of marble, and writing wages, letters of all kinds, also commands higher rates of payment, writing being paid for at per letter, according to size and manner of execution, and graining and marbling generally by the job. 19. The prices charged by builders and contractors for work of all kinds are framed according to the prices of the materials used and the labour employed, and will naturally vary in different p^j^gg charged parts of the country. Those who desire a more intimate tyt>uiider8. acquaintance with the minutiae of such matters than can be gained 8 Household Carpentry and Joinery. from or given in the following pages, are referred to such works as Laxton's and Bevis's " Price Books for Architects, Builders, Price books, ^^gineers," etc., and Spon's " Architects', Builders', and Contractors' Pocket Book of Prices and Memoranda," in which evei7 detail is given in a most complete and exhaustive manner. 20. It may be argued that a man who aspires to be his own mechanic cannot possibly gain a sufficient knowledge of all or any of Every man the various building trades to enable him to do the necessary'^ necessary work of construction or repairs in a work- work, manlike manner, and that even if he could do so he would never be able to find time enough to do all that may be wanted in house and garden from year's end to year's end. Now, as far as time is concerned, it may be pointed out at once that the most hard- worked man has his Saturday half-holiday and the Bank-holidays, to say nothing of the summer evenings when there is light enough for handicraft work even after 9 o'clock ; and if these be not enough, he must — as people are often told to do who object that they can find no time for this, that, and the other — MAKE time. The genial Irish lyric poet, Tom Moore, has told us that " The best of all ways to lengthen our days Is to steal a few hours from night ; " and if the man who wants to make time would make it in this manner, stealing the hours from the right end of the night — that is to say, even at the risk of being put down as Hibeniior Hibernicis, from the early morning — he would find the practice beneficial to health as well as pocket, and by steady continuance therein would not only lengthen his days but his years too. To burn the midnight oil in pursuit of book-knowledge seems to be a mistake ; it is so, without any doubt whatever, in following up any handicraft or handiwork. For these, the time and sunlight of the early summer morning are eminently the most suitable. 21. But how, it may be further urged, is a man to obtain, first the knowledge, and next the practice necessary to do any handicraft-work Knowledge even in a decent and respectable manner. An artisan howto^'bta^ has in most cases to spend a long apprenticeship before ^^^' he can command full wages. This is true, but it is equally true that many an apprentice, when he has once learnt to handle his tools, does a day's work as fully deserving of a man's wages as the work that is turned out by an old hand. The chief thing to be done is to learn the uses of the different tools used in the trade, be it Technical Education. 9 what it may, and how to handle them and keep them fit for use. Next to this, it is useful to watch any artisan when he is doing work on the premises, to see what he does and ascertain his reasons for doing it. It is wonderful how much useful trade-knowledge may be acquired in this way. Lastly, the theory and general fnotius operandi may be learnt from books, such as this ; not that theoretical knowledge will make a man a good workman, but that it will assist him when he endeavours by practice to turn to account the lessons he has learnt from observation, and the practical teaching necessary to enable him to use his tools with effect. 22. It is good policy, then, for every man who seeks to do a little as a handicraftsman, to lay out a guinea or two in obtaining the services of any moderately skilled artisan, who, for such a sum, ^^^^^^^ ^ would willingly show the aspirant how to use his tools, must be ° "^ paid for. and how to keep them in working order. Thus, for example, if a man desired to follow up carpentry, it will be beneficial to him in the highest degree to enlist the services of a joiner who will show him how to use his saw and his plane, and how to keep his saw fit for use by sharpening it with a file, and his plane and other cutting tools in proper condition by means of the grindstone and oilstone. If, again, he wished to be able to build a brick wall, he should get a bricklayer to show him how to prepare his foundations with spade and level, and how to put in the footings of his wall, and to raise it, course after course, so that its faces within and without, may be truly perpen- dicular, inclining neither to the one side or the other. Having once learnt how to do a thing, a fairly intelligent man will not require so very much practice to enable him to do such work as inclination or necessity may suggest, in a tolerably workmanlike manner. 23. Practical instruction in handicraft trades, or, in other words, technical education, is far too much neglected in English schools ; indeed, there is great room to doubt if it be even Technical •I . - . 1 education. attempted, much less earned out, m any m the manner in which it ought to be. Among the Jews, we know from St. Paul's own sketch of his life-history in the New Testament, it was the rule that every boy, whether gentle or simple, should learn some handicraft trade. The great Apostle of the Gentiles had accordingly learned tent- making in his youth, and his practical knowledge stood him in good stead in after life, when in his missionary work he frequently gained his daily bread by the labour of his hands, refusing to be burdensome to any of those, to win whom for Christ he had gladly, like his and our great Master and Example, become poor. In Germany the pupils 10 Household Carpentry and Joinery. in large well-to-do middle-class schools have an opportunity, if, indeed, it is not compulsory on each, of devoting part of his time out of schoo* hours to the acquirement of some handicraft trade ; and the Prince Consort, following the praiseworthy fashion of his country, made this an especial feature in the education of the Heir to the British Throne and the junior members of the Royal Family. At present, far more time than „ , ^ is either necessary or healthful is spent in the school- Workshops ' *^ attached room, which should be used as a lecture-room and a to schools. place for imparting instruction to the pupils, rather than as a place in which a certain number of hours are spent daily, partly in getting portions of certain text-books by rote, and partly in hearing the tasks thus committed, parrot-like, to memory, to be forgotten again some short time after. It is a pity that to every school of importance a range of workshops are not attached, in which every boy in the school may gain an elementary knowledge of one or more handi- crafts. The practical hand-work would give more zest for the theo- retical head-work of the school-room. To those who emigrate — and Practical who can tell nowadays where he may pass his prime of to°whom^' life or end his days ? — the value of a knowledge of car- uaefiu. pentry, smith's work, painting, gardening, thus practically gained at school, would be inestimable ; while to those whose lot it is to remain in the mother country, it would be equally desirable, as affording them the means of helping themselves by doing such handi- craft work as they might be able to compass in house and garden, as they find daily wants and expenses continually increasing, while the income, out of which they must be provided as far as it is possible, remains entirely or very nearly at a fixed point. 24. If it be asked what branch of handicraft trade, or, to bring mat- ters within a narrower compass, what branch of the building trade is . most suitable and most useful for amateurs generally, and Choice of on haadlcraft householders especially, it must be answered that a know- trade. ledge of carpentry and joinery will be found by far the most desirable. Next to this, it is necessary to know something about painting and glazing, which comes fairly within the pro- Carpentry r a oj most vince of the amateur. Collaterally with these useful arts desirable. . •, 1. paperhanging may be mentioned. It is unlikely that a man will do much smith's work, but even in this it is possible for an amateur to do something, and a slight acquaintance with the arts of of brazing, soldering, and working in metals will enable a man to make propagating cases that shall do him good service, and apparatus for neating a small greenhouse, if he have one, at little expense, even if Handicraft Trades for Amateurs. ii he still leaves it to the peripatetic knife-grinder and tinman to stop up holes in leaking coffee-pots and saucepans, and to renew the damaged bottoms of colanders and gravy-strainers. Wire-working, wire- worMng. again, is a useful, and by no means unattractive pursuit, inasmuch as, with some slight knowledge of the methods employed, it is possible to make a birdcage or a fire-guard, or to construct a strong but fine wire trellis-work for climbers, or to make defences against the ravages of birds for peas and other growing seeds. 25. Bricklaying and masonry are trades that possibly an amateur will not meddle much with ; but some slight acquaintance with the principles of each, and the materials employed, is desir- Brig^aying able, even if it be for no other or better purpose than that ^^^^^y_ of giving an eye to any workman who may be employed in this way on the premises, in order to see that he is doing his work in a workmanlike manner, that he is using proper materials, and that he is not wasting his time — a thing which no workman who has any self- respect will do. It is, however, quite as well to be able to know oneself how to set a stone or step that has become loose by one getting stone cause or another, in cement, and how to prepare the °' ^ ^^' cement for the work ; and know in what proportions sand and cement should be mingled for the purpose of making a suitable composition for fixing the step once again, so that it may remain immovable in its proper position. Lastly, a knowledge of excavating in all its branches is attended with advantage. In the term "excavating" a far greater variety of work is comprised than appears upon the face of it at first sight. It means far more than digging or hollowing out a pit, as for a well or a trench, or for the foundation of a wall. It embraces these, it is true, but it also implies a knowledge of the manufacture— if we may use the word— of concrete, and the purposes to which it is put, of making garden walks and paths and of levelling, so far as it may be applied to the construction of drains for carrying off the surplus water from the soil of the garden, or even from a stable or pigsty, and the laying of drain-pipes for this purpose. It also gathers within its wide embrace a knowledge of the method of making tar paving and burning clay into ballast- processes which will often be found extremely useful in the garden. 26. Carpentry and joinery, twin branches of a single art as they may be called, embrace together a far wider field than any of the subjects that have just been mentioned; and an explanation of all carpentry that can be done in them, and the different tools and ^^^ Jomery. machines that may be used in their various processes, demands as much 12 Household Carpentry and Joinery. space as a description of all the other arts pertaining to the building arts put together. We must therefore confine ourselves at the present time to a consideration of carpentry and joinery only, reserving for another occasion an inquiry into the processes involved in excavating, bricklaying, masonry, painting, glazing, paperhanging, and other branches of the building trade — taking occasion, in the third and con- cluding part of this work, to dwell on the practice of these allied arts as exemplified in the construction of many things that the householder finds useful every day, either within doors or out of doors. 27. Of all the constructive and manipulative arts that are grouped together under the wide and comprehensive name of the Building Trade, carpentry in all its varied branches — we are now *^^^y ^^' using the word carpentry in its general and not in its re- ^smafeil^s!" stricted sense, which will be explained presently — is the one that presents the most attractions to amateurs. The reason is that it is a clean trade, and the one that is found to be most generally useful. When a servant has to sweep up a room after a car- penter has been at work in it, either fixing something or doing some necessary repairs, she seldom makes a trouble of her task, but in nine case out of ten speaks of the debris and shavings that are littered about on the floor as " clean dirt " — that is to say, stuff which imparts no soil or stain to boards or carpets, and requires nothing but the ac- tion of the sweeping-broom or carpet-brush to remove it. An amateur carpenter, in fact, may go to his little workshop, either within or without the house, as the case may be, and after working as long as he will in his ordinary everyday clothes, require nothing more than a wash and brush up to render himself presentable in the parlour or drawing- room. 28. Far otherwise is it with other branches of the building trade, as, for example, smith's work, soldering, and brazing, which involves the use of heat in one form or another, and contact with the soot and dirt engendered by combustion and the materials that are used in the forge and furnace. The clothes of the amateur, unless a special working dress is kept for the workshop, should be protected at least by a loose " slop," or jacket of canvas, and a canvas apron ; it need scarcely be said that a leather apron covering the chest and legs will aftbrd far more protection from sparks, soot, and grease than one of a textile material. When engaged in painting or glazing, the amateur should wear a canvas jacket and apron ; and for excavat- ing, and all work which involves digging, as well as for bricklaying, masonry, mixing and handling concrete, and all dirty work of this kind, Artisan, Artificer, and Artist. 13 it is desirable to wear a canvas slop, trousers of stout fustian, and stout lace-up boots, which will be all the more serviceable if the soles are studded with broad flat-headed nails. 29. It may be useful to pause a moment and inquire into the mean- ing and general application of the terms " working man," " workman," " artisan," and " mechanic." It is the custom to apply the ^^^^^^^ expression " working man " to workmen exclusively — that raan : mean- is to savi to men who work with their hands at handi- .appUcaUon ■" J o^ term, craft trades. When used in this restricted sense, and as the rightful designation of the artisan or labouring classes, the word is altogether misapplied. The man who works with head and brain is as much a working man as the man who works with his hands ; and when properly employed, this term includes all workers, whether they be head-workers or hand-workers. The premier, the man of letters, the merchant, the clerk, and the trader are as much working men as the artisan or labourer. To the last-named classes the term "working man" will never be applied in these pages, for the reason that they have no exclusive right to it. Men and women who are engaged in handi- craft trades and manual labour are workmen and workwomen. Long ago the term " artisan " was applied to any one who professed and practised some liberal art : the word, in fact, was synonymous with artist. In the present day, the word "artisan" means one who is trained to manual dexterity in some mechanic art, mystery, or trade — a handicraftsman. It has been justly remarked that "a portrait painter is an artist ; a sign painter is an artisan. The occupation of the former requires a fine taste and delicate manipulation ; that of the latter demands only an ordinary degree of contrivance and ^^jtiggji imitative power. The word artificer neither suggests the artificer, and idea of vulgarity which attaches to the term artisan, nor the ideas of refinement or peculiar skill which belong to the term artist." A " mechanic," again, is " one who works with machines or implements, a workman or labourer other than agricultural : more specifically, one who practises any mechanic art — one skilled or em- ployed in shaping and uniting materials, as wood, metal, etc., into any kind of structure, machine, or other object requiring the use of tools or instruments." Those who do work of any kind, whether with head or hands, are entitled to be called and regarded as working men, but the special names which pertain to those who work at handicrafts are •workman, artisan, and mechanic. The appropriation of the terms " working classes " and " working men " to these exclusively has given colour to an idea that is unfortunately very prevalent among mechanics, 14 Household Carpentry and Joinery. operatives, and labourers, that they are the only people in the world who actually do work, and that bread-and-butter drops into the mouths of all who happen to be above them in social rank without any trouble. „ . , Nevertheless, social distinctions are nothing. God re- Social ' ° distinctions spects no man's person, and regards no man's social status ; every man or woman has real work to do in this world in that state of life to which he or she has been called by God as a state of probation and trial ; and we must all look rather to kow we are doing the work that has been entrusted to us, than to what the work may be, and how it may be regarded in the estimation of the world. 30. When carpentry and joinery are spoken of together, it is possible tnat the two words may not convey a distinctive meaning to every one who hears or reads them, and it may be serviceable to point penter and Out here in what the difference really consists. A carpenter, ^ ^° ' speaking generally, is an artificer who works in timber, a framer and builder of houses and ships, as far as wood may be employed in their construction. " The carpenter," says Tomlinson, " frames and puts together roofs, partitions, floors, and other essential parts of the building. The Joiner only commences when the carpenter leaves off, by supplying and fitting stairs, cupboards, furniture The Joiner and his and Other parts necessary, but not essential to, the build- ing." The chief tools of the carpenter, properly so called, are the saw, the axe or hatchet, the adze, the hammer, and the chisel ; the joiner, in addition to these, requires planes of various kinds to impart a smooth surface and relief, by mouldings of various kinds, to his work. Carpentry, then, means the art of cutting, framing, and putting together timber in the construction of buildings, or an assemblage of pieces of timber connected by being framed together, as the pieces of a roof, partition, floor, etc. Joinery, on the other hand, is the art or work of a joiner ; and a joiner is a mechanic who does the woodwork in the covering and finishing of buildings, or whose occupation it is to construct things such as tables, chairs, boxes, etc., by joining pieces of wood together. The artisan who makes furniture of a more elaborate description is usually called a cabinet-maker, the term " cabinet " being applied to a piece of furniture consisting of a case or box furnished with doors and drawers. 31. The words carpentry, carpenter, joinery, and joiner have come to Derivation US from the Latin through the French. Thus, the English terms. term carpenter is derived directly from the French c/tar- pentier, a slight alteratic::,i of the old French carpentier, which is Carpentry, how Divisible. 15 closely akin to the Latin carpentariiis, a wheelwright, or maker of waggons, from carpenium, a car, or waggon. The Italian term for a wheelwright or any worker in timber is carpcntiere. The English term "joiner" comes from the French joindre, to join ; which, in its turn, is derived from the Latin jungere, to join or yoke together, as horses are yoked to a car. The word "cabinet" is a diminutive of "cabin," which finds its origin in the Welsh caban, or French cabane, a booth, or hut, akin to the Yrench gaban, and English gabardine, a cloak, or outer gar- ment ; all the words implying shelter or covering of some kind. Thus, the term " cabinet" implied a close place where anything of value might be deposited for safe keeping ; and as the construction of such chests and boxes implied a considerable degree of skill in the artificer, the appella- tion cabinet-maker was in time extended to all who were employed in making household furniture of the better kind. 32. It will be convenient for the purposes of this work to consider carpentry and joinery as separating naturally into two divisions, which may be described as (i) Simple Carpentry and Joinery, carpentry, (2) Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery : the first com- ^°^ divisible. prising all operations necessary for preparing pieces of wood and framing and joining them together, which may be performed by the •ordinary tools of the carpenter ; the second, decorative work, and all such working in wood as may require the aid of special machinery of some kind or other to produce it. We shall leave the consideration of all branches of ornamental carpentry to another section of " Every Man his own Mechanic," confining ourselves in this section to a review of the materials and tools used in simple carpentry, and the various processes by which separate pieces of timber may be securely put lo^etner. CHAPTER IL •I HE VARIOUS WOODS USED IN CARPENTRY, ETC.— SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND STRENGTH OF TIMBER. Things that the amateur must know — Working drawings — Classification of woods — Deal most frequently used — Alder Wood — Ash : its uses — Hungarian Ash — Beech : its uses — Beech : its variecies, etc. — Boxwood — Spanish box — Chestnut — "Tunbridge ware" — Deal, or Pinewood — Larch — Ebony : its varieties and uses —Black Ebony — Elm : its uses — Holly Wood — White Holly — To clean Holly Wood — Lime, or Linden Tree — Uses of Lime Wood —Mahogany — Oak — Pollard Oak — Medullary rays in Oak — Poplar Wood — -Rosewood and its uses — Sycamore — Walnut Wood — Black Walnut — White Walnut, or Butternut — Willow and its uses — Collection of various woods useful and desirable — Woods used in the arts, etc. — Acacia, or Locust Tree — Almond Wood — Aloes Wood, etc.— Amboyna Wood — Kiabooca wood — Apple Wood — Beam Tree — Bird's- eye Maple— Botany Bay Wood — Cam Wood— Camphor Wood — Canary Wood — Cedar : its varieties — Cedar Wood — Cherry Wood — Cocabola Wood — Cocus Wood — Coral wood — Coromandel Wood — Dogwood — Elder — Fusci — Green- heart — Gumwood — Hawthorn — Hickory — Hornbeam — Ironwood — Kingwood — Labiunum — Lancewood — Lignum Vitae — Logwood — Nettle Tree, or Lote — Olive Wood — Partridge Wood — Pear Wood — Plum Wood — Pomegranate Wood— Red Satinwood — Rosetta Wood — Sandalwood — Satinwood — Service Tree — Teak Wood — Violet Wood — Tulip Wood — Whitewood — Yew, and its uses — Knowledge of all woods used in carpentry desirable — Best timbers for various uses — Weight of wood per cubic foot — Table of weights of woods — Cubic feet of various woods to ton — Weights given approximately only — Specific gravity — To determine specific gravity — To determine weight of a cubic foot — Buoyancy of woods — Strength and breaking strain — Theory of carpentry — Strength of wood — Strength increased in proportion to width and depth — Why joists are deep — Power of resistance : how modified — Instantaneous breaking weight — Breaking weight : how found — Breaking weight in centre of beam — Formula for breaking weight — Tables of breaking weight for foot length — Deduction of breaking weight for other lengths— Rule in calculating strength of timber — Intimate acquaintance with theory of carpentry not necessary for amateurs. 33. Before entering on a description of the different tools and processes employed in carpentry, it will be well to consider the various kinds of wood that are used, and the purposes for which the amateur each is specially adapted. Experience will show that mus ow. ^QQ^ which is admirably fitted for one kind of work is by no means suitable for another. The prices, too, of different sorts of wood differ as much as their qualities, and it is desirable that the amateur artisan should become acquainted with these to some extent, Classification of Woods. 17 that he may know what he is about when he is making purchases of his timber merchant. A knowledge of the prices of the different kinds of wood used in building and furniture making will also be useful to him in other ways. For example, if he intends to put up even so un- ambitious a structure as a weather-boarded shed, he can, after making his plans and working drawings, calculate to a nicety the quantity of wood that will be wanted, and its cost at the timber yard ; and if he finds that the job will run into more money than he expected, he can modify his plans and the mode of structure to suit his pocket. 34. Instruction will be given in a future chapter with regard to the preparation of working drawings, but we cannot refrain here from urging strongly on the amateur artisan the necessity of -vT-orking preparing careful plans and working drawings to scale of v. .* ' ' ' £eecn : its Still cover, the sides of its hills. The colour varies ; it is '^^®^- mostly light or whitish brown in tint, but is found in all shades of Fig. 2. — BEECH TKEE. brown, deepening at times to black. This difference in colour is as- cribed by Tredgold to the influence of the soil. The wood is fine and straight-grained, and is, in consequence, easily worked. The grain resembles that of mahogany, and it is often stained to represent it. It is used in the manufacture of furniture, tables, beds, and chairs being made of it ; indeed, the manufacture of bcechen frames for cane- seated chairs forms one of the principal industries of Buckinghamshire It may be stained to imitate ebony and rosewood as well as mahogany. 20 Household Carpentry and Joinery. The framework of machinery, planes, chucks ; the handles of tools, and wooden cogwheels are generally made of Beech. 41. The Birch is a forest tree of graceful appearance, found in cold and temperate regions, and on elevated situations, such as the sides of moun- Birch • its tains in warmer countries varieties, etc. The wood is white, firm, and tough, and is used especially in northern countries for making wheels, casks, tubs, and turnery. In North America the wood of the Black Birch is considered valuable for cabinet- making and household furniture, and in the United Kingdom it is often used for bedsteads, small tables, etc. 42. The variety of Box that is best known in this country is the short shrubby plant frequently used as border-edging. Box trees which range ^'^^- 3-— b'^ch tree. in height from eight to thirty feet are rarely met with in Britain. It flourishes in Turkey, whence the finest boxwood is pro- cured. It is exceedingly useful on account of its solidity and hardness, and the closeness of the grain. It is much used for lathe chucks, and in common turnery ; the amateur artisan, indeed, will chiefly require this wood for boxes, draughtsmen, chessmen, and other fancy articles that he may wish to make. It may be stained black to imitate ebony, and will take a high polish. The closeness of the grain also makes it particularly suitable for the purposes of the en- graver on wood and the mathe- FiG. 4. — BOX TREE. matical instrument - maker. Spanzs/i Box is similar in colour and closeness of texture to Turkish Spanish box. Box, and works well. It is used by turners, and by musical instrument makers for making flutes, clarionets, flageolets, etc. Boxwood. Chestnut, Tunbridge Ware, and Deal. 21 43. The wood known as Chestnut is derived from two widely different kinds of trees — the Horse Chestnut and the Span- ish or Sweet Chestnut, of which the former belongs to the natural order of Sapindacece, or Soapworts, and the latter to that of the CorylacecB, or Marshworts, to which the beech also belongs. The similarity of name must not lead the reader to imagine that these trees are in any way allied. Thewhitebrittle wood of the Horse Chestnut is used by turners in makmg the fancy goods usually known as "Tunbridge ware." The ,,„ , . , " Ttinbridge wood of the ware." Sweet, or Eating Chest- FlG. 5. — HORSE CHESTNUT TREE. nut, which is sometimes planted in Devonshire, is hard and durable, and beautifully grained and variegated. Furniture is sometimes made of it, and it is used with effect for decorative purposes in building. 44. The general name of DEAL, or PiNEWOOD, is given to the timber that is yielded by a great variety of cone-bearing trees, al- though the deal or pinewood cut from different trees varies con- siderably in quality DealorPino- and general utility. '^°°^- Deal may be broadly distinguished as Red or Yellow Deal — for the names are indifferently used— and White Deal. In one kmd, the ground colour of the wood is yellow, diversified with markings of pale red ; in the other kind, the wood is of a whitish colour, whence its name. White Deal is obtained from the Spruce Fir, and Red or Yellow Deal from the Scotch Fir and Pitch Pine. The difference Fig. 6.— pine tree. 22 Household Carpentry and Joinery. in the two kinds of wood is this : the grain of the Yellow Deal is gene- rally very straight and free from knots, and is very durable, though it is soft and easily worked. This renders it peculiarly appropriate for all building purposes, whether in the construction of houses or ships. The great height and straightness of the pine renders it well suited for the masts of ships ; and when stained and varnished the timber presents a handsome appearance for joiners' work in houses. White Deal is harder and not so straight-giained as Yellow Deal, and it is generally full of knots. The variety known as Silver Fir is used for flooring, and also in the manufacture of house- hold furniture. The Larch fur- nishes a durable wood for outdoor purposes, especially on farms and homesteads. Varieties of Deal are generally distinguished by the names of the countries from which they are imported. The best kinds come from Sweden and Norway, Russia, and America. In purchasing tim- ber the amateur must be careful to specify the kind of Deal that he requires, whether White or Fig. 7.— lakch tree. Yellow. To be acquainted with the difference in the appearance of the two kinds will prove of advantage to him in making the selection. 45. Ebony is a fine, heavy, and compact-grained wood, which can be worked without difficulty. It is much used by turners and mathe- matical instrument-makers, for mosiac and cabinet work, Ebony: its .... , varieties and and in the manufacture of musical mtruments ; tor ex- uses. . , , , 1 r • 1 ample, the black notes in the keyboard of a piano are of Ebony. Ebony is distinguished as Green and Black. Green Ebony comes from the West Indies, and is so called from the colour of the heartwood, which is brownish green. It is frequently used in marquetry. Black Ebony is brought from Afi-ica, the East Indies, and the Mauritius. African Ebony is a serviceable wood, and stands well, but the colour is indifferent, and the wood porous. The Ebony from the Mauritius is very hard, of fine close grain, and of a deep black colour, and being the best of the three is the most expensive. For ordinary work the East Indian Ebony is good enough, though it is inferior to lliat oi the Mauritius in hardness and depth of colour. Black Ebony — Elm : Its Uses. 23 Black Ebony. 46. The Black Ebony of the Mauritius and the East Indies affords the best and most direct contrast to Avhite holly in marquetry. Sawing Ebony is a somewhat dirty business, as the dust soils and blackens everything on which it falls, and especially that on which it is rubbed. This material cuts clear and fine as horn, and therefore for marquetry its use is highly essential. It will not warp readily, but is apt to split under changes of temperature ; its want of elasticity renders it inclined rather to break than bend ; but its fine close grain admits of a magnificent polish, or even oiling. As it is seldom more than six inches wide, only small articles can be made of it in one piece, though, to compensate for that, it is the best wood of all for trinkets, small crosses, chains, bracelets, etc. It can be made smooth with a tool known as the cabinet scraper, but the quickest and least laborious mode of shaving it down is by submitting it to the action of a planing machine. 47. Elm is the wood of a lofty and handsome forest tree, well- known in Great Britain, which thrives best and attains its greatest height and growth in moist situations. In- deed, it is said that when the Elm flou- rishes in Elm : its uses, any par- ticular spot, it is a sure indication that the locality is too damp to be desirable as a situation for a dwelling-house. Elm- wood will stand the wet for almost any length of time with- out decaying : it is therefore useful for all purposes in which immersion under water or exposure to moisture is necessary. It is very tough, cross- grained, and difficult to work, and it takes much labour and force to split it, which renders it suitable for the naves of wheels, etc. It is Fig. 8.— elm tree. 24 Household Carpentry and Joinery. reddish-brown in colour, the heartwood being considerably darkei in tint than the sapwood. Elm planks are used for the cheaper kinds of coffins, and in the western counties the trunks of small Elms, when bored, are used as pipes for conveying water from a spring or running stream into such places as back kitchens. 48. The wood of the Holly cannot be obtained of any great size in the United Kingdom, as those who are acquainted with the Holly Tree can readily understand. It is beautifully white, hard, HoUy Wood, ^lose-grained, and durable. For these reasons it is very useful for turning, carving in wood, and inlaying. The Holly attains considerable height and growth in America, and broad planks or sheets of wood, suitable for fret-cutting and marquetry, can be sawn from American holly trees. It should be said that the Holly of America is a different species to that of Europe, the former being the Ilexopaca of botanists, and the latter the Ilex aquifoliiim. The wood obtained from the American holly is known as White Hol/y, being Wldte Holly. , . , , i-^ r ■ . ^^a pure white — more so than the generality of ivor> — and quite tough. The whiteness is due to a particular mode of seasoning, and subsequent exposure gives it a mellow creamy tint. The grain is very fine and close, and does not readily absorb foreign matter. It may be protected by a coating of bleached shel- lac, but the general effect of this material is injured, if not entirely spoilt, by any preparation that tends to impart to it a shiny appearance. The wood is apt to split and warp unless seasoned with care and kept in a dry place. It is hard and difficult to work, and smoothness of surface is best obtained by planing it with a pla- ning machine. When White Holly gets very dingy it may be easily cleaned with KlG. 9. — LntE TREE. mois leather dipped into clean dry I'aris white ; and as the wood is of To clean HoUyWooa. a bjt of cha- Lime, Mahogany, and Oak. 25 very close grain, its whiteness may also be restored by rubbing it very carefully with very fine sand-paper. 49. The Lime, or Linden tree, is generally planted for ornamental purposes, and is often placed in rows on either side of a broad street or roadway, or pruned and trained in such a way as to j^j^j^^ ^j. form a dense screen between a dwelling-house and the Linden Tree, roadway, the trees being set tolerably close together and the principal branches interlaced or brought into close proximity. The wood, though of a close grain, is soft and easily worked. It is very free from knots, and is used in turning and carving in wood, for uses of Lime making musical instruments, and for various ornamental Wood, purposes. One of the most famous thoroughfares in Berlin, Unter den Linden, takes its name from these trees. The wood of the American Lime or Linden Tree is generally known as Bass Wood. 50. The wood called Mahogany, which is now so much used in making every description of household furniture, and in the joinery of the better class of houses, shop fronts, etc., although Mahogany, known in England, was not considered valuable for the purposes to which it is now applied until after the year 1720. There aie several sorts of this ornamental and useful wood, which is brought mostly from the West Indies and Central America. Another kind is brought from Gambia, in Western Africa. West Indian Mahogany is generally distinguished as Spanish and Honduras. Spanish Maho- gany is brought from Cuba and St. Domingo, and other West Indian islands. It is darker in colour and of a closer grain than Honduras Mahogany, which is cut on the mainland of Central America. Spanish Mahogany is imported in logs about ten feet long and from twenty- four to twenty-six inches square. Honduras Mahogany is generall> sawn into planks of considerable thickness, and the trees are so large that these planks have been known to measure six or seven feet in width. It takes a capital polish. The better sorts are used by the joiner, the cabinet-maker, and the ornamental turner. The inferior kinds are in demand with the pattern-maker, for particular patterns, in consequence of its not being affected by damp or heat. It holds glue the best of all woods. 51. Oak. Thebest Oak timber in the world is grown in Great Britain, from whose forests, until iron came so much into use for ship building, all the Oak was derived for the splendid fleets which oak; , , , • 1 • . r .u A 1 Pollard Oak. secured for this country the sovereignty of the seas. Al- though the grain is somewhat open — too open, indeed, for the purposes of the turner — the wood is extremely hard and durable, but difficult to 26 Household Carpentry and Joinery, work, and apt to take the edge pretty quickly off the workman's tools. The wood is dark in colour and susceptible of a high polish. It is much used in house- building, for houses of the better class, for floors, staircases, doors, the panelling of rooms, etc., and for tables, chairs, sideboards, and other pieces of house- hold furniture. Pollard Oak, which presents a beautiful variegated sur- face, is valuable for decorative furniture. The spokes of wheels are usually made of Oak ; and much, if not OAK TREE. all of thc carvcd work in cathedrals and churches and many ancient dwelling-houses are wrought in this material, which is in consequence most valuable to the carver in wood. The broad lustrous stripes that give such markec variety to the surface of an oaken panel is owing to the exposure of a greater or less space of the viediillary rays which radiate something after the manner of the spokes of a wheel from the girth or centre of Medullary the heartwood to the bark, as shown in rays in ^ ■ f^g jj^ which represents the section of an oak tree. The red lines in deal are due to the lines of demarcation between the concentric circles, which are supposed to denote each a year's growth of the trunk. These concentric circles are shown in fig. 12. They will readily be recognised on looking at the end of a deal plank. When planks used for flooring are cut close to the centre of the tree, the layer of wood in the middle of the plank, which is very thin, is apt to wear up and split off, often causing injury to the hands of servants and charwomen, to whom the duty of scrubbing the floors may fall, through the splinters that are left projecting from the ragged surface of the board. Some- times such a layer may be stripped up for the distance of some feet, like a ribbon. Fig. II. SEC- TION OF Oak. Fig. 12. SEC- TION OF Fir. Poplar, Rosewood, and Sycamore. 27 52. Poplar. These thrive best in a deep moist, loamy soil, but though they do well in damp situations, or near running water, proxi- mity to stagnant water does not suit them. The wood Poplar Wood, is white, soft, and brittle, and chiefly used in the manufacture of chil- dren's toys. The soft- ness of thewood causes glass grinders and lapi- daries to use horizontal sections as polishing wheels. The wood of the poplar is not liable to shrink, warp, or swell. The fret-sawyer will find it useful for \N.w»i-!._^^:.^"-T "V'''"=i^f||*f - - backgrounds, linings, Fig. 13 —poplar ir'L.- and veneered work. 53. The best Rosewood is brought from Rio Janeiro, in Brazil ; inferior qualities are imported from the East Indies and the Canary Islands. It derives its name from its colour, in which j^^^gg^^^j^j^^ lighter and darker tints of rose-red are commingled. It ^*^ '^^®^* is hard and difficult to work, but when brought to a good surface and well polished, it looks extremely well. It is used by the cabinet- maker for ornamental furniture, and by the turner. It is also useful for inlaying and veneering. The knots that occur in it tend to diver- sify the surface, and can be turned to good account by a skilful work- man. The wood contains much resinous gum, and on this account it is difficult to saw when used for fret-work. This hindrance, however, may be overcome by slightly oiling the saw blade now and then in order to lessen the friction. There is an African variety beautifully marked, and bearing a strong resemblance to black walnut, which is free from the resinous gum that is so abundant in ordinary Rosewood. 54. The Sycamore is indigenous to the British Isles, and bears some resemblance to the plane tree in its manner of growth and broad leaves. The wood is very soft, and easily worked, and is useful for inlaying and any other purpose in which whiteness is a desideratum Sycamore. 28 Household Carpentry and Joinery. WalnutWood. 55. The wood of the Walnut is extremely useful and valuable, and is used in the arts for many purposes, of which not the least im- portant is tha^of the manufacture of ornamental furniture. In olden times it was as much used for this purpose as in the present day, but after the introduction of mahogany and rosewood, walnut went out of fashion, and for some time was only used for making gun-stocks, etc. During the last thirty or forty years, how- ever, it has again come into favour, and is now greatly in demand for dining and drawing-room suites, tables, chairs, couches, and every description of ornamental household furniture, for which it is well adapted by the fineness of the grain, its capability of taking a high polish, and the extreme beauty of the wood, which is of a greyish brown, richly diversified with streaks and veins of black running in all directions. Its only drawback is in its want of density, which renders itjiable to injury from blows and rough usage. It is as useful to the turner as to the cabinet-maker, and works well in the lathe. It is de- sirable to get walnut wood from old well-grown trees, for the older the tree the more beautiful and diversified are the markings of the wood. 56. For fret-sawing, and all kinds of cabinet work, the wood known as Black Walnut is the most suitable. Unless well seasoned by kiln-drying, or some similar process, it is apt to warp and split. It will take a beautiful polish, and is susceptible of -more variations in that respect than any other, and still look well. Plain oiling seems to harden the fibre, and a dead polish will often show better in the work than though it shone like a mirror. This wood ought never to be var- nished, for it gives a common look to the article, and never fails to bring out the grain. 57. The White Walnut, known in the United States as the buttermit^ is a pretty wood, but soft. It cuts Wlute "Waimit, or clean, and is Butternut. adapted for many kinds of work, which, however, must not be delicate in design. It has the same grain as Black Walnut, stains well, and shows oiling to advantage. 58. Willow. The Willow Tree flourishes on the banks of rivers and Black Walnut. Fig. 14. -wn LOW TREE. Woods for Ornamental Carpentry. 29 in moist situations. The wood is white, or yellowish white, and tough. In this country it is chiefly known as the wood of which -v^uiow, and cricket-bats are made. When split into strips, it makes **^ '^^®^- strong and serviceable hoops for small casks and tubs of every de- scription. 59. Such are the various kinds of wood that are most commonly used in building and the constructive arts, and although the amateur artisan may have occasion to use but a very limited number of coUeotion of chem, it is as well that he should know their qualities ^^semil^d ^ and uses. Indeed, if it be possible, it is desirable for the "iesixabie. amateur to make a collection of as many kinds of wood as he possibly can, exhibiting their appearance, when sawn only, when worked to smoothness by means of the plane, and when stained and varnished, or polished. It would give him a valuable insight into the texture and capabilities of different kinds- of wood, and would help him to experience, if he should ever take to inlaying, or the manufacture of par- quetry, marquetry, etc. 60. In addition to the ".-aF^'^f'^ "'v^^^*^^^^^ woods already enumerated,. Fig. 15.— locust tree. there are several other kinds that are used in the arts, and even in the manufacture .^Qo^guae^j^ of ornamental furniture. A brief catalogue of these, and ^^^ ^^^' ®*°- the purposes to which they are turned, may be desirable, if not so useful as the list already given, and for this reason it is inserted here. Various kinds of Woods occasionally used in the Arts AND IN Ornamental Carpentry. 61. The wood of the Acacia, or Locust Tree, is a dark-coloured wood, bearing some resemblance to mahogany. It is Acaoia or brought from India, the West Indies, and the tropical ^°°''^* ^"^' regions of Africa. 62. Almond Wood is a very hard, dense wood, something like 3o Household Carpentry and Joinery, lignum vitae. It grows in the north of Africa, and parts of Asia and Almond Europe bordering on the Mediterranean. It is used for Wood. ^YiQ teeth and bearings of wooded cog-wheels. 63. Aloes Wood, Calembeg, or Green Sandalwood, is a Aloes Wood, '^00^ of a greenish colour, resembling Sandalwood in ®*°- texture, and growing in tropical countries. It exhales a slight perfume, especially when cut or bruised. 64. Amboyna Wood is a beautiful and valuable wood of diversified Amboyna appearance, brought from the Eastern Archipelago, and Wood. deriving its name from Amboyna, one of the Moluccas or Spice Islands. It is used in inlaying, and may be made serviceable Kaibooca ^^'^ veneering. It is sometimes called Kaibooca wood. It Wood. j^^g ^]^g appearance of being the excrescence or burr of some large tree, being only obtainable in slabs from three inches square, to twenty by twelve inches. It is tolerably hard, and full of small curls and knots. The colour varies from orange to chestnut brown, and sometimes reddish brown. 65. The wood of the Apple is close and hard in texture, and of a rich reddish-brown tint. It is useful in turning, and cuts Apple Wood. well for wooden screws. Large letters for printers' posters may be cut from this wood, and rulers for ordinary use are frequently made of it. 66. The Beam Tree is a tree akin to the apple and pear, whose wood is useful for naves and axletrees of wheels, small cog- Beam Tree. wheels, and similar parts of machinery. It grows in the United Kingdom, and is usually called the White Beam Tree. 67. Bird's-eye Maple is a fine variety of Maple, brought chiefly from Prince Edward's Island in North America. It is yellowish in Bird's-eye colour, diversified with red streaks and dark spots, with a Maple. lighter ring round them, from which it takes its name. It is chiefly used for making picture-frames, and is susceptible of a high polish. When used for picture-frames it is of course veneered on some other wood, and this tends to keep it from warping and split- ting, which it is otherwise very apt to do. Being a close-grained, gritty wood, it is difficult to work with a handsaw, and requires careful skill, even with a treadle-machine, when cutting fret-work from it, as the small knots drag on the saw, causing it to run unevenly. 68. Botany-Bay Wood, which is also called Beef Wood and African Botany Bay Black Wood, is a dense, hard, heavy wood, intensely Wood. black in colour. It is chiefly useful for ornamental turn- ing, its extreme hardness rendering it capable of being ornamented Camphor Wood, Cedar, etc. 31 with any pattern, however fine and intricate. It is brought chiefly from Botany Bay, whence its name, and from the Mauritius, 69. Cam Wood is an excellent wood for ornamental turning. It is brought from Southern Africa. Like Botany Bay Wood, it Cam Wood. is extremely hard, and of a close, fine texture. Its colour, when cut and exposed to the air, deepens to a rich reddish brown. 70. Camphor Wood. This wood is the product of the Camphor Tree, and is chiefly valuable for preserving furs, etc., from camphor the attacks of moth, when made into boxes. It is used wood. by turners, but is soft in substance and coarse in grain, which makes it difficult to work. It is somewhat yellow in colour and streaked with darker tints. 71. Canary Wood. A straight-grained wood of a close texture, .and, as the name implies, of a yellow colour. It is imported ' r J J r Canary Wood. ■from South America, and is used by turners and cabinet- •makers. 72. There are many kinds of wood included under the name of ►Cedar, all of which are obtained from cone-bearing trees, or trees of CEDAR TREE. •the Fir kind, and are widely different in qualities and cha- cedar: its racteristics. The wood of the Qdar of Lebanon is red- ▼^neties. »dish, and fuU of a fragrant resin ; it is soft and light, and apt to crack 32 Household Carpentry and Joinery. in drying. The wood of the Deodar, or Himalayan Cedar, is resinous fragrant, compact, and durable, and susceptible of a high polish When polished it has an appearance resembling that of brown agate. The cedar whose wood is most commonly used are species of the Juniper which belong to the Pine tribe. Red Cedar and White Juniper^ indigenous trees of North America, hardly differ except in colour ; but the wood of the former is undoubtedly more handsomely marked and diversified, and being scarcer than the latter, commands a higher price. Both woods take a beautiful polish ; but they are pitchy, and therefore difficult to cut, requiring at all times careful handling lest they split and break. Spanish Cedar, a cedar of the south of Europe, also called Bermuda Cedar, is soft, fragrant, and easily worked, though brittle, and is used in making the better class of cedar pencils. 73. The wood called Cedarwood must not be confounded with the true Cedars described above. It is obtained from a tree growing in the West Indies and Central America, to which the Cedarwood. name of Barbadoes Cedar is given. The true Cedars be- long to the natural order Coniferce j but this is a tree of the natural order Cedrelacecs, which also includes the trees that yield mahogany, satinwood, and the yellow wood of New South Wales. Havannah cigar-boxes are most commonly made of it. It is coarse in grain, very porous, and therefore not suitable for fret-work sawing, though it is useful for lining boxes, and a variety of small cabinet work. Like mahogany, it is not liable to warp. It can readily be stained ; but from the coarseness of the grain does not take either oil or polish well. By some writers this wood is called Spanish Cedar, which name, as shown above, truly belongs to the wood of the Bermuda Cedar. In America it is generally so called. 74. The heartwood of the Cherry Tree is hard and fine in texture, and of a pure reddish-brown colour. It is sus- ceptible of a high polish, and is useful for turning and all kinds of fancy work. 75. COCABOLA is a hard and resinous wood resembling the Bra- zilian variety of tu]ip wood. In colour it is reddish, diversified by Cocaboia slight striping. The red sawdust that falls from it when Wood. under the saw will stain like dye. When exposed for a long time to the light, the colour is apt to fade. It is liable to warp, but takes a good polish. It is chiefly useful for inlaying. 76. Cocus is a hard wood, yielded by a tree that grows in the West Indies. It turns black when cut and exposed to the action of the air, and for this reason is used by Dog Wood, Hawthorn, Hickory, etc. 33 turners and the manufacturers of musical instruments. It is also called Coca Wood. 77. Coral Wood is a hard and close-grained wood, found in tropica) countries, which is yellow when it is first cut, but soon , . , , J , ... Coral Wood, changes to a rich coral red, whence it takes its name. It takes a high polish, and is used in turning and fancy cabinet work. 78. COROMANDEL WoOD, sometimes called Calamander Wood, is brought from Southern India and Ceylon. It is very coromandei hard in texture and of a rich hazel-brown colour, Wood, streaked with black. It is used by cabinet-makers. 79. Dog Wood is the wood of the Wild Cornel, a low shrubby tree often found in hedgerows in England. It is used by Dogwood, watchmakers for cleaning out pivot-holes in watches, and by opticians, having the peculiarity of being very free from silex. It is the wood used by butchers for making wooden skewers. 80. The wood of the Elder is extremely close in grain and tough, and is used for pegs by shoemakers, and by turners for „, , f a J > J Elder. ordinary kinds of turnery. 81. The wood called Fustic is chiefly used by dyers for dyeing purposes; is suitable for turning and inlaying. It is of a greenish-yellow colour. §2. Greenheart is a coarse and heavy wood, which is used in shipbuilding, and sometimes by turners, although it does not work well. The tree from which it is obtained is of the genus Greeubeaxt. Latirus. It comes from the West Indies and Brazil. In Jamaica it is also called Cogwood. It is of a brownish-green colour when cut, whence its name, but it darkens on exposure to the air, and becomes like lignum vit« and cocoawood or cocus. 83. GuMWOOD, as the wood of the Eucalyptus or blue gum tree of Australia is called, is a hard, heavy wood of bluish colour. ^ ' ' ■' Gumwood. It is used in turning and shipbuilding. 84. The wood of the Hawthorn or white thorn is of a yellowish- white colour and close, fine grain, for which reason it is much valued for turning. It takes a good polish, and being extremely hard, it is suitable for very delicate work, and tracery. Old wood is sometimes slightly tinged with red and marked with dark veins. 85. Hickory is a tough and elastic wood, much used in the United States for shafts for carriages, spokes of wheels, wooden screws, and all purposes where strength, lightness, and durability is desirable, and indeed requisite, in the timber that is used. 7> 34 Household Carpentry and Joinery. 86. Hornbeam is an American wood of great strength and tough- ness, and also of a hard, close grain, and white in colour. Mill- wrights find it serviceable for the teeth of cogwheels, etc., Sombeam. and the large pins used in skittle playing are frequently made of it. ■ The English Hornbeam, often planted to form hedges, is a different species. The American variety is sometimes called Ironwood. 87. Ironwood is a term applied to various kinds of hard wood growing in different countries. The Ironwood of South America and the East and West Indies is hard and straight-grained, and frequently used for making ramrods. It is reddish-brown in colour. 88. KiNGWOOD is a hard and durable wood, brought from Brazil. It is used in turning, inlaying, and small cabinet work. It is beautifully streaked in tints of violet, for which reason it is sometimes called Violet Wood. 89. Laburnum is a hard, solid, heavy wood, useful for ornamental turning and marquetry. The heartwood is of a rich brown Xjaburuum. . . colour, diversified by large white medullary rays, which show out conspicuously, like the medullary rays of wainscoat oak, when the wood is cut longitudinally. go. Lancewood is the wood of a West Indian tree remarkable for toughness, lightness, and elasticity. Bows, shafts for carriages, billiard-cues, etc., are made of it. It is cut in poles varying from three to six inches in diameter. When steamed, it can be bent into any shape that may be desired. 91. Lignum Vit^ is the wood of a tree growing in Central America, -from which the medicinal resin called guaiacum is obtained. It is a kind of Box Tree. The wood is heavy, hard, and close- ' grained, works easily, and takes a good polish. The cen- tral part of the heartwood is brown, next to which are layers of a black tint surrounded by sapwood of a yellowish white. This peculiarity of colouring renders it useful for ornamental turnery. Round rulers are made of it. 92. Logwood is the heavy red heartwood of a South American tree. It is better known for its use in dyeing. It works well, and when polished looks like mahogany darkened by age. It is sometimes called Campeachy Wood. 93. Nettle Tree, or Lote, is a tree bearing a fruit resembling the Nettle Tree cherry, and growing in Southern Europe. The wood is °' °*'®' used by musical instiument-makers. It is close-grained and takes a good polish. Olive Wood, Satinwood, etc. 35 94. Olive Wood is of a close, fine grain, beautifully variegated with curls and knots, and suitable for fret-work, carved work, Olive Wood, marquetry, and all kinds of ornamental cabinet-work. It is easily cut, and of an oily nature. Its variegated appearance renders it a desirable wood for veneering. 95. Partridge Wood is a beautifully variegated wood, much es- teemed for ornamental cabinet work, obtained from Brazil, partridge It is heavy, and of a close, fine grain, very hard but easily worked. It is much used for walking-sticks, and for the handles of umbrellas and parasols. 96. The wood of the Pear, being of a close, fine grain, tolerably soft, and very free from knots, is useful for carving, turning, and a variety of ornamental purposes. It is used for engraving the large letters used by printers in setting up posters, and for making patterns for printing paper for walls and calico. It takes staining readily and is susceptible of a high polish. Formerly it was much in demand for pianos and "ebonised" furniture, but for this purpose mahogany, American whitewood, and walnut are now used. 97. The wood of the Plum is dark in colour, and, like pear wood, somewhat soft. The grain is not very close. It is useful T 1 Plum Wood. m turning, and works easily. It takes a fine polish. 98. The wood yielded by the Pomegranate Tree is of a brownish- green tint with veins of a darker hue. It is of a close grain, pomegranate works vvell, and takes a good polish. It is used chiefly by wood, musical instrument-makers. 99. Red Satinwood is a hard wood which works well and takes a good polish. It is useful for marquetry, being of a j^g^ satin- beautiful reddish-purple colour Vv'ith veins and markings wood. of a darker tint. 100. Rosetta Wood is an East Indian wood of a bright reddish- orange colour, marked with veins and streaks of a darker . . . ... Royetta Wood. tint. It IS in request for ornamental cabinet work, but is by no means plentiful. loi. Sandalwood is a highly scented wood, something like cedar, obtained from an East Indian tree resembling the privet. ^, , -r . r , ■,,-,■ r , Saudalwood- The odoriferous properties of the wood, which is of a red- dish-yellow colour and works easily, taking a fine polish, renders it use- ful for making ornamental boxes in which gloves, handkerchiefs, jewellery, and furs are kept. 102. Satinwood, which takes its name from its soft and lustrous appearance, is of a yellowish tint. It works well and takes a high 36 Household Carpentry and Joinery. polish, and, on account (if its colour and natural gloss, forms an ap- propriate groundwork for marquetry and inlaying, and a S&tiuwood. useful material for veneering and fret-sawing. It is diffi- cult to attach it to another wood by glueing, owing to the natural oil that it contains. It does not warp or split to any extent, and, by reason of its colour, forms a handsome and agree- able contrast to ebony, tulip wood, rosewood, and other woods of a dark colour. It is brought from the East Indies. 103. The Service Tree, which is akin to the mountain ash, is, with others of its species, allied to the apple. The wood is hard and of a close Service Tree. -.^ Fig. 17.— service tree. Teak Wood. grain, and is used to a great extent in making and handling joiners' tools 104. Teak Wood is the wood of an East Indian tree, extremely hard and durable, and, next to English oak, the best kind of wood for shipbuilding. Ironclad ships are usually built with an inner skin or coating of Teak, and the targets of iron against which heavy pieces of ordnance are fired at Shoeburyness, etc., are generally backed with Teak. 105. Violet Wood is the wood of the Andira violacea, a tree that grows in Guiana. It is useful for turning. {See also Violet 'Wood. ,^ . KiNGWOOD.) 106. Tulip Wood is the wood of a tree that grows in Brazil, resem- bling rosewood in its resinous qualities, but reddish in colour, striped with darker shades, after the manner of the petals of a Tulip Wood. ,. ,, , T • r 1 J r tunp flower, whence its name. It is a useful wood tor marquetry, but the tints of the wood are apt to fade, losing their natural brightness under exposure to the light. 107. Whitewood, the wood of the North American tulip tree — a tree allied to the magnolia, and bearing flowers resembling the tulips whence its name — is distinguished by this name, although it is yellow rather than white. Being straight in grain, free from knots, and easily worked, it is used in the United States for ordinary cabinet work and for fret-sawing. Whitewood. Best Timbers for Various Uses. 37 108. The Yew is an evergreen tree of the genus Taxus, allied to the pines. The wood is hard, tough, elastic, and durable. In yg^ ^nd olden times it was much used in England for making "saBea. bows. Fine specimens are often to be met with in country church- yards. 109. We have now given what may be considered a fuller list of woods used in carpentry than may be absolutely necessary, inasmuch as the amateur artisan may perhaps never handle or even set eyes on a fourth part of them. But though he may never use them, or even see them, it seems desirable that any one who aspires to be a Knowledge of worker in wood should have a general knowledge of the ^"^^en^try*^ nature, properties, and special uses of the various kinds of desirable, woods used in the constructive arts ; and with this view, the list that has been placed before the reader has been compiled. Even now it is by no means exhaustive, but it contains a description of every kind of wood that is likely to come under the amateur mechanic's notice. no. The following is a list of the best timbers for various uses. It IS taken from Spon's " Architects', Builders', and Carpenters' Pocket Book" — a most useful work for the practical man, and to ^^gj ^.j^j^jg, which we are indebted for these and many other particulars . for ■^ vanoaa uses. bearing on the science and theory of carpentry that are given in this chapter. The list will serve as a general summary of what has just been given. (a) For General Construction. — Oak, Chestnut, Teak, Cedar, Fir, Elm, Walnut, Larch, Pine, Beech, Mahogany, Poplar. ip) For Scaffbldingf Ladders, etc. — Acacia, Spruce Fir. if) Timbers durable in wet places. — Oak, Alder, Teak, Acacia, Elm, White Cedar, Larch, Iron bark. Beech, Plane, North American Plane. {d) Timbers durable in dry places. — Oak, Chestnut, Olive, Maho- .gany. Larch, Willow, Deal, Cedar, Pine of all kinds. Maple, Ash, Plane, Poplar, Teak, Cedar, Sycamore, Acacia. {i) For Patterns. — Deal, Alder, Pine, Mahogany. (/) Hardest English Woods. — Box, Oak, Elm, Walnut, Beech. These woods, with one or two exceptions, have been fully described in the account given above of the various kinds of timber used in building, furniture making, and ornamental carpentry, and construc- tive arts generally. III. As the amateur artisan will have obtained a tolerably good idea of the character and qualities of different kinds of timber from what has already been said about them, it is perhaps desirable that he 38 Household Carpentry and Joinery. should now make himself acquainted with the weight per cubic foot in pounds, the average number of cubic feet that go to Weight of "^ " . . '^ wood per wcigh one ton, and the specific gravity of the best known cubic foot. and most useful varieties of timber. The following table, indeed, will afford the best possible index of comparison of their densities, and a glance at it will, speaking generally, go far to show at once what wood is soft and light, and what is hard and heavy. Wood possessing the characteristics of softness and lightness is usually easily worked and suitable for ordinary purposes, while such sorts as are hard and heavy are closer and finer in the grain, and therefore better adapted for turning and ornamental purposes. 112. In the following table the weights per cubic foot in pounds are those given by Tredgold, Rondelet, and others, when the name of the wood is printed in ordinary type, but when the name of any weights wood is given in italics, the weight per cubic foot has been derived from other sources. The average number of cubic feet of each material that go to make up a ton in weight is calculated from the weight per cubic foot, 2,240 lbs. avoirdupois being one ton, as every reader knows. The specific gravities have been taken, when possible, from recognised authorities, but in some cases they are derived from calculation. Those that have been calculated to complete the table are distinguished thus (*). Table Showing the Average Weight per Cubic Foot in Pounds, the Average Number of Cubic Feet per Ton, and the Specific Gravity OF the best known and most used kinds of Timber. Weight No. of Weight No. of Specific per cu- cubic Specific per cu- cubic Name of Wood. Gravity. bic foot feet per Name of Wood. Gravity. bic foot feet per in lbs. ton. in lbs. ton. j4/p/e * •786 49 45"7 Fir Common... . '49S 31 72-2 Ash •834 52 43"o ,, Memel ... . • 1 -iioi 37 6o"5 Beech •850 S3 42'2 Hazel •n -641 40 56 'o Birch •674 42 S3"3 Hornbeam ... . •*i "770 48 46-6 Box * •914 57 39'3 Larch •*i '529 33 67*9 Cedar of Lebanon * •56 ■• 35 64*0 Lignutn Vit^e • 1 I'I22 70 32"o „ S/ianish ... * •48, 30 746 Mahogany Spanish*! I'oi^o 66 33 '9 Cherry * •673 42 53'3 Maple ... _ ... . •* -754 47 47-6 Chestnut ♦ ■593 37 60s Oak, American . 720 45 50-8 Cork * •240 15 I49'3 „ English •850 S3 42*2 Ebony * I'OIO 63 35'S Pine, Yellow... . •• '4'7 26 86-1 El(kr * •67^ 42 53"3 „ R'ld ... . ■642 40 56-0 Elm •674 42 53'3 „ Pitch ... . .. ' 722 45 So"8 Poplar * •3S. 24 93"3 Walnut * -659 41 54-6 Sycamore * •6o'i 38 589 H^-ill(rji> * -481 30 74-6 Teak •77.. 47 47-6 Yew * '802 47 47-6 113. It may be noted here in reference to the above table that in Cubic feet of L^xton's " Price Book for Architects, Builders, etc.," it is various woods, stated that the following quantities of the materials named, will, upon the average, weigh one ton. 66 feet cubic of dealt 64 „ „ fir timber 57 )■ >t elm do. 51 ,1 „ beech Specific Gravity. 39 20 feet cubic of ebony I 34 feet cubic of mahogany 59 ). .. bnie 53 „ „ walnut 45 >i II ash 48 ,, ,, maple 39 >i 1) oak I 60 ,, „ pin<" 1 14. It will be noticed on comparison of the results exhibited in each table, that while in some cases, and notably that of maple, the differ- ence is inappreciable, in others, as in oak and elm, there ^ . ^, . . ' Weights given is a great discrepancy. This is accounted for by the approximately fact that considerable variation is to be found in the specific gravity and weight per cubic foot of ditierent specimens of the same kind of timber. The reader must therefore bear in mind that the statements advanced in the above tables are not established facts which admit of no alteration, but are merely apfiroxitnate values, which are only useful in general calculations, but which cannot be con- sidered as absolutely accurate in individual cases. 115. Specific gravity may be defined as the ratio of the weight of a body to the weight of an equal volume or bulk of some other body taken as the standard or unit. The standard is usually g ^^^^ distilled water for solids and liquids, and air for gases. gravity. Thus, when the specific gravity of gold is said to be I9"225, it is meant that when equal volumes or bulks of gold and water are taken, the gold is 19*225 times heavier than the water— that is to say, a cubic inch or a cubic foot of gold weighs respectively I9"225 times as much as a cubic inch or a cubic foot of water, or the water contained in a hollow vessel measuring an inch or a foot, as the case may be, in every direction. The specific gravity of gold is therefore intelligibly expressed in figures by I9'225. In other words, the weight of a piece of gold is equal to the weight of water I9'225 times its size or bulk. 116. To show how many of the specific gravities given in the above table have been arrived at, it is as well to explain that the weight of a cubic foot of water is 62 lbs. 224 grains, or 62"32 lbs. . To determine avoirdupois. When the specific gravity of a body or specifio .... . . , , . r . , gravity. any material is known, its weight per cubic foot in pounds avoirdupois may be readily determined ; and conversely, when its weight per cubic foot in lbs. avoirdupois is known, its specific gravity may be easily deduced. Thus, to express the specific gravity of any solid or liquid : Divide the weight in poiauis avoirdupois of a cubic foot oj the body, whatever it may be, by (i2'yi, the weight in pounds avoirdupois of a cubic foot of distilled water, and the quoiietit obtained will be thf specific gravity of tlie body. 117. Conversely, to determine the weight of a cubic weight 01 foot of any solid or liquid in pounds avoirdupois : Multi- * '''* ^° ^^ 40 Household Carpentry and Joinery. ply the specific gravity of the body by 62.32, the weight in pounds avoirdupois of a cubic foot of distilled water, and the result obtained will be the weight of a cubic foot of the body /« pounds avoirdupois. 118. The buoyancy of woods that will float in water is according to their respective specific gravities. There are a few kinds of wood so Buoyancy dense and heavy that they will not float in water, or will of ■woodB. gjj^j, gjj JQ^y jj^ j^ ^g jQ l^g nearly submerged. Ebony and Spanish mahogany are very dense, heavy woods, and as they are heavier than water, bulk for bulk, they will not float in it. Oak, beech, and ash will sink deep in water, while fir, larch, and cedar displace but a small quantity, and therefore do not penetrate far below the surface. The lightest material obtained from the vegetable kingdom is cork, the bark of a species of oak which abounds in Spain. The weight of a cubic foot of cork is 15 pounds, and its specific gravity no more than '240, or somewhat less than %\h. avoirdupois ; or, in other words, equal bulks of cork and water being taken, the cork is somewhat less than one-fourth the weight of the water. This is why cork is so extremely buoyant in the water and is useful as a material for making lifebuoys, belts, etc., and floats for fishermen's nets. 119. It will now be necessary to explain what is meant by the strength and breaking strain or breaking weight of timber, and the amount of pressure or strain which can be safely laid Btrength and breaking upon it according to its form, thickness, position, etc. strain. This belongs to the theory, and not to the practice of carpentry ; and although a thorough knowledge of the principles that are involved, and which are based on and belong to the branch of mathematical science known as mechanics, is most necessary to the civil engineer, the architect, and the builder, it is by no means so important to the amateur carpenter. Whatever, therefore, is said on this point will be said as briefly as possible, so that it may not become wearisome to the reader. 120. The principles involved in the theory of carpentry are chiefly brought under consideration in the construction of roofs. It is Theory of by no means likely that the amateur will ever put up a carpentry, ^juii^jing requiring a roof of any great size or space, for his efforts in this direction will not probably extend beyond the simple lean-to roof of a shed built up against a wall, or even unattached to any other kind of building, or the span roof of a greenhou-^e, or any other structure of an ordinary kind. This will be sufficient to explain why the theory of carpentry need not be entered into in this work lurther than may be necessary to elu':idate the reason why a particular Strength of Wood. 41 mode of procedure should be adopted in carrying out any work in practice. 121. First, with regard to the strength of wood. It is by the trans- verse strength that is inherent in it that a simple beam or piece of wood, be it what it may as regards its form, can resist strength of the action of the weight that is brought to bear upon it. Suppose a beam of timber to be broken by extreme pressure exerted on its centre, the ends being sustained by supports of some kind. On examining the broken part of the beam, it is manifest that the fracture is produced by the extension of the lower fibres and the compression of the upper ones ; the former being strained till they are dragged apart, and the latter weakened till resistance is no longer possible by being squeezed together till the fibres are crushed. A rough idea of the effect which it has been attempted to describe may be gained from the accompanying diagram, in which the effect of the weight in upturning the '^ '^ t" fibres, by dragging them ^.^^ ,8.-eeam sui'i^rted at ends. asunder below and crushing them together above, is shown in an exaggerated manner. In fig. i8 is shown a beam or piece of wood of uniform thickness, supported Fig. i9.-effect of weight on beam. at the extremities. In the centre, in a downward direction, shown by the vertical line c D, a weight, w, is attached sufficiently great to over- come the elasticity and cohesive attraction of the fibres of the beam. The effect is shown in fig. 19, in which, by the downward pressure of w, the fibres that were previously united at D, and just above it, have been broken and pulled apart, while those at C have been pressed to- gether to the extent shown by the small triangles Q.xz,cyz, which in each portion of the beam have been forced back into the particles next to them, until the corners, as shown by the triangles just named, have disappeared. It must be remembered, that in the illustration the effect is exaggerated, as it has been already said ; but a careful study of the diagram will have shown the amateur the necessity of conbining a little of the theory of carpentry with his practice, so that in framing timbers together he may guard even against deflection, to say nothing of fracture, which would altogether spoil the appearance of his work and detract greatly from its stability. 127.. It has been ascertained by actual experiments that the strength 42 Household Carpentry and Joinery. of a beam or girder of timber, and hence of any piece of timber^ whether lare:e or small, increases directly as the width Strength in- * ' , -r ■ i creased in and as the square of the depth. Thus, if a piece ot proportion to . .... , , , , . , width and wood measuring three inches m breadth and three inches depth, in depth — that is to say, three inches square in section — will bear a certain weight, a beam six inches broad and three inehes deep will bear twice the weight ; but a beam three inches broad and six inches deep will bear four times the weight. The strength is also inversely as the length. That is to say, if two beams of equal breadth and depth be taken, but one of them be twice as long as the other, the longer beam will only bear half the breaking weight that the shorter one will sustain, or, in other words, will be only half as strong. 123. It will now be clear why, in laying joists to sustain a floor, the Why joista timbers are so placed as to have considerable depth are deep, from top to bottom, while the breadth is comparatively very narrow. 124. It must be pointed out that the power of resistanc-e in any beam is considerably modified by the manner in which the load is applied to it : thus, if, instead of being collected at the Power of re- ^^ . , . , . Bistance, how centre, the weight were divided into equal portions and modified. distributed at equal distances along the beam, it would be capable of carrying twice as much. And if the ends of the beam v/ere fixed, as in opposite walls, it would be able in this position to sustain nearly twice as much as it would if the ends had not been fixed. A continued strain tends to weaken the power of resistance in a beam, and the power will be lessened still more when the weight is variable, or a rolling weight instead of a dead weight. The nature of the wood must also be taken into account : thus, some in which the fibre is long and the grain straight will bend to a very great degree, while others in which the grain is short and close, will scarcely bend at all, but break suddenly. In framing timber, then, as the carpenter is called upon to do, all these points must be taken into considera- tion, 125. The instantaneous breaking weight of any kind of wood is the weight under which it will give way and break when loaded with this weight in the centre. It has been said that the load with Instantaneous breaking which a beam may be weighted with safety, should never weight. exceed more than one-third of the breaking weight ; but it is better and safer never to let the load exceed one-fourth of the breaking weight. Indeed, it is argued that timber is permanently injured if more than this is applied to it. Tredgold, one of the best Breaking Weight: How Found. 43 authorities on carpentry, says that a load cannot be looked on as safe if it exceeds one-fifth part of the breaking weight. 126. It is by no means a difficult thing to find the breaking weight of every piece of timber, and, this being known, the load that it will sustain without injury, which, as it has weight: how ■' ■" ' found, just been shown, is estimated by different authorities at from one-fifth to one-third of the breaking weight. The following is a general rule for finding the breaking weight in the middle for girders of wood supported at both ends. Rule. — Multiply the breadth in inches by the square of the depth in inches, and divide by the length of bearing in feet. The result obtained, when multiplied by a certain constant or invariable quantity, for the kind of timber tinder con- sideration, gives the breaking weight in the centre in hittidredweights. This constant or invariable quantity which has been practically determined by a series of experiments, is stated by Barlow to be For English Ash 6 I For Dantzic Oak 4J I For Red Pine 4 „ English Oak 5I „ Pitch Pine 5 | ,, Riga Fir 3 127. Now, to test this rule, or, in other words, to afford an example of it : To find the breaking weight in the centre of a Breaking beam of red pine four inches broad, ten inches and ten weight in '^ centre of beam feet bearing 4 (The breadth in inches) x 10' (square of depth in inches) 4 x 100 10 (Length of bearing in feet) 10 Then 40 (result obtained) x 4 (constant for red pine) = i6o (breaking weight \y. cwts.) For a permanently distributed load — that is to say, a load divided into several parts and placed at equal distances along the beam— the break- ing weight of such a beam of red pine as we have been considering will be double the breaking weight in the middle, or 320 hundred- weights. But, according to Tredgold, the safe load should not exceed one-fifth the breaking weight, and as the breaking weight permanently distributed is 320 cwts., the safe load permanently distributed is 320-7-5, or 64 cwts. 128. Now from this a formula can be deduced, from which the strength or breaking weight of any of the woods whose constants are given above can be determined when the breadth and depth of the beam in inches, and its length in feet are known. This formula for , , J b y. d^ y. C ■ 1 ■ , breaking formula may be expressed as w = m which weightT w represents breaking weight, b breadth in inches, d depth in inches, J the length in feet, and c the constant. For constants for other kinds of timber the reader must refer to theoretical works on carpentry, a/id 44 Household Carpentry and Joinery. the papers of the Royal Engineers, in which full tables of constants are given. 129. In some books, tables are given from which, by an easy ope- ration, the strength of a piece of timber may be ascer- breakLg^ tained. The following is part of a long and elaborate fTot!ength. ^^^^^ ^^^^" ^" Laxton's " Price Book " : " The weights in this table are, one-eighth of the breaking weight of red pine uniformly loaded, or one-fourth of the same when suspended in the middle. Rule.— To ascertain the strength of a piece of timber, divide the second column by the length of the timber, and the weight in cwts. will be obtained." The first column, it will be noticed, gives the depth and thickness in inches, the second column the safe load or weight of a piece of timber of the depth and thickness specified, one foot in length. Now, as it has been said, the strength of a piece of timber is inversely as its length, or that, when a piece of timber of a certain length, breadth, and depth will break under a certain weight, a piece of the same breadth and depth, but of twice the length, will break in the centre under half that weight, a piece three times as long under one-third the weight, and so on, — it is clear that to obtain the safe load or weight we have only to divide the weight given in the second column by the length of the beam. It will be noticed that the safe load in this table is taken at one-fourth the breaking weight when suspended in the middle, while Tredgold places it at one-fifth. The difference between the two is just one-twentieth ; so, in order to reduce any result in the tables to Tredgold's estimate, the reader has only to divide the result by twenty, and subtract the quotient from it, or, in other words, to reduce the result by one-twentieth. 130. In these tables the strength, or safe load of timber of the length of I foot, is given up to a depth of 14 inches, and a thickness of 15 Deductions of Breaking Weights. 45 inches, with a result of 2,940 cwts ., but from the portion given above it is easy to deduce the quantities in cwts. for other peduotton of dimensions exceeding those that have been given, re- J'^^^^^^r membering always the fundamental rule that if the breadth o'^®"^ lengths. of a beam be doubled it will bear twice the weight, and that if the depth be doubled it will bear four times the weight ; or, to speak more generally, that the increase in strength is directly as the breadth, or as the square of the depth. Now, suppose we had only the second series in this table for pieces of wood of various thicknesses or breadth from lyi to 12 inches, but of a uniform depth of 2 inches : we know from this that the safe load of a piece 2 in. X 2in. X i foot is 8 cwt. We wish, however, to know the safe load of a piece 4 in. X 4 in. X I foot. It is clear that as the piece of wood is twice the width and twice the strength — its length will be 8 X 2 X 2^, or 8 X 2 X 4 = 64 cwt., as given in the table. Again, if we wish to know the strength of a piece of timber 8 in. X 8 in. X i foot, it is clearly 64 X 2 (the breadth being doubled) X 2' (the depth being doubled and the proportionate increase squared) = 64X2X4 = 512 cwt. Again, even at the risk of being tedious, the safe load of a piece of wood (that is to say, red pine, for that is the kind of wood under consideration in all these examples), 3 in. X 3 in. X i foot is, from the table, 27 cwt., then the safe load of a piece of wood 9 in. X 9 in. x i foot, will be 27 X 3 X 3% or 27 X 3 X 9 = 729 cwts., the increase in breadth or thickness being taken directly, and the increase in depth being squared as before. Indeed, having the rule that has been given, and knowing that the unit of the strength of red pine is that the safe load of a piece of timber i in. (depth) X i in. (breadth) X i foot (length) = i cwt., we may, by calculation, deduce from this unit of measurement of the strength of red pine, as we may call it, the strength of similar timber of any dimensions. For, suppose, as before, the breadth and depth to be increased to 9 inches, then the safe load = 1X9 (direct increase in breadth) X 9=^ (the square of the measure in depth) = i X 9 X 81 = 729 cwt., as sho\vn above. 131. " In calculating the strength of timber," says Laxton, " only so much of the wood should be measured as is continued ^^^ ^ ^^^^_ through the entire stick. For instance, a tie beam,iat^g^^ength measuring 8 by 10 inches, having an inch and a half rod passing through it, should be considered as measuring but six and a half inches thick ; and if the ends of struts or anything of the kind be cut down into and across the top ol the beam two inches, it would then measure but eight inches aeep." For example, in fig. 20, let A 46 Household Carpentry and Joinery. represent a beam that is eight inches broad and ten inches deep, then if the tie-rod, B, being one and a half inches thick, is passed through a hole of the same diameter, bored to allow its passage, the strength of the beam is weakened to an extent equiva- FiG. 20. TIE BEAM WITH ROD & STRUT, lent to the reduction of its thickness one and a half inches throughout its length ; and if the strut C were cut into and across the beam to the depth of two inches, the strength of the beam would be weakened to an extent equivalent to the reduction of its depth two inches throughout its length. In short, if a beam of the dimensions given were treated in this way by the insertion of a tie- rod, and strut to the extent described, its actual strength when thus cut and pierced would be no more than that of a beam six and a half inches broad and eight inches deep. The amateur artisan will now see how the strength of timber is weakened by boring holes through it and cutting mortices and notches into it. It is, however, only when the timber thus cut has to sustain any great load or downward pres- sure, as in the construction of roofs and floors, that this need be taken materially into consideration. 132. The remarks that have been advanced on the theory oi zzx^^vl- intimate try, and the method of calculating the strength of timber wito^theory°of '^^'^^ ^^ sufficient, generally speaking, for the purposes of n^oe^s^aSy for "-^^ amateur mechanic, should he be disposed to enter on amatexirs. j^g study in an elementary manner. It will be necessary to allude to this part of the subject when speaking of the construction of roofs, but it will be endeavoured to touch on it but briefly, and in a manner calculated to redeem it from becoming in any way obtrusive or wearisome. CHAPTER II£. fELLING AND SEASONING OF TIMBER. DESIGNATIONS AND MARKS OF TIMBER. TIMBER AS SUPPLIED BY TIMBER MERCHANTS. ITS PRICES. Qualities, etc., of timber— Notes on strength and density of timber— Seasoning of timber— How to guard against shrinkage— Full-grown timber strongest— Season for felhng timber— Artificial modes of seasoning timber— Well-seasoned wood more durable— Selection of timber— Wet rot and dry rot— Names of timbers of various sizes— Planks— Deals— Battens— Difference in these timbers— Boards- Feather - edged boards— Scantling— Additional sizes of timber— Quartering— Petersburg Standard, etc. — Facts useful to amateurs — Square of boards or timber —Whence building timber is brought- Selection of timber— Marks on timber- Place from whence timber comes shown by the marks— Properties and value of timber from different places— " Red " and "Yellow" Deal— Prices of timber- Prime cost price of timber per load— To find value of timber per cubic foot from price per load— Prices of wood sold by foot super— Timber merchant's prices— Match-boarding— Prices of Oak, etc.— Prices as charged by builders— Oak in Scantlings, etc. — Timber merchant's prices : why different from builder's prices —Prices as charged by timber merchant— Prices of deals, boards, match-lining, etc.— Venetian laths and trellis-work— Blind-laths, dimensions and prices— Trellis- work, dimensions and prices— Wood-fencing— Egg-boxes for fencing— Prices of posts in Oak, etc., and rails— Arris-rails— Arris-gutters— Park-paling— Oak rails, pales, capping, and gravel-boards— Scaffold poles— Slating laths— Small pales- Authorities for prices— Prices of Scantlings per foot cube— Cost of boards, etc., per foot super.— Foot cube and equivalents— Value of timber per foot cube, how to determine — Knowledge of prices necessary for amateur— Planing-up timber — Help from jobbing carpenter— Scanding, application of term— Cost of Scantlings at 3S. per foot cube— Cost of Scanthngs at 3s. 6d. per foot cube— Prices of woods used in ornamental carpentry— Prices of woods for fret-cutting— Prices, why moderate— Plain fret-work, thicknesses suitable for— Hardwood and blackwood —Veneers— Pear-wood, apple-wood, etc.— Timber merchants in various parts- Timber Trades' Journal— Swedish joinery, doors, sashes, etc.— Mouldings : their uses and prices— Directions respecting use of mouldings— Articles in wrought timber— Architraves— Skirtings— Jamb-linings— Door frames— Floor-boards and Match-boards— Sashes and frames— Outside front-doors— Bolection mouldings, meaningof term— Inside-doors— Sash-doors— Fencing and trellis-work. «33. The present chapter must be regarded as a continuation of or sequel to that which has immediately preceded it. It will be sought m it to make some remarks on the quality of the wood Q-iauties, etc., found in different parts of the tree, the felling and season- of t^^^^er. ing of timber ; the names by which different sizes of timber are distin- jguished, and the distinctive marks of timber from abroad ; and the 48 Household Carpentry and Joinery. different kinds of timber that are procurable from the timber merchant, whether sawn only, or sawn and planed, and their prices. Something also will be said with regard to manufactured articles that can be pro- cured from the timber merchant, such as doors, window sashes and rails, trellis-work, posts and rails, mouldings, etc. 134. In accordance, then, with the course that has just been marked Notes on out, a few notes on the strength and density of timber ^dlnSt^^o^^ may not be out of place here. These may be stated as timber. follows :— (i) The longer the time that a tree is growing, provided always that it has not passed maturity and begun to decay, the heavier and denser its wood becomes. (2) Generally speaking, the heavier the wood the stronger it is. (3) The strongest timber is always found in the lower part of a tree. (4) The straighter the grain of the timber the stronger the wood. (5) The bark is the weakest part of the tree, the sap-wood within the bark and the heart-wood is not so strong as that which lays between the sap-wood and the heart, or in other words the strongest timber lies between the heart and the sap-wood. 135. All timber should be well seasoned before it is used by the carpenter, for whatever purpose it may be intended ; that is to say, Seasoning of ^^^^^ '^^ ^^^ been felled and sawn a sufficient time should timber. ]-,g allowed for it to dry, and thus become entirely free from sap and other moisture. To get dry whole timber is a thing impossible, unless you can keep it in store long enough for yourself. To obtain it from a timber-merchant is out of the question, as in the rapid course of business he cannot keep any part of his stock long enough to admit of thorough seasoning. 136. As it is so difficult to get well-seasoned timber, the only thing to be done when designing a building, is to arrange the against timber in such a manner that any shrinkage shall in no shrinkage. way affect the stability of the structure. When the ternv " best timber " is used, as by an architect in his specifications, it is always taken to imply timber that is exceptionally straight in the grain and free from knots and defects. The strongest timber obtainable for building purposes is that w^hich is sawn out of baulks, which are the squared trunks of very large trees — we are now speaking of pines anrf trees of the fir tribe that have reached maturity — and Full-grown timber whose wood is Consequently the most dense, and has strongest. therefore attamed the greatest strength. Planks, deaU, and battens (terms used in the timber trade to designate pieces of Season for Felling Timber. 49 timber of various widths, and which will be explained presently) are cut out of smaller and younger trees, and will not bear so great a load as full-grown timber. 137. Timber should not be felled until it is of mature age. The best seasons for felling are in the height of summer when the sap is up and ripening in the leaves, or in the depth of winter when Season for the sap has withdrawn to the roots. In either case the felling trunk of the tree is less full of sap than at other times. When felled and stripped of its bark, the tree should be squared or sawn into logs, and placed in running water, or where it is fully ex- posed to the influence of sun and air. When removed from the water wood should not be allowed to dry too rapidly. In seasoning, timber will lose from one-fourth to one-half its weight when felled, owing to the evaporation of moisture that it contains. The more porous or less dense the wood, the more sap or moisture it contains, and thus it is that a heavy wood loses less than a light wood in weight when season- ing, or why oak loses less in drying than fir. 138. There are artificial means of seasoning timber, consisting chiefly in exposing it to the action of steam or boihng water, but wood thus heated, although it is not so liable to shrink as timber dried Artificial by exposure to the weather, has not the elasticity and ^afoning toughness of the latter. Sawn timber of whatever size it tuiiber. may be — that is to say, whether in the form of planks, deals, battens, or boards — during the process of seasoning is generally stacked in such a manner as to admit of the free passage of air throughout the pile. In the pile the timber is of course in a horizontal position. The pieces will dry better when placed upright, or when stacked or ranged against a long cross-bar supported on uprights, one at either end. 139. The better seasoned the wood, the better and more durable will be the articles that are made from it. It is true that seasoned wood is harder and not so easy to work as unseasoned^ „ ■' Well-seasoned wood, which contains a considerable amount of moisture wood more dxirable. while the former is tough and dry. It does not follow that the wetter wood is the easier it is to work, as any one may prove for himself by trying to put the saw through a piece that is thoroughly >»>aked with water. Good wood, or the "best timber," as already explained, is that which is straightest in the grain and freest from knots. In selecting timber for joinery, care should be selection of taken to avoid any piece that has a knot at the edge, as ti^i'er. the knot will be loosened in working and often fall out, causing much disfigurement. 4 50 Household Carpentry and Joinery. 140. Timber is liable to destruction from two causes, called respec- tively wei rot and dry rot. The former is the result of a chemical Wet rot and decomposition which takes place in timber when it is so •^ ^°'' enclosed that no air can get to it ; the latter is due to the formation and growth of certain fungi. " Experiments," says Laxton, " have proved that impregnating the woody fibres of timber with mineral solutions will impede the decomposition by wet rot, and prevent the growth of those fungi which cause the dry rot, and at the same time render the timber less inflammable. One method of preserving timber, which has been successfully employed, is to dry it and apply a weak solution of corrosive sublimate, or of nitric acid and water, and then paint it with white lead and oil. When the timber has to be fixed near the ground, or in any damp situation, it may be coated with a thin solution of coal tar and fish oil mixed with very finely powdered clinkers from the forge. It is imperative that all timber be properly seasoned before using any preservative application whatever." 141. In the timber trade and in building, the terms planks, deals, Dattetis, boards, scantling, and quartering, are used in speaking of Names of pi<^ces of timber of various sizes ; it is necessary that the timbers of amateur artisan should get a clear idea of what is meant various sizes. ° by these expressions, and the term Petersburg Stafzdard. 142. Planks are pieces of wood 1 1 inches in width and 2^ or 3 Planks, inches thick, generally sold in lengths of 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, and 21 feet. 143. Deals are pieces of wood 9 inches in width and 2|^ or 3 inches Deals. thick, generally sold in the same lengths as planks. 144. Battens are pieces of wood 7 inches in width and 2i or 3 Battens, inches thick, generally sold in the same lengths as planks or deals. 145. The difference then in timbers of these designations lies in theit Differences width, a fact that can be easily noted and remembered ; timbers, the batten is 7 inches wide, the deal 9 inches wide, and the plank 1 1 inches wide. 146. Boards are pieces of wood that are of less thickness than ^ ^ planks, deals, or battens. Floor boards are, or ought to Boards. . • . ? & be, an inch in thickness. Boards are generally distinguished by their thickness as "half- inch board," ■' three - quarter board," " seven - eights . . , , Fig- 21.— feather-edged board,' etc. Feather - edged boards are boards. boards cut in the manner shown in fig. 21, which is in section, so that Scantling, Quartering, etc. 51 one side of the plank is thick and the other thin. Boards of this de- scription are used in weather boarding, the thin side being uppermost when the boards are nailed to the framing in a horizontal Feather- position. Weather boarding is commenced from the ^ ®^ °^ bottom and carried upward, so that the thick edge of each board overlaps the thin edge of the board that is immediately below it. 147. Scantling is defined as a piece of timber cut or sawn to a small size as for rails, etc., but the term is also generally applied to the dimensions of a piece of timber with regard to its breadth Bcantling. and depth. Thus a scantling may be of any dimensions as regards depth and thickness, and not of regulation sizes as planks, deals, and battens. 148. Laxton says :" Although battens, deals, and planks, formerly comprised almost the entire varieties of goods imported into this country, yet of late years immense additions to these sizes have been introduced, until at the present time almost any scantling re- quired is to be found in the docks, including also, occa- Additional sionally, Dantzic plank and scantling. The advantage ^^^° ° "^ ®'' thus afforded in the saving upon sawing, cartage, and waste is very considerable." 149. Quartering is a term applied to pieces of timber almost square in section, cut from deals or planks, which in fact are quartered or divided into four. Thus, without making allowance for the saw cut, a plank of ii inches wide and 2^ inches thick, can be sawn into quartering measuring 2f in. X 2| in. ; and a deal of 9 inches in width and 2^ inches thick can be sawn into quartering measuring 2^ in. X 2^ in. Quartering is the stuff that the amateur artisan will most frequently use in framing sheds and garden structures, as it is strong enough for all general purposes in putting up buildings, etc., of this description. 150. The Petersburg Standard consists of 120 pieces of timber, 1 2 feet long, 11 inches wide, and i^ inches thick, equal in solid contents to 165 cubic feet. The number of running feet of various Petersburg scantling required to make a Petersburg Standard may ^**^^^'^' ^^• be gathered from the annexed table : — (nches. Feet. ♦ X " 495 4x9 660 3 X II 720 3x9 880 3x7 1.13'i Inches. Feet. .... 864 2| X 9 .... 2i X 7 .... 2j X 6J .... 2 X II .... .... 1,056 -.',357 1,462 .... 1,080 Inches. Feet, i Inches. Feet. 2X9 1,320 I I X II „. 2,160 2x6 i>697 I I X 9 2,640 'i X II 1,440 1x7 3,394 li X 9 1,760 Li X 9 3,520 ij X 7 2.262 ri^ X 7 4,52s There is another standard in use among timber merchants known 52 Household Carpentry and Joinery. as the London Standard, which consists of 120 pieces of timber 12 feet long, 9 inches wide, and 3 inches thick, equal to 270 cubic feet. 151. The facts stated in the following table may prove useful to Pacts useful the amateur in calculating quantities of timber required to amateurs. for any purpose. One load of timber is 200 ft. rj"fir 6 in. X 6 in. Do. 400 ,1 ), 12 ,, li Do. 300 ,, „ 12 Do. 250 ,, ,, 12 Do. 200 „ ig 12 " '1 » 23 II 3 Do. 175 „ „ 12 Do. 150 „ ,, 12 Do. 100 „ „ 12 ,. 3h i> 4 ,, 6 One square is loo feet One square of rough super, flooring conta-ins : — 12^ boards of I2 feet. Or 12^ boards of 12 feet with edges shot. One square of fiooring con- tains : — 13J boards of 12 feet wrought and laid folding. Or 14 boards of 12 feet ploughed and tongued. Or i6§ battens of 12 feet for wrought folding floors. Or 7 yellow battens of n feet for straight joint floor. One hundred of deals = 120 One load of timber=5o cub.ft. Do. 600 feet of inch boards. Do. 17 deals 21 ft. x 3 in. x gin. Do. 18 ,, 20 „ ,, Do. 23 ,, 16 ,, „ Do. 26 „ 14 „ „ Do. 30 „ 12 ,, „ Do. 14 planks 21 ft. x 3in. x 11 Do. IS „ 20 „ „ Do. 18 „ 16 „ „ Do. 21 „ 14 „ „ Do. 25 ,, 12 ,, ,1 152. Further, i8o feet run of 7 inch boards or 190 feet run of 6^ inch boards is reckoned a square ; but this is somewhat over the actual quantity. As a square of boards or timber is 100 feet super., to find Square of the number of feet run of boards of any width, all that boards or timber. is necessary is to divide 1,200 by the width of the board- ing in inches which will give the result desired : thus, if the boards be 6 inches in width, 1,200 — 6 = 200 is the number of feet run required to make a square. 153. The timber used in building is for the most part pine or fir brought from the northern countries of Europe or North America. Whence The wood best adapted for carpenter's work, that is, for building timber ^ _ ^ ' . '. is brought, the timbers required in the framework of a building, comes from the Prussian ports of Dantzic and Memel, the port of Riga in Russia, and from Sweden. The best timber for joiners' work for the interior of buildings comes from the Norwegian ports of Christiania and Drammen ; excellent timber for the purposes of the joiner is also sent from Gothenburg, Gefle, Soderham, and other Swedish ports, and from Onega in Russia. 154. The following advice is given in Laxton's "Builders' Price Book " for the guidance of purchasers of timber : " In selecting timber Selection of the most convenient sizes are 12 inches square. Choose the highest in colour, where the strong red grain appears to rise to the surface ; avoid spongy hearts, porous grain, and dead knots." It has been said that timber cut from baulks is the best and strongest for building purposes, but the quality used should be the "second" or "best middling." The "first" or "crown" quality is selected for its straightness of grain and freedom from knots only. Unfortunately, it is often very sappy and shaky at the heart, on which account a great part of the baulk will often cut up badly. Marks on Timber. 53 155. Timber coming from different ports is distinguished by the special mark or brand that it bears. Generally speaking, timbers from Swedish ports are marked on the ends with red letters or jyTj^^ks on brands ; those from Norwegian ports being marked with timber. i/ue letters. Canadian timber is marked on the ends with d/ack and wM^e letters, while the marks which designate its quality are in red on the edges of the timber near the ends. Russian timber is hammer branded or dry statnped on the ends, that is to say, they are marked with letters about an inch long, dented into the timber by means of a punch and hammer. Sometimes timber is scored with large Arabic numerals, but these figures are merely private marks set on the wood by the exporter to note the yard from which it has been sent. 156. The indications given above, by which the country*from which timber has been sent may be recognised, will be sufficent for the general purposes of the amateur artisan ; and they are mentioned rather for the purpose of showing what such coloured pjg^^^ ^j^^j^^. . or indented letters on timber may mean, than with the '^^^^'^ cornea •' ' shown by the idea that he may benefit much in any way from the infor- marks. mation given. To describe all the marks and letterings by which various qualities of timber from various ports are distinguished would be tedious, and to the amateur practically useless. Timber from Swedish and Norwegian ports is mostly of four qualties, distinguished by different brand marks. Russian timber, and timber from Memel and Dantzic,is also distinguished as " crown," " first quality," " second quality," and " third quality." The following are the " scribe marks" indicating the quality of Memel and Dantzic timber :— MEMEL. DANTZIC. I II III \'\ ^^* \'t First. Second. Third. First. Second. Third. The various letterings used would occupy at least two or three pages of this book, even when closely arranged, and to become able to recognise and remember them must be a work of time and patient study. 157. With regard to the properties and value of timbei from different ports, that from Riga, although it is small, being generally under 13 inches square, is the best in quality, and may Properties always be depended on. It is the dearest timber that is and value of sold ; but, like many other articles that are comparatively different"' high in price, it is the cheapest in the end. Memel timber P^***®^- is convenient in size, being generally about i^yi or 14 inches square. 54 Household Carpentry and Joinery. Dantzic timber is both tolerably large and very strong, being about 1 8 or 19 inches square. When the slad deals or outsides have been cut away, the log that remains of this timber is generally from 14 to 15 inches square. Swedish timber is very tough and cheap, but, as the trees from which it is cut taper greatly, it is apt to run to waste, on account of its irregularity in size. Red pine is especially noteworthy for strength and durability, and may be used anywhere. 158. The red pine deals that the timber merchant speaks of as *' red " deals are called " yellow " deals by the builder, and this may occasion some little confusion to the amateur. They are "y'eUow'"deai."ghtIy called yellow on account of their general colour, but it is equally correct to call them red, on account of the bright red tint of the graining with which they are marked. Yellow deals are dear, but they are strong and durable. For the carpenter's purposes they are excellent. " For framing," says Laxton, " the best deals to be depended on are the Norway, particularly the Christiania battens, and for panelling the Christiania white. The best for floors are the Drammen and Christiania white ; for ground floors, Stockholm and Gefle yellow ; for warehouses and staircases, Arch- angel and Onega planks ; and for best floors, Petersburg, Onega, and Christiania battens. Swedish deals are not to be depended on for framing ; if framed square at night they will be crooked in the morning." The white fir from Christiania, usually known in the English market as white deal, is useful for furniture, as it unites firmly with glue, takes stain well, and is susceptible of a high polish. 159. It is now necessary to pass on to the prices of timber, of which difi'erent kinds are sold in different ways. Thus any kind of pine or fir timber may be bought wholesale by the Petersburg timber. Standard ; but this kind of timber is also sold by the load, as is oak, elm, ash, birch, and teak. Rosewood, again, is sold by the ton, but mahogany, cedar, walnut, maple, and satinwood, by the foot super. Wainscot is sold per 18 feet cube, oak staves, per mille of pipe, and lathwood per cubic fathom. It is impossible to give the prices of all kinds of timber as mentioned and described in Chapter II., and it will therefore be sought to name the prices of those which the amateur is most likely to use or require. For the price of any kind of wood not mentioned application should be made, in the case of any English wood, to a local timber merchant, carpenter, or wheelwright ; and for any foreign or rare wood, to London dealers, whose addresses will be found in the Timber Traded Journal^ pub- lished by Messrs. J. and W. Rider, Bartholomew Close, London, B.C. Prime Cost Prices of Timber per Load. 55 It must be borne in mind that, like all other things that are bought and sold, the prices of timber are variable and fluctuate considerably at times. The prices given in our lists must therefore be considered approximate only, and as subject to slight increase or decrease, as the case may be, according to the fluctuations of the market. Those who may be led to take an interest in this branch of British commerce will find all the information they can desire or require on the subject in the weekly organ of the timber trades mentioned above. 160. We will begin with the prime cost price of various kinds of timber per load, as given in Spon's " Architects', Builders', prime cost and Contractors' Pocket Book," which has been already ^ plr loa^. ^^ quoted as a valuable authority in these pages. Timbers. Riga Fir Dantzic and Memel Crown „ Best Middling . . . . „ Good ditto and 2nd „ Ditto undersized . . „ Ditto small, short and irregular Stettin Swedisii ,, Small Swedish and Norway Baulks Memel Crown Oak „ Brack Dantzic and Stettin Crown Oak From. To. £s. d. £ s. d. 3 10 4 5 4 S 10 3 S 4 10 3 3 IS 2 10 3 2 6 2 10 2 IS 3 10 2 10 2 IS 2 5 2 IS I 16 2 5 5 10 8 5 S 5 10 8 Timbers. Dantzic & Stettin Brack and unsquared American large yellow Pine „ Waney board.. ,, Small „ Oak Pitch Pine Rock Elm Ash Quebec large Birch New Brunswick and Prince Edward's Isle Birch Ditto small averages Indian Teak From. 1 £ s. d. ■5 5 4 3 IS 6 10 3 5 4 S 4 S 4 3 2 10' II To. £s. d. 600 S 10 o SCO 400 700 3 10 o 500 500 4 10 o 3 10 2 IS 13 o 161. When the prime cost of timber per load is known, the rule fbr general use for finding its value per foot cube is as To find value f ■,-, of timber per lOUOWS : — cubic foot from RvLK.—Add^o the price at the yard £i per load for^'^''^'^'''^°''^- sawing and cartmg, and multiply 6% by the number of pounds. This will give the per foot cube, including 20 per cent, for profit and waste. Thus, if the prime cost of American large yellow pine at the yard be £s per load, add £\ for sawing and carting, which makes £6. Then multiply 6Xd. by 6 which gives 3s. 3d. as the value per foot cube, allowing for profit and waste. If the prime cost have any odd shillings take the proportion of 6>^d. for the same, thus if the cost of the pine be £s los., as los. is the half of £1 add one half of 6>^d., i.e., sXd., to the result already obtained, which makes the cost per foot cube 3s. 6Xd. 162. Let us now consider the prices of mahogany and other kinds of wood so\^ per foot super., mentioning by the way that Prices of wood sold by the cost of Bahia rosewood per ton is from ;{^I2 to ;^20, foot super. and of Rio rosewood from £\^ to £2^^ per ton. Wainscot per i8 feet 56 Household Carpentry and Joinery. cube — Riga crown, English, and Dutch — costs from;{^5 15s. to £6 los., and Memel crown from ^4 15s. to £s los. Any laths that the amateur artisan may require he will buy from the timber merchant ready rent in bundles, so it is unnecessary to say anything about the wholesale price of lath wood ; and as it is equally unlikely that he will take to making casks and tubs, the price of oak staves may also be left un- noticed. Timber. From. To. Timber. From. To. Mahogany per foot super. Honduras, cargo average Mexican ,, Tobasco „ Cuba St. Domingo ,, Do. Curls Cedar per foot super. Cuba Honduras and Mexican ... £ s. d. 004: 004; 005 006 006 10 si si £ s. d. 6i si 006 009 009 016 006 006 Australian Pencil Walnut per foot super. Italian Black Sea Canadian Maple per foot super. Bird's Eye Satinvjood per foot super. Bahama £ s. d 3^ 2 4I 005 003 004 007 £ 3.6. 004 004} sJ 007 004 007 010 163. It may be desirable for the amateur artisan to know the whole- sale prices of timber, but it is absolutely necessary for him to become acquainted with the timber merchant's prices for compara- Timber ^ r f mercijant's tively small quantities — which he will purchase at per prices. foot run — of the best dry yellow and white goods for joiner)' and good general work. It is also requisite to know the prices per 120 of battens, deals, and planks for carcassing and rough pur- poses, of dry pine, spruce, oak in scantlings and in thicknesses, floor- and match-boarding, and a few miscellaneous articles often required, such as poles, laths of different kinds, palings, trellis work, etc. 164. Prices of Best Dry Yellow and White Timber, at per Foot run, FOR Good Work. Size and Description. 3 X II Yellow Plank, per foot super. 3x9 ,, Deals zj X 7 „ Battens 3 X II White Plank 3x9 „ Deals tj X 7 „ Battens Good Quality. Common Quality. d. d. 4 to 6 3 >• 4i By multiplying any of the above prices by 12 the prices of planks, deals, and battens per piece of 12 feet in length can be immediately ascertained. Prices of Battens^ etc., Match-boarding. 57 165. Prices of Battens, Planks, and Deals for Ordinary Purposes PER 120. Size and Description. Size and Description. £ s. {, s. ^ s. £ s. B X 7 Yellow Battens per 2 X 10 Yellow Plank per 120 120 as 12 feet ... 10 10 13 10 as 12 feet 16 10 20 10 *[ X 6J 9 10 12 4X9 Yellow Deals as 3 in.... 21 24 21 X 7 „ „ „ 12 10 14 10 3x9 f. » >> 18 22 10 J vx 65 White Battens 9 12 2x9 „ „ „ 14 10 18 2; X 7 „ „ „ 12 10 IS 3x8 „ „ „ 18 21 2X7 .. .. ., 10 10 14 2x8 „ „ „ 13 10 16 10 3 X II Yellow Plank „ 24 30 3x8 White Deals „ 18 21 2 X 11 „ „ „ 19 10 22 10 2x9 „ „ „ 13 10 15 10 166. Prices of Dry Pine and Spruce in Lengths of 12 Feet. Dry Pine. Spruce. ist. 2nd. 3rd. Best Plank 3 by 11 x 12 feet Best Seconds „ Seconds ,, Good Thirds „ Thirds s. d. 10 6 s. d. II 7 6 6 6 4 6 s. d. Spruce Planks 3x11 x 12 feet 6 6 „ Deals 4 6 „ Battens 3 6 s. d. S 6 3 9 3 3 s. d. 4 6 3 3 3 167. Prices of Flooring Boards and Yellow Match-boarding per Square. It will, perhaps, be almost unnecessary to remind our readers that the square is reckoned at lo feet each way, or as comprising loo feet super. The prices are calculated as including the builder's profit ; they are not the timber merchant's prices. Description. ij in. Yellow Flooring Yellow Matching ... Price. s. d. s. d. s. d.js. d. 16 6 18 6 21 o'22 6 14 IS 6 17 6;i8 6 n6 14 6 15 6 16 6 12 6 13 6 14 6 — IS 6 17 618 6 — n6 15 16 6 — 12 6 13 6 14 6 i.Sfi 10 6 II 6 12 6 — Description. Price. ij in. White Matching s. d. s. d. s. d. .I17 6 18 6 20 o .14 015 6 16 6 .|i3 6 14 6 15 6 .12 6 13 6 14 6 .I15 6 17 6 18 6 .113 614 6J15 6 .I12 613 6|i4 6 .10 6 II 6 12 6 s. d. 17 6 Match- boarding. 168. Match-boarding is much used for lining walls, etc., and in London warehouses and buildings for trade purposes takes the place of plastering. One edge of the board as at A is tongued or rebated on both sides so as to leave a narrow slip as shown in the annexed diagram. The other edge of the board is ploughed, the groove B being of the exact depth and thickness of the tongue. Where a number of boards are placed edge to edge the tongue of one fits into the groove of the board next to it, and so on. A bead, as at C, is run along the edge just above the tongue so as to break the ioint : H- "T^ z:CL Fig. 22. match-boarding. 58 Household Carpentry and Joinery. or, in other words, to render the line of demarcation between board and board less conspicuous. The amateur artisan will find match- boarding of the greatest use to him for lining any workshop or shed that he may have put up. 169. Prices of Oak, Wainscot, and Honduras Mahogany at per Foot Super., in Different Thicknesses. Description. Oak— Rough Edges shot Framed Wrought on one side (add.) Ploughed and tongued „ Wainscot a?id Honduras Mahogany- Rough (including waste) Wrought on one side [add.) ... „, ,, ,, both sides „ Ploughed and tongued „ Framed |in, s. d. o 2I o 4i d. o 10 O II 3 5i s. d. i§in 2in. a^in s. d. s. d. s. d. I zjli eji 10 3|i 7|i " 22 10 7 I II 2 7 O 2j:o 2|o 3J o si|o slo si ip ij o 5^0 elo 7 170. The prices given in the above table are, it must be remem- bered, prices at which such materials are supplied by the builder, and the rates at which the labour expended on them is charged, charged by They must not be regarded as the absolute and fixed builders. . ° prices charged by all builders, but as general average prices for materials, or materials and labour combined, supplied by builders. The table itself may require a little explanation. Suppose the amateur wants some oak boarding one inch thick. For this he will have to pay lod. per foot in the rough, but if he wishes to have the edges shot or planed down before the wood is sent home, he will have to pay iid. per foot super. ; and if he desires to have the board wrought or planed on one side, 2d. per foot super, must be added, and the board will stand him in is. id. per foot super., or in is. 2Xd. per foot super., if in addition to this he requires the wood to be ploughed and tongued. 171. In addition to the above prices it may be stated that oak may be procured sawn in scantlings at about 6s. per cubic foot, and in Oak In pl^i^^i sleepers, and bonds for about 6s. gd. per cubic foot ; Boantiings, but this, as will be seen presently, is a high average. Fir may be had sawn in scantlings at about 2s. lod. per foot cube, and at 3s. 3d. ior plates, lintels, bonds, etc. Planing on sawn fir is generally charged from |^d. to id. per foot super. 172. As it will be useful for the amateur to contrast these prices as above given with the prices at which goods of a similar kind are supplied from the timber merchant's yard, we will proceed to give the Timber Merchant's Prices. 59 actual prices as taken from a timber merchant's price list. All work, however, it must be remembered, must bear its profit, and Timber it is utterly unreasonable to suppose that materials of a ^"e^^why similar kind and quality can be obtained from the builder ^b^lev'a^ at the same price at which it can be procured from the P"ces. timber merchant. And the reason for the difference is mainly this. All the work done in the timber merchant's yard, whether sawing, planing, grooving, tonguing, moulding, or any other kind of work, being done on a large scale is effected by means of machineiy, while the work done in the builder's yard is mostly wrought by hand. Work done by machinery can be produced much cheaper than work done by hand ; and even if the builder buys machine-wrought flooring and mouldings and sawn timber to sell again without doing anything to it, he must of necessity sell at an advanced price to get remuneration for, or interest on, his original outlay— just as the retail grocer sells tea, sugar, etc., for more than he pays the wholesale dealer for them to gain compensation for his trouble in acting as middle man between the producer and importer or wholesale merchant, on the one hand, and the consumer, on the other. This has been said in order to show that no one who buys of the builder ought to grumble because the builder charges more for timber, etc., than the timber merchant. 173. The amateur artisan may obtain the times' price of any special wood he may require by making application to Messrs. PERRY AND PUTLAND, 8, Penton Street, Pentofwzlle, London, TV., Prices aa whose stock includes a great variety of foreign and '^^umber''^ English hard woods, in addition to the fir timber of all "^"chants. kinds usually found in the timber merchants' yard. The following items are taken from their ordinary price list : Dry pine plank, from 3s. 6d. per plank, mea- suring 12 ft. X 3 in. X II in. Dry pine plank, 12, 14, and 16 cuts, 5s. 6d., cutting included. Yellow deals, ^Jd. per ft. White deals, 3^6. per ft. Spruce deals, 3s. per deal, measuring 12 ft. 3 in. X 9 in Pitch pine, 6d. per ft. Match linings, 8s. per 100 ft. super. Venetian blind laths, 7s. per 100 ft. super. Mahogany, jd. per ft. in the inch ; that is to say, per i in. in thickness. Birch, 4d. per ft. in the inch. Beech, 2jd. per ft. in the inch. Ash, 4d. per ft. in the inch. B»ttens, ijd. per ft. I Oak stave, 3s. 6d. per length of 6 ft. x Flooring boards, ids. per square ; that is, per 3 in. X 6 in. too .square ft. super. ' 174. These prices may be taken as representing fair average charges for such kinds of timber as the amateur will most fre- prices of quently stand in need of. Messrs. Perry and Putland deals, boards, also supply other cheap but serviceable goods, useful fcr ®*^- general purposes, and especially for framing and the construction of sheds, outhouses, etc. The following are the prices at which some of 6o Household CARPENTRy and Joinery. these goods are supplied. The quotations will be useful to amateurs, generally, in determining the average outlay absolutely necessary for any kind of work, especially out-door work, that they may be contemplating. Common yellow deals, measuring 12 ft x 3 in. X Q in., at sJd. per ft. run, or 3s. 6d. per deal. . Flooring boards, very good. Yellow, \ m. thick, los. per square ; \ in. thick, iis. 6d. per square ; i in. thick, 13s. per square. IVhite, i in. thick, los. per square. Yellow boards, 9 in. broad and i in. thick, at ijd. per ft. run. Match lining or match boarding, as it is in- differently called, i in. thick, 8s. per square ; | in. thick, los. 6d. per square ; and i in, thick, 12s. per square. 175. Messrs. Perry and Putland also have specialities in Venetian blind laths and trellis-wprk, which demand special notice. Venetian Venetian laths blinds are expensive to buy ; but if the amateur can *°work. ° get the laths planed ready for use, they are by no mean-s difficult to make. There are few amateurs, again, who do not re- quire trellis-work at some time or other for their gardens, and as considerable time and labour is involved in its preparation, it is an incalculable saving, both in time and trouble, to purchase it ready- made, especially at so low a rate. The trellis-work is sent out closed up, in pieces of the dimensions given in the table below. The further it is opened out or extended the more it diminishes in height, like the tobacco tongs of the Marquis of Worcester, described in his " Century of Inventions ; " or the child's toy of cross bars pinned together, with the points of the pins projecting upwards, on which figures of soldiers, horses, etc., are placed, and made to alter their relative distances from each other at pleasure by bringing the extremities of the frame work, which are held in the hands, closer together or moving them further apart. 176. The following is the scale of prices charged for blind laths. Blind laths shorter than the lengths specified can be had any length in inches. Per 100 ft. super. s. d. I Per loo ft. super. s. d. Up to 3 ft. o in. in length 80 Best long lengths 10 o „ 4 ft. 6 in. ,, 8 6 Best long lengths, planed and rounded 12 6 ,, 6 ft. o in. ,, 1. 9 o Seconds 8 5 ,, 7 ft. 6 in. ,, , .. 9 6 I Ditto, planed and rounded ic 6 177. The foUowmg are the dimensions and prices oi prepared trellis work, a good idea of which may be obtained from fig. 23. The laths which are used in this trellis-work are lin. wide and yi\n. thick ; it is therefore strong enough for all purposes for which trellis work is ordi- narily used, and all that the amateur has to do is to prepare the framing, and fix it in position. It should be said that the laths are all planed, Timber Merchant's Prices. 6i and will take paint readily. The average price is rather over yd. per foot super., closed. Price, Price, Price, No. Closed. Open. per piece. No. Closed. Open. per piece. No. Closed. Open. per piece. Feet. Feet. s. d. Feet. Feet. s. d. Feet. Feet. s. d. I 2§XlJ I2XI 2 3 6 2JX45 I2X3§ 7 II 2jx8 12x6 12 • „X2 „ X ij 3 7 ., xsi .,X4, 8 12 „x8j „x6j 13 1 .1X3 „ X2 4 4 8 „x6 ,.X4i 9 13 ..X9 ,.X7 14 4 .,X3i 1.X2J 5 2 Q „x6J .,X5 10 ,5. „X4 „X3 6 10 „X7 „X5i II 2 1 1 Wood-fencing. Fig. 23. TRELLIS WORK. 178. It may be that the amateur artisan will require to put up some wood fencing for himself, or desire to have it done for him ; in either case it will be desirable to know the cost of materials. Fencing consists of posts and rails only, or of posts and rails with boards or pales nailed vertically to the rails. Posts and rails may be made of ash, oak, or fir ; the pales are generally of cleft oak, or pales of fir cut in width of 3in. Sometimes pale boards are used. For rough and ready fencing egg-box boards may be used. These may be obtained at cheap rates from Messrs. Nur- j-gg.Doxes for DIN AND PEACOCK, 59-65, Wells Street, Oxford Street, fencing. London, W.C., who will furnish prices on application. The following are the prices of posts, etc., near London ; in the country prices rule lower. 179. The rails, of which the prices are given on next page, are square in section as will be noticed. Arris rails, however, are nearly as strong and as useful, and they possess the advantage of being cheaper. An arris is a section of a V form. Thus a square rail of any dimensions will cut into a pair of arris rails, by sawing it across dia- gonally, from edge to edge, throughout its length, as shown in section in Arris gutters. Again, the gutter some times used to catch the drips from a roof, and shown in fig. 25, is Fig. 24. Fig. 25, ARRIS RAIL. ARRIS GUTTER, fig. 24 62 Household Carpentry and Joinery. called an arris gutter. It is formed by nailing one narrow slip of board along the edge of a somewhat narrower slip as shown in the illustration. When well tarred inside, this kind of gutter, though not ornamental, may be made useful in emergencies, or to serve as a make- shift in out-of-the-way places for something more costly. i8o. Prices of Posts in Oak, Fir, and Ash, and Rails. Posts. Oak. Fir. Ash. In. In. In. In. In. In. in. In. In. In. In. s X4 sxs 6x4 6x5 6x6 SX4 6x4 6XS SX4 6x4 6xs s. d. -s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. .s. d. .s.d. Length , 5 ft. 6 in. .. each 2 3 3 8 5 2 2 6 4 2 2 3 3 4 7 „ 6 ft. o in. » 2 S 4 o 3 " S 7 6 6 2 2 2 Q 4 4 2 5 3 7 5 I „ 6 ft. 6 in. 2 7 4 3 6 I 2 4 3 4 7 2 8 3 II S 8 » 7 ft. o in. „ 2 lO 4 t> 4 t> 7 7 b 2 7 3 3 4 " 3 4 3 6 3 M 7 ft. 6 in. „ 3 I 4 9 7 I 3 3 6 5 2 3 4 4 « 6 9 »» 8 ft. o in. „ 3 6 5 li 5 I 7 7 8 6 3 4 3 10 5 b 3 8 .■; 7 5 „ 8 ft. 6 in. n 4 3 5 t 8 2 3 9 4 2 9 9 4 S 4 8 2 „ 9 ft. o m. „ 4 II 6 8 6 3 8 10 9 « 4 4 4 6 6 2 4 6 5 .S 9 „ 9 ft. 6 in. „ S P 7 9 8 5 .5 3 6 9 S 5 10 9 9 >t lo ft. o in. •• 6 6 8 II S 2 6 7 10 5 6 6 6 10 6 In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. Rails. 3x3 4x4 5x5 3XS 4x4 5XS iX3 4x4 sxs .s. d. .s. d. s. d. .s. d. .s. d. s. H s. d s d s d Length 8 ft. o in. . .. each I 9 2 3 2 II I 6 2 2 5 I 7 2 2 10 „ 8 ft. 6 in. „ 2 2 6 3 2 I 9 2 3 2 8 I 10 2 3 3 3 „ 9 ft. o in. ,, 2 ^ 2 Q 3 6 2 2 6 2 II 2 2 2 6 3 6 „ 9 ft. 6 in. ,, 2 8 3 2 4 2 * 4 2 9 3 ? 2 6 7 10 3 " >i lo ft. o in. „ 3 3 9 4 10 2 8 3 3 t 2 10 3 6 4 6 181. As it has been said, pales, cleft pales, or pale boards may be used to complete the fencing. When park paling of cleft pales is made, it is usual to place a board technically called a gravel board at the bottom from post to post. In fig. 26, which shows a piece of park paling, a is the post, B B, B B arris rails, C C the gravel board, D D cleft-pales nailed to the arris rails, and E the capping. Oak rails, Oak arris rails 9 feet long pales, capping, ^ ^ , , , and gravel cost 5s. DQ, and ID feet boards. j^^^^^ ^^ ^^ p^^ p^^^^ ^^ thereabouts. Cleft pales cost, accord- ing to length, 6s. 3d. per score if 4 feet long ; 7s. 3d., 5 feet long ; and 9s., 6 feet long. Pale boards are also ^'^- 26. park paling. priced according to length, each being as follows ; 3ft. 6in., 5^d. ; 4ft. oin., 6id. ; 4ft. 6in., 8d.; 5ft. oin., gd.; 5ft. 6in., lod. ; 6ft. oin., is. Oak capping costs about 2s. 9d. per dozen feet, and gravel boards according to thickness, rough i^in. board costing, when of Dantzic fir, about 6^d. per foot super., and of oak, is. per foot super. 182. Of miscellaneous articles, poles, such as are used for scaffolding Scaffold Poles, Slating Laths, Poles, etc. 63 Slating laths. Small pales. and which the amateur may sometimes require, as, for instance, when he wishes to put up a flag staff, cost from 3d. to 3id. per Bcaffoid foot new, but poles of 22 feet in length may be bought poles, for 3s. each. Slating laths cost from 3s. 6d. to 4s. per bundle of each 12 feet long, pantile laths of the same length and the same number in the bundle, at from 2s. to 2s. 6d. per bundle. Trellis laths, 12 in a bundle, and 12 feet long, cost 2s. 6d. per bundle. It is better, however, to buy treUis ready made, it is sup- plied at the rate of 7d. per super., when closed up in heights vary- ing from i^ feet to 8 feet, with a width of 2\ feet opening out to 12 feet in width. Pales which are useful for many purposes, especially in making small enclosures and fences, fowl- houses, etc., measuring 3 inches in width and f inch in thickness, are sold for 13s. per hundred, or rather 120, when 4 feet high, and for 14s, per 1 20 when 4 feet 6 inches high. 183. It has been said that the preceding prices have been given on the aathority of Laxton's " Price Book," and Spon's " Pocket Book of Prices and Memoranda." The following prices of timber ° ^ Authorities in scantlings per foot cube, and for boards and planks per for prices. foot super., for wood good enough for the general purposes of joiners' work, are taken from the former. It may happen that some slight discrepancy may be found here and there in prices as stated for the same article, but it must be remembered that all prices are, and can only be, given approximately, and that difference in quality will often cause apparent discrepancy in price. 184. Prices of Timber in Scantlings per foot cube Dantzic, Riga, Memel, or Red Pine, per foot cube Ditto Second quality Yellow Pine Quebec do. for boards ... Swedish, Drammen, and Norwegian s. d.] [Elm or Beech , lAsh 2 loQuebec Oak 3 6: English Oak, not ex 2 71 ceeding 6in. X 6in 5 o African Teak 3 o; In Scantlings not exceed- .Indian Teak I ing 10 ft. X 8in. X Sin. 5 3 Mahogany, upwards 2 6l 8x8 5 6 from s. d.i 4 Oi lOX 10 4 4. 12 X 12 4 o Old ship oak, upwards I from s. d. 5 9 £ o 185. Cost of Boards and Planks per foot super., including Sawing and Delivery. ^ ■ ox ■^ SS j~ V H = an s d. s. d. !"• 2J 3* * » 4i 8 ai„ si 9J ;^ M - >> 5 M .- u ^ '' X s s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. 7 I 10 I 12 I 6 9 T I 6 2 II » J I loj 2 6 ox 'C O < rt 5! 1.2 rt C M ijin. 2 ,, 3 .. s. d. ; O Ilji d. 2i I 2 I I 6 I 7 I I 10 I 10 i 2 I s. d. s. d. s. d. 2 3'3 o 3 0,4 o 3 95 o 4 66 o 64 Household Carpentry and Joinery. 186. The foot cubic, being 12 inches every way and containing 1728 cubic inches, is equivalent to a board 12 feet long, 12 inches broad, and Foot cube I inch thick ; or to a scantling 12 feet long, 4 inches broad, *^ lelrts!^* and 3 inches thick. Mention of this is made to show how easy it is to reduce timber of any dimensions to cubic feet for the purpose of ascertaining its cost at per cubic foot. The rule for ascertain- vaiueoftim- ^"o the value oi timber per /ooicudic, when the prime cost oublo^how°c> '^ known, has been already given (See Section 161). The determine, following is a rule, modified from that given by Laxton, for ascertaining the price per /ooi super, for deal, to mclude 20 per cent, profit, when the prime cost, per 120 delivered, is given. Rule. — For the price per foot super, i inch in thickness, reckofi |d. for every £s 0/ the cost of the deals per 120. To the result obtained, for any other thickness add or deduct id.per foot for every \ ifich varia- tion up to and iticbiding \\ inches, and above \\ inches fd. for every \ inch variatioft. Example. — Thus if deals be ^35 per 120, deal i inch thick will be 3id. per foot super. ; and if ^40, 4d. per foot super. And if i inch deal be 4d. per foot super., \ inch will be 2d. ; \ inch, 3d. ; \\ inch, 5d. ; \\ inch, 6d. ; if inches, 6|d. ; 2 inch, 7id. ; 2| inch, 8^d. ; 2\ inch, 9d. ; and 3 inch, io|d. 187. To the prices already given for timber at prime cost,and from the timber merchant, there is little to be added that can be of actual impor- tance to the amateur artisan. When he knows the approxi- of°price3 ^ mate prices of timber at per load and in small quantities, the '^^'^for^'^'^ cost of sawing into scantlings, which is done in the timber amateur, merchant's yard, the cost of planks, deals, and battens, and various kinds of wrought timber (prepared by machinery for the most part, if not entirely) which is also supplied by the timber mer- chant, he knows all that is really necessary for any kind of work that he may contemplate. If he have time to plane up Planing up ■' ^ . . timber. his timber for himself, being possessed of sufficient skill and having had sufficient practice to do so, he will not require any assistance in sawing and rough planing beyond that which is done in the timber-yard. Many, however, will want help in planing up wood ; and we can say from experience that it is an easy matter, wherever a man may be living, to find a jobbing carpenter who will fobbing" readily do work of this kind for a comparatively trifling carpenter, j-gmungration — who will, in fact, take the wood that \ic^ been cut up by the amateur mechanic in the necessary lengths and return it to him nicely planed for further operations. Such a course ScA^'TL[NG : Application of Term, etc. 65 cannot fail tc be serviceable alike to the skilled amateur, who is debarred by lack of time from doing as much in this way as he other- wise might, and to the unskilful beginner who, whether he have time enough for the work or not, is actually unable through want of know- ing how, or by not having had sufficient practice, to do that in which he seeks the aid of the jobbing carpenter. The cost of such assistance may be estimated at from ^d. to id. per foot super., according to the quantity of work done, but if the amateur pay even twice as much, especially for small jobs, he will find it well worth his while. It does not take very long, it is true, to plane up a piece of wood, but then again it must be remembered that most amateurs have but a limited amount of time to spend in work of this kind, and the preparation of the timber to be used tends to postpone the time of completion — the time which all amateurs so earnestly desire to reach, when engaged on any job, be it what it may — very considerably, and thereby tries the worker's patience. This will be more perceptible in large jobs than in small ones, as a matter of course, as may be readily seen by any amateur artisan who will take the trouble to measure any set of book shelves of ordinary make that he may happen to have in his possession, and reckon up how many feet super, have to be planed up — both in the shelves themselves and in the sides or supports by which the shelves are sustained. Those who have plenty of time at their disposal need not recur to the aid of the jobbing carpenter as often as those who have not, but should endeavour to carry out the work honestly themselves from the commencement to the finish. Indeed all amateurs should be able to plane up a board nicely, although they may not often find time to do their own planing. 188. It will be remembered that the term samtlmg is applied to timbers of all varieties of dimensions as regards depth and thickness. The tables in pp. 66, 67, will be found useful in facilitating Scantling : the reckoning of the cost of lengths of different scantlmgs, application according to the price of timber, at 3s. and 3s. 6d. per foot cube. These prices are taken because they approximate closely to the general prices of timbers per foot cube, and they are, moreover, the rates at which these calculations are made in Spon's and Laxton's price books. To find the cost of any scantling of any dimensions given in the tables, first find the price per foot run in either table, and multiply this by the number of feet in the scantling. For example. It appears from Table II. that the cost of a scantling, 4 inches broad and 4 inches deep, per foot run is 4id. If then the length of the scantling be 12 feet, its cost will be 4^4d. x 12 = 4s. gd. S 66 Household Carpentry and Joinery. « "0 VO in O rin H O HN ■«■ VO H M 1^ 0\ HN o HC» HN w CO ■<- « N « VO HN Ov O H M T •dm M O o 00 o o '■Ki H M .-THI VO 00 Ov : Hft HN O « CO « N « HN VO P>* H4 fjv O s in o O SCHi ev o H rK4 ntHI O -I VO H HC» M H HN P>if H^ M N HN H* VO n o u O CO Ov O ~tT Hn c*f « VO Oi 0m M « M C« HN VO VO HN ■V in u) VO o OO i-W HN " O O H M H HN M VO 00 HHI HN COM OV O M c« l-f-JI HN VO •o'ij in O VO 00 o. O o « H VO H 00 C3V M H H H KM « 1? HN HN o. M 1" HN M -S" F«l „ ■d ■«■ w VO o CO Oi H « M M CO * « VO t^ M M M 00 Ov - in o VO o CO c^ o o HN H4 O M M M ^ H* c< -» m VO H M M v6 H t^ 00 O e*. in VO o OO 00 o< o HN HN "IT N to CO V ■tS VO H'* «■ Oi ■d-S O MM- o VO 1^ 00 0\ C3V HN HN O -g" " « T? -?; "? « VO VO VO -a m « o o VO o r-H HO* VO tv 00 c^ o Ov O HN O M 1? T 1? M M M to H M •K VO rr* -dl? in m o ■"I- o HIS VO tx t^ CO ov HN o o MOM M M M* HN CO W-* HN ^ •d-s- ■n trhr l-m ■«• O TIMI HP! lO VO H?l CO O 00 di o °2 "s* ° M H?l H* nm n M to •d1? ui o o -*» JIM o H4 0>* VO VO o 00 HN 00 o Ov -s r r GOO H4 O HN - HN ■«- •d " in o r4TI O O HN m VO o n VO HCI CO o HN HN OO Ov C3V COO O HN O o HN »*1 lA O o to o o HC1 O H* o o 'vO HS HN t^ CO 00 trhf H-« o o 6 ,. •u " '" CO o -+* HN VO vd ^ "fJ O O t^ 00 o H-* 00 O ov Hn .H-f •a « in O o H-jl o r*1 O c< "ro O HN nwi O H^ o H-J M-ll lO « VO O VO VO o o H* HN o " 1 :•: o o CO o >o H* VO HN VO o VO o s! n f*1 c. - Hn ir, VO s- t^ HN 00 H?l HN 00 Oi ov o d 2 HN M M Cost of Scantlings at 35. 6d. per Foot Cube. 67 •0 t^ T« f-CT ■+* rM H« -«• CWI HW H* JIM HCI rM H-1 00 w (I N UI r~ »f -w CM r+* HCI 0* -» -r> rH TJ \0 t^ M w ^ 1^ " u H " " « " M " " « " N « CI « ti CO CO -w p»* 1? mlHi rl^ HCT HO H^ H^ «*» »« r "C 10 M H w M " " H " " •" M "* « M M « « M v «^ r^* -+♦ nw »-•:» .*l Hn _^ Jim H* nw HCI n 00 CO "1 Vtl H •^ HI M u " " « " M M ►> ►" N C) M " « « f. Cl -«■ MW HN rW rm HO n* HCI H^ Vh» -PI .„ ui M M M M - » M M M M C< M M « « c. •-W -*» HN p>* HO C»* Hr> HY HCI Hf 1*1 •a 10 t^ V-N Ov ui M M M - - M » Ht « « PI .1 CI c. r«« nw ^ HCI »* ro ■* HCI VO t> 1? T W 0« CO 9M 10 ^ M fl M - M ^ M M M « « « CI « c. . M-ll nw H* HN nw nm -w HCI <*f IC''« T3> t^ rr 00 u) M « " M - 1 M W " " « c c, '. H* -W HCI HCI HCq vw n^ H-t H t^ uj M » - « H H H H» w " « « CI w W -«• 1? _^ -«^ H* HN Hn HO HCI HCI r«*l h:i r"l -0 .«• b* ^0 » » « » - » M M - " " c. •o'm w* "n r HC4 H« l-n Hn Hn "Q H Ho r~ 00 o> vt ui M M « M M M M M M " " -» liM HN H« H< nni RW Hn -H' COM- -*^l r HC1 ■0 m ♦ >o t^ UJ IH ^ ^ '■' '" " "' 10 " m - " " " - " " -^ _"_ Kl Of HC1 H« H-D CM HN h:i -n m •0 m en •«• iO VO r^ 00 o< M » " ro ■' '.1 M " " " " " H " " . (f -M- HCq ■*& HM KW HM c** J-f rw t«i •d M ro ■«• ■<■ u, VO vu t^ 00 00 M ^ " " '' *"' "' ui " " " " " " p»* -** p*# r>f H* HCI m* -H- (114 H«fl ■«• ■d« m CO ■<- -* ■^ u> >o t^ c^ CO 00 " " in " " HI " rt* _^ nt* «*f Her. : Maple (Bird's eye), thin, 3s., thick, 12s. ; Rosewood, thin, 5s., thick, 14s. ; Walnut, thin, 5s. ; Mahogany, figured knife cut, 14s., plain, 4s. to 6s. ; Birch, figured knife cut, I2s., plain, 4s. 197. Bearwood, appiewood, sycamore, lime, etc., may be obtained, generally speaking, from any timber merchant, but the buyer must be content to pay the timber merchant's own price, as quotations for these timbers are not given in the organs of the timber and building trades. As pearwood and appiewood are useful for purposes in which a close grain is required in the timber used, and the heart-wood of the plum is heavy, comparatively speaking, and useful in turning ; it is desirable for the amateur to buy a log or two when he may happen to have the opportunity, and stow it awav in some corner of his work- shop. He will find in this, as well as in regard to many other things, that " store is no sore." 198. As the addresses of various timber merchants resident in the metropolis have been given, it maybe useful to our readers, especially such as may live in the north of England and merchantB in , , , ^ ^- X 1 .1 1 I varionB parttu the eastern and western counties, to have the addresses of others in these parts of the country, to whom they may apply for 70 Household Carpentry and Joinery. any hind of wood that cannot be obtained of any local timber merchant in their immediate neighbourhood. Messrs. J. H. Skinner and Co., Timber Merchants, East Dereham, N'orfolk, have always on sale the following timber, either in the tree or plank : — holly, lime-tree, sycamore, horn-beam, pear-tree, apple-tree, chestnut, walnut, yew- jree, thorn, cherry, willow, beech, larch, ash, alder, birch, poplar, and every other description of English timber. Messrs. Joseph Smith AND Sons, English and Foreign Timber Merchants, Sheffield, are Ijuyers of, dealers in, and converters of every description of English and foreign timber ; also of fancy woods, as mahogany, rose- wood, ebony, cedar, walnut, maple, satinwood, etc. Messrs. Webb AND Spring, Eblcy, and Ryeford Saw Mills, Stroud, Gloucester- shire, who are Ijuyers and converters of all kinds of English timber, have saw mills in Dorsetshire and Devonshire as well as in Glouces- tershire, and would give any information that might be required respecting any kind of timber that would come within their operations. 199. fn addition to these addresses others in various localities can be obtained as it has been already stated, from the advertising pages of the Timber Trades' yournal. It may be thought that we a?racie8' have exceeded the mark rather than otherwise in pointing out timber merchants from whom the less common kinds of ti)nl)cr may be procured. Those, however, who have found the diffi- culty of procuring perhaps even a piece of apple or pear wood from local timljer merchants, will approve of the special information thus aflforded. 200. Of late years the high rate of wages paid to mechanics, and the excessive charges in consequence of this for English-made joinery, have led to the introduction of doors, sashes, and other Joinery, doors, kinds of jomer s work from Sweden. These articles, sashes, etc. ... ,, , , • ,- , 1 which are well worth the attention of the amateur, and which will save him much labour, to say nothing of disappointments arising through failing to turn out the work in sufficiently good style, are supplied by Ekman's Mechanical Joinery Company, ;i^, Wharf Road, City Road, London, N., who also keep an infinite variety of mouldings, useful for joinery generally speaking, and a numlj^r of ornamental purposes which will readily suggest them- selves. This company also supply useful ready-made fencing and trellis work, architraves, skirtings, jamb-linings, door frames, single rebated and beaded, and floor and match-boarding of several dimensions. 201. An immense variety of mouldings of difterent kinds are used in the building trade, far greater, indeed, than any one might imagine McuLDiNGS : Their Uses and Prices. 71 Fig. 27. EXAMPLES OF MOULDINGS. They are used for all sorts of purposes, as, for example, within the panels of doors, at the top of skirting boards when the boards are not finished with either moulding or beading, round the frames of doors 72 Household Carpentry and "joinery. and windows, as sash bars for the reception of glass, beading, and in window frames to keep the sashes in place when being moved up and down. In the preceding page (fig. 27) patterns in section their uses and of various forms of mouldings supplied by Ekman'S Me- pnoes. CHANICAL JOINERY COMPANY are given, the numbers attached to them being those by which they are distinguished in their list. The prices of those which are figured are as follows, per 100 feet. No. s. d. No. s. d. No. s. d. No. s. d. No. s. d. No. s. d. No. s. d. No. s. d, 4 ... 9 o|i2 ...3 417 ... 4 929 ••• 5 4|S4 ••• 8 7I103 ... 2 11J128 ... 6 71214... 5 & 5 ... 6 10 13 ... 3 726 ...12 743 ... 8 771 ...13 5108... 5 4210... 6 7218... I 9 9 ... I 9 14 ... 3 11 27 ... 10 5 45 ... 4 1 76 ... 2 II 126 ... 3 io!2ii ... 4 1 221 ... 2 4, II ... 4 I 15 ... 2 528 ... 7 247 ... 3 io|ioi... 5 4I127... 9 1I212 ... 5 8|222 ... a 9 202. All the large mouldings may be used for nailing to the inner face of window frames, and the outer and inner faces of door frames. Nos. 17, 29, and 108 would be large and bold enough for Directions re- , . - spectinguse this purpose for amateurs: the smaller moulds, such as of mouldings. .. . . , , ^ , . , ^ . , Nos. 14 and 15, are suitable for edgmg the framing of panels of doors formed by the styles and rails. Nos. 210, 211, 212, and 214, are rebated or rabetted for the reception of glass, and maybe used as sash bars or for the bars of window frames. Nos. 221 and 222 are bold headings, suitable for the capping of m.atch-boarding, carried part way up a wall from the flooring, etc., and No. 218 may be used as a beading or as the slip placed on either side of a window frame, to confine the sashes to their proper place. 203. Ekman'S Mechanical Joinery Company supply many other articles in wrought timber, that is to say, ready for immediate use, which the amateur will find to be most useful to wrou^t him, because he is saved the time and labour involved in im er. ^j^gij- preparation if he makes them himself. It will be as well to mention them seriatim, giving as far as possible, in each case» the limits of dimensions from the smallest size sold to the largest, and the prices in accordance therewith. The amateur can then easily arrive approximately at the price of any intermediate size he may require, or he will be supplied with it on application to the makers. 204. Architraves from 3in. broad and iin. thick to 6iin. broad and i^in. thick, at from 7s. 8d. to 26s. id. The prices Architraves. ^^^^ given, except where otherwise stated, or for articles ./hich cannot be sold thus, are stated at per looft. run. 205. Skirtings from 4^in. broad and |in. thick to i4ia Bkirtinga. ^^^^^ ^^^ ^.^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ g^ j j^. to 24s. 6d. 206. Jamb-linings, double and single rebated, beaded jamb-UningB. ^^^ gquare edges, from 4iin. broad and lin. thick, to 6iin. broad and ijin. thick, at from los. 6d. to 26s. Doors of all Kinds: Bolection Mouldings. 73 207. Door frames, single rebated and beaded, s^in. by 3^in., at 38s. 6d., and 4iin. by 3in. at 26s. 5d. DoorPrames. 208. Floor boards and Match boards of various „ ^ ^ Floor DoajaB dimensions, according to thickness. Prices of these have and matcii ' ° . boards. been mentioned approximately in previous sections. 209. Sashes and Frames for windows can be had of any size and description made to ordei at from 8d. to lod. per foot gagheBand Frames. super. 210. Doors are of various prices according to description and make. Outside front noORS—Six pane/s—v/iih bolection mould- ing one side, 6ft. loin. high, 2ft, loin. broad, and 2in. thick, Q^.gj^^ ^^^^ at from 19s. 3d. to 21s. gd. ; and 7ft. high, 3ft. broad, and doom's. 2in. thick, at from 20s. 4d. to 22s. lod. If finished with large bolection, add IS. to IS. 6d. to price of doors. Four panels, with bolection moulding one side, 6ft. loin. high, 2ft. loin. broad, and 2in. thick, at from 17s. 7d. to 20s., and 7ft. high, 3ft. broad, and 2in. thick, at from 18s. 6d. to 20s. lid. From Qd. to is. must be added to the price of tlje doors for large bolection moulding. 211. The term bolection will perhaps require explanation. In figs. (J f. c 28 and 29 A represents the frame of a door <^^^|f^.' ""." "^ j on one side of a panel, and B the panel. If 6 p; J the mculdmg does not project Fig. 28. MOULDING. beyond the face C C of the frame, mouidingB, as D in fig. 28, it is simply de- '^^^^l °' scribed as a moulding ; but if it projects beyond the face of the framing, ^^^^ -^ making a narrow projecting framing between Fig. 29. BOLECTION , ^ , 1 •, , J ^ / MOULDING. the frame of the door and the curved part of the moulding, it is described as a bolection moulding. The origin of the word is uncertain, but it is apparently to be traced to the root from which comes bole, the rounded stem of a tree, and the word belly; and this is the more likely when it is considered that the moulding thus designated is one that bulges out and projects forward beyond the face of the work. 212. Inside doors.— Fti^r panels, square, that is to say, when the edge of the framing projects at right angles from the face of the panel, from 6ft. Sin. to 7ft. high, aft. Sin. to 3ft. broad, and •^ ' , - , ^ , . Inside doors. 2in. thick, at from lis. 6d. to 12s. 7d. ; from 6ft. 6in. to 6ft. loin. high, 2ft. 6in. to 2ft. loin. broad, and i|in. thick, at from 8s. 3d. to 9s. 4d. ; and from 6ft. 4in. to 6ft. 7in. high, 2ft. 4in. to 2ft. 7in. broad, and i^in. thick, at from 6s. 7d. to 7s. i:d. If moulded on 74 Household Carpentry and Joinery. one side, add from lod. to is. 3d., and if on both sides, from is. 8d. to 23. 6d. to the price of the doors. Four panels, bead and butt, and bead and flush, that is to say, when one side of the panel is flush with the framing, the vertical edges of the panel being broken by a bead, from 6ft. Sin. to 7ft. high, 2ft. Sin. to 3ft. broad, and 2in. thick, at from 17s. to 19s. 6d. ; from 6ft. 6in. to 6ft. Sin. high, 2ft. 4in. to 2ft. Sin. broad, and i^in. thick, from los. 5d. to lis. lod. If moulded, add from is. to IS. 3d. to the price of the doors. 213. Sash doors, that is to say, doors with glass in the upper part. Without shutters, from 6ft. gin. to 7ft. high, 2ft. gin. to 3ft. broad, and 2in. thick, at from 14s. 4d. to i6s. 3d. ; from 2ft. 6in. Sash doors. to 6ft. loin. high, 2ft. 6in. to 2ft. loin. broad, and i^m. thick, from 11. 6d. to 13s. gd. With shutters, from 6ft. gin. to 7ft. high, 2ft. gin. to 3ft. broad, and 2in. thick, at from 19s. 3d. to 20s. 4d. ; from 6ft. Sin. to 6ft. loin. high, 2ft. Sin. to 2ft. loin. broad, and i^in. thick, from 17s. 4d. to iSs. 8d. 214. Fencing in lengths of gft., with one foot included if 4ft. in height, 13s. 6d. per length, and if 3ft. 6in. high, i is. per length. Extra Fencing and foot, to complete length, according to height of fence^ treuis work, q^^^^ foj. j-j^jg j^jnd of fencing can be supplied at moderate rates in accordance with any design that may be furnished. Trellis WORK, which, as it has been said, is most useful to the amateur when sold in lengths ready for fixing, can be had in heights varying from 3ft. 6in. to gft. at the rate of 7d. per foot super, when closed up. CHAPTER IV. THK TOOLS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY •. THEIR CLASSIFI- CATION ACCORDING TO THEIR USES. Tools used in Carpentry and Joinery — Wood-working Machinery— Costly and almost useless to Amateur— Cheap Planing-machine desirable — Classification of Tools — Hammers— Joiner's Hammers— Claw Hammer — American Adze-eye Hammer — Prices of Hammers— Uses of Hammers — Mallets — Beetle and Wedges— Adze and its uses— Axe or Hatchet— English Hatchet— American Axe— Tools should be kept under lock and key— Rasping Tools— Saws : their nature and operation — Circular Saws — Cross-cut Saws — Saws required by Amateur — Hand Saw— Combination Saw — Tenon Saw— Dovetail Saw and Sash Saw— Keyhole Saw— Bow or Frame Saw —Rasps for Wood— Files for Metal- Various forms of Files— Paring Tools, or Edge Tools— Planes necessary to Amateur -Jack Plane, its construction and action— Smoothing Plane— Trying Plane— Difficulty to Amateurs in using Plane — Bailey's Patent Adjustable Bench Planes— Stanley's Patent Adjustable Planes— Moulding Planes, etc., not re- quired by Amateur — Rabbet or Rebate Plane — Old Woman's Tooth — Fillisters of various kinds — Spokeshave— Drawing-knife — American Iron Spokeshaves — Chisels and Gouges — Chisels, how distinguished — Firmer Chisels — Mortise Chisels— Turning Chisels— Gouges— Cold Chisels— Prices of Chisels and Gouges — Chisels and Gouges required by Amateur— Boring Tools — Bradawls : their varieties — Gimlets : their varieties — Cost of Bradawls and Gimlets — Augers : their varieties — Prices of Augers — Bits, Braces, and Drills — Patent Breast Drill — Bit- brace, or Stock and Bit — Modern Iron Brace — Barber's Patent Bit Brace — Angular Bit Stock— Bits for Brace — Prices of Bits — Clarke's Patent Expansive Bit — Douglass' Cast Steel Bits— Holding or Grasping Tools —Pincers and Pliers — Flat Pliers — Cutting Nippers — Round-nosed Pliers — Spring Pliers, for Fly making, etc. — Utilisation of Packing Cases, etc. — Causes of damage to Tools — Victor Nail Puller— Wrench, or Spanner — Vices necessary to Amateurs — Ordinary Hand-vice — Bench Vice — Patent Vices — Improved Hand-vice — Tools of Guidance and Direction — The Line and Reel — How to use the Line — Carpenter's Rule — Square and Bevel — Hardened Try Square and Flush T Bevel — Ames' Patent Universal Square — Marking Gauge — Mortise Gauge — Levels : their principle — Spirit Level — Method of applying Level to Long Lengths — Requirements for accurate Levelling — Level positively accurate for own length only— Useof Straight-edge in levelling — Plumb Level— Plumb Bob — Use of Plumb Level in fixing Posts, etc. — The A Level, or Bricklayer's Level — American Spirit Levels— Stanley Levels — Adjustable Plumb and Level — Prices of Common Levels— Mitre Box — Construction, etc., of Mitre Box or Block — Improved American Mitre Box — Compasses and Callipers — Compasses with Arc — Callipers — Calliper Rules and Squares — Stanley's Ivory Calliper Rules — Miscellaneous tools used in Carpentry— The Screwdriver — Round- bladed Screwdrivers — American Cast Steel Screwdriver — Nail Punch, or Brad Punch— Reamer, or Rymer— Cramp, or Clamp— Joiner's Cramp — Hammer's 76 Household Carpentry and Joinery. Adjustable Clamp— Simple Clamp, that can be made by Amateur— Carpent ir'3 Pencil— Pencil often mislaid— Glue-pot— Construction of Glue-pot- Recipe for making Glue -Brush for applying Glue— Oil-can— Forms of Oil-can— " Good- enough " oiler— Sandpaper, or Glasspaper— Tools in combination— Boardman's Combination Wrench— Pads, or Patent Too^handles with Tools— Handles for various tools— Tack -hammer, Setter, and Puller— Articles for fastening pieces of Wood together— Wooden Pegs and Treenails— Pegging Mortise and Tenon- Wedges in Tenon— Nails : their varieties— Brads— Joiner's Cut Brads— Floor Brads— Cut Nails— Clasp Nails— Rose Nails— Clout Nails— Iron Nails unfit for nailing Zinc— Lath Nails— Iron Tacks and Tench Tacks and Nails— Prices of Nails— Screws : their forms— Principle of the Screw— Prices of Screws— Round- headed Screws— Brass Screws— Holes for reception of Screws— Greasing Screws before driving— Bolts and Nuts— Female Screw— Where to get Good Nails, etc, — Tool-boxes for Amateurs. 215. After considering the various kinds of wood that are commonly used in Carpentry and Joinery, the prices at which these woods are sold by the timber merchant and the builder, and the various articles that may be had partly wrought or entirely finished from the timber merchant, we pass naturally enough to a review of the tools Tools twed in carpentry that are used in the various operations that are performed and Joinery. by the carpenter or joiner by hand. There is a large variety of wood-v/orking machines used in the preparation of wood for the carpenter's or joiner's purpose ; but little need be said about these, as, with very few exceptions, they are beyond the province of the amateur. Machinery facilitates production in large quantities, and this the amateur artisan does not need or expect to do. At the utmost he will do but little, comparatively speaking, and that little he should do well and in a workman-like manner. 216. Wood-working machinery comprises circular and band saws of considerable size, driven by great power, for cutting baulks of timber into planks, deals, battens, and scantlings of various working dimensions, and for cutting planks, etc., into boards and ery. qyg^^^gj-jjjg 'j-jjgj.g ^j.g g^jgQ pj^^^j^g-machines, for taking off the rough surface from sawn wood ; machines for making mouldings ; dove-tailing machines ; tenoning and trenching machines ; mortising machines, and others for boring and making slots in timber. These „ ,, ^ are all costly, and, with few exceptions, would be actually Costly and jjj r ? almost useless useless to the amateur artisan. What is very much to amateurs. required is a compact and tolerably cheap planing- machine, available for such purposes as come within the ordinary , , work of an amateur : the cheaper, as far as is compatible Cheap planing- inaohinede- with jroodness, the better. It is also desirable that he Birable. ^ ' ..,.,, should have such an arrangement of his ordinary bench as may be calculated to render it available for the use of cir- Classification of Tools. 77 cular saws with teeth of various sizes, from one sufficiently coarse to cut a three-inch plank into quartering or laths, to a fine plate furnished with teeth small enough to cut tenons and dove-tailing. With such helps to sawing and planing in connection with his car- penter's bench, the amateur would find much work that he now does with difficulty comparatively easy. Of the circular saw adaptation mention will be further made when speaking of the bench. The amateur's cheap planing-machine has yet to be made. Descriptions of such have been given occasionally, and hints for the construction of these machines ; but the instructions have proved either unintelligible or impracticable. 217. The able author of "The Amateur Carpenter," the late Mr. Ellis A. Davidson, who during his life rendered by his technical works considerable and valuable aid to the amateur and the regular artisan, describes the tools used in carpentry in groups as follows, namely, " Striking tools, saws, cutting tools, planes, boring ciassifioation tools, pincers, guides, and auxiliary appliances." It seems possible however to render the classification even more com- plete by the following arrangement : — I. Striking Tools. 1. Tools that a7'e used for striking ojtly, as Hammers ami Mallets. 2. Tools that are used for strikijtg and cutting, as Hatchets, Axes, Adzes, etc. II. Rasping Tools, or Tools that act by abrasion. 1. Saws of all kinds, for cutting wood asunder. 2. Rasps and Files, for smoothing, shaping, cutting, etc., etc. III. Paring Tools of all kinds. 1. Planes of various kinds, for smoothing, moulding, etc, 2. Spokeshaves and Drawing-knives. 3. Chisels and Gouges. IV. Boring Tools. 1. Bradawls, Gimlets, and Augers. 2. The Braces and Bit, sometimes called Stock and Bit. V. Holding or Grasping Tools. 1. Pincers and Pliers, Nippers^ Spanners, and Wrenches. 2. The Vice, including Hand-vice, Bench Vice, etc. VI. Tools of Guidance and Direction. 1. The Carpenter's Rule and Chalk Line. 2. The Square, Bevel, Gauge, Mortising Gauge, Mitre Box. 78 Household Carpentry and Joinery. 3. SJ>t'rii Level, Straight Edge, Plumb and Level. 4. Compasses and Callipers. VII. Miscellaneous Tools not subject to Classification. I, Screwdriver, Nail-punch, Scriber, Rymer or Reamer, etc. VIII. Tools in Combination and Useful Aids to House- hold Carpentry. 218. Taking the tools necessary to the amateur artisan in the order above given, we will commence with Hamtners. Of these the amateur ' should possess three— namely, an ordinary joiner's ham- Hammers. ^^^ ^^^ heavy work, a lighter one of the same form for medium work, and a light hammer with a small face, usually known as a " ladies' hammer," for driving brads and small fine nails into small light work. If he determines to do any veneering there is a special kind of hammer used for this purpose which must be obtained. 219. In the accompanying illustration fig. 30 shows the form of the head of the ordinary joiner's hammer. For Joiner's such work as the amateur artisan hammer, ^jjj ^^ ^^^ ^f these weighing from P J Fig. 30. JOINERS lib. to iXlbs. and another from ^Ib. to l^lb. hammek. will be sufficient. The weight, however, that may be preferable can best be determined by the amateur himself when making his selection. The handle of the joiner's hammer passes _ Fig. 31. LADIES through the head, and is secured in its position hammer. by a wedge driven into a saw-cut made in the end of the handle. The light hammer necessary for fine work is shown in fig. 31. The face (A in fig. 30) of the joiner's hammer should be from y&\n. to lin. for the larger hammer, and from ^^in. to }{\n. for the smaller one. The handle, which should be of ash, swells towards the lower end to afford a firm grasp for the hand. The face (b in fig. 31) of th6 ladies' ham- mer for light work is from ^in. to /^in. in diameter. The opposite end is slightly curved and forked so as to form a claw for raising nails. It is fastened to the handle by shanks which proceed from either side of the head. The veneering hammer, which is useless for any other purpose but that of veneering, will be described when this branch of ornamental joinery comes under consideration. 220. Many other kinds of hammers are used for various kinds of work, but those described above will be sufficient for the amateur's purpose. The ordinary English claw hammer or Kent Claw hammer. . . . „ , . , , r claw hammer, as it is sometimes called, is more useful for gardening purposes than for carpentering. The presence of the claw Hammers and Mallets : Their Uses. 79 renders the amateur inclined to turn the hammer into a wrench and lever for withdrawing nails from wood, etc., and it sometimes hap>- pens that this weakens the hold of the handle in the American hammer-head and spoils the hammer. The best form of adze-eye hammer, claw hammer is the American adze-eye hammer, sold by Messrs. Churchill and Co., as shown just below in fig. 32. Fig. 32. AMERICAN ADZE-EYE HAMMER. 221. The prices of ordinary joiner's hammers range from is. to 3s., according to size and weight : light hammers for fine work from is. to 2s.,and claw hammers from 8d. to is. gd. The American Prices of adze-eye hammers range in price, according to weight, ^^"^™ers. from IS. 4d. to 2s. 4d. each. The manner in which the handle is set in the head renders them stronger and far better adapted for lifting nails than the ordinary claw hammer, whose head is usually fastened to the handle by shanks. 222. It may seem somewhat superfluous to remark that hammers are meant for driving nails, striking punches, etc., and not for hitting wood ; but it unfortunately happens that the amateur, and xjgea of the artisan too sometimes, is given to use the hammer for ^^'^i'''^". striking the handle of his chisel when mortising, or the screwdriver in getting out obstinate nails, much to the detriment of the handle, which is bruised and split by the blows of the hammer and thereby rendered unfit to be held in the hand for cutting, in the case of the chisel, or for inserting or withdrawing screws in the case of the screwdriver. Wood must in all cases be struck by wood, when it is to be struck at all ; and when it is necessary to strike the handle of a chisel in mortising, or the handle of a screwdriver, it should be done with the tool proper for the purpose, which is the wooden Mallet. 1'1'i). The most convenient form for the mallet is that which is shown in fig. i\ ai* illustration of the square American mallet Mallets. sold by Messrs. Churchill and Co. A convenient size, the head being 6in. long and the face 2^in. X by 3X1"-, is sold in hickory 8o Household Carpentry and Joinery. mortised for gd., and in lignum viu-e for is. 6d. Round mallets sin. long and 3in. in diameter maybe had in hickory for yd., and in lignum vitjE for IS. iX^in. cutter and a handle like the jack-plane in fig. 57, costs 8s. 6d. The jack-plane (fig- 39)) I5in. long, with a 2}i'm. cutter, costs 8s. 6d. ; the fore, or try- ing plane, 2oin. long, with a 2}iin. cutter,9s.6d. ; and the jointer plane, 26in. long, with a 2^8in. cutter, i is. 248. It has been said that the smoothing-plane and the jack-plane are the two tools of this description that are most necessary to the Moulding amateur artisan. He need not go to the expense of a not^/eqtdred trj'ing-planc, because he is not likely to be doing such by amateur, joiner's work as will require such a true and accurate edge to the work as when two panels are to be fitted edge to edge, as Fig. 56. STANLEY'S WOOD SMOOTHING-PLANE. Fig. 57. STANLEY'S WOOD JACK-PLANE. in large panels, for example. He will buy all his match-boarding ready wrought for use, and all his grooved and tongued timber, so he need not have any match planes unless he has a particular fancy that way. He will not require moulding planes, but he will find it useful to include in his stock a good rebate plane, some beads, an old woman's tooth, and a plough plane, with a set of irons for various widths. 249. The rabbet or rebate plane is shown in the accompanying illus- tration. The iron, it will be noticed, Rabbet or comes out at the side rebate plane, ^s well as the bottom of the plane, and so the edge of a board can be cut away by it so as to leave an indentation all along Fig. 58. rebate plane. its length like a step, so that it may fit over and into another similar The Spokeshave and the Drawing-knife. 93 indentation cut in the edge of another board. The recess in a sash bar, into which a piece of glass is laid, is a rabbet or rebate. The cost of ordinar}' rebate planes in beech, as shown in fig. 58, with skew cutters, varying from i}{m. to i.J^in., ranges from 2s. 6d. to 3s. The " old woman's tooth," so called from its narrow projecting cutter, is used for cutting grooves, and maybe bought for is. gd. qj^ woman's or 2s. Planes for cutting beads may be had for 2s. 6d. tooth, each. They range in sizes upwards from yi'm., increasing by yi'm. The most useful sizes are }i\n., X'm., }im., and j^in., but larger sizes may be had if required. A plough plane, with screw top and eight irons, may be had for from i8s. to 20s. Besides these there are many planes of different forms used for different purposes, as fillisters, sash fillisters, dado planes, compass planes, fluting planes, etc., Fiiiistera of but the description of them would take up too much ■'■^^°^^ '^^• space. They are, moreover, expensive, and to purchase them would require a far greater outlay than most amateurs would either be able, or indeed care, to make. 250. The spokeshave and the drawing-knife are the tools that are comprised in the second division of paring tools. The drawing-knife is useful for reducing the size of any piece of wood that it . . . Spokeshave. may be mconvenient to cut down m any other way. The spokeshave, as its name implies, may be used for imparting a smooth surface to the spokes of wheels, ^^^,. ... but it is also useful for smooth- Q ^'"' i ' ' ' '»' ' " !' i 'il'"''''''''' ing down any surface that is T^ not required to be perfectly sM n ,. Tu u 11 J J Fig. ^in., is. 6d. ; 3in., is. 8d. ; S^in., 2s. ; and 4in., 2s. 4d. They may be purchased for less money, but in buy- ing tools it is always better to give a good price for them, for inferior articles are well-nigh useless, and cause disappointment, often giving the amateur a distaste for the work that he has taken in hand. 252. Some excellent iron spokeshaves have been introduced from America, and may be bought of Messrs. Churchill and Co. The American iron cutters are made of the best English cast steel, tempered BpokeshaTe. ^^^ ground by an improved method, and are in perfect working order when sent from the factory. Fig. 61 shows a Double Iron Straight Face Spokeshave, 16 in. ^ "■• 'I''™"*' long, with a cutter Fig. 61. DOUBLE iron straight-face spokeshave. 01 2j'sin. (which IS the length adopted for all cutters in carpenter's spokeshaves made in America), and raised handles. The price of this tool is is. 3d., and for the same money a similar spokeshave may be had with straight handles. Spokeshaves, with adjustable mouth and either raised or straight handles, may be had for is. yd. each. The Model Double Iron Spokeshave with hollow face costs is. 3d. There is another kind with two cutters i^in. wide, one hollow or curved, and the other straight, which costs is. id. ; but as neither cutter can be in the middle of the stock, where it ought to be, the tool must be some- FlG. 62. REVERSIBLE SPOKESHAVE. what one-sided to work. Fig. 62 shows the Reversible Spokeshave, which can be worked to and from the person using it without changing position. This useful tool, which has raised handles and is furnished with two straight cutlers 2y&m. long, costs 2s. 2d. 253. The third and last division of paring tools comprises chisels Chisels and Gouges. 95 and gouges. In reality the plane in its simplest form, as seen in tlie jack-plane and smoothing-plane, is nothing more than a c^geis and chisel of considerable width set in a block of wood, Goiiges. which serves as a guide, and by means of which the operator is enabled to work the tool with greater ease and accuracy. Moulding and fluting planes, as well as beads, grooving planes, ploughs, etc., may with equal propriety be looked upon as modifications of the gouge. A chisel is a flat and thick piece of steel, of which the cutting end is ground to a bevel, in order to obtain a keen edge, while the other is fashioned into a tang, with a projecting shoulder, which fits close against the wooden handle into which the tang is inserted. The gouge differs from the chisel in being hollow instead of flat. Chisels are distinguished as firmer chisels, paring chisels, mortis- chisels, how ing chisels, and turning chisels. It must be said, how- distinguished. ever, that the last-named variety differs from the other kinds of chisels, in being ground to a bevel on both sides instead of one side only. Gouges are distinguished as firmer gouges and Qg^ggg j^^^ turning gouges. The main point of difference between distinguished. them is that the former are sharpened on the outside on the bevel, and the latter on the inside. 254. In the annexed illustrations are shown the various forms of chisels used in Carpentry and Joiner^', and that of the gouge. In fig. 63 is shown the Firmer Chisel, or ordinary carpenter's chisel, turned in such a way as to show the width of the blade and the bevel. In fig. 64 a representation of the same kind of chisel is shown turned so as to show the side or thickness of the blade, and the angle of the bevel by which the cutting edge is formed. The only difference between firmer chisels and paring chisels are that the former are shorter and thicker in the blade, while the latter are shorter and thinner. Firmer chisels vary in width from jsin. to 2in., and paring chisels from ^4^ in. to 2in. The latter are chiefly used by pattern makers for fine and more F'^. 67 delicate work, while the former are better adapted for the rougher work of the carpenter and joiner. Firmer chisels. Fig. 66. Fig. 65. Fig. 64. Fig. 63. mortise chisels. firmer chisel. 90 Household Carpentry and Joinery. 255. It will be noticed that while these chisels are contracted in width between the broad flat blade and the shoulder, the mortise chisel, „ ^. shown in fig. 65 so as to show the side, is broadest at the Mortise o j chisels. shoulder, and narrows gradually until the bevel is reached. This is done in order to impart extra strength to the tool to bear the heav-y blows of the mallet in mortising. Chisels of this de- scription are made varying in width from Y&m. to lin. Some mortise chisels are made with a socket, as in fig. 66, into which a short beech handle is fitted. Chisels thus made and handled are used for heavy work. 256. The peculiar forms of the turning chisel will be shown in the chapter on Turning. They are of various widths, and longer than even Turning ^^^ paring chisels, generally speaking. For turning soft chisels. ■vvood the edge of the turning chisel is bevelled on both sides, as it has be^n said ; but for turning hard wood a much shorter chisel is used with a bevel on one side only, like that of the ordinary chisel, but with not so great a slant. The double bevel edge has the effect of throwing off" a clean shaving from the wood when revolving in the lathe, while the blunter single bevel edge acts more like a scraper, and does not take off clean shavings. 257. In fig. 67 the shape of the gouge is shown, which resembles a chisel bent into a curved form, so that the section of the blade would resemble a crescent. Gouges are made in sizes °"^^^" varying from }(\n. for turning gouges, and ^^in. for firmer gouges, to 2in. for both kinds. Turning gouges are longer than firmer gouges, and are used by turners for roughing down their work in the lathe. 258. It may be mentioned that the tool called a cold chisel'xs a long piece of steel, levelled on both sides at one end to a blunt Cold chise . ^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ carpenters and others to knock out a hole in a wall of stone or brick for the insertion of a wedge, the end of a piece of timber, etc. 259. About half-a-dozen chisels and the same number of gouges will be the utmost number that the amateur will require ; and, for Chisels and both chisels and gouges, the widths to be selected may l°Sby be placed at ^in., ^in., ^4^in., lin., i^in., and i>^in. amateur, -j-j^g ordinary carpenter's or firmer chisels should be pur- chased first of all. A few paring chisels can be added to the stock at any time if required. Sets of chisels assorted may be purchased at from 5s. to 7s. 6d., and sets of gouges from 6s. 6d. to 8s. For ordinary mortising the firmer chisel will be sufficient ; but one or two socket Chisels, Gouges, Bradawls, Glvlets, Etc. 97 chisels will be found useful, and, for any very narrow work, one or two mortise chisels or sash mortise chisels of the narrowest widths will be necessar>'. 260. The following are the sizes and prices of chisels and gouges taken from the price list of TvIr. A. S. LUNT, Tool and _ . ^ Prices of Cutlery Warehouse, 297, Hackney Road, London, E. : — ctisels and -^ ' -"^ -^ ' gouges. Inch i \ 1 A § 1^6 ' J ^ .1, } iS 1 I ij 'i . li ( i| 2 Firmer Chisels ... .. '0/4 0/4 '0/4* 0/4*0/5 — 0/52P/6 0/7 0/7^0/9*0/101/0 11/4 |i/6 Bevel Edge |o/S o/i 'o/SA o/sA 0/9 — 0/9*0/100/11 o/ii — >/4 1/5 |l/ll'2/2 Firmer Gouges 0/5 ;o/5 lo/sA 0/54 0/6 — 0/6* 0/7 0/8 , 0/8A — I/O 1/3 — — Sash — — |o/6 — o/ei - 0/7 o/7il 7 1 7 o/ioo/ii l/l — — — Coach Chisels — ' — ;o/7 o/7^o/7i — 0/9 '/3 '7^ 1/3 j/o 2/6 Millwrights' Chisels _ ... o/'j o/Sio/9i — o/ii - i/i 1/3 |i/4 1 1/6 2/0 2/5 — 3/6 LongTnin Pariag Chisels'0/7 ■^— ,0/7 - 0/3 — 0/9 o/ioo/ii 1/2 — 1/6 1/9 2/2 2/8 Do. do. Bevel Edge 1/3 1 — 1/0 - 'i/' - 1/2 1/3 1 1/4 1 1/7 — 2/0 2/3 2/9 3/3 Turning Chisels .. _ ••■ o/5J — 0/6 — o/6i — 0/7 0/3 |c/9 o/io^ — r/i 1/5 1/9 2/0 Long Strong Tiimingj 1 1 , Chisels jc/g — o/io — ,0/10 — o/ii i/o 'l/l 1/3 — 1/7 2/0 2/8 3/1 Turning Gouges ... ^ ... o/7 o/3 0/8 — 0/9 — 0/0*0/11 l/l 1/2 1/4 i/ca;2/i ^/4J 3/0 Long Strong Turning 1 1 1 1 Gouses '1/2 — 1/2 - '1/5 — i/6i 1/9 '2/1 =/3 2/5 2/3 3/4A — — Socket Chisels 1— — I/O i/o 1/0 — I/O i/i 1/2 1/3 1/5 1/5 i/c* 2/0 2/4 Mortise Chisels i/i i/i l/l 1/3 ,1/4 l/5i- 1/7 — Improved Sash Mortise all Steel ii/5 1/5 1 x/5 1/6 [1/8 i/io 2/0 — — — -- If with round ash handles and brass ferules, 2S. per dozen extra, or with bo.x octagon handles, 55. per dozen extra. 261. The tools comprised in the first division of boring tools are bradawls, gimlets, and augers. These tools are, for the most part, extremely simple in construction, the bradawl being a Boring tools. piece of steel sharpened at the end and n.xed for con- venience of use in a wooden handle ; and the gimlet a piece of steel so fashioned at one end that it may take hold of, and cut its way into, timber, and having a small piece of wood attached crosswise at the other end, which serves as a lever to turn the steel shank of the tool, and press it into the wood. The auger is only a gimlet on a large scale, the cross handle being turned by the operator with both hands which are transferred from end to end of the handle at every half- turn of the tool. The gimlet is held and turned by the right hand only. The mode and method of holding and working these and other tools will be described fully in the next chapter. 262. The bradawl and the gimlet are represented in the accompany- ing illustration, the shape of the former when handled being shown in figs. 68 and 69. The bradawl varies in size or diameter Bradawls : of the steel shaft from ^^in. to >sin. or ^^^in. Smaller ^^^^'^'^"^^^^s. sizes are made, but these are generally called sprig tools ; the term bradawl being more strictly applied to the longer sizes only. Whether it be large or small, the bradawl is a round piece of steel fitted with a 7 98 Household Carpentry and Joinery. shoulder and tang at one end, which is inserted into a handle generally of beech or ash, and of the form shown in the illustration. The shoulder abuts against the handle, as in the case of the chisel and gouge ; and, to keep the handle from split- ting when the tang is driven into it, it is furnished with a narrow brass ring or ferule. The end of the steel shaft thus handled is ground down on either side so as to form a A shape, as shown in fig. 68. Either side of the shaft when ground presents the appearance shown in fig. 69. The legiti- mate purpose of the bradawl is to bore FiG.C3. Fig. 69. Tig. 70. Fig. 71. holes in wood SO as to cnsure the passage BRAD.\wLS. GIMLETS, ^f ^ j^^jj ^^ 5^,.^^^, ^^ jj.jg j-jgi,,. direction, and also to render its entrance into the wood more easy ; but occasional.''/ for driving in or withdrawing small screws, especially those by whic J handles of doors are secured to the spindle, a large bradawl may be ■used conveniently as a screwdriver. 263. Gimlets are of two kinds, plain and twisted. The form of the ■twisted gimlet is shown in fig. "jo. In this kind a deep spiral grooxt Gimlets : ''""S upward from the screw point about half-way up the their varieties. gj^^j^^_ It possesses two advantages over the plain gimlet shown in fig. 71, and these are :— that it can be worked with more ease, the wood that is cut away being forced up the groove as the tool penetrates deeper and deeper into the wood ; and that it makes a cleaner hole. The screw-point in this and the plain gimlet is to give the tool a firm holding in the wood at entrance, and to ensure its regular progress in penetrating the timber. The plain gimlet is a steel shank with a small screw-point and a straight groove running more than halfway up its length. This kind of gimlet is more apt to break or twist in hard wood than the spiral or twisted gimlet ; and when it is necessary to bore a deep hole, the friction arising from the wood that is cut away becoming tightly packed within the straight groove renders the tool somewhat difficult to work, as any one may prove to his own satisfaction by boring a hole in a piece of oak with a plain gimlet. The head of the gimlet consists of a piece of boxwood usually turned in the form shown in the illustration. The steel is squared at the upper end, and tapers away to a fine point. The squared part keys, as it were, into the handle, and the thin end is rivetted over a small disc of copper. Thus the cutting or boring part of the tool is securely fixed to the handle, and any chance of tie Cost of Bradawls and Gimlets: Augers. 99 handle slipping round, as it would have done, had not the steel shaft b'jen squared at the top, is prevented. 264. Twisted gimlets may be bought at 3s. per dozen, or at from 2d. to 6d. each, according to size, and the plain or shell gimlets at 2S. 90. per dozen, or at from 2d. to 4d. or 5d. each, according to ^^^^ ^^ size. Bradawl blades, without handles, cost about 8d. per bradawls ' and gimlets. dozen assorted, or is. 6d. a dozen with handles. Sepa- rately the blades are sold from id. to i/^d. each without handles, or from i;^d. to 3d. each with handles, according to size. Large flooring bradawls, handled, cost from 3Kd. to 4d. each. The amateur artisan will find three or four gimlets of various sizes, and the same number of bradawls, as many as he will require, and to these should be added a flooring awl, which will also serve the purpose of a small screwdriver. The cheapness of these tools, however, will enable any amateur carpenter to furnish himself with a complete set assorted, if he wishes to do so. 265. The auger, as it has been said, is a gimlet on a large scale. There are two kinds of av:gers, distinguished as shell augers and screw augers. The shell auger corresponds with the plain or Augers: shell gimlet, and the screw auger with the twisted gimlet. *^®^ varieties. The tools are useful for boring large and deep holes, especially for the passage of a screw-bolt and nut ; but the shell auger may be made useful in mortising, especially if the amateur has not a bit brace or stock and bit at his disposal. In the accompanying illustration, fig. 73 shows the end of the shell auger, and fig. 72 that of the screw auger. Sometimes the auger is secured, like the gimlet, to a cross-handle of wood ; but it is also squared at the prioea of end so as to key into a handle, as shown a^s^rs. in fig. 75, or formed into a loop through which a handle may be passed, as in fig. 74. It is useful to have four augers calculated to cut holes )z'm., ^4 in., lin., i>^in. in diameter. A kind of auger called a hollow auger is made, but this tool is used more especially by coach-builders and chair-makers, and is comparatively useless to amateurs. There is also a form of auger known as the ladder or taper auger, which will bore a hole like a funnel — large at the top and small at the bottom ; but this the amateur is not likely to require. The following are the prices of augers according to the diameter of hole they will bore: — Fig. 74. Fig. 75. CONTRIVANXES FOR H.\NDLING Al'GERS. 100 Household Carpentry and Joinery. Description. fin. Jin. ' £in. j ^in. ! s. d. s. d. ' 5. d. I s. d. ?in. s. d. I 2 She!! Augers 'o 8'o S ^ o lo i o Briglit Screw Augers withl | i Eyes 'i 8i 92 0:2 32 6 Patent American Augers' i ' withEyes — '2 93 0,3 64 o lin. ijin, s. d. s. d. I 4^1 6 2932 4 6,5 o i^in. liin- i|in. 2 in. s. d. 2 10 s. d. Is. d. j s. d. I 8 ' I 10 2 4 j I 3 8.4 2I5 o 5666!—— 266. The bit-brace, or stock-and-bit, is the principal tool in the second division of boring tools, and, indeed, the only tool of this kind Bit-braces '^^'^h which the amateur artisan need concern himself. anddiiii. There are breast-drills, fitted with a plate to hold against the breast, steadied with a handle held in the left hand, and having a chuck at the fi'.rther extremity in which the drill is placed and caused to revolve at a rapid rate by a large toothed-wheel working in a smaller wheel, the forn.er being turned by a handle held in the right hand. These are, however, more suitable for working in iron, but they are used for working in wood, especially by carriage builders. An ex- .„ , i cellent drill of this description, called the Patent Breasi Patent ' Ereast Drill. Drill, is sold by Messrs. Churchill and Co. for 12s. The best kind of tool for use in this drill is the Morse Bit Stock Drill, of which there are many sizes, varying iu diameter from -^ to iin. by regular increase of i-32nd of an inch, and ranging in price from yd. to 3s. 4d. each. 267. To return however to the bit-brace, or stock-and-bit, this was once one of the most expensive tools that were made, and its price prevented many an amateur possessed of but slender jSit-trace, or -t^ •' ^ Btock-and-bit. means from purchasing one. Now it can be obtained so cheaply that no amateur has any reasonable excuse for being without one. The general principle of the machine may be best explained by c J} aid of fig. 76, in which A represents a piece of *,V — ^ iron bent into the form of a crank. Now it is plain that if the end B of the crank be fitted by means of a collar into the flat disc D, so that Fig. 76. pkinxiple of br.\ce, it 'may revolve freely within it without escaping from it, and a sharp cutting *3ol be attached to the end of C, so as to be practically immov- able ^r:d merely an extension of the extremity C,— the operator, by holding the disc D against his breast and turning the crank with his rrght hand, applied to it at A, may, by the force given to the cutting tool by the pressure of his body against the disc and the rotatory motion imparted to it by turning the crank rapidly, cause the tool to penetrate deeply and quickly into any kind of wood to which it may be applied. This is the principle on which the bit-brace acts, and a Stock-and-Bit : Modern Iron Brace. loi knowledge of this will help the operator wonderfully in the use of the tool. The pressure is transmitted directly in the dotted line shown in the diagram, and must be sufficient to overcome any want of steadi- ness that might otherwise be caused by the rotatory motion of the crank. 268. As the old and often beautifully made and finished wooden brace is now almost entirely superseded by the plainer but equally serviceable iron brace, there is no necessity for giving a Modem representation of it in these pages. The wood-work was ^°^ brace, merely an expensive substitute for the iron crank that is now used, and its costliness arce chiefly from the unnecessary time and care that was expended on its construction. One end, as shown in the above diagram, worked freely in a knob ; the other was fitted with a box, in which the squared end of the bit was thrust. A notch was also cut across one side of the square end, into which a catch dropped when the bit was pushed into the box, securing it from slipping out until the catch which acted by a spring was raised by pressing a pro- jecting button on the outside of the cap, thus enabling the operator to withdraw the bit. The wooden brace ranges in price from 9s. to 25s., or thereabouts, according to the kind of wood of which it is made and the fittings. The bits are extra, and are sold at about 5d. each, or about 12s. 6d. for a full set of thirty -six. Fig. 77 in the accompanying illustration of iron braces shows the F'°- 77^ common socket iron brace. common socket brace, with a thumbscrew for retaining the bit in the socket. An Sin. brace of this description may be, or ought to be, purchased for is. 4d., and a loin. one for is. Sd., of any ironmonger who keeps this class of goods. 269. These are excellent braces for the money, and if the amateur cannot afford a better one, he should get one of these rather than be without one ; but it will be readily seen that the thumbscrew action for the retention of the tool in the socket is liable to get strained and put out of order by the very nature of the work which is done by the brace and bit. The brace which is recommended for the Barber's Patent Bit- amateur's use, being alike cheap and serviceable, is Brace. "Barber's Patent Bit-Brace" (fig. 7S), which is fitted witli an cxnanding 102 Household Carpentry and Joinery, chuck that can be opened and secured at pleasure by a simple con- trivance ; and from this peculiarity in its construction will hold shanks of bits, reamers, counter-sinkers, etc, of all shapes and sizes, and hold them true without fitting. The convenience of this will be manifest when it is remembered that the old-fashioned brace will receive only such shanks of bits as are made to fit the box, while the chuck of the Patent Bit-Brace will receive and hold fast any kind of bit, be it what Fig. 78. barber's patent bit-brace. it may. Thus when the amateur artisan possesses a Patent Bit-Brace, ne may purchase any kind of bit, whether new or second-hand, know- ing that he will be able to use it ; whereas in the old wooden brace pretty much filing and fitting might be necessary to reduce the shank to the size of the box or socket if it were too large, while if it were too small, and so fitted loosely, the bit would be useless. The prices of these braces are as follows, the ball that is mentioned being the piece of wood that is fitted over the middle part of the bend of the crank for convenience in grasping it with the hand in order to turn the brace. Description. Lignum vitae Head and Rosewood Ball Hardwood Black Head and Ball Hardwood Head and Ball Brace fitted with Ratchet Sin. Qin. loin. s. d. s. d. s. d. 1 6 3 — 7 ° 3 9 — 4 3 3 2 .3 3 10 : 9 10 i2in. 8 o For all ordinary purposes the Qin. brace, with hardwood head and ball, will be found to be cheap, useful, and serviceable. 270. The com.mon brace bores a hole in a direction perpendicular Angular ^° ^^^ breast of the operator, or in a straightforward bit Block, direction. There is, however, what is termed an angular bit -stock, represented in fig. 79, which can be used in any brace, at any Angular Bit Stock : Forms of Bits. 103 degree of angle for boring in a corner, which it will do as readily as a common brace bores straight, the angular borer turning clear around without stopping to ratchet. It is m reality a contrivance for eftecting a change in the direction of the pressure exerted. The pressure, as was shown in the diagram in section 267, acts in a straight line running from the centre of ihe head and the centre axis of the bit. In the angular bit stock the square shank shown, in tlie upper part of the engraving, is thrust into the shank, and motion imparted to the bit, which is placed in the chuck at the other end, by the ball or handle between the key and the ball-joint, at which the change ir the direction of the power takes place. The degree of angle is regulated by the metal plate and arc on the right of the ball-joint, the requisite angle being maintained by tightening the thumb-screw, which must be aj^ain relaxed when any alteration of direc- tion is desired. 271. The bits used in the brace are many in number and adapted for bus for widely different purposes. Some trace. 6f the forms assumed by the bit are shown in the accompanying illustration, in which it has been sought to give the general character of bits p,^ 33 rather than a representation ab- solutely correct in its proportions as to length and breadth. Fig. 80 shows the most common form of // bit, often called a centre bit, pro- ^^^ bably on account of the prolonga- "^\\ tion of its axis or central line into a long sharp point. Bits of this form are made of all sizes, to cut holes from ^sin. to i^zin. iii dia- meter. The point is thrust into the wood in the centre of the piece Fig. 79. angular bit-stock. Fig. 8s Fig. 82. Fig. Si. Fig. 80 various forms of bits. 104 Household Carpentry and Joinery. tliat is lo be taken out and the tool caused to revolve rapidly by turning the crank of the brace ; the sharp edge A cuts away th^ "'-ood as the tool enters, and the edge B, which extends from the central spike to the outer part of the bit, scoops it out, so that if its continuity could be pre- served without fracture, it would come away in the form of a long spiral ribbon. Fig. 8i is the form of bit used for boring a taper hole similar to the funnel-shaped hole made by the taper augur. Fig. 82 shows a shell bit something like a plain gimlet, with a broad scoop-like edge at the end, instead of a screw for cutting long deep holes. Fig. 83 is a bit of solid form, used as a drill or counter-sinker for metal. Figs. 84 and S5 are counter-sinkers for wood, used w-hen it is desired to let in the head of a screw flush with or below the surface of the wood. Fig. 85 is technically called a rose-bit : it consists of a conical head of steel deeply grooved with ridges running from the edge of the broadest part to the point, and may be used for cutting metal as well as wood, in such operations as deepening the holes in a hinge for the reception of the heads of the screws, and anything similar to this. It has been Prices cf ^^'"^ ^^^^ ^'^^^ ^°-'^ about 5d. each, or about 12s. 6d. ^^^^- the set of thirty-si.x bits. This may be taken as the general average price ; but the smaller ones, if bought separately, may cost somev.-hat less and the larger ones somewhat more. Black bits are rather cheaper than bright bits, and as they are not so liable to rust as the bright bits, they are perhaps preferable for the am.ateur. 272. The bits that have just been brought under the reader's con- sideration are what may be termed, for distinction's sake, simple or ci'^rke's single bits. There is, however, another bit, which may be Patent made to do the work of a dozen simple bits, especially Espansive ^ ; r / ^-t- of the form shown in fig. 80 in the foregoing illustration. This is Clarke's Patent Expansive Bit, an American invention, Fig. 86. cl.\rke's p.\tent expansive bit. shown in fig. 86. One of these bits, by shifting the position of the trans verse edge by which the wood is hollowed out, may be made to cut holes of any diameter, from }4in. to i J-^in., or from Jsin. to 3in. They are, as may be imagined, expensive. The bit whose expansive power extends to 1^2 in. costs 7s. 6d., and the larger one, which cuts holes up to 3in., costs los. lod. They are useful tools when it is desired Holding or Grasping Tools, 105 to have much available power in a little compass, and they have a certain advantage in enabling the operator to cut holes of diameters betiveen those of each pair in the series of simple bits ; but for the amateur we are inclined to think that the simple bits will be the more serviceable. 273. Before leaving this part of our subject, mention must be made of another kind of American bit — Douglas's Cast Steel Bits. The peculiar form of these bits, which resembles in some jj^^gj^g.^ ^ast degree the screw-auger and which probably found their ^'^^^ ^^'^• origin in that tool or were suggested by it, is shown in fig. 87. The Fig. 87. DOUGLAS'S cast steel bit. diameter and price of single bits of this kind are as follows : Diameter in inches ... ^ \ I'a I I's \ ?i % W I \l i ii » iJ 'i Price each i/^ i/i i/i 1/2 1/2 i/3 i/S i/7 1/91/112.1 2/3 2;6 2/10 3,6 3/10 They are sold in sets comprising one bit of each diameter, from ;+ in. to lin., at 23s. per set. The advantage of this kind of bit appears to lie partly in the screw form of shank, which allows the wood to work up and out, as in the case of the twisted gimlet, and partly in the symmetrical form of the cutter, which operates on both sides alike ; whereas in the common form of this kind of bit the wood is cut away by the action of a projecting edge on one side, and then scooped out by a cutter acting transversely on the other side. 274. The ne.xt variety of tools that come under consideration in- cludes all those which may be denominated holding or p-asping tools. They may be classed in two divisions : first, the simple Holding or tools of this description used for pulling out nails, hold- e^^=^^"= '°°^^- ing, cutting, and bending wire, etc., which comprise pincers, all kinds of pliers, spanners, and wrenches ; and, secondly, the more complex holding tools, such as the vice, which assumes various forms, and is distinguished according to its construction, as the hand-vice, bench- vice, etc. While pincers and pliers are holding tools in the sense that they supply mechanical contrivances for clutching the head of a nail, and withdrawing it from the wood in which it is embedded, which operation could not be eftected without the appliance of con- siderable force, they may be regarded as holding tools which enable the operator to impart motion to some other body. The vice, on the contrary, is a holding tool in the sense that by tightening its jaws io6 Household Carpentry and Joinery. anothei body is held so that it cannot move, or be moved, wiiile the operate r is cutting it with a file, or'^therwise fashioning it into some desired form. 275. The ordinary forms of pincers and pliers are shown in the annexed illustration. Fig. 88 represents the common pincers, which Pincers and ^^^ made of iron, and in various sizes, ranging from 4in. pliers. tQ j2in. in length. These are sold at different prices, according to size and quality. Common pincers may be bought at prices ranging from jd. to is. ; but the best kind that are made are sold at the rate of 3d. per inch, or from IS. to 2s. 6d. each. The amateur artisan should provide himself with a small and large pair of pincers of the best kind. The most convenient sizes are sin. and 8in. Common pin- cers are apt to get indented along the margin of the jaws, by which their grasping power is greatly impaired. In fig. 89 a pair of flat pliers, of the ordinary kind, is represented. The construction of these and the pincers is so apparent from the illustration, that any detailed description is unneces- sary. When it is desired to use either, the handles are drawn apart which causes the jaws to extend as well, but in a less degree, because the length of the jaws from the pivot on which the two parts of the tool work is less than the length of the extremities of the shanks or handles Cutting fr^""* ^^^ ^^^^ P'^°*- ^^ ^°- 9° ^^ shown the head of a pair nippers, ^f cutting nippers. In these the holding or flat part of the jaws extends about half-way down from the extremities, where they are cut away on either side so as to form a sharp wedge-shaped blade with which, from its peculiar construction, wire may be cut in two without injury to the edges of the blades. These are useful at all , times, but more especially in wire-working. Fig. girepre- Round-nosed ' r j j j t pliers. sents the head of what are termed round-nosed pliers. The jaws of these instead of being flattened for gripping small nails, wire, etc., are rounded from base to tip, so as to present the appear- ance of small cones with the tops taken off. These are used for turn- ing the end of a piece of wire so as to form a loop by which it can be attached to a larger wire, etc., if necessary. By making the noses in the form of cones, that is, tapering from base to top, loops of various Flat pliers. Fig. 89. Fig. 91. Fig. 88. pinxeks and pliers. Pincers and Pliers: "Victor" Nail Puller. 107 sizes can be more conveniently formed. Good cutting nippers cost from IS. 6d. to 4s. ; but they may be bought of an inferior quality at from 8d. upwards. Pliers, both flat and round-nosed, range from 6d. to IS. 3d. per pair, inferior quality; or from is. to 3s. 6d. per pair, best quality, according to size. There is a smaller kind ^^^.^^ ^^.^^^^ of pliers, useful to artificial fly makers or in splicing, for fly ^ ' making, etc. the jaws of which extend by pressing the handles to- gether. When released the handles resume their original position by means of a spring, and the jaws close, retaining in their grasp any fine substance such as the end of a bit of silk, or wire, or the extremity of a cock's hackle. These are of no use in carpentry except in splicing or in coiling thin wire round a core of wood or metal, but they are mentioned to show that pliers are made which open by bringing the handles closer together, as well as those whose jaws are extended by drawing the handles apart. 276. Many an amateur artisan will, for cheapness' sake, utilise packing-cases, egg-boxes, tinned-meat and lobster cases, and other boxes, which may be purchased at very low rates from ^^.^^^^j^^^ fancy sroods warehousemen, drapers, grocers, and oilmen, of packing- J *^ , cases, etc. Much wood that can be made available for a variety of purposes and bought at a merely nominal price, can be got out ol such goods as these ; but the operator in nine cases out of ten will spoil half the boards in taking the box or case to pieces. Naturally enougi. he will set to work with hammer and screwdriver, wrenching and forcing bottom from sides, and sides from ends, and when the work is accomplished he will find that half the boards are spoilt, or broken, or cracked part way down their length, and therefore far ^^^^^^^ less useful than they were before he commenced opera- damage to tools. tions. And he has spoilt the handle of his screwdriver, too, by striking it with the hammer, forgetting that wooden handles should be struck with a mallet instead of a hammer, and that a cold chisel would have been far more suitable than a screwdriver. 277. There is, however, a capital implement by which the box may be taken to pieces without injury to either nails or wood. This useful tool, shown in fig. 92, is called the "Victor" Nail Puller. ..victor- naU The fallowing directions are given for using it : " Grasp P^ners. the instrument in the manner represented in the cut, taking care to have the left hand as low down as convenient. Place the jaws astride the nail in the wood, with the foot-lever parallel with the grain of the wood, drawing the top of the tool towards you, till they come close up beside the nail ; lift the rammer with the right hand, plunging io8 Household Carpentry and Joinery. it down suddenly. This operation embeds the jaws beside the nail, then pull horizontally, which brings the nail out." The price of the "Victor" Nail Puller is los.; but the amateur who uses up plenty of packing-cases in his work for rough fencing, sheds, fowl- houses, etc., will soon save the cost in the boards that are not split and damaged past using, as when hammer and screw- driver are used, and in the nails which are not deprived of their heads and can be used again. The nails with which these cases are nailed together are for the most part wire nails, generally known as French nails. They Fig. 92. "VICTOR" kail plller. are very tenacious, and well suited for most of the work that the amateur will do. The rapidity with which nails can be withdrawn by means of this nail puller is wonderful. When once the jaws are set about the nail one blow of the rammer sends them into the wood, and one pull of the instru- ment towards the operator brings out the nail. A slight indentation in the wood, where the head of the nail was, is the only injury that the wood receives, and this is so trifling as to be inappreciable. The ends of the board are not split, and can therefore be worked up again in any way that the operator may desire. 278. The wrench or spanner is chiefly useful for turning the nut on or off the screw end of an iron bolt. The annexed illustration, fig. 93, represents the common Wrench or ^vrench or spanner in which the handle spanner, fom^g the screw for moving the jaws apart. In this kind of spanner the upper jaw, or jaw furthest from the handle, is movable, and is propelled upwards or drawn downwards, as may be desired, by turning the handle round one way or the other. They are made in lengths ranging from 6in. to I2in., and the best vary in price from 2s. gd. to 4s. lod., according to size. The American screw wrench, shown in fig. 94, differs from the ordinary wrench in having the lower jaw movable instead of the upper, and in having the upper jaw Fig. 93. COMMON WKENCH. Excelsior Pocket Wrench : Hand Vice. log rigidly connected with the wooden handle in which it is set. The lower jaw is moved by means of a screw turned by a small thumb wheel. The prices of these wrenches are as follows : 6in., 3s. ; 8in., 3s. Fig. 94. .-cee.v \\}.l:,iai. 4d. ; loin., 4s.; I2in., 4s. 8d.; isin., Ss. They can be procured from Messrs. Churchill and Co., who also sell a useful little tool for the amateur called the " Excelsior '■' Pocket Wrench — fig. 95 — whose jaws will open to the extent oi J^in, and whose weight is only 40Z. The prices of these little spanners are is, 8d., bright finish, and 2S. nickel plated. Of course they cannot be used for any rough kind of work, or for nuts larger than Jim. square. 279. A vice is indispensable to the amateur, and he should provide himself with both a hand vice which, as its name implies, can be held in one hand, while the file, etc., is applied by the other hand to the object that is necessary to amateuis. held within its jaws, and a bench vice, which can be attached to a carpenter's bench and removed at pleasure. The bench vice will of course hold larger objects and pieces of material than the hand vice, and, as it is fastened to the bench itself, and need not be held in any way, or even steadied Fig. 95. ]^y the operator, both hands can be used in tiling " EXCELSIOR POCKET WREN'CH. Or in performing any other process to which the bench vice is auxiliary. 280. The ordinary form of hand vice is a couple of strong jaws connected at one end by a pivot or rivet, on which they work, and terminating at the other in a broad end, as shown in fig. 96. If the screw ordinary were removed, the shanks would be ex- ^^^'^ ^'■^^' tended and kept apart by the spring which is attached to one of them, and works against the other. The jaws are relaxed or brought together by the screw, which works through the shanks by means of a bar, which works loosely in the head of the screw. Hand vices cost from is. to 2s. 6d. each, ac- . Bench vice, cording to size. Bench vices are similar to hand vices in the general principle of their construction ; but to the Fig. 96. H.\ND VICE. no Household Carpentry and Joinery. shank furthest removed from the head of the screw two arms are attached at right angles, or nearly so, to the shank, one of which— the upper one— terminates in a broad, flat plate, which rests on the upper surface of the bench, while through the lower one works a thumb- screw, also capped by a disc, which is screwed up hard and fast against the lower surface of the bench-board, when it is sought to make use of the vice. A common bench vice may be bought for about 2s. ; a better kind of vice, with square thread and steel jaws, cost from 4s. to lis., according to size ; while the best black staple vices are sold, according to weight, at jd. per lb. 2S1. The patent vices, of which there are various kinds, are very expensive, and are not required by the amateur. It may, however, be Patent mentioned that a useful saw-grinder's vice, for holding a ^"°®^- saw when being set or sharpened, with jaws Qin. long, and jointed near the bench, so that the jaws may be thrown backwards or forwards at pleasure, may be purchased for 6s. The amateur, however, may for a few pence construct a simple contrivance which Improved ^^'i^^ answer all the purpose of the saw- filers vice. For hand vice. gg_ ^j_ ^^ "Improved Hand \'ice"' may be bought, which is much more handy and convenient to hold than the old- fashioned one. This vice is of metal throughout, the jaws being of forged steel, and the handle of case-hardened malleable iron. The jaws work on pivots passing through the oval, or nearly oval, disc Fig. 97. IMPROVED hand vice. shown in the illustration, and are opened or closed by means of the bevelled top of the handle, which works on a screw attached to the disc. The jaws are relaxed by turning the handle downwards, and closed by turning it upwards. A hole is made through the handle and screw for holding wire, as shown in fig. 97. 2S2. In good carpentry everything depends on accuracy of measure ment of parts, and fitting the parts together at right angles, or at the required ansrle or bevel. For the attainment of these Tools of ^ ° , 7- • guidance and most necessary requisites /00/s of gmdimce and direction direction. , . , . , , • , i • 1 ■ of various kinds are used, without which it were impos- sible even for a skilled carpenter or joiner to do his work, and fit the Tools of Guidance and Direction. hi various pieces together with the nicety that is essential in all operations of this nature. Thus, for setting out a long, straight line in ripping a slip of wood from a board, a line and reel is required ; and for measurement of any length into parts, or of any required length, breadth, and thickness, the carpentef^s rule is needful. For cutting off the end of a board at right angles to the edge, or for mortising, etc., the square is a sine qua non, and for cutting wood at any given angle to the edge, the proper line of direction for the saw must be marked by aid of the bevel. For cutting notches in wood, or for cutting or planing down pieces of wood to the same thickness, the necessary guide lines must be marked by a tnarkirig gau_s;e, while in mortising the mortise gauge is used. For joining pieces of wood at right angles, as in making a picture-frame, recourse must be had to the ;;///;v box ^ and for subdividing any given space into smaller spaces, or marking out circles and sweeps of various diameters, the compasses must be used. In turning, to make sure of having the diameter of various parts of the work in harmony with the pattern, these diameters must one and all be tried and regulated by the callipers as the work goes on. In bringing horizontal bars, shelves, etc., to a true level, the spirit level must be used : and in fixing a post in the ground, or a piece of quartering to the wall, the upright level with cord and plumb bob. A straight-edge is useful for testing the nicety and accuracy with which wood has been planed up, and for other purposes. In bricklaying and fixing stonework of considerable length the A level is used. It is requisite to gain some idea of these various appliances, and the manner in which they are used. The mode of handhng and using saws, edge tools, and other tools of difterent descriptions, will be considered in a subsequent chapter. 2S3. First of all the line and reel. This a.:ipliance costs but a few pence ; it is not generally named in price lists. Any large-sized reel will do, provided that it be deep enough to carry some ine line axjcl few yards of line or cord, which must be of a non-elastic ^°*'^' / /7- Fig. 98. LINE AND REEL, SQUARE, AND BEVEL. character in order to do its work effectually. To give an example of us use, suppose that A B c D, in fig. 98, is a long rectangular piece of 112 Household Carpentry and Joinery. board that it is desired to saw into two equal pieces. Having ascer- How to uBe tained by the rule thn.t the ends A D, B c, are really equal the une. jj^ jgngth, and that the board is of the same gauge or measure across throughout, divide each end into two equal parts in the points E, F. Make a knot and loop in the line, and through the loop pass a fine bradawl, pushing it deeply into the wood precisely at the point E. Do the same at F with another bradawl, and strain the line tightly from one to the other, securing it to the bradawl at f with a knot and loop. Before straining the line, it should have been whitened with chalk, or blackened with charcoal. If the strained line be now lifted as far off the board as possible with the finger and thumb of the right hand, and then, released suddenly, it will strike the board smartly along its length from bradawl to bradawl, leaving a straight white or black mark on the surface from E to F, which will serve as a guide for the saw in cutting it in half. In using the saw amateurs are apt to throw too much pressure either to one side or the other, which causes the saw-cut to go out of the straight line^ In sawing planks and boards lengthwise it is as well to repeat the operation with the chalk or charcoal line on the other side, the bradawls being allowed to remain in their places to ensure accuracy of register, and then to look at the under part of the board from time to time to see that the saw-cut is being accurately carried in the right direction. 2S4. The carpenter's rule is a well-known instrument consisting of two pieces of boxwood joined at one end by a flat brass joint, and Carpenter's tipped with brass at the other extremity. They are divided ^^®' into inches, which are again subdivided into Sths and sometimes I2ths of inches. In the ordinary rule the two slips of boxwood are each ift. in length, so that the rule is 2ft. long when ex- tended. This is the best kind of rule for an amateur to have. They Fig. 99. FOURFOLD NARROW RULE. m.iy be had at all prices from 6d. to is. 6d. ; or, if with brass slide rules, from is. lod. each to 2s. 6d. Brass, iron, and steel rules may be had at equally low prices. IMessrs. Churchill and Co. supply a handy ift. fourfold narrow rule for the pocket (fig. 99), graduated in 8ihs and i6ths of inches, and /^in. wide. These rules, if with round The Square and the Bevel. "3 rrn" joint middle plates, are sold at 6d. each ; if with square joint middle plates, at jd. ; and with arch joint middle plates, as in the accompany- ing illustration, at Sd. 2 ft. fourfold rules, lin. wide, are sold at 8d., lod., and is. each, according to the character of the middle plate ; and the broad 2ft. rules at is. 2d., is. 6d., and 2s. each. These are i^sin. wide, and are graduated in 8ths, loths, and i6ths of inches, and are furnished with draughting scales. A useful 2ft. twofold rule with arch joint, bitted, furnished with Gunter's slide, graduated in Sths, loths, and i6ths of inches, looths of a foot, and with drafting and octagonal scales, i/iin. wide, may be had for 2s. 4d. The slide renders this a useful rule to amateurs. 2S5. The square and the bevel are shown in the accompanying lM.,M'|.|i|i[i|i|i| - ,|i i i[ illustrations, which will indicate s| J ' 5I ' the general character of these ______^_______ useful tools, which „ ^ ^ ' Square and are absolutely indis- berel. pensable to the amateur, and which will be continally wanted, as he will soon find by experience. The square (fig. 100) is meant, as its name implies, for drawing straight lines at r(i^/i/ angles to the edge of any piece of wood or board ; but the bevel (fig. loi), is intended THE SQL'.^RE. for drawing straight lines at any angle to the edge of a piece of wood ; therefore the blade of the square is fixed immovably in the stock or handle, while that of the bevel is movable. The mode of using the square and bevel is shown in the illustration of the manner of using the line and reel in fig. 98, the square being represented on the left of the figure, and the bevel on the right. The stock in either case is applied to the edge of the board, so that the blade rests flatly upon it, having the outer or inner edge just touching the point at which the line is to be drawn on the upper surface of the board. Good ordinary squares in rosewood, with a blade 6 inches long, cost from is. gd. to 2S. 6d. ; and bevels of the same quality, with blade TYz inches long, about the same price. The length of the blade of the square ranges Fig. ioi. the bevel. from 3 in.ches to 12 inches in length, and the blades of the bevels from lYz inches to 10 inches. In price, squares range from is. 4d. to 4s. 3d. according to size and the wood of which the stock is made ; the bevels from IS. 9d. to ss. The Patent Hardened Try Square and Flush T 8 114 Household Carpentry and Joinery. Bevel supplied by Messrs. Churchill and Co. are of superior descrip- Hardenad tion. The square has an iron stock, nicely finished; and "fiu^h the blade is of hardened cast steel with parallel edges. T bevel. £veiy angle is accurate, and it is a perfect tool, though somewhat expensive, costing according to length of blades : 3 inch, 6s. 9d. ; 4}^ inch, 8s.; 6 inch, 9s.; and 8 inch, lis. each. The handle of the bevel is also made of iron, and the blade of fine steel spring tempered, with perfectly parallel edges. The blade is held in any position desired, by moving the lever which slightly projects at the bottom. They cost according to length of blade : 8 inch, 5s. 6d. ; and 10 inch, 6s. 3d. each. 2S6. In speaking of squares, a brief mention and description of Ames's Patent Universal Square may not be uninteresting to amateurs Ames's ^^^° ^^® desirous of knowing something about adapta- Patent tions of the leading principles of ordinary tools, as well as Square, about these tools themselves. Fig. 102 gives an accurate representation of this square, and explains its application as a centre Fig. 103. square, as which alone it is invaluable to every mechanic. Put the instrument over the circle ; as, for example, the end of a bolt or shaft with the arms B A, E A, resting against the circumference, in which posi- tion one edge of the rule, A D, will cross the centre. Mark a straight line in this position ; apply the instrument again to another part of the circum- ference and mark another line crossing the first. The point where the two lines cross each other is the centre of the circle. The whole is the work of a moment. The tongue, D A, fastened, as it is, into the tri- F.G.^04. Fig. ios. Fig. 107. ^"Sular frame B A E, cannot AMES'S PATENT UNIVERSAL SQUARE, be movcd Or knockcd from its place — in this respect constituting a great improvement over the carpenters try square, T square, and mitre in common use. The instruments aie made of the best material, neatly finished, and The Marking Gauge and the Mortise Gauge. 115 10 inch, perfectly true. Fig. 103 explains the application of the instrument as a carpenter's try square as at N, and as an outside square as at L. In fig. 104 its use is shown as a substitute for the mitre, while in fig, 105 it is shown as a T square and graduated rule; and in figs. 106 and 107 as an outside square for drawing, and a T square for machinists. The square combines, in short, in the most convenient form, Jive different instru- ments : namely, try square, T square, mitre, graduated rule, and — what is entirely new — the centre square, for finding the centre of a circle. It may be fairly said, indeed, that no mechanic's or amateur's list of tools can well be complete without a universal square. The prices are according to length of blade : 4 inch, IIS. 3d. ; 6 inch, 13s. 6d. : 8 inch, iSs. 25s. ; and 12 inch, 31s. 6d. It is the graduar tion, doubtless, of the steel blade or rule of the Patent Universal Square that renders this useful instrument so costly — for costly it is. Fig. 108. MARKING GAUGE, and beyond dispute out of the reach of many amateurs for this very reason. The clearness, however, of the illustrations of the various purposes to which the square may be put, combined with the description given above, will enable many to construct a rough instrument of the kind for their own use which, in all probability, will do the work that is wanted quite as well, although it may lack the good appearance and nicety of finish of the genuine article. 2S7. The next kind of tool that demands our attention is the gauge in its two varieties, known as the gauge pure and simple, or marking gauge, as it is generally called, and ^ig. 109. mortise GArcr. the mortise gauge. Fig. 108 represents the marking gauge. This consists of a beech wood bar with a block or he A of the same ii6 Household Carpentry and Joinery. material, which slides up and down the bar, and is retained in any king desired position by the thumbscrew. A steel point is gauge. inserted close to the upper end, and when it is desired to mark a line on a piece of wood parallel to the edge, the head Is moved down the bar until the requisite distance between the steel point and the upper surface of the head is obtained. The head is then held against the edge of the wood, with the steel point pressing on the wood, and when the gauge is moved up and down a line is marked on the wood by the steel point. Ordinary marking gauges may be bought from yd. io is. The marking gauge figured in the illustration has the advantage of being graduated down one side of the bar in inches. Gauges of this description are sold by Messrs. Churchill and Co., at prices ranging from 3d. to Sd. each. ,, ^. The mortise gauge, shown in fig. log is similar in general Mortise tj o ' o .^ gauge. principle to the marking gauge ; but it has in addition a slide working in a groove in the bottom side of the bar, by which means two lines parallel to each other and to the edge of the wood can be marked at one operation, the steel point in the groove and the head of the gauge being set at the required distances from the fixed steel point. English made mortise gauges of the better kind range from 2S. 6d. to 7s. 6d., according to the material of which they are made, and the degree of finish bestowed on them. The American mortise gauges range in price from 2s. 8d. to 3s. 4d. An excellent double gauge, unpolished beech wood, marking and mortise combined, may be bought of Messrs. Churchill and Co., for is. 4d., and one of a superior quality for 3s. These combination gauges are commended to the attention of amateur artisans. 28S. A level, as the name implies, is an instrument for ascertaining if one cross piece of wood from one post to another is fairly and Levels : their actually horizontal, and inclines neither to one side or the principle, qj-i-^^j. . q^ jf j-j^g joists of a floor are in a perfectly hori- zontal position, so that when the flooring boards are nailed to them the floor of the room may be perfectly level. It is also used for ascertaining that stones or courses of brickwork are properly laid ; and that posts, framing, and all work which consists of uprights or vertical pieces of any kind are fixed perpendicularly — that is to say, at right angles to the plane of the horizon. Conversely, a true hori- zontal line is at right angles to a line that is truly vertical or perpen- dicular. To determine whether or not carpenters' and bricklayers' work is level or upright, different kinds of levels are used, and these must now be described. The Level and the Method of Applying it. 117 2S9. Fig. no will explain the general principles of the spirit level, an instrument of great utility which every amateur artisan should possess. The engraving represents the section of an spmt ordinary spirit level taken lengthwise. The body of the ^^^®^' level is generally made of some hard wood, as oak, walnut, rosewood, etc., and it need scarcely ^ u k: t be said that the heavier the h ^ a T ^ ** ^ wood the better it is for the purpose. In the upper part of i thewoodagroove, A B, iscut, Fig. ho. the spirit level. just deep enough and long enough to receive a round tube of glass, ;/c(2;/)/ filled with spirit, and hermetically sealed at both ends to prevent the escape of the fluid that is thus imprisoned within it. When the tube has been properly placed in the groove cut for its reception, the upper surface should be just flush with the upper surface of the wood. A thin brass plate with a long narrow hole in the centre is then placed over the glass and wood as at c D E F, in which D E represents the slit in section. To protect the bottom of the level, plates of brass are sometimes attached to it at the ends, as shown at G and H. It has been said that the tube is 7iearly filled with spirit. The remaining space is occupied by air, and this air, which appears in the tube in the form of a bubble, being lighter than the spirit will always rise to that part of the tube which happens to be highest. When ihe tube is in a horizontal position as there is not sufficient air to extend along its entire length, the air takes the form of an elongated bubble, which shifts from end to end as each is raised and lowered in turn. When the level is in a perfectly horizontal position the bubble is precisely in the centre of the tube as at K ; when the end H of the level is raised it will run upwards towards E ; and when G is raised it will run in a contrary direction towards D In practice, therefore, if, when the Method of level is laid on a shelf or any other piece of wood that is leveftoTong placed in a horizontal position, the bubble is found to be engtas. in the middle of the tube, the shelf is exactly in the position it ought to be, and truly level ; but if it be a little too high at either end the shifting of the bubble towards that end will show that the end in question requires lowering a little, or that the other end must be raised, as may be most convenient, until the bubble by taking up its position in the middle of the tube, indicates that the wood is now perfectly level. 290. It may happen, however, that the wood itself is level, but that it does not appear to be so, from the indications given by the bubble ii8 Household Carpentry and Joinery. in the spirit level. The reader will naturally ask, How can this be? and to his query we must reply that for the level to do its Eequirements ^ . , . r r u for accurate duty with accuracy, it is necessary that the sitrjace oi tne levelling. ,,,,, • i i wood itself be perfectly level ; that is to say, accurately and truly planed up. Suppose, for example, that the surface of the wood was not level but irregular, going first down and then up, as in the hne A B c D E in fig. iii. The diagram is exaggerated it is true, as it appears here, but let the reader imagine such depressions to occur in a length of 6 feet, instead of a length of 1% inches, and the notion of exaggeration which is conveyed by the diagram will dis- appear. The piece of wood, whose upper surface is represented by r — \ a Fig. III. USE OF THE STRAIGHT-EDGE. the irregular line A B C D E F, is actually in a truly horizontal or level position ; but if the level be laid on the part B c, the bubble will shift towards c, and the amateur following the dictate of the level will drop the end F until the bubble goes to the centre, and thus throw his work out of the level instead of bringing it level as he thinks he is doing. Again, if the level had been laid on A B, the bubble would have gone towards A, and he would then have lowered the end A. Or suppose that after lowering the end F he had laid the level on a b, he would have found the level telling him to raise the end F, while a moment before it had been directing him to lower it, and being puzzled by the discrepancy he would begin to lose faith altogether in the accuracy and utility of his level. 291. Now all this is simply because the spirit-level is, comparatively speaking, short, being seldom more than 10 inches in length, and Level posi- generally less than this, and it will only indicate the true ^"foro'wn**^ level with accuracy/^/- its own length, unl&ss the wood length only, i^^ls been planed up so that its surface is smooth and level from end to end ; or if the wood be unplaned and rough from the saw, if it be level from end to end. To get over any difficulty of the „ , kind that has been set forth above, the amateur must Use of ' straight-edge provide himself with a straight-edge ; or — as this term is in levelling. ^ 00' generally applied to a piece of wood or metal, of which one side only is perfectly true and straight, to test the accuracy of the surface of a joint that the carpenter is making, as in a panel, or the The Straight-edge : The Plumb Level. 119 surface of metal that a smith is filing — with what we may call a double straight-edge ; that is to say, a piece of wood about five or six feet in length, four inches wide, and % inch or one inch thick, such as is shown above the irregular surface A B C D E F in fig. in. In this double straight-edge, which must be made for the amateur by a good joiner, the sides G H, K L, must be perfectly true, level, and parallel to each other, and, that this desirable end may be completely attained, must be shot by a trying or joiner plane. When such a piece of wood as this is laid along such a surface as A B c D E F, and the spirit level is placed about its centre, as at M, a level about five or six feet in length, according as the length of the piece of wood may be, is formed, which shows that the points A, c, F, of the surface of the wood below it are in a horizontal Hne, and that the wood itself is in a horizontal position, although its surface is by no means level. The utility of the straight-edge, in testing the accuracy with which the planing up of any surface has been performed, must now be obvious to all and nothing more need be said about it. 292. The piece of wood that has just been described as a double straight-edge may be further utilised in another way, namely as an upright level, or, to speak more correctly, as a plumb level. piumb First of all it must be stated that, by the force of gravity level, which tends to draw everything in a direction towards the earth's centre, if a weight be attached to one end of a string and the other be held in the hand or fastened round a nail driven into a wall, the string, when the weight at the lower end has ceased to oscillate and is at rest, will be vertical, or per- pendicular. Now, if a hole, shaped something like a pear when cut in half longitudinally, be made near one end of the straight-edge as at A, and three nicks be made with a saw at the other end as at B in fig. 112, the wood will serve the purpose of a plumb level. It is requisite that the middle nick be cut in a straight line running exactly midway down the board from end to erkd, and that the pear-shaped hole be symmetrically cut on either side of this central straight line. The next thing to be done is to take a piece of string or cord, not too thick, and thread one end of it through a hole made for the purpose in a leaden or brass plummet, commonly called a plumb- bob. A leaden plum-bob will cost from 6d. to IS. according to size and weight, and a brass one from 2s. upwards. The other end of the string must be in -n Fig. 112. plumb level. Plumb-bob. 120 Household Carpentry and Joinery. twisted into the saw cuts at B, care being taken that it is first put through the central cut so that the Hne may hang fairly down the centre of the board. The string must also be adjusted in such a manner that the plumb-bob may hang freely just within the central hole at A, the top of the plumb-bob being from j^in. to ;/in, below the upper end of the Use of ^ole. Now suppose the amateur artisan is fixing a post plumb level ■ ^^^ earth as at C, or fixing an upright against a wall, m fixing ' ^ i ^ inch wide, thereby avoiding any liability to push short pieces of work through the slot when the saw is in motion. This mitre box can be used with a back or tenon saw, or a panel saw equally well. If a back saw is used, both iinks which connect the rollers or guides are left in the upper grooves, and the back of the saw is passed through the under links. 124 Household Carpentry and Joinery. If a panel saw or small hand saw is used, the link which connects the rollers on the back spindle is changed to the lower groove, and then the blade of the saw will be stiffly supported by both sets of rollers and may be made to serve as well as a back saw. By slightly raising or lowering the spindles, when necessary, the leaden rolls at the bottom may be adjusted to stop the saw at the proper depth ; and by the aid of a set screw the spindles on which the guides revolve may be turned sufficiently to make the rollers bear firmly on the sides of a saw-blade of any thickness. 29S. From the mitre box we must pass on to compasses and cal- lipers which, as it has been already said, are used, the one for dividing out spaces and marking out circular-work ; and the other for Compasses , . . , ■,■ , c ^ r and the comparison of the g?.uge or diameter of parts ot a Callipers. ^.^^^ ^^ ^^_^^^ ^^^^^ .^ being turned on the lathe with the pattern or working drawing. 299. The compasses used by carpenters and joiners are made of iron, the legs being strong and solid, and the points somewhat blunt The larger compasses are sometimes filled Compasses ■^^,J^}^ ^n arc, which is fastened to one leg, with arc. ' _ as at A, and passes through a slot in the other leg at B. A thumb-screw passes through the side of the leg at c, and when it is desired to retain the distance between the points of the legs for any purpose, the thumbscrew is screwed tightly against the arc. It is difficult, if not impossible, to alter the position of the legs until the pressure exacted by the thumbscrew is relaxed. The compasses, with arc, are shown in fig. 119, while in fig. 120 a pair of callipers is represented. These are nothing more than bow-legged compasses ; the legs being bowed, or bent, so that the points may be more readily applied to the diameter of any work in the lathe. Like the compasses, they are made in different sizes. Compasses range in price from 6d. to 10s., and callipers from is. to iSs., according to make, size, and quality. A useful pair of rule-joint com- passes may be bought for 8d., and a pair of wing-compasses, or com- passes fitted with arc, from is. 6d. A serviceable pair of spring- callipers may be bought for is. 6d., and a pair of good wing-callipers for 2S. 300. Among the many useful inventions bearing on carpentry, joinery, and engineering, that have been introduced of late years by Callipers. Calliper Rules and Square. 125 Americans, are calliper rules and squares. They are, however, too costly for general use. A steel calliper rule, 3 inches long, with a slide that can be drawn out 2}4 inches, gradu- Rules and ated to I2ths, 24ths, 4Sths, Sths, i4ths, and 2Sths of an 'i'^^^^- inch on one side ; and i6ths, 32nds, 64ths, 2oths, 5oths, and looths on the other ; and on the slide to 32nds and 64ths of an inch, remark- able for accuracy and durability, may be had of Messrs. Churchill and Co. for 1 8s. The same firm supplies calliper squares with or without adjusting screw. These are graduated according to English measure- ment in inches and parts of inches on one side, and in accordance with the metric system on the other. These squares, without adjust- ing screw, cost, if 2 inches long, i6s., and if 4 inches long, 215. ; with adjusting screw, if 2 inches long, 19s., and if 4 inches, 25s. Stanley's Ivory Calliper Rules are handy pocket com- ivory caiuper panions. The twofold 6 inch rule, with square joint in German silver, Ji inch wide, and graduated in Sths, loths, and i6ths of an inch is useful and in- expensive, costing 3s. 2d. The calliper rule repre- sented in fig. 121, will show the character of these rules, and how they are used — the diameter, or gauge of any work being measured between the z'nszWe of the Fig. 121. graduated calliper rule. foot of the slide and the end of the rule, and indicated by the gradua- tions on the slide. This rule, which is made of boxwood, with arch- joint and edge-plates in brass, is fourfold; it is 12 inches long, and I inch wide, and graduated in Sths, loths, I2ths, and i6ths of an inch. The price is only 2s. 301. There are many miscellaneous tools and appliances used in Carpentry and Joinery which are not subject to any classification as those are which have been already described. Among ,, . , , , , . , ., , Miscellaneous these we may include the screwdriver, the nail-punch, Tools used in the reamer or rymer, the scriber, the cramp, the glue- '^^^^^ '■^• pot, and the oil-can. Sand-paper, on paper or cloth, with finely- powdered glass or emery-powder on one side of it, must also be noticed. There is another appliance called the bench holdfast, which is used to hold wood firmly down on the carpenter's bench when necessary ; but as it will be more convenient to speak of this in immediate connection uith the carpenters bench, no further mention of it will be made here. 126 Household Carpentry and Joinery. Fig. 12?. FORMS OF SCREWDKIVERS. 302. The screwdriver bears some slight resemblance to the chisel, although it is used for a very different purpose. It is an iron blade The Screw- ^^^ ^" ^ wooden handle, with the end ground so as to driver. fQ^m a long bevel on either side. The edge is blunt, but should be fine enough to enter the nick across the head of a screw with ease. In the annexed illustration, fig. 22 shows the ordinary form of the screwdriver, and fig. 123 the manner in which the blade is let into the handle, the ferule being nicked, or slotted about }$ inch in depth. The heel of the blade just above the tang is tightly fixed in the slot, and additional firmness is thus imparted to the tool, and the blade is prevented from turning in the handle, as bradawls will often turn, much to the vexation of the operator. Screw- drivers vary in length from 3in. to I2in., and may be bought at prices ranging according to size, from 6d. to 3s. The size of the tool used must always be suited to the work in hand, that is to say, to the size of the screw to be driven or withdrawn. The larger the screw the gi'eater the friction and resistance of the wood that must be overcome in driving the screw in or taking it out. The amateur artisan is therefore recom- mended to provide himself with three screwdrivers — one small, one of medium size, and the other large, say 3 inch, 6 inch, and 10 inch in length of blade. These may be bought for Sd., is., and 2s., respectively, of sufficiently good quality for all ordinary purposes. Fig 124 shows the round-bladed screwdrivers, a form which is more generally used Roiind-biaded ^V ^^^ engineer and smith. Round-bladed screwdrivers Screwdnver. ^^q dearer than the ordinary sort, but three useful ones of the sizes above named may be bought for lod., is. 3d., and 2s. 3d., respectively. Fig. 125 shows the \merican Cast Steel American ,.,.,.. ... Cast Steel Screwdriver, an excellent tool of this description supplied Screwdriver. , ,, _, , ... . _, _,,,., , - by Alessrs. Churchill and Co. The blades are made from the best quality of cast steel, and are tempered with great care. They are ground down to a correct temper, and pointed at the end by special machinery, thus procuring perfect uniformity in size, form, and strength, while the peculiar shape of the point gives it unequalled firmness in the screw-head when in use. The shanks of the blades are properly slotted to receive a patent metallic fastening, which secures them permanently in the handles. The handles are of the most approved pattern, the brass ferules being of the thimble form, Nail Punches, Reamers, and Clamps. 127 extra heavy and closely fitted. The prices and sizes in which this useful kind of screwdriver is made are :—i}4 inches, 4d. ; 2 inches, 6d. ; 3 inches, 8d. ; 4 inches, lod. ; 5 inches, is.; 6 inches, is. 2d. ; 7 inches, is. 4d. : 8 inches, is. yd. ; and 10 inches, 2s. 303. The iiail-punch, or brad-punch., is a short piece of steel or case- Aardened iron, blunt at one end, and tapering to a square or round point at the other end, according as the punch itself is square or ^^^^^^^^^j^ round. Brad-punches are sold at 2d. each, the larger floor- or ^ 1 • 1 1 J Brad-punoli. ing punches at 3d. each. They are used to drive the head of a brad or nail below the surface of the wood, when the hole that is left above the head can be filled up with putty, and all traces of the nail be hidden. When a nail is to be punched in, it should not be struck directly with the hammer after the head is about A of an inch above the surface of the wood, lest the wood be bruised and dented with the blow of the hammer. In nailing down flooring the floor-brad is driven below the surface, because, when the boards begin to wear, the head, which is harder and will not wear away at the same rate, projects above the floor, and is inconvenient, if not absolutely dangerous. 304. The reamer, or rymer as it is sometimes called, though the former is the proper mode of spelling the word, is a steel tool set in a handle and used for the purpose of enlarging a hole in a jjea,mer or piece of metal ; as, for example, in a hinge whose screw- Ry^er. holes are not quite large enough to admit the screws. It is made in different forms, but most commonly in the shape of a long, stiletto-like, four-sided blade, thick at the haft, and tapering to a fine point, which is useful for marking lines on wood, leather, zinc, or any other material. A good reamer may be bought at from 6d. to is. The tool just described is often called a scriber because its point is useful for scribing (Latin scribo, I write) or marking lines on wood, etc. A small rat-tail file may be used by the amateur as a reamer. 305, The cramp, or clamp, is a contrivance that is used for bringing boards close together and retaining them in position until they are fixed in their place by pegs or nails. It is also used ^.^^5 or by cabinet-makers for bringing glued work together and ciamp. keeping the parts or pieces in close juxtaposition until the glue has set. The principle on which the cramp works may be seen from fig. 126. A is a long bar, along which works a movable head c, which may be fixed in position at any part of the bar by screws, as shown in the engraving, one of which works into a groove in the side facing the beholder,! another screw, which does not appear, working in a similar groove on the other side. The head C is also movable, but only to 128 Household Carpentry and Joinery. the extent permitted by the screw D that is attached to it. When the head b has been fixed so as to allow the work to slip in easily between it and the head C, the latter is brought tightly against it by the action of the screw D, and remains fast fixed between the jaws till the screw is relaxed. The amateur artisan will find a clamp indispensable in chair-mending and other similar operations. The prices of the American clamps sold by Messrs. Churchill and Co., of which the improved kind with malleable iron head and jaws and wrought screw is shown in the above illustration, are as follows : — Clamps with Woolen Heads. s. d. 2ft. inside jaws 3 9 3ft- » ,.42 s. d. 4ft. inside jaws 4 7 Sft- .. ..SO Clamfs with Iron Heads. s. d. 2ft. inside jaws 8 4 3ft. „ „ 8 8 s. d. 4ft. inside jaws 9 o Sft- .. .,9 4 The iron-heads, jaws, and screw, may be had without the wooden bar for 6s. gd. 306. The joiner's cramp differs from the above in construction, although the general principle Joiner's ^^ precisely the same. The bar is Cramp, ^f Jj-qj^^ ^^^ j-j^g heads are so con- structed as to be slipped over the bar and work freely along it ; the bar is pierced at regular distances with holes, into which an iron peg is inserted to fix the head that is nearest the end over which the heads are passed. At the other end of the bar is an iron ring, through which works a deep-threaded screw, turned by a bar through the head in the same manner as a vice- screw. When the other head has been fixed by the peg that is inserted behind it, the boards, or any other pieces of wood that may have been placed between the heads can be brought tightly together by the action of the screw, as in the cabinet-maker's clamp. Joiners' cramps range in length from 3 feet to 6 feet, and cost from 25s. to 37s. 6d., according to size. Fig. 126. THE CLAMF. Clamp for Wedging up Glued Boards. 129 307. In fig. 127 is shown Hammer's Adjustable Clamp, a handy article for amateurs for small work, made of malleable iron, and of great strength. By turning the bolt one quarter to the 1 r • , 1 • r 1, , , • , Hammer'a left. It can be moved its full length out or m ; when turn- Adjustable ing to the right it operates like any other screw. Hand- screws are also useful for clamping. These consist of two parallel jaws or blocks of wood, which are brought to- gether or apart^ as may be desired, by two wooden screws, running trans- versely through the bars and working in opposite directions. These useful articles are sold by Messrs. Churchill and Co., at the following prices, according to diameter and length of screws, and length and size of jaws, which are also given : Fig. 127. hammer's adjustable clamp. Diam. of screws. Length of screws. Length jaws. Sire of jaws. Each. Di.nm. of screws. Length of screws. Length of jaws. Size of jaws. Each. Id. In. In. In. s. d. In. In. In. In. s. d. i 10 8 il X il 9 I 18 16 23 X zg 2 6 1 10 8J 13 X l| 10 i| 20 18 2i X 2i a 10 3 s 12 10 i| X l| I I li 24 20 2i X 2i 3 6 s 16 14 2x2 I 7 1 308. For bringing the glued edges of boards tightly together, a simple cramp may be quickly improvised in the following manner. Suppose that A, B, c, in fig. 128, represent portions of these simple crarap boards, glued lengthwise along their edges : D E is a long * mlde by ° piece of wood, on each end of which is screwed a block amateurs. of wood, bevelled inside, as shown at F and G ; the boards when glued are laid in the hollow between the project- ing cheeks E, F, and ^ wedge -shaped pieces of wood H, K, are driven in be- tween the cheeks and the outer edges of the board. Fig. 128. SIMPLE Clamp. Of course the furtlier the wedges are 130 Household Carpentry axd Joineri. driven in, the closer will the edges of the boards be brought together, and the more firmly united will they be. 309. Mention must be made of the carpenter's peticil^ which the amateur artisan will be constantly wanting to mark lines on wood, in „ . , accordance with the guidance given him by rule, square, pencu. ai^(j bevel. Marks should be made on wood with a pencil in preference to a scriber, as the latter must of necessity scratch the surface of the wood while the pencil does not. Pencils for carpenters and joiners, etc., are square, round, and oval in form, and of these three shapes the oval is certainly the best. They are sold at id. each ; but as p n u often P^^^cils, like most small tools and sometimes large ones, mislaid, ^re often mislaid, or rather, hastily laid down (and so hastily, very frequently, that the workman cannot remember where he has placed them), it will be as well for the amateur to provide himself with a dozen, which may be bought for 8d. or loj-^d., according to quality. It is almost needless to say that the best are the cheapest. The disappearance of a pencil or tool when mislaid, and the time and trouble that are involved in looking for it, often suggest the idea that these things have an unpleasant knack of hiding themselves. 310. ThQ glt(e-pot is an essential in every house, whether the house- holder or occupier turns his attention to household carpentry or not. So many little odd jobs can be done by its aid, that if Glue-pot. nothing more than a hammer and screw-driver be kept, a glue-pot should be purchased to form a trio. For example, a piece of veneer may come off a looking-glass frame, or any piece of furniture, and may be mislaid or lost before a carpenter hap- pens to be at work in the house, putting these and similar little matters in order. Now, if the piece of veneer is lost it will be made a costly business — that is to say, costly in proportion to the actual damage — to replace it, and if the missing piece is not re- placed the appearance of the piece of furniture is spoiled, and its value considerably deteriorated. Fig. 129. GLUE-POT. j3yt^ jf ^ glue-pot is at hand, the damage may be instantly repaired,'and if the mending is carefully done, as it ought to be, the piece of furniture is little the worse for the mishap. 311. The glue-pot is shown in section, or, as it were, cut in half, in fig. 129. It is a pot within a pot, the outer and larger one being of Construction iron, and the smaller one of copper or iron, as the case g ue po . ^^^^ ^^^ ^j^^ gj^^ .^ broken up small, and placed in the smaller pot, which fits into the larger pot the rirn of the former resting How TO MAKE Good Glue. 131 on the rim of the latter. Water is placed in the larger pot, sufficient to nearly fill it when the smaller pot is put in. The pot is placed en or close to the fire, and as soon as the water boils the glue begins to melt, until it is reduced to a semi-fluid condition. 312. The following is a good recipe for making, or rather melting, glue. It is taken from Spon's " Workshop Receipts : " " Break the glue into small pieces, and soak from twelve to twenty- j^ecipe for four hours in cold water ; put the glue in the glue-pot, fill ^^aaking giue. the outer vessel with water, and apply heat. For ordinary purposes it should run freely, and be of the consistency of thin treacle. The hotter glue is, the more force it will exert in keeping the two parts glued together ; in all large and long joints the glue should be applied immediately after boiling. Glue loses much of its strength by being often melted ; that glue, therefore, which is newly made is much preferable to that which has been used. When done with, add some of the boiling water from the outer vessel to the glue, so as to make it too thin for immediate use. Put it away till wanted again, and by the time the water in the outer vessel is boiled the glue in the inner is ready melted and the proper thickness for use. Powdered chalk, brickdust, or saw-dust added to glue, will make it hold with more than ordinary firmness." 313. In the above recipe eyerything is said that an amateur need know about glue, and how it should be used. A small brush used by painters, and usually called a sash tool, should be used Brush for for applying the glue. It is better not to keep it in the appiy^^s siae. glue in the pot ; but when it has been used, to soak it in boiling water,, and then put it away in some safe place until it is again v/anted for use. A serviceable glue-pot may be bought at from is. to 2s. 6d. ; good- glue is from gd. to is. per pound, and a glue-brush from 2}4d. to 3d. 314. The amateur artisan will require an oil-can as well as a glue- pot, for he will often have occasion to use oil for one purpose or another. It is indispensable to him when he is sharpen- ing any edge-tool on the hone or oil-stone, and it is useful for oiling locks, and other similar purposes. In former days a phial bottle half filled with oil, with the quill end of a fine feather passed through the cork, so that the feather end may always be kept in the oil, and having a loop of string round its neck so that it may be hung up in the artisan's shop ready for use, was the simple appliance by means of which the carpenter oiled his whetstone for sharpening his tools, and made locks, bolts, etc., work noiselessly and easily ; but this has been of late years superseded by the oil-can. 132 Household Carpentry and Joinery. 315. The oil-can in its usual form very much resembles a funnel turned upside down, but instead of being open at the broad end it is , furnished with a flexible bottom, which can be pressed Forma of ' '^ ou can. inwards. When pressed, the diminution of the space inside — the bulk of air that may be within the can remaining the same — causes a drop of oil to escape from the nozzle, after which the bottom returns outward with a short, sharp click. The nozzle is of brass, and is perforated length- wise, the hole being just large enough to admit of Fig. 130. GOODENOUGH OIL-CAN. tjig passagc of a bristle, or very fine wire. It screws into a brass cap, which forms part of the body of the can, and through which oil is poured when it is necessary to fill it. The price of an ordinary oil-can ranges from 6d. to is., according to size. A better form of the oil-can "Good- '^ *° ^^ found in the improved " Goodenough " Oiler, enoughV' oUer. ^qI^ i^y Messrs. Churchill and Co. This canis represented in fig. 130. It is compact, strong, and tight, and from its shape is suitable for carrying in the pocket. The body, or reservoir, is made of fine block-tin, flat like a watch, with flexible sides, which give it a double spring. The spout is of heavy brass to insure strength : it has a tight joint, and is tinned inside to prevent corrosion of oil. The brass cap is packed with hard leather, which presses against the outlet of Ihe spout as the cap is screwed down, and effectually prevents leakage. Among other good points that this oil-can possesses, not the least is that, even if laid down with the nut off, it will not leak, unless pressed or jarred. The price of this handy and useful little oiler is 8y'-2d. or 3d. (,^^^^^^3. is sometimes charged by the retail dealer, especially for the smaller sizes. The writer has been asked as much as sd. per pound for cut nails, and in consequence has left the shop without buying, a course which his readers are recommended to follow, as there is no difficulty whatever in finding men who are content with a legitimate profit, instead of coveting at least 100 per cent, more than they are entitled to. The cut nail is useful for all kinds of ordinary work in which the nail is to be driven straight into the wood, but it must be remembered that they will not clench, or, in other words, that the end or point cannot be turned by the hammer and driven into the wood so as to prevent withdrawal. 13S Household Carpentry and Joinery. 327. It is different, however, with the c/as^ 7iail figured at C, which, being a wrought nail and made of malleable iron, can be turned and clenched. There are strong clasp nails and fine clasp c asp n 3. ^^.^^ _ ^^ latter, which weigh from 2lbs. to 61bs. per thousand, being used in joinery, while the heavier and longer kinds are more suitable for carpentry. The nail is so called because through the peculiar barb-like form of the head it clasps the fibre of the wood into which it is driven as soon as it meets it, and carries it down in its grasp leaving a somewhat large and ragged hole. This kind of nail can be easily driven down level with the surface without the aid of a punch by reason of the conical form of its head, but if it is desired to bury the head the punch must be used. 328. The rose nail is a wrought nail with a round head, projecting upwards in the centre, in the form shown at D. The body of the nail is broad, and less in depth or thickness than in width. Eosenaus. g^j^^g^jj^gg ^j^gy ^re made with broad flat points, and sometimes with sharp points ; these nails maybe clenched. They are made in two varieties, namely, fine rose and strong rose. The best nails of this description appear to be those made by J. J. CORDES AND Co., of Dos IVor/cs, Newport, Monmoulhshire. The flat-pointed fine rose nails made by this firm range from i in. to 3Kin. in length, the strong rose, also flat pointed, from \%\n. to 4in. The best rose with sharp points range in length from i;'^d. per pound for the largest, the price being less per pound in proportion as the nails get larger and consequently fewer to the pound. 332. The amateur will readily understand that it is far more profit- able for him to buy nails and screws in large quantities, if he uses a great many in the course of the year. The following is a ^. ^ ^ Prices of resume of the prices of nails per pound per thousand, or ^^»- per dozen, as specified : Fine Wire Brads., per. lb. from 6W. to 8d. Joiners' Fne Ct. do. „ looo „ ijd. gd Floor Brads „ lb. „ 2"d. ,, — ' ^," ." cwt. „ ii'6 ' — Clasp Nails Fne Ct. „ lb. ,, ad. „ — _•> , •• ,, cwt. ,, 120 ,, — Rose Head C.it II). ad. _ Rose Head Wrosht. per. lb. from 4d. to is. Clout Fine Wroght. ,, „ ,, 6d. „ lod. Lath Nails, Best Cut „ „ „ ajd. „ — Tacks, Cut Common ,, looo ,, ijd. „ sd. French Tacks ... ,, lb. ,, sd. „ 8d, ,, Wire Nails „ „ „ 2jd. ,, 6d. FancyRrass-hd. N Is. „ doz. „ ad. „ 6d. 333. The form of the screw is well-known. The principle on which it is constructed is exhibited in the annexed illustration, and it will be sufficient to give a drawing of one screw only, as the „ ,.,, . ' Screws: tnelr ditterences in varieties of the screw from the original type forms. can be easily described. At A in fig. 136 the screw is shown before 140 Household Carpentry axd Joinery. Fig. 136. SCREW. it is cut, when it is in the form of a conical-headed, blunt-pointed nail with a shaft of very nearly the same width from top to bottom, but tapering slightly as it approaches the extremity. At B the screw is shown after a spiral thread has been cut in it from the extremity to about two-thirds of its length in an upward direction. A nick is then sawn or filed across the top to receive the end of the screwdriver and the screw is ready for use. 334. The principle of the screw, as it has been said, is precisely the same in all. In the wooden Principle of ^^""^^^ ^ ^^^P V shaped groove the screw, taken out instead of a broad flat groove which leaves merely a spiral thread winding up the shaft of the screw ; and this form is adopted for the smith's screw used in fastening to- gether the plates and pieces of a stove or kitchen range. This form is shown in fig. 137. Screws are made in all sizes from >^in. to gm. long, and each size is made in Fig 1^7 '^'arious thicknesses to suit different kinds of work and dif- '^"s'Skw"*' ferent purposes. Considering, then, the range in length and number of thicknesses in each size it is manifest that there are several , score of different sizes from which the purchaser must Prices or screws, make his selection according to circumstances. Screws vary in prices from }id. per dozen >^in. in length, to is. gd. per dozen 9in. in length, or by the gross from 3;^d. to 19s. 335. Round-headed screws are made for fastening the plates of bolts and rim locks to doors. The under part of the head in these has the form of a square shoulder which, when the screw is driven Eound-headed ^ screws, home, fits flat against the bolt plate or lock, as the case may be. The head rises from the flat shoulder in a semicircular form, and a deep nick is cut into the rounded head to receive the screw- driver. As there is little bearing for the screwdriver, these screws should be turned in with a strong bradawl or verj' narrow screwdriver, for when a wide one is used the nick of the screw is apt to get damaged Brass ^^^ broken away. Brass screws are made for fastening screws. brass plates to metal. The screws used for fastening Dandles of doors to the bar, or spindle by which the catch of the lock is turned, are headless, the nick being cut into the blunt end or top of the screw. Sometimes, when the screw is very long and thin, it tapers much more from head to point than in fig. 136. Hoiv TO DRIVE Screws : Bolts and Nuts. 141 336. When using screws care should be taken to bore a hole with a bradawl, if the wood be soft enough, for the entrance of the screw, and to guide its passage into the wood. The diameter of ^ r & Holes for the bradawl used should be some.what less than the reception of screws, diameter of the screw. A larger bradawl may be used to enlarge the hole at the entrance so as to diminish the friction of the wood against the screw, and vice versd. That a screw may be easily withdrawn, if requisite, the amateur artisan should keep a small tin box filled with grease or tallow bv him, into which ' Greasing the end and part of the shank should be plunged before screws before ... ... Oriving. the screw is inserted. Carpenters and jomers have a very bad trick of putting screws into their mouth, or between the lips, and keeping them there while they are screwing them in one by one. This makes the screw rusty, and difficult to withdraw. Therefore, i. Never, on any account wliatever, put a screw that is about to be used into the mouth. 2, Always grease the end of a screw before it is put into the wood, etc. It may be observed that in driving a screw into wood the screwdriver is always turned inwards towards the left, while in drawing it out it is turned outwards towards the right. 337. Bolts and nuts are of various forms and sizes ; they are dis- tinguished by the form of the head and neck. The principle on which they are made is the same in all cases, being an BoUg and iron cylinder, of uniform diameter from top to bottom, '^'^'^^• having a head either flat or rounded, rising from a flat shoulder or surface, placed transversely to the axis of the bolt, and touching the wood or other material against which it is brought to bear at every point. At the end remote from the head a V shaped or bevelled thread is cut, the angle at which the thread is inclined being very small. The screw end enters a nut or square block of metal, with a hole in the centre, also threaded to re- ceive the screw of the bolt. This kind of screw, when cut round the sides of a circular orifice, is Female technically called a "female screw." In screw. Fig n8 ^o- ^3^ ^ very common form of bolt is represented, BOLT AND NUT. ^vith a round neck, and a rounded or semi-circular head. The same kind of head is sometimes fitted to a square neck, and sometimes the head is square or hexagonal, or in the form of a circular disc as thick at the edges as in the middle. It is almost unnecessary to add that the nut must be turned or worked up the screw with a small wrench or spanner 142 Household Carpentry and Joinery. 33S. Excellent nails, screws, bolts, etc., of the best quality in all sizes, and at moderate prices, as the writer can testify from experience, _ , , can always be obtained from MR. Melhuish, ToolMaiiu- Where to get •' good nails, facturer &• Builders^ Irofimonger, 84, 85, & 87, Fetter Lane, Lotidon, B.C. Mr. Melhuish also supplies tools of all kinds, hinges, and every description of ironmongery for house- hold purposes that may be needed by the amateur, and American locks, brackets, etc., etc., imported direct from the best American manufacturers of this class of goods. 339. The prices of tools separately have been given under each head ; but as many amateur artisans may desire to buy their tools in „ , ^ . bulk, in a tool-box fitted to receive them, the followinsr Tool-boxes for ' ' " amateurs. Ugt of tool-chests, with their contents, calculated to suit the requirements and pockets of all, from the man of very limited means to him who can afford to spend as much as he may choose on any particular hobby, will be found useful. In every case the tools are of the best quality, and selected with care, and with a view to the peculiar wants of the amateur. Any tool may be omitted or ex- changed for another, when a corresponding reduction will be made in price, when necessarj'. The chests are made of good and well- seasoned pine or oak, French polished, strongly dove-tailed together, and fitted with brass lock, knobs, and handles of the best quality. The size in each case is exclusive of lids and mouldings. Oak chests are supplied to order by Mr. Melhuish at prices as under, the price for a pine chest in each case being somewhat lower. No. I. 16 inches, £1 4J. 6./. Hand-saw i Rule Chisel j Marking Awls [Square Hatchet Pincers Gouge Punch Cbw Wrench Hammer I 2 Gimlets 3 Files Turnscrew Furniture, etc. Mallet i 2 Bradawls Oil-stone I Spokeshave 1 Hand-saw Hatchet Hammer Mallet and Rule No. 2. 17 inches, £1 12s. 6if. I Punch I Claw Wrench 1 Turnscrew Pliers 1 Spokeshave ' Compasses ! Square ! Furniture, etc. Pincers 1 Gouge 3 Gimlets 3 Files 3 Bradawls Oil-stone 2 Chisels Marking Awl No. Hand-saw Hatchet Hammer Mallet Rule Pincers Marking Awl Punch 2 Turnscrews Spokeshave 3. 18 inches, £2 2s Square Claw Wrench 3 Gimlets 3 Bradawls 3 Chisels I 2 Gouges 3 Files I Oil-stone j Pliers i Compasses T-ock-saw Plane Furniture, etc. Hand-saw Hatchet Hammer Mallet Rule AV. 4. 19 inches, £2 12s. 6d. Pincers 4 Gimlets 4 Bradawls 4 Chisels 2 Gouges 3 Files Oil-stone Marking Awl Punch 3 Turnscrews Spokeshave Square Claw Wrench Pliers - Compasses Lock-saw Plane Marking Gauge Glue-pot & brush Furniture, etc. Tool Chests of Various Kinds. Hand-saw Axe Hammer Mallet Rule Pincers 3 Saws Axe 2 Htmmers Mallet Rule Pincers 143 5 Gimlets 5 Bradawls 5 Chisels 3 Gouges 4 Files Oil-stone I 6 Gimlets ' 6 r.radawls 6 Chisels I 4 Gouges Lock-saw Pliers Compasses Lock-saw Smoolliing-plane No. 5. 20 inches, ^3 55, 1 Marking Awl P'i I Punch I 2 Turnscrews I Spokeshave I Square I Claw Wrench No. 6. 21 inches, £^s,. Jack-plane 1 2 Punches Marking Gauge 3 Turnscrews Glue-pot & brush 2 Spokeshaves 4 riles I Square Oil-stone I Claw Wrench Drawing-knife Cutting Punch i^ocK-saw I Scraper Plane j Bevel Marking Gauge Furniture, etc. Glue-pot & brush ) Marking Awl I Pliers Compasses Drawing-knife Cutting Punch Scraper Bevel Furniture, etc. 3 Saws Axe 2 Hammers Mallet and Rule 4 Files Oil-stone No. 7. 22 inches, £j, 14J. (>d. Marking Awl 2 Punches 3 Turnscre«/s Hand-vice 2 Spokeshave J Square Claw Wrench Pliers Compasses Pincers 6 Gimlets 6 Bradawls 6 Chisels 4 Gouges Lock Saw Smoothing-lpane Jack do. 2 Gauges Glue-pot & brush Drawing-knife Cutting Punch Scraper Bevel Furniture] etc. 3 Saws and Axe 2 Hammers Mallet and Rule Pincers 6 Gimlets 6 Bradawls No. 8. 23 inches, £^ los. 6 Chisels 4 Gouges 4 Files Oil-stone Marking Awl 3 Punches 3 Turnscrews Bed Key Hand-vice 2 Spokeshaves Sciuare Claw Wrench ! 2 Pliers Compasses Lock-saw Smoothing-plane Jack do. 3 Gauges Glue-pot & brush Drawing knife Cutting Punch Scraper & Bevel Chalk Line Reel Furniture, etc. No. 9. 24 inches, £6 12s. 6d., contains in addition to the tools named in No. 8 — I File I 2 Mortise Chisels 1 i Coach Wrench lilany of the tools in this and the following sizes are, of course, larger and of better quality than similar tools in the smaller boxes. A^o. 10. 25 inches, £8, contains in addition to the tools named in No. 8 — 1 Hammer I 2 Chisels I 2 Files I i Coach Wrench I i Brace 1 12 Bits for Brace | 2 Mortise Chisels | Cutting Nippers | No. II. 26 inches, £\o, contains in addition to the tools named in No. 8 — 1 Hammer 3 Gimlets I 3 Bradawls I 3 Chisels I Saw Set 2 Files I Coach Wrench Spring Dividers I Brace I 2 Mortise Chisels i3 Bits for Brace i Cutting Nippers Bench-vice No. 12. 27 inches, £\'z ioj., contains in addition to the tools named in No. 8 — 2 Hammers I Mallet 6 Gimlets 6 Bradawls 6 Chisels I 2 Gouges ' 5 Files I I Turnscrew I Square I Compasses I Brace I Nipper Pliers I 24 Bits for Brace Hand Shears AnvilS; Becklron [ Spring Dividers Saw Set I Coach Wrench I Cutting Nippers [ Chipping Chisels | Spring Oil-can 3 Socket Chisels SlMortise Chisels Benchvice [frame Turning saw and WORKMEN'S OR EMIGRANT'S TOOL CHEST.* No. i.- 33 in. long, iS in. 1 Axe I Adze I Hand Saw I Tenon Saw I Compass Saw 1 Jack Plane Grooving Planes (i Pair; I Rebate Plane wide, and iS in. deep, containing full-size carpenters' tools 1 Smoothing Plane 5 Firmer Chisels 3 Firmer Gouges 3 Mortise Chisels I Marking Awl 3 Socket Chisels I Plated Square 3 Augers i Bench & Roof- 1 Spokeshave ing Hammer 2 Turnscrews 3 Files (assorted) I Marking Gauge 6 Gimlets I Improved Brass 1 6 Bradawls Sliding Mor- i Mallet tise Gauge i Box Whetstone I Brace (iS Bits) i Brad Punch ;^7 M«- of best quality. I pair of Compasses I Pincers I Rule Gluepotft brush Pliers Chalk Line and Reel Coach WrsEch *There are two other sizes made larger, Nos. 2 and 3. CHAPTER V. SHARPENnro TOOLS : THE WAYS AND MEANS EMPLOYED. Cutting Tools must be Sharp— Modes of Sharpening Tools — Itinerant Saw-setter-- Amateur should learn to Sharpen Tools — Form of Teeth of Saw — Saws should be kept Greased — How to open Teeth of Saw — The Saw-set : its Action — Hart's " Patent Saw-set " — Useful contrivance for Saw-setting — Vice for holding Saw — Edge-tools should not be trusted to knife-grinders — Grindstones — Useful Grind- stones for Amateurs — Directions for grinding Edge Tools — Gouges — Planes and Chisels — Remarks on the Bevel — Grinding Adze or Axe — The Oil-stone : how to use it— Size desirable for Oil-stones— Turkey Stones — Washita Stones — Prices of Oil-stones — Lubricants for Oil-stone — Position of Tool — Guides : why un- desirable — Position of arm, hand, etc.— Sharpening Tools by immersion in Acids — Remarks on this process — Artificial Grindstones — To remove Rust from Tools — To extract Rust from Steel— Preventives against Rust — To prevent Tools from Rusting — Varnish to prevent Rust. 340. To do any kind of work in Carpentry and Joinery with blunted tools in a creditable and workman-like manner is simply impossible, _ ... . , and it is because in nine cases out of ten that the amateur Cutting tools must be neglects to sharpen his saws and edge tools when they sharpt . . require it, that his work is so often done with difficulty, and presents anything but a satisfactory appearance when done. The professional carpenter and joiner will frequently stop in his work to put his plane-iron and chisel on the oil-stone — for he is well aware of the importance of having a keen edge to all cutting tools of this description — and he will take care to keep his saws sharpened and fit for use. It is necessary that the amateur artisan should imitate the regular mechanic in this essential duty of keeping his tools in a fit condition to do the work that is required of them ; and while he is learning how to manage various operations in carpentry and joinery and how to use his tools, he must also learn how to sharpen them when necessary. 341. Of course all cutting tools must be provided with a keen edge, and this is obtained by grinding them to a proper bevel on the grind- ,, , , stone and afterwards rubbing them on the oil-stone. Anions: Modes or 00 Bharpeniag strikhio tools the adze and hatchet will require sharpening on the grindstone, and, if necessary, a keener edge may be given by finishing off by rubbing the edge with a slip or small piece Saw-setting : Form of Teeth of Saw. 145 of oil-stone. Among rasping tools, all kinds of saws will require sharpening at times, and this must be effected principally by means of the saw-file. If the cutting edge of a bradawl be injured in any way it may be repaired and rendered sharp and even by filing. 342. Let us first inquire into the method of sharpening a saw. It is possible for an amateur to get this done for him by some jobbing carpenter when his saws grow dull, or by any itinerant itinerant saw-setter, who goes his regular round at intervals with Baw-setter his bench and files, and whose chief customers are the butchers. It is better, however, that he should learn to do the work himself than trust to another. It is far better to be independent of Amateur another's aid in all operations of this kind, for when a to°sharpen man can do these things for himself the necessary work °° ^" can be done at any time, whereas when the services of another must be invoked, the helped must await the convenience and coming of the helper, often to his serious detriment. 343. A saw seems a very simple thing, but it is surprising how few can sharpen and "set" a saw when it is a little out of order. If the amateur will look along the teeth of any saw used for Form of cutting wood, that happens to be in good order, he will teeth of saw. see that they do not lie straight, but that each tooth is bent outwards a little, either to the right or to the left, and that every other tooth is bent in the same direction ; in short, the line of teeth will present an appearance similar to the annexed figure (fig. 139), which is rather exaggerated, for the sake of clearer -T~-,^''~~'?-<5:t><^t!" illustration. In this figure, a is the ^^^^^^^^^-P-"^ point of the saw or part farthest p^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ op ^^^ from, and b the part nearest, the handle. Ifalinebe drawn from point to point on each side of the diagram, it will be seen that they enclose a space of some width, wider, in fact, than the sheet of metal of which the saw is made. By frequent use these points get dulled and worn away, and the space is consequently diminished, and the operator finds it a difficult matter to get the saw through the wood in consequence of the increased friction between the wood and the saw-blade. To work pleasantly the blade of the saw should be thinner towards the back than it is at the edge, that is to say, in all kind of saws but tenon saws, whose back is strengthened by a bar of iron or brass to impart the necessary stiffness to the blade. The blade should also be kept well Saws Bhouia be kept greased that it may not contract rust, which is detri- greasea, mental to its working, as the amateur may find from experience. 10 146 Household Carpentry and Joinery. 344. Now in sharpening a saw, the first thing to be done is to recover the original width between the points by bending the teeth How to open outwards, alternate teeth being beet in contrarj^ directions. teeth of saw. ^ saw-setter will set the teeth with a peculiar kind of hammer, striking every other tooth with unerring aim and surprising celerity, and then turning the saw over and repeating the operation on the remaining teeth. Great practice is of course necessary to do it with certainty, and the amateur is not recommended to attempt iL If he try his hand at it he will, without doubt, knock out several teeth, which will not at all improve the rasping or cutting power of the saw. 345. What, then, is the amateur to do ? He must have recourse to what is called a saw-set, an instrument of the shape shown in fig. 140' The saw-set : which consists of a round shaft formed like a turnscrew 1 B ac -ons, ^j. ^^g ^^^^ ^^^ terminating in a broad thick blade at the other, on either side of which are cut three or more deep nicks of different widths. Now if the saw be placed in a saw-vice — or between two boards, so constructed that the saw can be held lightly between them, with the teeth uppermost — the teeth can be bent to the right or C Fig. 140. SAW SET. left, as may be requisite, with the saw-set ; each tooth being held in turn in the nick whose width will admit it most accommodatingly, and then bent by a slight pressure of the hand on the shaft of the saw-set. The difficulty here is in regulating the depth to which the tooth is buried _ , in the nick, and the pres- FlG. 141. HARTS PATENT SAW SET. ... . ... sure which is applied. Occasionally the strain will be too great, and the amateur will have to e.xperience the disappointment of snapping off a tooth. This may Hart's ^^ obviated by the use of Hart's " Patent Saw-set," sold Baw^-let." ^y Messrs. Churchill and Co., which is shown in fig. 141. This powerful but simple saw-set is made of the best malleable iron, except the set-lever, which is of the best cast-steel, properly tempered. To use it, the operator must first adjust the brass gauge to the tooth to be set, and then adjust the top till the gauge rests solidly on the saw-blade. It will oe readily seen that •nore or less set can be given to the saw by turning the set screw on top Contrivance for Saw-setting. 147 D F Fig 142. CONTRIVANCE FOR SAW SETTING. up or down. The ordinary saw-set costs from Qd. to is. 3d.; the patent saw-set is more expensive, the 7)4 inch set wiih sirgle lever costing 2s. 8d. If fitted with a compound lever, a set of the same length cost 33. 6d. ; and a larger 10 inch set, also with compound lever, costs 6s. 8d. 346. The following contrivance for the purpose of setting saws, which was invented by a practical workman, and used by himself and others to whom he showed it, has been found to answer its pur- 'CTsefal con- pose perfectly well. In ng. 142, A shows the front view trivancefor ,,.,. ,-,. r 1 T. , saw-setting. and B the side view of this useful apparatus. It has the merit of being exceedingly simple — so simple, indeed, and easy of construction that the amateur may easily make one for himself. The part marked A is made of wood, B is a steel punch working in a slide. This punch is cut down to half the thickness and chamfered down, as will be seen by referring to c and D, which are enlarged views of this punch. A cubical block of steel shown at E fits into a hole made for its recep- tion in the part A. The edges of the block are chamfered or bevelled off to correspond with the chamfer of the punch, and each edge has a different chamfer to suit different savv^s. The action of this apparatus is as fol- lows : — Supposing the amateur wanted to set his hand-saw — put the coarsest bevel of the steel block under the punch, lay the saw flat upon the block with one tooth under the punch. Give the punch a slight tap with a hammer. Serve every other tooth the same ; turn the saw over, and repeat the operation. It is obvious that the teeth will take the same inclination outwards, as the bevel of the block and punch. After setting a saw it must be sharpened. For this end hold it in the vice with the teeth upwards, and with a saw yj ^ , j^ j^, file, give the teeth, if a handsaw, a shape like that shown ingsaw. at F ; if a compass saw, a shape similar to G ; and if a tenon-saw, the shape shown at H, taking care to file the teeth a little angular, as in fig. 139, showing the set of the teeth of a saw in page 145, and not straight across. 347. With regard to the vice in which the law must be held while y 148 Household Carpentry and Joinery. being filed, one of convenient construction is shown in fig. 143. This saw-filei-'s vice may be obtained from Messrs. Churchill and Co. for 6s. Its jaws are g'm. long, and it is jointed near the bench, by means of which the jaws can be thrown back- ward or forward at plea- sure. The amateur, who cannot afford such ap- pliances, may manage to hold his saw for the pro- cess of filing by means of his bench screw, which will be described in con- nection with the carpen- ter's bench. All that he has to do is to place a piece of Jzin. board some- what less in width than the saw near the handle, on each side of the saw, and then screw wood and saw tightly against the side of the bench with the bench screw. The piece of wood on the inside will keep the handle from touching the bench, if the saw be placed within the bench screw so that the handle is towards the right hand of the operator as he tightens the screw. Different saw files should be used for different kinds of saws. A tenon-saw file costs 3d., a file for a panel saw 3/'2d., for a hand-saw 4d., and for a rip saw 6d. 348. For sharpening or rather for grinding edge tools such as plane irons and chisels, the amateur must provide himself with a good grind- j, stone. And here the opportunity must be taken to caution should not him against trusting his tools to itinerant knife-grinders be trusted ^ '=' _ _ _ ° _ to knife- gnd tinmen, who will in all probability spoil plane-iron or grinders. ' j r 1. chisel, and render it utterly unfit for use. The reason, for the most part, is that they do not understand the work as regards tools of this description, and so make a mess of it. The edge of the plane-iron or chisel when ground and rubbed on the oil-stone should be a straight line as true and even between its extreme points as it is possible to make it. It stands to reason that if a plane-iron be in any SAW FILER'S VICE. Useful Grindstone for Amateurs. 149 other condition than this as regards its edge, it will not touch the surface of a piece of wood alike at all parts of its edge, and the result will be that the surface will be taken off somewhat deeper in some parts than others, if it be possible to work at all with a tool in such a condition. The v/riter has had a plane-iron returned to him by an itinerant knife-grinder in a state that might be described in heraldic language as taav/, and chisels finished off with a slight bevel on either side after the fashion of a turnscrew. 349. Grindstones can be purchased in many different sizes, and fitted up in many various ways. It is not desirable to have too small a grind- stone for grinding plane iron, chisels, etc. ; the best size for Qruidstones. the amateur is from 12 inches to 18 inches in diameter, and from 2>^ inches to 3 inches in width. The commonest form ot fitting up is to rest each end of the axle of the grindstone on two parallel and horizontal bars supported on legs. The axle is prevented from jumping out of the grooves in which it is laid by iron loops or staples, and at one end it is square so as to receive the loop of a winch-handle, or handle shaped like the letter L, by which it is turned by one person while another applies the iron to be ground to the stone. It is most likely, however, that the amateur will be alone when at work, and it will therefore be desirable for him to have a grindstone so placed that it can be turned by grindstone the foot of the operator, by means of a crank and treadle, amateura. It is a good plan to have one end of the axle made into a crank for the treadle, and the other end squared to take an ordinary winch handle, as he can then avail himself of the aid of another in turning the stone, when opportunity offers. Useful stones are made with an iron frame and trough to hold water, and of such a size that they may be placed on the carpenter's bench. These are fitted with a telescope treadle, in some cases that they may be worked by the foot. Sometimes the grindstone is fitted with multiplying wheels, so that a considerable speed may be attained, as in the multiplying reel used by the fly-fisherman In fig. 144 is shown a grindstone placed on an ordinary bench, and with a crank and treadle. A is a trough in which water is kept during the operation, but as soon as the work is done the water should be poured away, as a stone should never be left to soak in water. The ends of the trough are raised so as to furnish a rest on which to steady the tool while grinding, as shown at B. It is better, however, to have a strong metal rest attached to the trough or framework by which the grindstone is sustained, in such 9 manner that the part on which the tool rests can be brought nearer I50 Household Carpentry and Joinery. the stone, as at C. In some frames the trough is hinged at one end so that it can be raised or lowered at pleasure, so that when the trough is lowered the stone does not touch the water. Care must be taken that the stone is mounted in such a manntr as to run truly, other- wise it is absolutely useless, and no tools can be properly ground on it. Grindstones, with and without frames, may be had at all prices from 6d. to 25s., though in some cases the nature of the frame on which the stone is mounted renders the price Fig 144. GKiNDSTONE AND TROUGH, higher than the limit here given. The grinding surface of the stone must be kept level, otherwise it will be impossible to impart a straight edge to any plane iron or chisel. 350. The author of "The Amateur Mechanic's Workshop" gives the following directions for grinding edge tools, which the amateur will do well to follow implicitly, as it is given by a Directions ... , • tt « t for grinding practical workman of great experience. He says : In plane irons, ^^.j^^^jj^g ^^^^^ jj-^j^g^ chisels, and similar tools, i/ie sto7te should ttirn towards the operator, and the tool should be held very firmly and quite squarely upon the stone, at a point sufficiently near its upper part to allow the tool to be in a nearly horizontal position, while its bevel lies flat upon it. If it is held too low, so that its handle points downwards, the water from the stone will run down the hands and arms, which is decidedly disagreeable, especially in winter. In addition the tool cannot be so firmly held nor the work so readily seen. Gouges may be ground in a similar position, or (which is more easy and less likely to damage the stone) at right angles to it, i.e., in the same direction as the axle ; they must be rolled backwards and forwards as the operation proceeds. Keep the edges of the stone in use by constantly travel eing the tool across its face, and never try to hurry the work by grinding to a more obtuse bevel than that made by the manufacturer. This is, indeed, generally rather more obtuse than it ought to be, and carpenters reduce this angle, and then the second bevel, formed by the oil-stone, restores it _, . correctly. In grinding planes and chisels, especially the Chisels. first, it is as well for the amateur to make use of a square to test the correctness of the edge, otherwise the latter may not be truly at right angles to the side of the tool." Gouges. Grinding Chisels, etc.: The Oil-stone. 15: Fig. 145. 351. A little explanation with regard to the bevel may be useful. In I, in fig. 145, is shown the manufacturer's bevel, that is to say, the slope at which the plane-iron or chisel is bevelled when Rema^^s oi, ground by the manufacturer. The angle A B c is a very ^^^ beveL obtuse angle, and the angle B A D is a very acute one. In 2, C E A remains the same as far as the point A ; but the bevel is rendered less obtuse by making the part from A to F slope at a different inclination by rubbing the iron on the oil-stone. This, of course, has the effect of making the angle A F D less acute than the angle B A D in i. In 3 is shown the effects of bad grinding ; during the process the tool has not been held firmly and flatly against the grindstone, and the slope from the thickest part of the iron to the point has assumed a slightly rounded form. Lastly, in 4 is shown, in an exaggerated form, the proper eftect that should be produced when the tool is held firmly against the grindstone through- out the whole length of the bevel. As may be supposed, the surface produced is slightly concave, or somewhat hollow, corresponding to the convexity of the grindstone at any part of its circumference. Of course the larger the grindstone the less will be this convexity. When the tool has been rubbed on the oil-stone a part of the hollow from A to F is taken away, while that from A to B remains. Practically speaking, the effect produced is the same as that shown in 2. 352. In grinding an axe or an adze, the edge of the tool is traversed across the face of the grindstone until the notches have been taken out, and the edge is clean and clear from one point to Grinding adze another. If it be desired to make the tool very keen in °^ ^^®- edge, recourse must be had to a slip of stone with which the edge must be rubbed until the tool is sharpened to the satisfaction of the, operator. 353. The oil-stone is constantly needed during all operations in Carpentry and Joinery in which the plane and the chisel is called into use. It is, indeed, wanted far more frequently than the The ou- stone: grindstone, for this is only brought into use when the iiowtouseit. edge of the tool is altogether too dull to be sharpened by the oil-stone. There are two things to be taken into consideration here, namely, the nature of the oil-stone and the manner of using it, or rather, of applying the iron to it. Oil-stones are generally sold in a box, that is to say, the stone is set in a piece of wood s-^ that its sur- 152 Household Carpentry and Joinery. face is perfectly level, and over it a loose cover is fitted, made of tht same kind of wood, which preserves it from dust and injury when out of use. The oil-stone, as set in wood and provided with a cover is shown in fig. 146. 354. The most serviceable sized oil-stone for the amateur is one about 2in. wide and Sin. or g'm. long, and if one can be pro- Size desirable cured that is a little wider it should be taken in preference for oil-stones, ^q ^ narrower one. A stone should be neither too hard nor too soft, as a soft stone will soon wear, while a hard stone grinds slowly, and through the iron not biting fairly on its surface, [ f^--'-T~-.^'^^ :-:r -- '"/"'r^'y ^^^Kr^^^ngFr iJ some time is taken in »llillll3!§iiM^^^^ pu.dng a good edge .0 ^.^ ^^ ^ d ^fei' i ^'■' ^^'^^ '^^ ^° ^^^' ^^ edge jj^ J- — - — ^^ — i ' l ^lii^y of the necessary fineness, liillife^^^^^^ ; ''•:;:'l,r'.';:::'''^"''ir|| ^^ smoothness, and keen- FiG. 146. OIL-STONE IN BOX. Hess. Sometimes, too, a stone is met with which has a hard spot in it, over which the tool slips, and as the rest of the stone wears away the hard spot forms a rounded protuberance, rising slightly above the level of the other part On such a stone as this it is impossible to sharpen a tool properly. Turkey Turkey stones are considered to be the best, and they are stones. gQ undoubtedly when they are really good, and next to these in quality are the Arkansas stones. Washita stones, another Waahita variety of American oil-stones, are also very good. And stones. Qf stones of this description procured at home, the Charley Forest (properly Charnley Forest) oil-stone is as good if not superior to any others. Good oil-stones, whether from Turkey of the United Prices of oil- States are generally sold by the pound, the price per stones. pound ranging from is. 6d. to 2s. Messrs. Churchill eiud Co. sell Washita stones in different sizes at 2s. per pound, and gouge slips (for gouges cannot have an edge given to them on the flat oil-stone) at 4s. per pound. Again, stones mounted in oak are sold by this firm at the following prices, according to the sizes given, iiamely, wiUi stone 4in. X ^in., 6d. ; 6in. X i}4in., 2s. 8d.; Sin. X 2}(\Ti., 4s. ; gin. X 2Xin., 4s. 6d. By other dealers Ar- kansas oil-stone'i are sold from 6s. to 8s. 6d. each, and slips of the same from is. 6d. ; Turkey oil-stones from 4s. each, and slips from IS. 4d. ; Washita oil-stones from is. gd. to 3s. 6d., shps from lod. to IS. 3d. ; and Charnley Forest stones from is. to 2S. each, and slips 6d. each. These stones are without mountings, for which an addition is made to the prices above jiven. How TO USE THE OiL-STONE. 1 53 355. In using the oil-stone a few drops of olive oil should be squirted on it from the oiler as soon as the surface has been wiped perfectly clean. Paraffin is sometimes recommended instead of lubricants olive oil, but the latter is quite as good as a lubricant for ^^_^°^j^g_ the stone, and is free from the offensive smell which is given out by paraffin. The great difficulty that the amateur will experience in setting a tool on the oil-stone lies in keeping the bevel at the same angle with the stone throughout the operation. As he moves the tool backwards and forwards along the stone, he is apt to give it a different inclination when close to him than when at a greater distance from him, the angle at which the tool is inclined to the stone being greater when in the former position and less when in the latter. The writer from whom we have already quoted with regard to the proper method to be adopted in grinding plane - irons, etc., says, with reference to the manner in which the tool should be held while rubbing it on the oil-stone : — 356. "It is evident that the tendency to be aimed at is the raising of the handle slightly as the tool moves further from the person, instead of allowing it to take the positions shown (thai position of tool. is, different angles of inclination to the stone dunng its passage backwards and forwards). All o-uides are to be discarded both for the grinding and setting (the rest on which the tool is sustained when held on the grindstone being excepted). Guinea : why They are as bad as corks and bladders in teaching a undesirable. person to swim, for it becomes exceedingly difficult to do without them ; and it is evident from the daily practice of carpenters that how- ever difficult the right method may be to acquire, it is by no means impossible, and is, moreover, of absolute necessity. Square the elbows, let hand and arms have freedom, grasp the tool above with the right hand so as to bring the fingers underneath it, ° tj w Position or and let the fingers of the left lie together, and straight hand, arm. upon the upper side, their ends tolerably near the edge of the tool, the thumb being underneath. The tool will be thus held firmly, and also under control. Holtzappfel gives a different way, the reverse of this. He says the first finger only of the right hand should be held above, and the thumb and rest of the fingers below, the left hand grasping the right, with the finger above the tool and the thumb below. It is probably in a great measure a question of habit." 357. It is said that edge tools may be sharpened by plunging them in a bath of muriatic acid, diluted to a considerable extent \vith water, and leaving them exposed to the action of the acid for a short time. 154 Household Carpentry and Joinery. The acid will act on every part of the blade with which it comes in contact, and will eat away a thin coating of metal, thus fining down Bharpening the point or edge of any tool, which must now be rubbed , toml^rsk.n on the oil-stone in order to impart a polish to the bevel In acids. ^^^ keenness to the edge. It must be remembered, how- ever, that if the edge of the tool that is subjected to the action of the acid be not perfectly even and uniform, no eating away of the surface of the metal by this means will make it even : to take out notches, etc.» by immersing a tool in a bath of muriatic acid and water is simply impossible, for the action of the acid is alike and equal on all parts of the surface exposed to it. It is better to learn to sharpen tools by the aid of the grindstone and oil-stone than to trust to any chemical action to produce the desired results. 358. The following remarks relative to the above process appeared in " Design and Work " some time ago, and are here reproduced for , the information of those who may wish to try it. " It has KemarKS on ■' this process, ig^g ^ggn known that the simplest method of sharpening a razor is to put it for half an hour in water, to which has been added l-20th of its weight of muriatic or sulphuric acid ; then lightly wipe it off, and after a few hours set it on a hone. The acid here supplies the place of a whetstone, by corroding the whole surface uniformly, so that nothing further than a good polish is necessary. The process never injures good blades, while badly hardened ones are frequently improved by it, although the cause of such improvement remains un- explained." Again, it is said that as it is with razors so it is with scythes and sickles, and, as a natural consequence, so it must be with all other kinds of edge tools. With regard to scythes and reaping- hooks, " the time lost in the harvest field in the early morning would be spared by laying the blades for half an hour in a bath prepared as above described. As soon as they are taken out of the bath they should be wiped, and a soft sandstone hone passed along would leave a good and uniform edge behind it." 359. Grindstones for razors and the finer kinds of edge tools in which the keenest possible edge is a desideratum, may be made by Artificial artificial means. Silicious sand of great fineness, or emery grindstones, powder, and shell lac are taken in the proportion of three parts of the former to one of the latter. The sand must be well washed and the shell lac melted, after which the sand must be stirred into the melted lac and will incorporate with it while it is warm. The compositira is placed in a circular mould with a space in the centre to form a hole, square in shape, for the axle, and then left to harderu Removal and Prevention of Rui^r. 153 360. It is to be feared that the amateur's tools will sometimes be allowed to get rusty by being left for a short time in the rain when working out of doors, or by the dampness of the shed or workshop in which he carries on his operations. This is a very fruitful source of rust in tools, and even if the shed be perfectly water-tight the dampness in the air itself during prolonged rain and wet seasons will frequently do much mischief. The following is a simple method of removing rust from steel which will be found useful : — Recipe. — To remove rust from steel. — *' Cover the metal with sweet-oil well rubbed in and allow to stand for forty-eight To remove hours, smeared with oil applied freely with a feather or rust from piece of cotton wool, after rubbing the steel. Then rub with unslacked lime reduced to as fine a powder as possible." 361. Another method is given by Spon in his "Workshop Receipts," a most valuable book, replete with information on a wide variety of subjects which may be recommended to the notice of the amateur as a candidate for a place on his bookshelves. It is as follows : — Recipe. — To extract rust from steel. — "Immerse the article to be cleaned for a few minutes until all dirt and rust is taken off in a strong solution of cyanide of potassium, say about half an ounce m _+ * in a wineglassful of water : take out and clean it with a rust from ° _ Bteel. tooth-brush with some paste composed of cyanide of potassium, Castile soap, whitening, and water ; these last are mixed in a paste about the consistence of thick cream." 362. Prevention, however, will be deemed by many far better than the cure, as given above ; and when tools have to be left in a shed or workshop without any means of warming it throughout preventivea the winter months, when they are seldom used, it may be ^s^^^^' ™s*- profitable to subject them to some such treatment as the following, which is also borrowed from Spon's " Workshop Receipts " already quoted above : — Recipe. — To prevent tools, etc., from rusting. — "i. Boiled linseed oil will keep polished tools from rusting, if it is allowed to dry on them. Common sperm oil will prevent them from rusting IT tr ° To prevent for a short period. A coat of copal varnish is frequently tools from rusting, applied to polished tools exposed to the weather. Woollen materials are the best for wrappers for metals. 2. Iron and steel goods of all descriptions are kept free from rust by the following : — Dissolve Xoz. of camphor in lib. of hog's lard, take off the scum and mix as much black lead as will give the mixture an iron colour. Iron and steel and machinerv of all kinds rubbed over with this mixture 156 Household Carpentry and Joinery. and left with it on for twenty-four hours, and then rubbed with a linen cloth, will keep clean for months." Recipe. — Varm'sh to p-event rust. — "Rosin, 120 parts ; sandarac, 180 ; gum lac, 60 ; essence of turpentine, 120. Take the first three Varnish to ingredients in a pounded condition, and digest them by a prevent rust, regular heat till melted ; then add the turpentine very gradually, stirring all the while. The mixture should be digested until dissolution, then add rectified alcohol, iSo parts. Filter through fine cloth or thick bibulous paper (blotting paper), and preserve in well stopped bottles or cases." CHAPTER VI. HOW TO HOLD ANU HANDLE TOOLS, AND HOW TO USE THEM. How to learn to use Tools— Reference to order in which Tools will be taken- Striking Tools— The Hammer : how to use it— How to strike Nails— Hole fox reception of Nail, etc.— The Mallet : how to use it— How to use the Axe or Hatchet-The Adze and its uses-Adze a dangerous Tool— Rasping Tools- Right mode of holding Saw- Position of first Finger and Elbow-How to steady Wood— How to keep Wood steady— Inclination of Saw— Head of Operator : how held— Process of Sawing— Cautions in Sawing— Mistakes made by Ama- teur-Marking Guide-line in Sawing- Wrong way of making line-Instruction to be derived from remarks— Carpenter's method of marking line— Cutting down long Board— To prevent Saw from " hanging"— Ripping down Planks— Cuttmg Tenons— Things to be remembered when Sawing— How to use Rasps— Filmg Metal— Frame'saw : its uses— Cutting out a Keyhole— Paring Tools-Planing and Sawing chief Operations in Carpentry— Jack-plane : why so called— Cuttmg iron of Jack-plane-Construction of Plane-iron— How to hold the Jack-plane- American Iron Planes — Smoothing-plane : its construction — How to hold Smoothing-plane— Planing Boards and Scantlings— Planing in direction of gram —No fixed Rule— Removal of Plane-iron— Adjustment of Iron— Sole of Plane : its use— Difficulty in Planing : how caused— Proper positions of Brake-iron and Cutters— Mode of looking at Adjustment— Planes for Rebating, etc.— Rebating : what it is— Cutting Rebate— Side Fillister-Bull-nosed Rabbet-plane—' ' Stanley " Iron Plane— Mode of holding Rebate-plane, etc.— Attachment to Rebate-plane —Match-planes— Why so called- Plough for cutting Grooves— Old Woman's Tooth— American Combination Planes -Bits supplied with Plane— These Tools seldom required by Amateurs- Tranfs Adjustable Dado, Filletster, and Plough — Drawingknife and Spokeshave : how to handle them— Modes of usmg Chisels and Gouges — Chisels : their varieties — Mortise and Tenon— Meaning of " Tenon "—Meaning of " Mortise "—Chisel in cutting Mortise— How it should be held-Paring Chisels, etc. : how to hold them-The Gouge : how to hold it- Use of boring Tools, etc.— Boring with Bradawl and Gimlet— How to hold Bradawl-The Gimlet : how to hold it-The Auger : how to hold it-Position when using Brace and Bit-Boring holes with Brace and Bit-Use of marking Gauge— Mortise Gauge— The Nail Punch : how to hold it. 363. Having provided oneself with the necessary tools described in a preceding chapter, or such a selection from the whole as may best meet his requirements, the next thing to be done is to ^ow to leam . • •! 1 1. j-^ to use tools. learn how to use them. It is next to mipossible to do this from printed instructions ; and on the principle that a little showing is better than a great deal of telling, the best advice that can be given to the amateur on this head is that on which some stress has 158 Household Carpentry and Joinery. been already laid, namely, that he should arrange with some skilled artisan to give him a few practical lessons in the method of holding, using, managing, and sharpening his tools, and the everyday operations in Carpentry and Joinery, such as sawing, planing, scarfing timbers, cutting rebates, mortises and tenons, dove-tailing, mitring, etc., etc. 364. We will take the tools seriatim in the same order ^cf/der°fn*' i^i which they have been described in Chapter IV., and wmbe^aken. ^^ prevent useless repetition the reader is referred for this order to page "j"], in which he will find it duly set forth. 365. In accordance with this order the first set of tools that we have Striking ^° ^t2iS. with are striking tool's, which comprise hammer tools. g^j^j mallet in one division, and adze and hatchet or axe in the other. 366. The handle of the hammer should be grasped at a short dis- tance above the end of the handle, that is to say, in such a way that The hammer: ^^^ ^"^ °^ ^he handle projects about an inch or more how to use It. beyond the side of the hand, in the manner sho\vn at A in fig. 147. The hand and the eye act so well together in concert, that after a little practice the amateur will find no difficulty in hitting How to Btrika ^^ ^^^^ direct on the head when- naUs. g^,gj. j^g strikes it. If the nail be struck by the centre of the hammer head, as it should be as at B, it will soon be sent straight to its destination ; but if it be hit by any part of the face near or on the edge, as at c, the force of the blow will be partly lost, and the nail will be bent side- ways, or otherwise moved out of posi- piq j^^, how to hold tion. The face of the hammer should be "^"^ hammer. perfectly flat ; when used ovennuch it is apt to get rounded, especially if it be of inferior quality, and then it must be got rid of, and its place supplied with a better. A hole with the bradawl or gimlet Hole for , ,, , , /- , • reception of should be made for the reception of every nail that is nail, etc. 1 j . , hammered m and every screw that is driven into wood. The nail will go in all the straighter for it. Sometimes a knot or any hard substance within the wood will cause the nail to swerve from the right direction and even to curl up, thrusting the point through the wood at no very great distance from the hole at which it has entered, " coming out," in workman's parlance, " to have a look at the fool that is driving it." A co7itretemps of this kind may often be saved by pre- oaring a way for the nail by the bradawl or gimlet. How TO USE THE HaTCHET : RASPING TOOLS. I59 367. The mallet is held in the same way as the hammer, but rather higher up the handle, as the head is larger and heavier. In striking any tool with the mallet care should be taken to deliver The mallet : the blow so that the end of the handle of the tool is hit ^°'^ '° ""^^ "• with the centre of the face of the mallet. 368. The axe must be grasped with the right hand, at a distance of about one-third from the end of the handle ; but the position of the hand will be regulated in a great measure by the material •^ How to use with which the edge is brought into contact, or the extent ^^^ axe or hatchet. or weight of the blow that it is desired to strike. Thus, to deliver a heavy blow, the handle must be grasped close to its end, but to give a light blow the hand must be moved upwards along the handle until it has nearly reached the head. When turned, the flat part of the head may be used in place of a heavy hammer or mallet in driving the timbers of any piece of framing into place, but on no account must it be used for driving nails. If at any time the amateur finds it necessary to drive nails,' he should provide himself with a heavy '^ hammer of the kind used by carpenters for rough heavy work. In chopping a piece of wood with the hatchet — as for example in sharpening the end of a stake to be driven into the ground — the end to be sharpened fig. 148. how to hold should be placed on a trestle — a description '^"^ hatchet. of narrow stool — and held by the left hand, which should be kept well out of range of the hatchet. A carpenter will use the axe for shaping a wedge out of a short piece or block of wood, but the amateur is recom- mended to do this with the paring chisel, lest by an unlucky blow he injure his hand with the sharp edge of the hatchet. The mode to be adopted in holding axe and wood is shown in fig. 14S. 369. The adze is used for chipping away the surface of wood placed in a horizontal position so as to produce a level surface, or one that is nearly so. The operator stands on the wood and uses Tjie adze and the tool after the manner of a hoe. The projection on ^'^ ^^^®' the head of the adze is called its pole, and may be used, if needs be, as a hammer. The adze is one of the most dangerous of . , . ° Adze a dan- all tools to use, but it is far from likely that any amateur geroustool. artisan will ever be obliged to call it into requisition. 370. Next in order to the striking tools come the rasping tools under which head are included every variety of saw, and rasps and i6o Household Carpentry and Joinery. files. The purposes to which these tools have been put have been Rasping already pointed out, and it only remains to point out ioois. j^gj.g ^|-jg ^y^y jrj ■\vhich each is to be used, so as to effect the desired purpose. 371. It is difficult to show the position of the hand when holding the saw in a single drawing, as both sides of the saw-handle cannot be seen at once ; recourse must therefore be had to two, as in ofhoiSng^ the annexed illustration, in which each side of the hand is exhibited, after the manner of the obverse and reverse of a coin. In taking hold of the handle of a saw all the fingers except the first finger are passed through the loop of the hand-saw, or round the handle of the tenon saw ; the handle of this kind of saw being somewhat iifferently formed. The position of the thumb and the second, third, and fourth fingers are shown at A in fig. 149, the first ^ ... >, finsrer is laid along the side of Position of * '^ first finger the handle as at B. The posi- and elbow. tion of the first finger tends to "^^^ ^o hold a saw. assist the operator in a wonderful degree in steadying and directing the saw, and keeping it upright. The elbow of the right arm should be kept How to ^^^^ ^^^^ t^^ right side so as to strengthen the forearm, or steady work, rather to keep it as straight as possible, and in a direction corresponding to that of the wood that is being sawn. 372. The wood should be steadied with the left hand, or if it be a short piece, held firmly by it. In sawing down a plank on one or two How to keep trestles, as the case may be, the right knee and foot should woo 8 ea y. ^^ placed on the board, partly to keep the board steady and partly to keep the body of the operator steady. In ripping down a plank or in cutting a piece of wood across the grain, the hand-saw — and any saw of this shape, as the rip saw, half rip, and panel saw — should be held at an angle of 45° to the horizon, or very nearly so. Inclination This will serve as a general guide, for the inclination of the saw must be suited in a great measure to the position of the wood and the nature of the work to be done. For example, in cutting a tenon, either with the hand-saw or tenon saw, the edge of the saw must be kept parallel to the surface of the wood that is being cut, or very nearly so. The head of the operator operator : should be held directly over the saw, so that the eyes may how held. ' look down on both sides of the saw. In beginning to make an incision with the saw, the up-and-down motion should be Hints and Cautions in Sawing. i6i started very gently with very short strokes, and no force should be applied to the saw until it has entered for about an inch into the board. 373. As the saw cut lengthens more force may be gradually applied, but whatever force may be used it must only be applied in the down- ward stroke, for it is in this motion only that the saw cuts ; process of in the upward motion it should be merely drawn up. The sawing. saw should 1)2 held upright, or in other words, the blade should always be at right angles to the surface of the board through which it is cutting, above and below, for if it incline to the right or left to the slightest degree, it is manifest that the friction between the saw cut and the sides of the saw will be increased, by reason of the cut being out of the proper direction in relation to the plane of the surface of the board. Care should be taken to avoid short jerky catitions in strokes, but in the upward stroke the saw should be drawn ^^^ up to within an inch or two of the point, and in the downward stroke pressed with force against the wood that is being sawn asunder, until the wood is within an inch or two of the bottom of the blade or very near the saw handle. By this means the whole length of the blade, or very nearly so, is brought into play. In drawing the saw upwards, on no account draw it through and out of the wood, for in the delivery of the downstroke, which follows immediately, before the operator is con- scious of what has happened, the point may be driven with force against the wood, if not into it, and bent in one direction or another, thus seriously jarring and injuring the saw. 374. The mistakes usually made by ttie amateur when sawing are three in number : Firstly, he is apt to put all four of his fingers through the looped handle of the saw, instead of layincr ^ ' ' ^ Mistakes the first finger along the side of the handle that is out- made by amateur, wards or furthest from him. Secondly, he forgets to keep his eyes directly over the saw-blade, so that he may see both sides of the blade, as he may prove to himself by shutting first one eye and then the other, looking downwards on the blade as he does so, or what is much the same, a long narrow line of steel formed by the line of the back and the points of the teeth projecting slightly beyond it on either side. It is manifestly impossible to saw straight if the back of the saw and the saw cut already made and the line of guidance for the saw cut, if it were possible to see it as well as the back of the blade and the saw cut, be not so placed in relation to one another so as to form a narrow straight line from one end to the other of the board that is being cut. Thirdly : Instead of allowing the arm free play and motion, and permitting it to form a connecting link (I i62 Household Carpentry and Joinery. oetween the saw and the body — as the arms in rowing form a link between the body and the oar, transmitting the weight of the body as the power which acts on the boat through the oar as a lever — it is held stilly, and far more force applied than that which is necessary to send it through the downward stroke. This has the consequence of bend- ing the saw too much to the left for the most part, and making the work difficult through the amount of friction that is caused by the blade and the saw cut being at an angle to the plane of the surface of the board instead of perpendicular to it. When these points have been corrected by the amateur artisan, he will have advanced some steps in the way of being a fairly good workman. 375. A few hints and cautions yet remain to be given with regard to the operation of sawing. It is better in ripping down a plank, or in making any saw-cut of considerable length, to mark guide-line in the guide-Iine on its surface with the line and reel (see sawing. , , ^ , . , , ,. page III), by means of which the line connecting any point in one end with any point in the other is struck perfectly straight and true. If the board be not longer than any straight-edge that the amateur may have- the line from point to point may be ruled in pencil with its aid. Fig. 150. FAULTY METHOD OF TRACING LINE Sometimes the ama- FOR sAW-cuT. te^r will trace a line for a saw-cut, by measuring the lengthbetween the edge of the board and the point in its end, and then taking off-sets from the edge along the whole, at distances corresponding pretty nearly to the length of the ruler or straight-edge with which he is going to rule the lines, that together will form the whole line from end to end, as in fig. 150. Now the ends A B and c D of the board A B D c being equal, and being, otmiung for the sake of argument, six inches long, if A B and c D ^^^' had been bisected or divided into two equal parts in the joints E and F by aid of the chalk line and reel, a perfectly straight line could be struck from E to F, as in the dotted line E F. But sup- pose off-sets equal to B E or F D, that is to say, of three inches, had been set off along the board from the edge B D, at the points G H K to the points L M N, then when the whole line E F has been ruled in short lengths, E L, L M, M N, and N F, a line from E to F is obtained which is anything but straight, and to cut which undue pressure will be laid on the saw to carry it along the various turnings and twistings, and after a few of such essays the saw will be found to be considerably A f r^ M 'h C L____c^ H '<,-— Carpenter's Method of Drawing a Line. 163 strained and perhaps crippled. The mischief has been caused by the edge B G H K D being anything but straight, and the in- struction to be derived from all this, and carefully laid to to'be derived heart withal, is— unless the edge of your board has been ^°^ '^^'"^i^a- properly planed up, and is perfectly straight— to make the line to guide your saw-cut with the line and reel, or a straight-edge long enough for the purpose. When the edge has been properly planed up, a line parallel to it may be drawn by very simple mea-ns. Thus a carpenter will often hold a rule in one hand, letting just *^i?Shod^o'/ so many inches, etc., as may be requisite project over the ^^^^^ ^'^®- board and lay upon it, and pressing the point of c pencil, held in the other, against the end of the ruler, and on the surface of the wood draw a straight line parallel to the edge by moving the hand that holds the ruler along the edge of the board, and carrying the pencil along with the other closely pressed against the ruler and on the board throughout the entire length Fig. 151. of the line that it is desired to make. The """^ ^"^ a'^line.'"^'' ""^^^^ method of doing this, as described, may be better understood by a glance at fig. 151. 376. In cutting down a long board, the board will be rendered more rigid and the progress of the saw facilitated by inserting a wedge of wood into the commencement of the cut. If it be found ^ ... ^ Cutting down desirable, the wedge may be moved down the saw-cut as ^""^^ board. the sawing proceeds. If the saw " hangs " at all, or, in other words, if the friction between the wood and the sides of the saw be greater than it ought to be, owing to the blade being stw^fr^m* rusty, or the teeth worn and in want of sharpening, a "^^^^^s" little grease or tallow should be rubbed on the teeth and blade of the saw. 377. For ripping down planks, that is to say, for cutting with the grain of the wood, the rip-saw or half rip-saw is used. This saw however, is by no means necessary to the amateur, as the t,- • . ... ' Ripping down work of rippmg down can be done as well, though per- planks. haps not so quickly, with the hand-saw, which will cut as well across the grain as with it. Tenons of large size can be cut with „ ... Cutting the hand-saw or tenon-saw ; but all dove-tailing should tenons. be done with the sash or small tenon-saw. Whatever may be the nature of the work, or whether the cut be with the grain or across the grain, the amateur artisan must bear in mind that : No sate i64 Household Carpentry and Joinery. cut should be made without first marking the wood with a chalk or pencil line, as a guide-line. And in addition to this, for ^iJfembered safety's sake, as long as he is a novice in the art, when when sawing. j^^|,jj^g ^ j^^g saw-cut it is better to mark a line on both sides of the wood, so that during the operation the board may be turned over now and then, that it may be seen whether or tiot the cut is being carried exactly in the right direction. 378. In using large rasps or files, whether for wood or iron, the work should be held in the vice or otherwise firmly fixed so that it cannot „ X move, unless it can be conveniently steadied with one How to use ' rasps. i^and during the operation. It is desirable, however, to use both hands when possible, the handle of the tool being grasped by one hand, while the other is pressed, but not too heavily, on the end of the blade, or near the end, so as to lend weight to the tool and additional effect to its powers of abrasion. The flat side of the rasp may be used for any kind of work, but the rounded side will be found more handy for rasping down the edge of a round hole, so as to give it a bevelled as well as rounded surface. Small files for ruing metal. ^^^^5^^^ x^t\-;iS. may be worked backwards and forwards; but in using these, as well as saw-files, a forward cut continually repeated is better. 379. Little or nothing need be said here about the use of the frame saw or the keyhole-saw. The frame-saw in its larger variety is not an Frame saw • ^^^^ ^°°^ ^° "^^ ""^'^ ^^^ operator has become pretty well its uses, accustomed to it, and then it is said to be easier to work than the ordinary saw. The small frame-saw is used in fret-cutting, which will be mentioned elsewhere. The keyhole-saw, being very narrow in the blade, is used for cutting small holes, such as keyholes, as the name implies. 3S0. To cut out a keyhole, two holes are generally turned through the wood by the aid of the brace and bit, and the piece that separates Cutting cut ^'■'^"^ is ^i"^^" \.7iS>JiXi out with the keyhole-saw, as shown in a keyhole, fig. 152, The keyhole-saw is also used for cutting curved lines, as the circumference of a circle in a piece of wood. An opening is made with a gimlet or brace and bit, through which the narrow saw blade can be passed, after which the blade will work its way round in either direction, as may Fig. 152. be required. The compass-saw is also used for circular keyhoTe. work. This kind of saw consists of a blade about lin. or V/tm. at the handle, and tapering away to a point, spt in a handle resembling that of a tenon-sa\v Faring Tools : Jack-plane— Why so called. 165 381. The chief of the three groups of tools included under the general head of paring tools, comprises planes of all kinds. The other two groups are formed, the one by the drawingknife *= i- Paring tools, and spokeshave, the other by the chisels and gouges. We will take the planes first of all, and consider, firstly, the mode in which the long planes are used— such as the jack-plane, the trying- plane, and the jointer-plane ; secondly, the smoothing-plane, and the smaller varieties of this class ; and, thirdly, the planes that are used in grooving and tonguing— as match-planes, rebate-planes^ pianing and ploughs, and others of a similar kind. It will be en- ^^Je?ation^^' deavoured to restrict our consideration of this large and ^^ carpentry, important class of tools to its narrowest limits, consistent with the fact that planing is one of the two great operations in carpentry and joinery, sawing being the other, that require the closest attention and practice on the part of the amateur. 382. It may not be uninteresting to some to pause a moment, and inquire why a jack-plane should be so called. It is used for rough and coarse work, mainly for taking off the rough and jack-plane : ragged surface of sawn timber and leaving it in a better "^^^ ^° °*^®'** condition for the action of the smoothing-plane, by which the inequali- ties left by the jack-plane are removed, and the whole surface rendered smooth, level, and perfectly even. Wedgewood in his " Dictionary of English Etymology," when treating of the origin of the term "jack" as applied to various contrivances, tells us that " the Jewish Jacobus was corrupted through Jaqueincs to Jaqitcs in France and James in England, and Jaqiies being the commonest Christian name in the former country was used as a contemptuous expression for a common man. The introduction of the word in the same sense into England seems to have led to the use of Jack as the familiar synonym of John, which happened to be here the commonest name, as Jaques in France. * Since every Jack became a genlleman, Tliere's many a gentle person made ?^']d,cV' —Richard III. The term was then applied to any mechanical contrivance for replacing the personal service of an attendant, or to an implement subjected to rough and familiar usage. A roasting-jack is a con- trivance for turning a spit, by means of a heavy weight, and so super- seding the service of the old turnspit- A jack, a screw for raising heavy weights. A boot-jack (German, stiefel-knecht, literally, 'boot- boy'), an implement for taking off boots, k jack-towel, a coarse towel, hanging on a roller for the use of the household ; jack-boots, hea\i' i66 Household Carpentry and Joinery. boots for rough service ; black-Jack, a leathern jug for household service ; jack-platie, a large plane for heavy work." 383. From this digression let us turn to the manner of holding the jack-plane and how to use it. Some jack-planes are made with a Cutting iron single iron only, but it is better for the amateur to have of Jack-plane, ^j^g ^j^^^ jg fitted with a double iron. A section of the plane-iron is figured in page 88, in which the object and use of each Construction iron is shown ; the lower iron being the ciiiter by which of plane-iron, ^j.^ gj^aving is cut from the wood, and the one on the top of it, whose bevel is turned in the opposite direction,being the break-iron by which the shaving is turned in its upward course, so as to pass more readily through the aperture cut in the stock of the plane, as the wooden block is called in which the iron is set. It will be noticed that the break-iron, or back iron, as it is often called, is held to the cutter by means of a broad-headed screw that enters a nut on the upper side of the break-iron, and that there is a long slot in the cutter so that the break-iron may be moved nearer to or farther from the edge of the cutter at pleasure. Now the chief use of the break-iron is to adapt the cutter for use in different kinds of work, and the break- iron must bfc regulated according to the nature of the work to be done with the plane. Thus when the jack-plane is required for heavy work, that is to say, for hacking down a rough and uneven surface, the edge of the break-iron should be about yi inch from the edge of the cutter, but for finer work it should not be more than ^ij inch from the latter ; and in the smoothing-plane the distance between the edges of the two irons should be less than this — indeed so slight as to be perceptible, but nothing more. The higher the break-iron, the easier the plane will be found to work, and the lower it is the heavier the plane will work, but the cut will be cleaner. 384. To hold the jack-plane when in use, the handle must be grasped firmly with the right hand, the forefinger being extended and placed against or by the side of the wooden wedge How to hold ^ . , , r , the by which the iron is held m the stock ; the left hand ack-plane. is placed over and on top of the stock, in front of the Iron, as shown in fig. 153, the thumb being on the side of the plane nearest the operator. Heavy pressure of the left hand in this position is necessar)', in order to keep the fore-part of the plane well down, so that the iron may take firm hold of the surface of the wood. At this time, namely, during the first part of the cut, the pressure with the right hand on the back part of the plane should be somewhat relaxed and lessened ; but when the cut is approaching Uoy/ Planes Should be Held. 167 completion the mode of procedure should be reversed as far as pressure is concerned, and pressure of the right hand should be increased, and that of the left hand lessened. The amateur, unless he has a trying- plane, will use his jack-plane for shooting the edges of boards. In performing this operation the plane is held in a difterent manner. The handle is grasped by the right hand as before, but the left hand ii Fig 153. HOW TO HOLD JACK- PLANE IN "FACING UP." Fig. 154. HOW to hold jack-plane: IN SHOOTING EDGE OF BOARD. placed by the side of the plane nearest the operator, the thumb being on the upper surface, the first and second fingers along the side, and the third and fourth on the sole or under part, forming a sort of gauge or stop to regulate the passage of the plane along the wood. The manner of holding either the jack-plane or trying-plane in shooting the ed^es of boards is shown in fig. 154. The method shown in fig- 153 is that adopted in planing the surface of a board, or, in technical language " facing up." 385. It must be understood that although wooden planes are figured in the illustrations the general method to be followed in holding the American iron planes is the same, some slight modifica- American tions being rendered necessary on account of the differ- ^°'^ planes. ence of construction. But by following the general instructions abo/c given, the operator cannot fail to handle an American plane as readily and as easily as the old-fashioned wooden one. 386. The smoothing-plane, as it has been already said, is used for cleaning off or reducing to smoothness and a perfect level, the surface from ^ ^ ' Smoothing- which the rough exterior has been plane : ita construction, already taken by the jack-plane. The distance between the edges of the cutter Fig. 15-. HOW to ^"a{f/y set for zuork. U either corner projects beyond the general level of the sole of the plane, this will necessarily score grooves or channels. Hence the extreme angle should be slightly rounded off in sharpening the took The same deleterious effect will be produced if the plane-iron is not ground truly square, and hence the caution already given on that point. The smaller, or break-iron, proper whose office is to bend up the shaving somewhat sharply ^bieak-ir^on' so as to ensure the cutting of the other iron, and to and cutter. prevent its splitting off the surface of the work, should be placed so 170 Household Carpentry and Joinery. as to come within one-eighth of an inch of the extreme edge of the cutter for rough work, and within one-twentieth for finer or finishing work. The two should then he placed in position so that the edge project the smallest possible degree below the sole. The position can only be determined by looking carefully along the bottom Mode of -^ - ^ , , looking at of the plane, with the front of the same next to the eye, as us men . .^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^.^j^ .^ correctly formed and placed, appear quite parallel with the sole. It is then ready for use. The same rule applies to the small as to the large planes, except that in the jack-plane the iron projects rather more, as it is used for 1^ roughing down IV---""**''^' " ' 3. surface. The ^_^_--|-;;^I^I!l^^r'""* trying-plane, /L-- "^ _Jcr^\,^ which is longer, ^^^— '^^^::iny and intended ^^-^/ for edging Fig. 157. ADJUSTMENT OF PLANE IRON. boards which are to be joined lengthwise, is always very finely set, and the mouth is narrow. The break-iron is also set very close down to the cutting edge. The longer the plane the more accurately level and true will be ihe work done by it. As it will be useless for the amateur to attempt the construction of any work, except of the roughest character, until he ca.i plane a piece of board accurately on all sides, keeping the edges square and sharp, the greatest attention should be given to the use. of this tool." 391. It has been said that the planes which the amateur artisan Planes for most requires are the jack-plane and the smoothing- rebating, etc. ^^^^^^ ^yj^j^ ^y^^^g ^le can do all ordinary work, but for re- bating, grooving and tonguing, ploughing grooves, and other operations of a similar character, he requires planes of a different construction, such as the rebate-plane, match- plane, and plough. The principle and general construction of these planes have already been described. It is with the mode of using them that we are concerned. 392. For rebating, or cutting a rebate, or rabbet, along the edge of a board, that is to say, to take away a portion of the upper edge, rectan- Rebating : gular in section, so that the lower edge projects beyond what It IS. ^j^g upper part of the board, like one step below another, a rebate-plane is required. Indeed it is necessary to have two of Cutting these planes, one having the iron set across the sole at right rebate. angles lo the length of the plane, for cutting a rebate paraliel to, or ivii/i the grain, and the other with the iron set obliquely acroi, the sole for cutting a rebate at the end of a board across the Side Fillister and Bull-nosed Rabbet Plane. 171 grain. To work such planes as these with anything approaching accuracy— or, in other words, to malce a rebate parallel to the edge ol the board— is a difficulty that is experienced by regular artisans, as well as amateurs, and for this reason— in operations of this kind a plane called the side fillister, or filletstcr, is used. This plane g.^^^^^^,_ has a shifting fence at the bottom, secured by two screws which work in slots in the fence, so that the position of the fence may be regulated in accordance with the width of the rabbet, or rebate, to be made. A screw-stop is also placed on the side of the plane farthest from the operator, by means of which the distance to which the plane-iron may enter the wood and clear it away is regulated • and in front of the grooving-iron there is an iron which projects in front of the cutter and slightly below it. This cuts down the vertical side of the rabbet, while the plane-iron carries away the wood horizontally, rendering it impossible with this combination of cutters for any wood to be left in the angle of the rebate. 393. The " bull-nosed rabbet plane," as shown in fig. 158, is a useful kind of plane for rebating. It is sold, with other planes, illustrations 01 which are given below, by Messrs. Churchill and Co. BuU-nosed . J 1, ^ rabbet plane. This plane is adjustable, is 4 inches long, ana nas a cutter iX inches wide. The price is 5s. 6d. Extra cuUcrs are supplied with the plane at IS. each. In speak- ing of this useful plane the opportunity may be taken to call the atten- tion of the amateur to some useful little planes with which good work can be done, although, as far as size is concerned, they are scarcely beyond the cate- gory of toy planes. Figs. 159 and 160 represent two different Fig. isS. bull-nosed rabbet plane. Fig, 159. THE SrANLEV SMOOTHING- PLANE. Fig. 160. THE STANLEY bULL- NOSED PLANE. forms of these planes, which are known as the " Stanley" Iron Plane.>. Fig 159 is a smoothing-plane, and so is fig. 160, but this, from the 172 Household Carpentry and Joinery. rounded shape of the front is distinguished from the other as a bull noicd plane. Both kinds are japanned, 3>^ inches long, and have "Stanley" I ^''^'^^ cutters. They cost no more than is. each, and iron planes. ^^^^.^ cutters may be purchased at the rate of 4>^d. each. 394. The rebate plane and the side fillister is generally held with the right hand on the top of the frame behind the iron, and the Mode of left hand on the front. The side fillister plane is by rebate pfane, ^10 means an expensive tool, as it can be bought at 2s. 6d. ®**'* or 3s. ; but if an amateur has a rebate plane he can easily furnish it with an attachment which will render it to the full as useful as any side fillister that he might purchase. The addition is thus described by Mr. Ellis A. Davidson in " The Amateur House Carpenter," in speaking of the rebate plane. " In using this," he says, " the chief difficulty experienced by the amateur is in making the plane travel in a true parallel to the edge of the board ; and there are planes made with guides to accomplish this, but these are very much more expensive, and the following means will answer the pur- Attachment . ,1 ,. r- • ^ ^ x1 1 to rebate pose quite as well. Supposing x to represent the plane ^ ^^^' looking at the fore end, or a transverse section of the plane, " let A be a board in the edge of which it is required to cut a rebate }z'm. wide and Xin- deep ; a strip of these dimensions has literally to be planed away, and the plane must therefore be prevented travelling horizontally farther on the surface of the board than >^in. and vertically it must not be allowed to sink deeper than Xi"- These ~j planes are made from ^{'m. to sin. wide. We will assume that the one with which the work is to be ^ done is l)4m- wide. Plane up a strip of wood B, fig. 161, to the width of one inch (the thickness will not be any consideration), and screw it at right angles to _J2 another piece, C, thus forming a letter ]_. This will [>.,_ J] ^ form a case which will, when planed and fastened to ^ — ' ;. .J the side of the plane by a couple of screws, shut off ^'-^—~- lin. of the width of the sole, allowing it to encroach Fig. 161. upon the surface of the board to the extent of Vzin. ATTACHMENT TO . RABBET PLANE Only ; 3. merc strip, D, screwed on the other side at Xin. from the sole, will prevent the plane sinking deeper than is required. On no account should the guide be screwed to the sole of the plane, which should always be kept perfectly smooth, the surface uninjured by screw holes. Nor is it necessary to damage the sides of the plane by more than two small screw holes, for the same side-piece C may be permanently used, the width of the „fATCH Planes : Plough for Cutting Grooves. 173 Match pianos. Strip B being altered according to circumstances ; and the width of D can also be regulated, either by planing a portion off below the screws if the rebate is to be deeper, or moving the screws lower down in the the strip if it is to be shallower, taking care that the holes correspond with those in the side of the plane, and that the strips do not cover the apertures through which the shavings should escape." 395. Match planes are bought in pairs, one of the two being so made that the iron cuts a groove or trench lengthwise in the edge of a board ; and the other so that the iron cuts away the edge on both sides, after the manner of a double rebate, leaving a projecting rib or tongue, as it is commonly called, in the centre, which fits accurately into the groove that has been cut by the other plane, when the boards are brought together edge to edge. ^^.j^^ ^^ Match planes are so called because the width of the projec- '^a^*''^- tion left by one plane matches, or tallies exactly with, the width of the groove cut by the other. But, as it has been already said, as the amateur can always buy match-boarding ready to his hand, he can do very well without match planes. 396. The plough which is used for cutting grooves in wood at any distance from the edge that may be required, so that it be not beyond the length of the strips, or bars of wood, that are attached ^^^^^^ ^^^ to the fence (by which it is guided along the edge of the cuttmg wood so that the groove cut by the iron may be parallel to it) and pass through the stock of the plane as well as at right angles to it, is held, as shown in fig. 162, by putting the right hand over the top of the plane behind the iron, the first finger along the top by the side of the iron, and the second, third, and fourth fingers round the arm. The left hand is placed by the fence at the side, the thumb on the top of the arm, the first finger extending along the fence, and the remaining fingers closed. The plough is necessary in such work as making drawers, in which the bottom is let into a groove made all round the inner surface of the sides at a little distance from the lower edge. It is fitted with eight irons var>'ing in width from )i inch to %i inch, for making grooves of various sizes. The depth old woman's ' tooth.. to which the iron should go is regulated by a top screw at- tached lo a plane. The plough or grooving plane, called the old woman's How TO HOLD THE PLOUGH. 174 Household Carpentry and 'Joinery. tooth, will cut a groove across a board and at any distance from the edge, a desideratum in making pigeon holes in wliich the vertical par- titions are slipped into opposite and corresponding grooves formed one in the lower surface of the horizontal board above, and the other the upper surface of the horizontal board below, of which one forms in the top and the other the bottom of the pigeon hole. 397. There are some useful combination planes made in America. in which the functions performed by the different planes that we have been describing are united. These planes are sold by Messrs. Churchill and Co. That which is re- presented in fig. 163 is Miller's Com- bined Plough, Fil- lister, and Match- ing-plane, embrac- ing, as it does, in a pxg. 163. combined plough, fillister, anb most ingenious and matching-plane. successful combination, the common carpenter's plough, American ... „, Combination an adjustable fillister, and a perfect matching-plane. ine p anes. gj^^jj-^ assortment can be kept in smaller space, or made more portable than the ordinary carpenter's plough. 398. With each plough eight bits (>|, ^%, }{, A, H, ts, K, and ^in.) are furnished, also a tonguing tool (;4^in.), and by the use of the ,. , latter, together with the }{'m. plough-bit for grooving, a Bits suppliea ) o ^ i w with plane, perfect matching-plane is made. A metallic bed-piece with i^^in. cutter in it can be attached to the stock of the tool by means of two screws passing through the slots in the base piece of the stock. Over this bed-piece the gauge, or fence, will move back- ward or forward, and when secured to the bars by the thumbscrew will constitute an adjustable filletster of any width required by the owner. The upright gauge on the back of the stock is adjusted by a thumbscrew likewise, and regulates the depth for the use of the filletster, as for all the other tools embraced in the combination. The price of this useful plane v/ith all its various fittings is 36s. 399. It may be objected that an amateur will never require and never purchase such a tool as this, and that it is therefore but of little use to mention it here, and the objection, to a certain e.xtent, is a good one ; but, on the other hand, amateurs are found who attain Trant's Ad- justable Dado, Fillet- ster, and Plough. Adjustable Dado, Ftlletster, and Plough. 175 high excellence in the art they have adopted for their amusement, or who have ample means to acquire possession of tools of this kind which may fairly be called tools tfe luxe; and as this book is written for the information of amateurs of all kinds ^^^^^ tools J , . , seldom re- and classes, rich and poor, mexpert and highly skilled, it quired by would be hardly fair to pass them by without mention. We make no further apology, therefore, for mentioning another of these Combination planes— Trant's Adjustable Dado, Filletster, and Plough' which, with some of its fittings, is figured in the accompanying wood- cut. The tool here represented in fig. 164 consists of two sections :— a main stock with two bars or arms, and a sliding section, having its bottom or face level with that of the main stock. It can be used as a dado of any required width by inserting the bit into the main stock and bringing the sliding sec- tion up to the edge of the bit. The two spurs, one on each section of the plane, will thus be brought exactly in front of the edges of the bit. The gauge on the sliding section will regulate the depth to which the tool will cut. By attaching the guard-plate (a) to the sliding section, the tool may be readily con- verted into a plough, a fillet- ster, or a matching-plane, as explained in the printed instruc- tions which accompany each plane, but which are too long to be given here. The tool is fur- ther accompanied by eight bits (fV, X, A, ^, Yz, H, y&, and iXin.), a filletster cutter (d), and a tonguing tool (c). All these bits are secured in the main stock on a skew. The price of this handy and useful Fig. 1S4. trant's adjustable dado, FILLETSTER, AND PLOUGH. combination plane, consisting of an iron stock and fence, and including 176 Household Carpentry and Joinery. guard -plate, plough bits, and tonguing and grooving tools, as enumerated above, is 32s. 400. We have now done with the planes, and must pass on to the drawing-knife and spokeshave, the use of which will be easily under- stood by referring to figs. 59 and 60. The drawing-knife 'andBpoke-^ is held with both hands, one grasping one handle, and ^to handle' the Other the other, but in such a way that the bevel ol * ^™' the blade is upwards and the opposite surface resting on the wood to be cut. The spokeshave is handled in the same way, the flat part of the iron shown in the engraving being next to the wood. The bevel of the blade is inwards and cannot be seen. The distance between the wooden handle or stock and the blade of the spoke- shave may be increased or diminished by tapping the points of the turned ends of the blade, which pass through the stock. The cutting edge of each of these tools may be sharpened by rubbing them with a slip. 401. It is obvious that the modes of using chisels and gouges of the ordinary form cannot be many. In the case of the chisel they are restricted to paring and cutting mortises : the gouge is Modes of f o a > a o nsing chisels chiefly used for making grooves, scooping out hollows, as and gouges. the hold of a model ship, or in cutting mortises, when the tenon is rounded, instead of being perfectly square. 402. It has been said that the chisels used in ordinary carpentry and joinery are of three kinds— the firmer chisel, the paring chisel, Chisels- their ^^^ *^^ mortising chisel. Of these the mortising chise' varieties, ^^n Only be used for cutting mortises, and the paring chisel for cutting or paring wood, as the name implies. The firmer chisel, on the contrary, which is shorter and stifier than the paring chisel and broader than the mortising chisel, can be used equally well for either purpose, although its shortness renders it somewhat less convenient than the longer paring chisel. The firmer chisel, then, is the tool that will be of most service to the amateur, who cannot afford to provide himself with chisels of each description. 403. It may now be convenient to describe the mortise and tenon, and to show what these terms mean. A mortise is a notch or cavity Mortise and ^^^ ^^^^ ^ piece of timber, or any other material, to re- tenon, ceive the end of another piece, called a tenon, which is made to fit it. Thus,'in fig. 165, the end of the upright A has two rectangular pieces of equal size cut away, one on one side and one on the other, as at B and c, the blocks or pieces that are cut off being shown by dotted lines. The piece D, that is left- in the middle when Mortise and Tenon: How to cut a Mortise. 177 the blocks are removed, is called the tenon. The object in view is to attach the upright A to the horizontal piece of wood E by means of the tenon, and to effect this a cavity- is cut, as shown at F, of the exact size of the tenon in order to receive it. The tenon is then knocked into the mortise — it should fit tightly, and there- fore requires force applied by a striking tool to bring it into its place ; and the upright stands immovable, being prevented from leaning or from being forced mortise and tenom. to one side or the other by the shoulders that are formed on either side of the tenon when the side pieces are cut awav. The „ r- ,' Meaning of meaning of the word /c'/wu is obvious; it is, "that by "tenon." which something holds," and the word itself is derived from the French iem'r, to hold, which in its turn is obtamed from the Latin ieneo, I hold. The meaning of the word mortise is not so leaning of plain. The French equivalent is mortaise, and as the "J^iortise." mortise bites or grips the tenon in its open mouth or jaws, so to speak, it is to be traced to the Latin inorsus, bite, or the hole or place in which the tongue of a buckle, or point of a javelin, knife, or sword enters and sticks fast, from mordeo, I bite. Thus Virgil uses the ex- pression morsiis roboris, the cleft of an oak, to indicate a rift in the tree in which a javelin, thrown by the Trojan hero ^neas, had lodged and stuck fast. The width of the tenon is made to correspond to that of the mortise, and vice versa, by the use of the mortising gauge. We shall return presently to the construction of mortises and tenons in the next chapter, at present we have to consider more especially the mode of using our tools. 404. In cutting a mortise, the chisel is grasped firmly by the left hand, and held in a nearly upright position, as in fig. 166. The wood is in all cases cut by the chisel across the grain, and the operator must take care Chisel in to remember that the flat part of the cutting ... , , , , , mortise: how criisel must always be turned towards the it should be end of the mortise, and the bevel towards the middle. Thus in cuting a mortise, the position of the chisel in the hand must be continually changed, the bevel being towards or turned from the operator, according to circumstances. TJie chisel is of course struck by a mallet held in the right hand. In cutting a mortise there is no necessity to make any cut with the chisel in the direction of the grain, all that need be done is to keep 12 Fig. 166. CUTTIltG A MORTiSH. 178 Household Carpentry and Joinery, Fig. 167. holding paring CHISEL. working by cuts at a short distance from each other, across the grain, beginning in the centre of the wood to be removed, and proceeding both ways from the centre to either end. It will be found that the wood will come clean out of the cavity without any cutting along the sides of the mortise. 405. In paring, when the end of a piece of wood is being cut per- pendicularly, or very nearly so, across the grain, the paring chisel or firmer chisel, which- Paring chisels, etc. : how to ever the operator may have, should be hold them. , _ , . , • , , , grasped firmly m the right hand, as shown in fig. 167, the piece of wood that is being cut being held down firmly by the left hand, which must of necessity be placed behind the chisel and should be kept well back out of the way, to prevent injury from any slipping of the tool. When paring in the direction of the grain, as in cutting a point to a piece of wood, or in fashioning a wooden pin or wedge, for example, the chisel should be held in the right hand, and the wood in the left hand, in the position and manner shown in fig. 16S. 406. The gouge may be held in the manner indicated in figs. 167 The gouge: ^""^ '^^j according to the nature of the work that is being howtohoidit jone. Thus in cutting a groove across the grain in the end of a piece of wood, it should be held as in fig. 167 ; but in cutting .-:Si$^ a groove or channel in the direction of the grain, or in scooping out the hold of a model or toy boat, it should beheld as in fig. 168. In all cases, however, where the gouge has to be struck with the mallet, it must be held like the mortising chisel, as shown in fig. 166. In this way the gouge is sometimes used to prepare an indentation or shallow cavity for the entrance of a shell auger or shell bit, when used in the brace. 407. There is little to be said about the rest of the tools, for the rery nature of each will suggest the manner in which it is to be used ; Use of boring ^^^ ^ ^^^^ remarks may be useful on the mode of using the tools, etc. various kinds of boring tools, and in addition to these something may be said about the manipulation and method of using the marking and mortising gauges, and the nail punch. Fig. 168. holding the paring chisel. Boring with Bradawl, Gimlet, Auger, etc. 179 408. In boring holes with the bradawl and gimlet, the chief thing is to take care that the blade enters the wood at right angles to its surface, unless it be necessary to pierce a hole in it at an . . Bormgwith angle to the surface, as in skew nailing ; but for driviner bradawl and . '^ ' °' ^ gimlet. m a nail in the usual way, that is at right angles or per- pendicularly to the surface of the piece of wood that is being nailed down, the blade of the bradawl or gimlet must enter the wood perpen- dicularly. Practice alone will make the amateur perfect in doing this. He will often fail at first, very much to his annoyance. 409. In holding the bradawl the thick end of the handle is lodged against the palm of the hand and the ball of the thumb, being retained in that position by the second and third fingers ; the first ^^^ ^^ j^ , finger is extended along the blade, and the extremity of bradawl, the thumb rests on the upper end of the handle or on the brass ferule which is fitted over it. 410. In using the gimlet the cross-piece or crutch handle, into which the blade is inserted, is grasped in the right hand, and held against the palm, the blade of the tool projecting between ,j,^ • if the first and second fingers, at the first joint of each, ^°^ *o ^oi^ it. reckoning from the knuckles upward toward the tips of the fingers. It is driven into the wood by a series of half turns of the hand from right to left, the handle being released and grasped again at every half turn. 411. The ends of the crutch handle of an auger are held, one in the right hand and the other in the left, and the tool is turned from right to left, the hands being taken off and replaced on each, mi, ' ^ ^ ■ Tne auger : end of the handle in succession at every half turn of the i^owtohoidit. tool. The hands will, of course, be held in opposite directions, the palms facing inwards and the fingers and thumbs grasping the ends of the handle, as when holding the chisel in mortising. As in the case of bradawls and gimlets, great care must be taken that the blade of the auger enters the wood perpendicularly to the surface ; and it assists the entrance of the tool to cut out a small depression, or cavity, for tke reception of the end of the auger, especially if it be a shell auger. 412. The principles of the brace and bit have been fully explained. It may be held in any position, and a skilled workman will do so, and manage to bore a hole truly perpendicular to the position surface with the greatest facility. The amateur, however, ^^^^ ^^^f D1RC6 ^ud should stand upright, or as nearly so as possible, when ''it- using the brace and bit, having the part of the wood in which the hole is to be bored just about the height of his chest. The brace and bit may often be used with advantage in cutting a mortise, and a shell i8o Household Carpentry and Joinery. Fig. 169. BORING WITH BRACE & BIT. auger may also be used for the same purpose. A bit or auger of the width of the mortise should be used, and the work of the chisel is then confined to cutting out the corners and the projections between the holes. 413. In boring a hole with the bit and brace the round flattish knob is generally placed against the chest, and held tightly against it by the left hand, which grasps the tool directly in front of the . , , knob, the fingers Eormg holes ' ^ with brace resting on the part and bit. ° ^ which is upper- most. The handle attached to the crank is grasped by the right hand, as shown in fig. 1 69, and the crank is turned and the bit caused to revolve from right to left. It requires a good deal of practice to use this serviceable tool with ease and readiness ; but when the amateur has once overcome the first difficulty of managing it, he will find it to be of the greatest assistance to him in carrying out many operations in carpentry and joinery. 414. In using the marking gauge for single lines, and the mortising gauge for double lines, straight in both cases and parallel to the edge of the wood on the upper surface of which the marks are trse of . ^^ , • , , mortise made, — the object is to preserve the distance to wnicn the points are set from the head of the gauge, and marking, perhaps, many pieces of wood in the srme manner, as, for example, in cutting mortises and tenons. Gauges can be regulated to mark single or double parallel lines, as the case maybe, according to the nature of the gauge, whether marking gauge or mortising gauge, at any distance from the edge of the wood less than the length of the handle. 415. The gauge will be brought under notice again in considering the method of cutting mortises and tenons in detail. When the points Mortise ^^"^'^ ^^^" accurately adjusted to the desired distance gauge. between themselves and the head, if a mortising gauge be used, the bar or stock of the tool should be grasped with the right hand, as shown in fig. 170, in such a manner that the thumb is pressed against that part of the head nearest the operator, and the forefinger laid over its top and the ^^'^- ^"°* opposite side. The points should be just long enough to make a The Nail Punch: How to hold it. i«i slight incision or scratch along the surface of the wood ; if they are too long they drag in the wood, and prevent the operator from doing the work quickly and easily. 416. The nail punch is a short bar of iron, thick at one end and (^. tapering to a point at the other. It must be held, as a matter of course, m tne left hand. The nail The thick end must be grasped by the punch : hoy? ^ i' J to hold it. thumb and forefinger, as in fig. 171, and steadied in the manner shown by the second and third fingers passed binder it, and the little finger over it. This enables the operator to hold the point of the HOLDING NAIL tool firmly against the nail that is to be driven below PUNCH. ^^g surface of the wood, and prevents it from slipping off. The blows of the hammer should be delivered qu'ckly and smartly. CHAPTER VII. VARIOUS METHODS EMPLOYED IN JOINING TIMBER. Joining pieces of Timber — Operation of Planing — Supposed case — Carpenter's Bench — PlacingTimberon Bench — Planingmustbe in direction of Grain — Adjust- ment of Planing-iron, if required— Planing to proper thickness — Squaring planed wood — Smoothing with Glass-paper — Cutting Mortise and Tenon — Dimensions of proposed work — Marking out Tenon — Setting Gauge — Cutting with Tenon Saw — Marking out Mortise — Mode of cutting Mortise — Mortise to be cut from both sides — Trying in Tenon — Finishing and Securing — Only one way of making Mortise— Double Tenons — Use of Auger, etc, in making Mortise — Halving and Notching — Method of performing operation— Joint of this kind: why weak — Grating for Bath-room, etc.^oining Quartering and Scantlings— Junction of timber lengthways — Fishing : how performed — Halving : how done — Securing Joint with Bolts and Plates — Properlengthof halved Joint — Scarfing: meaning of term — How performed — Lateral Joints — Four methods used— Rebating : how it is done— Tonguing and Grooving — Hand tightness — Grooving and Slip- feathering — Planing Slip-feathers and Laths^oining edges of Boards — Dove-tail feather — DowellJng— How performed^Gluing Joints — Diificulty in getting glued joints to hold— Glue should be spread thinly— Joining boards at right angles — Nailing Boards end to end — Making small Frame — Keying : how performed — Corner piecing — Dove-tail joining— Common Dove-tail Joint — Dimensions of Pin and Socket — Metliod of Marking out — Diagram to be drawn larger for practice — Cutting parts of joint — Compound Dove-tail — Mode of making it — Dove-tailing for Drawer Fronts— Description of this kind of Dove-tailing — Completion of the work — The Mitre Dove-tail— How to make the Mitre Dove-tail — Illustrations helpful in making these joints. 417. Having provided himself with tools, and having learnt in some measure how to handle them and how to use them, the next thing to which the amateur artisan must turn his attention to is Joining pieces of the consideration of the various methods employed in timber. joining timbers and pieces of wood together. But before attempting any of these operations, though they may be said to be operations that are performed everyday in Carpentry and Joinery, it is absolutely necessary to be able to saw and plane wood in a tolerably efficient manner — to saw truly and straightly in accordance with the guide lines made by the operator to enable him to make the saw-cut, be it of what kind it may, in the proper direction, and to plane up the surface of a piece of wood and its edges in a workmanlike manner. 418. The operation of planing has been already dwelt on to some Operation of Planing. 183 extent, but at the risk even of being wearisome the operation may be described again. One of the first, and perhaps the most operation frequent of wood-working operations, is that of planing a oivi^'^s- piece of rough wood down to a certain size and thickness. Indeed, whatever joint the amateur wishes to make, he must first plane the different pieces to the right thickness and shape. Nothing but opera- tions in carpentry, such as framing pieces of timber together, can be done without the aid of this useful tool; in joinery nothing whatever can be done without it. 419. For the sake of clearer and easier explanation, let us suppose that a piece of wood is wanted which is square in shape •, that is to say, with sides of twelve inches every way, and one inch m supposed thickness. The piece of wood which is to be worked into the following dimensions must be rather larger every way, and should be sawn off from the most convenient piece in the amateur's possession. 420, Allusion has been made once or twice to the carpenter's bench, a sine qua non to every amateur ; but this will be described in the following chapter, and instructions given for making this, carpenter's and the stools or trestles that are so necessary when sawing ^^'^°^- ^ timber or mortising. The uses of the parts of the bench, of which mention must necessarily be made in the following description of planing, will be readily understood. Having sawn off the piece of timber, lay it on the bench just as it is, in the rough, with ^^^^^^^ one side bearing against the bench stop— a piece of wood timberon fitted tightly to a square hole in the bench, and which can be depressed till it is level with the surface, or raised by a few blows from a hammer until it stands above it at a height sufficient for the purpose required. In this case it may be about )i\n. above the surface of the bench, and rather more than %\tl. below the upper surface of the wood that is about to be planed. If it project in the least degree above the surface of the wood to be planed, it will inflict very serious damage on the cutter of the plane. The projection can be adjusted to any height by tapping it with the hammer on the top if too high, and below if not high enough. 421. Whenever possible— and it is in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred— tne wood must be planed in the direction of the grain; it is not only much easier, but a much better surface is ob- pianing , . , rr- 1 1- i 1 must be in tainable. The bulk of what has to come off must be taken direction of off with the jack-plane. Take hold of the handle with the ^^^' right hand, put the left on and over the plane, just in front of the 184 Household Carpentry and Joinery. clearance hole, lay the plane flat on the wood, and push it fonvards ; bring it back, and again send it forward by firm even strokes, taking especial care to keep the plane always parallel to the surface of the wood, and not let the ends drop at the commencement and termination of the stroke. This is a very common fault with beginners, but, unless overcome, the surface will never be flat, or, as mechanics call it " true." The necessity of guarding against this cannot be too stronglj impressed upon the mind of the amateur, because it is much easier to do it properly at the commencement, than to get out of the habit when once acquired. 422. If when the plane is passed over the wood no shaving comes off, take the hammer and tap the planing iron very gently. Tap it in Adjustment ^^ middle, or one corner will be driven out further than "'iron^if^' the Other. Try again. Ah ! you have tapped too hard required, ^nd driven the cutter out so far that by exerting all your strength you cannot move the plane across the wood at all, or, if you move it at all, it only goes an inch or two and runs in deeper than before. That is what carpenters call " too rough." To remedy this, tap the plane smartly behind ; one or two blows will not only bring out the planing-iron, but the wedge also. Put both back and readjust. Whenever it is required to take out the cutter, strike the plane behind, and whenever it is required to bring the iron down, tap the iron very gently, as it has been said, or knock the plane gently infi'ont. When properly adjusted, the amateur will be able, without any violent exertions, to pass the plane smoothly over the wood, bringing off at each forward stroke clean shavings of even thickness, and the planed surface will be smooth and level. 423. When one side of the wood is planed, take the gauge, set it at I inch ; put the head against the planed surface, and strike a line along each of the four edges of the board ; lay it again proper on the bench, with the planed side downwards, and plane nearly down to the line just struck. Smooth off both sides with the smoothing-plane. It is now the right thickness. 424. To square the wood put it in the vice — a flat piece or cheek of wood that may be moved farther from or nearer to the side of the Squaring bench by one or two screws — and tighten the screw or planed wood, gcrews, but not too tight, lest the pressure injure the Inished surface of the board above and below. Plane, or " true up," one side, and, with a square, mark off two lines, twelve inches apart, and at right angles to the side already planed. If the board is very much out of square, cut off most of the superfluous wood with the Cutting Mortise and Tenon. 1S5 tenon saw and finish with the plane as before. In planing the sides in which the end of the grain appears plane down to the line at on? corner first, then plane down the other corner, and the middle. If this precaution is not taken the corners will " spawl" off, and through the amateur's carelessness will present a very ragged and unseemly appearance. If the work is required very smooth, the gj^^^j^^jj^j different surfaces must be well rubbed with a sheet of with glass-paper glass-paper or cloth, which, for convenience, is generally wrapped round a small piece of wood. Such a piece of wood may b« two or three inches broad, four or five inches long, and an inch thick, so that it may be easily grasped and held in the hand. 425. If the amateur artisan can get through the work above described in a creditable manner, he will be able to do anything that is required in Cutting the way of plan- mortise and ^ tenon, ing, and we may now turn our attention to other operations. And first, as this is a mode of connect- ing timbers, without which it is next to impossible to frame Fig. 172. them together in a proper TENON, manner, before proceeding to other methods of joining timber, let us consider the mode of cutting a mortise Y ' and tenon, or making a mor- tise and tenon joint, the nature of which has already been explained in the last chapter. 426. In the annexed en- graving, fig. 172 represents an upright with the lower Fig. 173. THE MORTISE. end cut into the form of a tenon; and fig. 173, a piece of wood cut in such a manner that the tenon may fit into the _. ' Dimensions cavity, which is called a mortise. Suppose that the of proposed ■" ^'^ _ work. width of each piece of wood is 3in. and the depth 4in. ; that is to say, in fig. 172, 3in. from A to B, and 4in. from A to C, and in fig 173, 3in. from x to Y, and 4in. from Y to Z. It is determined in this case not to cut the mortise right through the wood, but to make i86 Household Carpentry and Joinery. the tenon 3in. in length, in which case it will not show itself in the lower surface or bottom of the piece of wood, represented in fig. 173. 427. It is further determined to make the width of the tenon, and therefore, that of the mortise also, lin., and we must suppose that the Marking out wood has been planed up and true on all sides. First of tenon. ^^j^ ^ distance of sin., the depth decided on for the mortise, is measured from the end of the upright, say from F, G up- wards to D, E. This distance is marked with the pencil, and by the aid of the square, the straight lines B A, AC, C L, and LB are marked, «ne on each side or surface presented by the upright. As the width of each piece of wood is 3in., and the tenon is to be in the direction Setting of its depth, that is to say, from A to C or from B to L, gauge. ^^^ g^g jj. jg ^^^^2^ to makc the tenon just one-third the width, the mortising gauge must be set so that the first point is distant exactly lin. from the head, and the second, which is the point nearest the end, 2in. from the head. The head of the mortise must be brought first along the edge B o, where the points will mark out the lines EG, D F ; then against L p, where the lines K N, H M will be marked ; and lastly, against the edge O P, where the lines G N, F M will be marked. The upright, if it be a short one, may be held perpendicularly in the bench-jaw or vice, when the planes H M F D, K N G E will be cut through with the tenon _ ,,. .,, saw. The timber is then laid on the bench, and the Cutting with ' tenon saw. tcnon saw is passed through the planes C H D A, B E K L, when the rectangular blocks on either side of the tenon will be separated from it, and the tenon be left in a fit condition to be inserted in the mortise when made. 428. A distance of 4in. having been measured off with the rule along the line xx' in fig. 173, at the place where it is determined to Marking out cut the mortise, the square is applied to the edge x x', mortise. ^^^ ^^^ ^jj^^g ^^ ^^^y- ^j. y\g\^i angles to the edge are duly marked ofT. Then the head of the mortising gauge is applied to the edge yy' or xx' — either will do provided that the timbers are of the same width, which they should be if they have been planed up to gauge — and the lines R S, T u, marked on the upper surface, represented by X x' y' Y. The parallelogram, T R s U, the length of which is with the grain of the wood — a mortise being in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred cut with its length parallel to the grain — shows Mode of , , , , ... , . . cutting the place where the mortise is to be cut, and its size, which corresponds exactly with that of the tenon. The wood is then laid on the carpenter's bench, or, if long enough, on a Trying in Tenon: Finishing and Securing. 187 pair of stools or trestles, and the operator proceeds to cut out the mortise witli a mortising chisel or firmer chisel, of the breadth of the mortise— namely, lin., sinking it gradually to the depth of sin., or a trifle more, that the shoulders of the tenon may rest on, and fit closely to the upper surface of the wood in which the mortise has been cut ; that is to say, the surfaces c H D A, L K E B in fig. 172, on the surfaces V T U w, v'r S W respectively in fig. I73- If the wood is long enough to be laid on trestles, the operator sits astride it, and proceeds to cut the mortise, but whether on the bench or on trestles the mode of operation is the same ; a notch is first taken out in the middle of the mortise, and the cutting is carried gradually to the end, first in one direction and then in the other, till a depth of about ^in. or >^in. has been taken out over the whole of the mortise. When the mortise is to be cut right through the wood, lines should be marked with j^^^.tigg to be the square round three sides or faces of the wood (or all ^<^l^^^^^ four, if preferred), as v'v, vV, V'a' and w'w, w \v" and w"b' and the lines t'u', r's', marked on the under part of the wood. When half the depth of the mortise, or nearly so, has been cut from the parallelogram T R S U, the wood should be turned upside down and the rest of the mortise taken out from the parallelogram t'r's'u'. By this means the mortise will be carried through in such a manner from side to side of the wood that the upright cannot fail to be per- pendicular to it. Had the operator gone on cutting in one direction throughout the whole operation, he might have leant a little to one side or the other, and the other side of the hole would not have been true to gauge. This would have had the effect of throwing the upright piece out of the perpendicular. Whenever an amateur, therefore, is going to cut a mortise right through a piece of wood, he must remember that it will be safer for him to sink the hole from both sides. 429. When the m.ortise is cut try in the tenon, and if too tight to go down to the shoulder without using considerable force, rub some red lead about it and again try it in. The lead will show Trying in where the joint binds. Carefully pare off those places thus marked until the mortise is large enough to admit the tenon. When it is brought home to the shoulders, a hole is to be bored ^jj^jghi^g through both mortise and tenon with a bit or gimlet, and ^^^^^^g^ a wooden pin driven into it. When the mortise and tenon is but small, the joint may be secured by gluing the end of the tenon before it is fitted into the mortise. 430. The method of making a mortise is the same in all cases, i88 Household Carpentry and Joinery. Fig. 175. DOUBLE TENON. whatever may be its length and width, and but little more remains to be said about this kind of joint. When the wood to be joined is Only one very wide, instead of having mtking one tenon one-third of the mortice, yfl^^l^^ ^ jg usual to have two tenons, as shown in fig. 174, in the annexed drawing, and consequently two mortise holes. In this case the thick- Doubio ness of each tenon is one- tenons, ^f^^ jjjg ^^.j^jj^ Qf ti^g ^yood. If three tenons are necessary, the thick- ness of each should be one-seventh of the wood. It is not likely, however, that the amateur will ever find it necessary to proceed beyond a double tenon. The form of tenon shown in fig. 175, is also very useful ; it does not weaken the wood so much as the other methods. When a very wide tenon is required, this shape may be used with advantage. It will readily be understood by referring to the illustration. 431. It has been said that assistance may be obtained in making mortises from the auger and brace and bit. The manner is shown in Use of anger, fig- i?^, in which let A B C D represent a mortise lin. wide mawng ^^d 2>2in. long. If two holes be taken out with an inch mortiBe, ^jj ^g ^^ ^ ^^^ p^ jj. jg ^jg^^ ji^at all that remains to be done with the chisel is to clear away the comers at a,b,c,d, and the intervening space between E and F, in which case it will be necessary to cut the sides A B, c D of the mor- '■'°- M?KrN"MOHTisr '•' tise, which is never requisite when the_ whole of the wood to be removed is taken out with the chisel in the ordinary way. 432. There is a method of connecting timbers by halving and notching which may be described, as it may possibly be of use to the „ , . :, amateur in some cases, especially if he be not very far Halving and ' a- ■ ^t notching, advanced in the art of carpentr>', and not sufficiently skilful to make a mortise and tenon joint. It is a joint that materially weakens the wood, reducing its strength just one-half. 433- Fig. 177 will suffice to show the manner in which timbers may be halved and notched into each other. Suppose that the timbers A and B are two pieces of quartering 2in. square, after being planed Halving and Notching. 189 .H HALVING AND NOTCHING. np. The marking gauge is set to lin. and applied to the timbers, tracing out the lines c D on a, and E F on B, and similar lines on the sides opposite to these, which are hidden from view. ^ Method of Spaces of 2m. are then set off, where the pieces are to performing operation, be notched into each other, and guide lines drawn with the square round the three sides in which is contained the piece to be notched out, as at G H K, L M N in B. These lines serve to direct the tenon saw, which is passed through the lines H K, M N, till it meets the transverse lines traced by the gauge. A broad chisel and mal- let is then called into requisition to remove the notch, the edge of the chisel being in the guide lines traced by the marking gauge, and the handle struck lightly so as to impel the chisel gently into the wood. After this has been done once or twice, first on one side and then on the other, the piece will come away, leaving a hollow as shown in the drawing. Any inequality of surface that may be caused by projection of fibres at the bottom of the notch may be pared away with the chisel A notch precisely similar to that which has been made in B is made in A ; the mode of operation in each case being exactly alike. The two pieces are then fitted one into the other, the notch in each receiving the part that is left in the other after the notch has been made, and the piece which was previously contained in it removed. When fitted together the wood presents the appearance shown at x. A couple of holes should then be made with a large gimlet, and the two pieces be fastened together by wooden pegs. It is better to put one peg in on one side and the other on the side opposite to it, instead of driving in both on one side. 434. It has been said that this is a weak kind of joint, and so it is, on account of the great reduction that is made in the thickness of the wood in both pieces. It is useful, however, in joining ^ > ' J o Joint of thia cross-pieces, for the pressure of the shoulders of the kind, why notches on the surfaces on which they rest gives great rigidity to the joint, so that it is impossible, if the pieces have been accurately cut and let into one another, to move the arms of the cros: thus formed in any direction. It is bad when the efid of one piece of wood is halved into another piece, as in the case of an upright into a horizontal piece, or vice versa, and it is infinitely worse when the igo Household Carpentry and Joinery. ends of two pieces of wood are halved for the purpose of joining the pieces themselves at right angles. The case in which halving and notchincr comes into operation with the best effect is in Grating fcr ° ^ bath-room, making a grating, on which to stand in a bath-room etc. or on a stone floor. In this a number of pieces, all lymg in one direction, are halved into a number of others at right angles to them, as in fig. 178, the ends on all sides being let into a frame a little thicker and wider than the E_^_^-I1J1 bars themselves. The bars, when fitted into one another should be fastened with wooden pegs, and JSJ pi m BiJ y the plane passed over the surface to remove any ' ^'' — inequalities that may remain after the heads have Fig. 178. GRATING. , „ . , , 1 • 1 T L been cut off with the saw or chisel. Inch square bars make a substantial and useful grating of this kind, the notches being made at a distance varying from lin. to i)4in. apart. 435. We have now considered the methods of joining such pieces of wood as quartering and scantling, and smaller pieces that assume Joining, the form of bars, at right angles to each other. It is now ^^^inT'^' necessary to see how such pieces of wood may be joined Boantungs. lon^^Uudinally or lengthwise, end to end, so that each piece is in direct continuation of the other, in one and the same straight line ; and then to consider the methods that are adopted for joining boards on pieces of wood laterally or side by side, so as to present a uniform and level surface, and at an angle, most commonly a right angle, as in the case of a drawer or box. 436. The modes of joining timbers longitudinally, or end to end, are three in number, and may be described as fishing, halving, and scarfing — beginning with the most simple manner of Junction of „ . ...,.,. . , , c , ^1 timber effecting a joint in this direction, namely that of lengthy ^^^^' and proceeding onwards to the most difficult. 437. Fishing is a mode much used at sea for strengthening a mast, yard, or spar, that has been sprung or cracked but not broken in half. It is an operation very similar to that perfor>ned by the Fishing : how ^ ^ performed, fly-fisherman when a joint of his fishing-rod is cracked in the manner shown in the annexed engraving, fig. 179 ; and he repairs it by winding a piece of waxed silk over the fracture, as shown in fig. 180. An exemplification of this fish-joint or fish-plating is to be seen on any railway, for this is the manner in which the ends of the rails are connected, as shown in fig. 181. When the sailor fishes a spat instead of using rope only, as is done with silk or fine cord in splicing the broken joint of a fishing-rod or a walking stick, he lays some shor Fishing, Halving, and Scarfing. 191 Fig. 180. MODE OF FISHING. Tts; pieces of timber lengthwise along the spar, and binds the rope; to them, the longitudinal timbers helping to support and keep in place the ends of the fracture, and preventing increased injury from any additional strain that may be made at any time on the upper or riven part of the spar. The timbers act in fact in a man- ner similar to the plates at the ^unction of the ends of two rails on a railway as in fig. i8i. The amateur may connect timbers in ^ ' The lower board A is laid first on the \- j i j joists, and fastened down to them by / ,_._j j.! floor-brads driven in at an angle as at "~' p^ jg3 relating. B, the heads being buried in the wood by aid of the brad-punch. The board C is then laid down so that the rebate in it fits over the rebate in A, and the overlap is then fastened down by wooden pegs driven into and through both laps along each joint, as shown at D. 443. The next method of joining edges of boards, which presents no very great difficulty if the amateur possess a tonguing and grooving plane, or a pair of match planes, is shown in fig. 1S9. It tonguing and is called tonguing and grooving. After the edges of the sroo^^-^s,. boarcls to be joined have been planed true, a groove one-third of th&lr 13 194 Household Carpentry and Joinery. Fig i<39 iu\GUKNG AND GROOVING. Grooving and slip- feathering. thickntss, and sometimes a little less, is cut in one piece by means ol the grooving iron, while by the aid of the tonguing iron a corresponding tongue is cut in the other. This tongue should fit the groove some- Hand-tight- what tightly, indeed, in the manner called by joiners " hand- ^®^^' tight," meaning so tight that it cannot readily be pulled ut with the hand. At the same time care must be taken that the tongue is not so large and fits so tight that it will burst the groove. An ex- emplification of this mode of joining boards is to be found in match-board- ing. It is most useful when a large surface has to be covered with boards, and it is necessary to connect their edges in such a manner that the edge of one may hold down and retain in its place the edge of that which has been placed in position just before it. 444. A third method of joining the edges of boards is that of ^roi?v- ing and slip-feathering, as shown in fig. 190. As in all other modes of joining boards laterally, the edges must be planed per- fectly straight and true. A groove, which must never be more than one-third the thickness of the boards to be joined, and which is generally less, is then cut in the middle of both edges. This must be done with a grooving-plane or plough. Amateurs have been told that thsy can cut out grooves for this kind of joint with a chisel, but they may be sure that, although at the cost of much time and trouble, they may accomplish the necessary twofold groove in two pieces of board for a few inches, they will find it most diffi- cult, if not almost impracticable, to carry it on for any length, and the work when done will not answer their expectations. The planing of the slip-feather that is to be pressed into the grooves to hold the boards together must then be accomplished, and when it is ready it should be coated with glue, and then inserted into the grooves ; the edges of the board being brought into close proximity by means of a clamp, or pair of clamps, and held tightly together till the glue is dry. 445. Whenever the amateur artisan has occasion to plane down a long slip-feather, or anything long and slender, and consequently weak, instead of placing the wood against the bench stop, and Planing slip- . ,..,., . . y r- , f joathers and planmg towards it — ip .i/hich position the nrst stroke of the plane would snap the wood — he should nail, or other- wise fasten, the extremity of the slip that is nearest to him. to the Fig. 190. GuooviNG AND SLIP-FEATHERING. Dove-tail Jointing : Dowelling. 195 DOVE-TAIL JOINTING. bench, and plane/rom it. Whatever may be the length, it will then be easily accomplished. The amateur artisan should adopt this plan in planing any piece of thin, narrows wood, as laths for trellis-work. 446. The method of jointing edges of boards, which is shown in fig. 191, is called dove-tail grooving. The edges are first to be planed true and straight. A groove called a dove-tail groove, jointing edgea from its fancied resemblance to the extended tail feathers of ^oarcia. of a dove or pigeon, is cut in the edge of each piece. A dove-tail feather is then made to fit these grooves in such a manner, that the effect of putting the feather in its place, which, of course, po^e-taii must be done endwise, will be to draw the two pieces feather. closer together. Cutting the grooves and planing the feather is an operation of great nicety, and one which in 'all probability will never be performed by an amateur artisan. It is useful in bringing together the edges of two or more pieces of wood intended to form such an article as a drawing board. The straight-sided groove and slip-feather is useful in fitting boards together to form the top of a table, although for this purpose the tongue and groove may be, and is, frequently used. 447. A description of the methods used for joining the edges of boards together laterally would not be complete without some mention of dowelling, the term applied to the fastening together of ^^^^^^^^^^^. boards by means of wooden or metal pegs. It is the method p^^Jj^o^^^^^^ used by the cooper for bringing together the edges of the pieces of wood of which the head and bottom of the cask are formen The amateur will find it useful in many ways. An exemplification of it may be found in the joining of the leaves of a dining-table, which is regulated by small wooden pegs which project from the edge of one leaf at right angles to the surface of the edge, and fit with great ac- curacy and nicety into holes made for their reception in the edge of the leaf that is placed next to the first leaf, and so on. In joining wood together in this way, the pieces must be laid side by side so that the edges present one surface, being brought on a level one with the other ; and straight lines marked across both edges with a square and pencil to indicate where the pegs are to come. The exact points where the gimlet is to enter the wood in preparing the holes for the pegs, are shown by tracing a line along the edge with a marking gauge. Koies must then be bored along the edge of each board, as shown in section in the accompanying illustration. In A, in fig. 192, pegs of tough wood. 196 Household Carpentry and Joinery. which have been previously prepared for the purpose, are driven into the holes to the depth of about lin. or ij^in., projecting beyond the edge for about the same distance. The points of the pegs are then brought to the mouths of the holes in B, and the board A is driven or brought by pressure towards the board B until their edges are brought close together. The pegs should be glued before being driven into the holes prepared for their reception in both A and B. The operation re- quires some degree of nicety in making the holes in the edges of the boards exactly opposite each other, so that no undue strain may be made on the pegs. Dowels and Fig. 152. DOWELLING. , , . , J dowel pms may be round or square, as may be most convenient ; thus it is usual to make round holes and use round pins in working in wood, and square holes in masonry. When a wooden upright is let into stone to keep it in position, a square dowel is cut in the stone, less in everyway than the dimensions of the wood, and the end of the wood is then cut to enter the dow{>!, presenting veiy much the appearance of a very short tenon. It is manifest that the upright cannot be moved out of its place unless great force be used to it, because the projecting piece in the dowel prevents its motion in any direction. 448. In all operations of the kinds described above, the joints should be glued and held together till dry, but no gluing is required in putting down rebated flooring, or in lining the sides of a room, ^ "' ' etc., etc., with match-boarding. The method of making glue has been described (see p. 131), and a few words on the method to be adopted in using glue may not be out of place here. 449. Some difficulty may be experienced in getting the glued joints to hold. A thin, even coat should be laid on the parts to be joined to- gether with a brush, the several pieces put in their places, actting glued and when practicable rubbed together two or three times to joims o o . jj^gyj.g ji^g g^,gj^ distribution of the glue, and to expel the air from the joints. The whole, as it has been frequently said, must be held together wi:h a clamp until thoroughly dry. In gluing together soft wood, a piece of good chalk should be rubbed over the joints before the glue is laid on. Care, however, must be taken that no knobs or gritty particles be allowed to remain. Not only rrost ama- teurs, but many thoughtless workmen also, seem imbued with the notion that the more glue is laid over the wood the stronger will be the jcict. This is a great mistake, for a thick layer of glue makes Joining Boards at Right Angles. 197 a weak joint. Indeed, the thinner, in reason, the glue, the stronger will be the joint, the great desideratum being the exclu- • , . , 1, , r Glueshoiild sion of the air. If the air could be entirely expelled from be spread between two surfaces, they would adhere one to the other without any glue. In the manufacture- of a certain sort of glass, where one piece is ground against another to bring them to a face. it is sometimes the case that the air is so perfectly excluded that the two plates adhere to each other so firmly that they cannot be separated without fracture. 450. We must now proceed to a consideration of the methods adopted for joining boards at right angles so as to form a corner. There are two modes of doing this, which are called key- ing and dove-tailing. There is another way of connecting boards at boards at right angles which shall be explained, first of " all, because it may be useful to the amateur ; but the methods just named are by far the best, and those most commonly used — namely, keying in small cabinet-making and light joinery, and dovetailing in all operations in which strength and durability are desirable. 451. The third method to which allusion has been made, and which may be described first, is that which is commonly adopted for nailing together packing cases. In fig. 193 is shown the way in j^aiiing boards which this is done. The edge of one board is brought ^^^ '° ^'^*' against the inner surface of another, as at A, and nails are driven through the former into the latter to fasten the boards together. The joint is a weak one, and a very little force will serve to disconnect boards ; Making smaU but when four boards are nailed ra-me. together in this way, as the four sides of a P ToiNiNG "^^ ^°^ °^ packing-case, one corner strengthens BOARDS END TO END. another, and they all afford each other mutual support ; and when the bottom is nailed on, it is difficult to wrench the boards asunder. When wood of some thickness is used, as in making a small frame to be covered with a light for the reception of plants, etc., a shallow rebate may be cut at each end of the sides, as at B, affording a slight shoulder against which the boards, which form the top and bottom of the frame, can be lodged previous to nailing the whole together. 452. One of the most useful and most frequently required jointj in joinery, is that which is used to unite two pieces of wood to each other at right angles, generally speaking. I-'or veiy light work, and where strength is of secondary importance, thf. qS Household Carpentry and Joinery. Fig. 194. KEYING. method shown in fig. 194, and termed "keying" or "keying together" IS generally used. The edges, as may be seen, are bevelled or mitred xway each to half the required angle of the vhole. Thus in a joint at right angles, the -ine A B would make an angle of 45° with the lines A C and A D, or the surface of the bevel as shown by the line A B would be at an angle of 45° with the outer surface of each of the boards thus joined. If the sides were those of a hexagon, the angle which the bevel would make with the outer surface would be 30°. Glue the bevelled edges together, and when dry make three or four saw cuts diagonally across tlie joint, half of the cuts or y{Y;yj, as they How are sometimes termed, inclining performed, upwards, as at E and F, and half downwards, as at G and A. Cut out some thin pieces of wood of such a thickness that they may fit into these saw cuts tightly, dip them in glue, hammer them into place, and when dr>' cut them off to the shape of the outside of the joint. If done well this makes a very neat joint, the saw Fig. 195. coKNER-piEciNG. cuts being hardly observable, but if the amateur cannot manage it exactly, or if he does not wish anything to show on the outside, he should use the description of joint shown in fig. 195, Corner- Avhich is called " corner-piecing." In this the edges are piecjig. ijevelled together in the same manner as in the last, but when glued together, instead of using slips of wood inserted into saw cuts to keep them together, a corner-piece is made and glued on inside. 7 his joint is very simple and neat, but it is not very strong ; it is often used for the corners of workboxes and articles required for a like pur- pose. In such case, the corner-pieces, if not carried upwards the whole length of the joint, but cut off at a height equal to the depth of the tray, will serve as supports for the tray ; otherwise ledges to hold he tray must be glued to the sides within. 453. Lastly, we come to the dove-tail joint. Of this joint there are four kinds: the common or single dove-tail, the compound dove-tail, the dove- Dove-taii tail for drawer fronts, and the mitre dove-tail. Although Join ing. jj ^^,jjj i^g necessary to mention the peculiarities of all !hese in turn, it is needless to do more than describe the construction Single or Common Dove-tail joint. 199 of the single or common dove-tail in detail, for one and the same i-lG. 196. FIX Fig. 197. SOCKET. principle of construction charac- terises the whole set, and is used in them all. 454. When appearance is of little consequence and strength of the utmost importance, the common dove-tail joint should be used. In the annexed illustra- common „ , , dove-tailjoint. tion, fig. 196 shows the pin, as it is called, and fig. 197 the socket of a single dove-tail. SINGLE DOVE-TAIL JOINT. Very few workmen follow any arbitrary rule as to the proportions and shape of the different parts ; they go by their judgment and their eye, and if they have had any experience they are seldom wrong. To the amateur, who cannot be expected to have had much if any practice, the following hints will be of material assistance. If he goes according to rule when he commences, practice will soon make him familiar with the propor- tions, and render any measurement or rule unnecessary. This does not of course do away with the necessity that exists for marking the depth of the pin and socket with the marking-gauge. This must be done even by the best of workmen. Hard and tough wood will admit of an acuter angle than soft wood, or wood that is subject to split or chip. 455. Let us take the pin and socket shown in the above illustration as an example. It is, as it has been said, the pin and socket of a single dove-tail, but the same rule is followed in the con- j^jj^g^^gj^^^g struction of all. Having determined the depth of the of pin and Bocket. pin, which will be governed by the thickness of the board in which the socket is to be cut, into which the pin is to be fitted, set the head of the marking-gauge to the required distance from the point; and, holding it against the end of the wood, mark on its four sides in succession the lines E C, C K (fig. 196), a«d the lines opposite to them from E and K on the sides that are not shown in the drawing. Method of Next divide E C into three equal parts in the points D and "^^'i^sou B, D B being the central third, that is, the root or bottom of the pin. Draw two lines, B A and D F, at an angle of 70° or 80° to C B and E D, respectively. Draw two other straight lines, A H, F G, at right angles to FA. Perform the same operation on the side of the wood that is hidden from view ; that is to say, trisect the line from K to the corner formed by i'.K meeting of the lines K and E, iH\c join the points on either side of the central third, to G and H respectively, one of these being H i, which 200 Household Carpentry and Joinery. is shown in the diagram. The reader will find it good practice to copy the diagram on a larger scale, completing the parts cut Diagram to be *= . ... ? drawn larger away on each side of the pin with dotted hnes. This will for practice. . . , . , , . . , ,• materially assist him when he is putting the directions given into practice on wood. The operator, supposing that these lines have been marked on a piece of wood, must now lay the tenon-saw upon the line C K, and cut across the grain till it comes to B I. Lay the saw next upon A H, and saw in a direction very nearly correspond- ing to that of the grain until B I has been reached, as before, and a junction is effected with the saw-cut first made through c K. Remove the piece of wood thus detached, and proceed in the same manner on the other side. If a smooth cut be made, nothing further is required to be done to the pin ; but if roughly sawn, or the two saw cuts do not meet, and the piece nearly cut off is torn away, the projections that still require to be removed must be cut away with a broad chisel. Having finished the pin, it now remains to cut the socket for its re- Cutting parts ception. First lay the pin upon the end of the piece o joints, intended for the socket, that is to say, on the end shown uppermost in fig. 197, and with a sharp pencil mark on the end the shape of the pin. The lines thus marked would be those shown as A B and CD in fig. 197, the part between A and C receiving the narrow part or throat of the pin, and that between D and D the wide end, namely, the parts lettered D B and A F in fig. 196. Saw down to the required depth, shown by the line E F. This depth is equal to the thickness of the wood from C to K in fig. 196, and straight lines all round the wood should have been previously marked at this depth ^ r-7 f\ I with the square. When the saw cuts have been \ \ \ ^ made through A B and C D to the necessary depth, the central piece must be removed with a chisel. The piece removed, if it could be taken away without breaking it, should be exactly the shape of, and slightly smaller than, the pin, because the Pig iqS sivglr P'" ^^^ ^° replace it, and it is necessary that the DOVE-TAIL coiiPLETE. pjn should fit fairly tight into the opening cut for its reception. When glued together, the pin and socket present an appearance similar to that in fig. 198, in which the single dove-tail is represented in a finished state. 456. The compound dove-tail is represented in the annexed diagrams, Compound ^'"^^^ ^'^^ °"^y difference between this and the single dove- dove-taii. ^^il is, that the first has but one pin and this has three, and may have more if it be necessary. Compound Dove-tail Joint. 201 457. When the wood has been planed to the proper size, and the sides or edges squared, a line should be struck by means of the marking- gauge along the pin part on both sides from A to B, as in j^ , fig. 199. The distance of this line from the edge should marking it. be rather more than the thickness of the socket part as shown in fig. 200, which, with fig. 199, represents, the for- mer the elevation of end of the socket piece, and the latter the elevation of side of pin piece. The pins are cut out as in the single dove-tail, the parts at c, d, being removed by aid of a chisel, while those at a, d, may be cut out with a tenon-saw or chisel as may be preferred. Lines are then marked on the flat side of the socket part, as shown at c in fig. 200, the thickness of the pin being their distance from the edge of the board. The shape and position of the sockets can easily be found by laying the pins upon the ^'c;. 200. Fig. 199. SOCKET PIECE. PIN PIECE. edge of the socket and marking them off" compound dove-tail joint, v/ith a sharp pencil. The sockets are cut out in the same manner as in a single dove-tail. If the spaces to be removed are at all large, a few steady blows should be given with a mallet upon the chisel handle. The chisel should not be urged to take out the whole of the space at one cut, but a part should be taken at a time, and when the wood is nearly removed the chisel should be held rather out of the perpendicular, so as to cut in under, which will insure a tight and neat joint when put together. The appearance of the pins of the compound dove-tail represented in isometrical per- spective after completion are shown in fig. 201, and the sockets in a similar manner in fig. 202. When put together the dove-tail joint appears as shown in fig. 203. In this joint each side shows portions of the end grain of its neighbour. For drawers and such-like articles 202. SOCKET PIECE. FiG. 201. PIN PIECE. COMPOUND UOVE-TAIL IN ISOMETKICAL PERSPECTIVE. 202 Household Carpentry and Joinery. Fig. 203. COMPOUND DOVE-TAIL COMPLETE. ihis, however well done, would look very unsightly ] it is therefore sel- dom used for those purposes, unless theout- ^^^_^ sides are veneered, or covered with a thin ^X N^^ y^ sheet of some ornamental wood. Should it at any time be used for a drawer, the part marked C must be the front. The reason readily appears from an examination of the shape of the parts composing the dove-tail. Supposing, for the sake of explanation, that :A. the joint was not glued, and that it did not fit very tightly. If the part marked A were used as the front, it would be possible to pull the pins a, b, c, out of their sockets, as there is nothing to prevent their coming out ; but if ever so much force were used to draw C away from A, it could not be done, because the broad parts of the pins d, e, could not possibly be pulled out through the narrov/ openings yj g. 458. There is a method of making the dove-tail joint for drawer fronts by which the end grain of the side is kept concealed from view, and this does away with any necessity for veneering in for drawer" Order to hide the joint. This mode of making the joints between sides and front is adopted for drawers that are to be painted or stained and varnished, and may be used with advantage in drawers that are to be veneered with mahogany, rose- vvood, or any fancy wood. 459. The elevation of the end of the front and surface of the side in this kind of dove-tail joint for drawer fronts is shown in figs. 204 and 205 in the annexed illustrations, and the appearance of the Description . , . ,. ^ . . . ... of this kinA pieces when cut in readiness for joining together is shown in figs. 206 and 207, and that of the pieces after they have been joined in fig. 208. The part used for the front is marked F in all the illustrations. It will be seen by referring to the complete joint in fig. 208 that the end grain of the side does not come through, and con- sequently is not seen. This joint is rather more difficult to make than the one that was last described, but the difficulty of construction is confined entirely to the front part, the side being cut in a manner exactly similar to the ordinary dove-tail joint. When the amateur artisan has occasion to make this joint, he should (after the several parts are trued up and sized with the plane) first cut out the side, as in Dove-tail Joint for Drawer Fronts. 2oj fig. 204. The thickness of the side-piece should be rather less than the thicbness of the front. When the side is completed it should be laid in position on the end of the front and the shape of completion oi the pins marked with a sharp pencil. The sockets which the work, are shaded in fig. 205 must then be carefully cut away with a mallet and chisel. The different parts ^Xv of this joint should fit each other well, and, indeed, so should the Fig. 205. Fig. 204. END OF FRONT. SIDE. ELEVATION OF HIDDEN DOVE-TAIL. Fig. 207. END OF FRONT. FiG. 2o6. SIDE. HIDDEN DOVE-TAIL I.V ISOMETRICAL PEKSPECTIVE. parts of all other joints made in wood; but, as in this case, a great deal of strain is thrown on the joints of the drawer in pulling it out, unless they are well fitted together the front will soon become very shaky. The method of making this kind of dove-tail joint is shown clearly in the illustrations, and any further explanation will be needless, as the diagrams speak, as it were, for themselves. 460. The last joint of this description that has to be considered is the mitre dove-tail, which is a combination of keying and dove- tailing. It is a very neat and The mitre moderately strong dove - tail ; there are no end grains showing, and if done well the joint itself cannot be Hoticed. It is used, in short, when both strength and neat- ness are required, which, with the amateur, Fig. 203. HIDDEN ^ ' DOVE-TAIL COMPLETE. is frequently the case. 204 Household Carpentry and Joinery. 461. The first thing to be done in making this joint is to cut the mitre or bevel. For the sake of making the explanation a little clearer, let us suppose that the pieces of wood to be united are of equal thick- , ness, and let fig. 209 re- How to make . present a horizontal sec- ^ tion of the front, and fig. 2 10 a horizontal section of the side ; or, ^ what is the same thing, let the figures in each case represent the upper edge the mitre dove-tail. A K C A E: By Fig. 209. Fig. 210. SECTION OF FRONT. SECTION OF SIDE. of the boards. Each board must be mitre dove-tail. cut so that the edges marked A in each must meet. In each take the distance A B equal to A c, the thickness of the board, and with the square draw the straight line B H, and join the diagonal A H. Along A C and A B measure equal lines, A K, A E, and through E draw the line E D F with the square, and through K the line K D G parallel to the edge A B or C H. Let this be done on the lower edge of the board as well, and with square or marking-gauge trace a line from F, along the inner surface, along the whole depth of the side, from upper edge to lower edge. Lay the tenon-saw along this line, if it is not too long, in which case it must be cut with the chisel, and cut into the wood until D is reached. Then with a sharp chisel cut away the wood along the part AD of the diagonal AH, removing entirely the shaded part in each board, namely, A D F C. The sockets will now have to be cut in the part G D F H, in fig. 209, and the pins in the part similarly lettered in fig. 210. The great thing in making this joint is to make the bevelled part, A D E, in each precisely similar. If the side is of less thickness than the front, the bevel a d must be cut in the same manner, and of similar dimensions in each. As far as the rest is concerned, the length of D G or H F, in fig. 209, must Wi always be exactly equal to the length of F D or H G, in fig. 210. The elevation of Fig. 211 KND OP FRONT Fig. 212. the ends of the two boards to be joined NU ur rKunr. END OF SIDE. elevation of mitre dove- are shown in figs. 211 and 212, tig. 211 TAIL JOINT. representing the end of the front, and fig. 212 the end of the side. In figs. 213 and 214, the bevels or mitres at A, A, and the pins in one and the sockets in the other are drawn in Mitre Dove-tail Joint. 205 isometrlcal perspective. It is not possible, for obvious reasons, to give an illustration of this joint when fitted together and complete, nor indeed would it be needful even if it were possible. 462. By the aid of the illustra- tions no amateur can fail in mak- ing this joint, if he illustrations understand the mode maklnj" hTse of making the single JO'^^'s. dove-tail and of keying two pieces of wood together at an angle. He will find it a difficult piece of business no doubt, but patience and perseverance will enable him tJ overcome this and all other difficulties that may pre- sent themselves in the various operations that have to be per- formed in Carpentry and Joinery. Of course he will readily under- stand that it is in cabinet-making, rather than in carpentry and joinery proper, that such a joint as the mitre dove-tail joint is chiefly required. For all opera- tions in which strength, rather than nicety, is requisite, the simpler kinds of joints, which are easily and more quickly made, will be found to be both suitable and sufficient in every respect. Fig. 213. rRONT. Fig. 214. side. MITRE DOVK-TAIL IN ISOMETEICAL PERSPECTIVE. CHAPTER VIII. THE carpenter's bench and its various fittings. THE SAWING STOOL AND TRESTLES. 1 ie Carpenter's Bench — Ordinary small-sized Bench— Utilisation of Space undei Bench — Bench may be Fixed or Movable — Better Fixed for Amateur — How to Manage Fixing — Convenient Dimensions for Bench — Bench for Temporary Service— Preliminary Operations — Construction of End or Trestle — Front of Trestle — Connection of the Trestles— Diagonal Braces : their positions for back— To keep Trestles from Displacement — Construction of Front— Planing- board in front, etc. — Completion of Frame — Making and putting on top — Fittings for Bench— Substitutes for Bench-stop — Substitute for Bench-%'ice— Construction of contrivance — Another simple substitute — Merits of this kind of Bench — Amateur will make better Bench — Ordinary Carpenter's Bench — General principles of Construction — Convenient Dimensions — Preparation of different parts^oining pieces together — Double Tenon desirable — Construction of Bench continued — Tenons of uppermost bars — Completion of Frame — Uprights for Bench — Centre rail in front of Bench — Provision in front for screw of Bench-vice — Well in Bench for Tools — Another mode of making Well — Front of Bench — Bench-vice : its construction — The Bench-screw — Cost of Bench- screws — Uses of the Bench-screw — Additional supports for Boards — Construction of top of Bench — Covering for Well — The Bench-stop : its construction— An additional hand— Iron hold-fast for Bench— Its construction and operation — Improved Hold-fast— Hold-fasts as substitute for Bench-screw— Hold-fast useful to amateur — Improved or Patent Bench-stop — The Shooting-board — Its con- struction and principle — Utility of Shooting-board limited — Universal Shooting- board— Its construction and principle — Evil of ordinary Bench-screw— Regiilation of ParalleUsm between Bench and Bench-vice — Croix de St. Pierre — Its con- struction and action— Broad cheek : why preferred — Mode of preserving Parallelism— The Runner — Adaptation of Runner to Screw — Laws' Bench- Its dimensions and construction — The " Composite " Bench — Its dimensions and construction — Wheel and Treadle— Suitable for fixture against wall— Objections to ordinary Bench-vice— Standard Instantaneous Grip Vice — Its construction and action — Advantages of Grip-vice — Its adaptability to various requirements — Syer's Improved Portable Cabinet Bench — Its construction and advantages— Ent- wistle and Kenyon's Instantaneous Grip Parallel Vice— Principle of construction — Adjuncts to Carpenter's Bench — Trestle or Sawing-stool — Its dimensions and construction— Notch in end of Trestle — Clamps : their uses — Assistance rendered by machinery — Motive power for Amateius— Mode of fitting and working a Cir- cular Saw — Multiplication of velocity — Guide slip for regulating width to be cut. 463. One of the most indispensable essentials to the performance of operations in Carpentry and Joinery is the carpenter's bench. Nothing can be fairly done without it— except sawing, for which the stool is wanted ; or mortising, which may also be done on a couple of stools or Position of Carpenter's Bench, 207 trestles, although small mortises may be cut on the bench. Tlaning must be done entirely on the bench, for, as it has been ^^^ said, in planing the surface of a board it must be laid carpenter's ' r o bench. flat on the top of the bench and butted against the bench-stop ; while in planing the edges, the board must be laid along the side of the bench, being supported on pegs (for the reception of which holes are made along the side itself) in the middle, and at one end nearest the operator, while it is gripped and held tightly against the side by the bench-jaw or vice at the other end. 464. An ordinary carpenter's bench of small size, with a bench- vice and bench-stop, may be bought or made by a carpenter, ready for the amateur's use, at about 25s., but a tolerably good ordinary second-hand bench may often be picked up at the wood Bmaii-Bized yard for los. or ijs. An excellent bench may be had for 50s., but when fitted with various appliances and turned out in the best manner, they will range upwards in price from this amount to ;^io. 465. A bench of this description, however, is too often a bench and nothing more. Unlike a table, below the bed of which there must be nothing in order that the legs of the persons that are ° J utilisation sitting round it may be thrust beneath it, the space under of space .,.,,, under bench. the carpenters bench may be utilised, and almost every square inch of the space between the four legs turned to good account. So having knocked together a rough-and-ready article that may serve the purpose until the bench can be made, it will be good practice for the amateur to make one for himself, which he may contrive in such a manner as may best suit his own convenience. 466. A carpenter's bench may be either fixed or movable, and with regard to position it may be against a wall of the workshop or shed or it may stand in the middle of it, so that there may be -^^^^y^ ^^ free passage all round it. In nine cases out ef ten the ^^ fi^cd o' '^ '^ movable. amateur will find it convenient to have it against the wall of his shed, and immediately under the window that lights it, if possible. A large bench need not be fixed, as its own weight will keep it in position ; but a small one, such as an amateur artisan will generally have, will be all the better for being secured to the side of the shed or to the ground, if possible. For the amateur, Better fixed then, there can be little doubt that the bench should be against a wall and fi.xed ; but of course there are cases in which this would be impossible, and in determining position, etc., every one niust be guided by the necessities of situation, light, etc., and settle these points as may best suit his own convenience. 2oS Household Carpentry and Joinery. 467. The fixing is easily managed. Four iron brackets, having two arms at right angles to each other, and pierced and countersunk for How to screws, will be all that is necessary. Suppose in fig. 215 manage flxing. ^^^^ q^q \q„ gf the end of a bench is represented, the bench being placed against a wall, perhaps of boards. If a bracket be screwed to the bench and the boards, as at A, at this end, and one at the other, the bench cannot be pulled away from the wall ; and if others be placed against the front legs, in the manner shown at B, the bench cannot be raised from the ground. In the illustration, for convenience' sake, the bracket is shown fixed to the back leg ; but this is of no importance, as it is only the manner of using these brackets that it is sought to explain. " Z"~ When the bench stands against a wall, a Fig. 215. FIXING ° BENXH WITH BRACKETS, woodcn rail must first be fixed to the wall in a horizontal position, to Avhich the bracket may be screwed. As tor the floor, if this be of stone, concrete, or even earth, it is always desirable that the bench should stand on a very low platform, and it will be better for the wall behind the bench, if it be of brick or stone, to be match-boarded. The utility of this will appear presently. 468. First, as to the dimensions of a bench ; these must depend very much upon space, for the bench must be made according to the room at command, very much in the same way that a coat must Convenient , , , ,^, /- n • -n . dimensions be cut according to one s cloth. The following wul be for l36iicli> found convenient dimensions : length, from 5ft. to 7ft. ; breadth, from ift. 6in. to 2ft. 6in. ; height, from 2ft. 6in. to 3ft. The height must be regulated by the height of him who has to use it. A tall man will require a higher bench than a short m.an, for it is de- sirable not to stoop over the bench more than is absolutely necessary in planing, etc. A nice size for ordinary work done by the amateur is, length, 6ft. ; breadth, 2ft. ; height, 3ft. 469. Next let us glance at the way in which a bench for temporary service may be put together, as it is often convenient to knock up a rough bench of this kind for use when making any struc- Eancli for " . ^ ^. ^ , , temporary ture out of doors at too great a distance from the work- B 61* vie 6 shop to allow of constant walking backwards and forwards for planing and other operations that must be done at the bench. 470. First get out four pieces of quartering, about 3!n.X2j-^in., and some strips of board, about 3in. wide, or a little more, and lin. thick ; a board of white deal, iiin. wide, maybe ripped down in three lengths Formation of Trestle or End of Bench 2og for this purpose. Three pieces of the same kind of board 6ft. long must also be provided, and some 2in. and 2X1"' screws ; about three dozen of each will suffice. In putting together a tern- preliminary porary bench of this description, or any kind of work operations. that is to be taken to pieces again, use screws instead of nails, as by screws less injury is done to the wood, and it may be utilised when it has served its first purpose for something else. And more than this, no nails or fragments of nails vi'ill be left in the wood to hurt teeth oi saw or edge of plane-iron. . 471. Having got the wood all ready, take two pieces of quartering, and lay them down on a flat surface parallel to each other, and two feet apart, from outside edge to outside edge, that is to ^ ' ° ° ConstmotJon say, from A to B, in fig. 216, and from C to D ; cut a piece oi end or trestl6. of wood E from the wood that you have ripped down, taking care that the ends are square with the top and bottom, and screw it to the quartering with some of the larger screws — not less than four being used. Then screw on another piece, F, diagonally from A to D, tak- ing care that the pieces of quartering are still exactly two feet apart along the line in- cluded between C and D. Turn over the pieces of wood thus screwed together, and screw on the pieces G, h, in a pre- ^'G- ^^^- trestle or end of bench. cisely similar way on the other side. When raised from the ground the trestle that has thus been made will be found to be as strong as a castle. Complete the work by screwing on a piece of wood, K, on the outside face of one of the legs, reaching from the ground to a line just ien inches from the top of the leg. This, it must be borne in mind, will be the front of the trestle. The reason why this piece is to be screwed on will be ap- parent presently. As soon as this is done make another trestle similar to this with the remaining two pieces of quartering, and some more of the wood that was ripped down at the commencement of the work, when getting out the wood all ready for it. 472. It is now necessary to connect the trestles in such a way as to offer a solid framing for the reception of the boards that are to form the top of the bench. The back and front will be connected in a 14 Front of trestle. 2io Household Carpentry and Joinery, Fig. 217. ELEVATION OF BACK OF BENCH. totally different manner, and to make this perfectly clear, the elevation of the back is given in fig. 2 17, the elevation of the front in fig. 218, and tion of ^^® P^^'^ °^ ^^® *°P ^^ ^^' ^^9' "^^^ trestles have been made the trestles, precisely alike, so that when they are placed upright the diagonal brace F, in the illustration of the trestle, will be outside in that which stands to the left hand, and inside in that which stands to the right ; and con- versely the brace H will be inside in that which stands to the left hand, and otdside in that which stands to the right. Care must be taken to preserve this arrange- ment with the braces of the trestles, or other- Diagonal ^^-ise some braces: their (j j fif^ ^ U 1 ty positions for ^ back. ^vill be oc- casioned in fixing the diagonal braces at the back. Having cut two slips of wood, one 5ft. 6in. long and the other 5ft. Sin. long, place the trestles so that the front of each rests on the ground, and the back is uppermost. Screw the shorter piece to the trestles, as shown in A in fig. 217, and the longer piece as shown in B. The object in having the upper piece lin. longer on either side than the lower piece is, that its ends may abut against and cover the slip marked E in diagram of trestle, on one side, and the slip marked G on the other. Then screw on the diagonal brace < on the outside, and the brace D, also placed diagonally, on the in- side. In fig. 217, E shows the end of diagonal brace A on one side, and F, end of^diagonal brace H on the other side, in the diagram of the trestle. Of course these ends are not in the same but In different trestles respectively. ■p V V "■V'T ^ x^p^f 1 J' « ^0 i c t « m a e^~ K K El ~^^^^ ==-/F=?= ^^^ Fig. 218. ELEVATION OF FRONT OF BENCH. i ! K '. |o| lo -P J.._o.-. 01 E \o\ io G :' E oi iciG i i L i lol 1" i ° - -^ iJi Fig. 219. PLAN OF TOP OF BENCH. Construction of Front of Bench 211 473. To keep the trestles from displacement during this operation, it will be found useful to nail two slips of wood across to the face or front of the trestles before placing the front on the ground, taking care that the trestles are kept the correct dis- trestiesfrom tances apart, which is 5ft. 6in., the length assumed as ^^ ^cement. convenient for the length of the slip A in fig. 217. Before turning the frame over to put on the front, screw to the inside of the front legs the slip shown at A in fig. 218. In this figure, B shows the grain end of the diagonal brace F, in the diagram of the trestle. As soon as the slip A in fig. 218 has been screwed on, the frame must be turned over so that the front is uppermost and the back on the ground. It may be asked why the slip A (fig. 218) is not screwed on to the outside of the v^""^ ^ front instead of the inside. The amateur who is making W~^~l— ' the bench may screw it to the outside if he likes ; but by reason of the slips that were screwed to the face of the front leg of each trestle (see K in diagram of constmotion trestle), it would project beyond the face of of front. the board in front of the bench, and be in the way. If -J he must put it on the outside it should be done as in fig. Fig. 220. , . , ^ ^ SLIP IN 220, and m the followmg manner : the board C and the trestleT ^^'P ^ ™"^* ^""^^ ^^ firmly fixed in their places, and then a piece D screwed on below A, and another piece B between A and C, so that all the pieces which thus combine to form the front of the bench are flush with one another wherever they meet and join. It is preferable, however, to keep the slip A, as in fig. 218, behind, and to have the slips K, K, in one single piece. 474. The board C, as well as the pieces intended to form the top of the bench, was cut exactly 6ft. in length. Before putting these in their places it may be as well to rub them over with a plane, as pianing board the carpenter says ; but this need not be done especially, ™ ^°'^*' ®**'- as the bench is merely intended to serve a temporary purpose. The board c is iiin. wide, and the top of each slip marked K is just loin. from the top of the trestle, so two notches an inch deep must be cut in the lower edge of the board, so that it may fit over the top of each slip, the upper edge being on a level with the upper edge of the trestles on either side. As the length, from outside edge to outside edge of the legs of the trestles front and back, is 5ft. 6in., and the board C is 6ft. long, a c and d c' will be just 3in., and the length of the notches a b and a' b' will be exactly the width of K, which is the width of the nar- rowest part of the quartering, namely, 2^in. Cut the notches so that they may fit tightly over the tops of the slips K, K ; and when the board 212 Household Carpentry and Joinery. is fairly placed in position, as shown in fig. 218, screw it firmly to the trestles, taking care to bury the head of every screw well in the wood, to do which with ease a depression for its reception may be made with a bit for countersinking. Every screw must be greased before being driven into its place, as then it can be withdrawn easily whenever the bench is taken to pieces. 475. The frame is now nearly complete, but something more yet remains to be done before putting on the top, and that is to cut two Completion notches — one at X Y in B in fig. 217, and the other at x' v' of frame, jn q jn fig, 218 — about 4in. long and lin. deep, in order to receive a bearer, crossing the frame from the slip B to the board C, which will help to support the boards that form the top. This bearer is shown in the plan of the top in fig. 219 by the dotted lines x x' Y y' When this has been secured with screws the frame is ready to receive the top, which will be 2ft. 2in. from outside to outside. Making and _,, , . 1 /- 1 1 1 1 putting The board K K must therefore be placed on the top, so on top. ^j^^^ j^g outer edge is flush with the slip B, in fig. 217 ; and the board L L, so that its outer edge is flush with the surface of the board c, in fig. 218. They must then be screwed down, as indicated in the figures, to the slip b, the board c, the cross-pieces E, G, of each trestle, and the bearer x x' Y y', whose positions are shown by the transverse dotted lines in fig. 219, the horizontal dotted lines showing the edges of the slip B and the board c. The dotted lines in figs. 217 and 218 show the position of the boards K K, L L, when placed on the top of the frame. A space of 4in. now remains between these boards ; this may be left as it is, but to save the annoyance of small tools, etc., tumbling through when thrown on the bench, it is better to cut a slip to fit tightly into the opening, and close it up altogether. 476. The bench is now complete as far as it goes, and is strong enough for any practical purpose, though not very good-looking. Fittings lor Th^re are, however, certain adjuncts required, which bench. must now be described, and these are fittings which will serve as substitutes for the bench-vice and the bench-stop. If the amateur is content with a bench of this sort until he can find time to make ? better one, he may as well put in a bench-stop at once, as described further on ; but in the bench under consideration it is sought to injure the wood as little as possible, and a Substitutes for substitute for a bench-stop may be found m the inser- tion of two thick, stiff screws close together, for planing the surfaces of pieces of quartering, etc., and further apart for planing the surface of a board. Indeed, supposing the end of a rough bench Substitutes for Bench-stop and Bench-vice. 213 Fig. 221. SUBSTITUTK FOR BENCH-STOP. to be represented in fig. 221, A being the board nearest the operator, a line B c, at right angles to the edge D E, may be drawn with the square, and two screws inserted about lin. or i^in. ^ apart, as at F G, and a third about 3in. or 4in. from G, as at H. These screws can be raised or lowered at pleasure to suit the thickness of the wood that is being planed. The screws should be thick, as it has been said, and have a large deeply-cut thread. The same object may be attained in another manner, namely, by nailing or screwing down a slip of wood to the top of the bench, as at K ; but as no piece of wood that is less than, or equal to, the slip in thickness can be planed with such a contrivance as this, as the plane would not pass over it, it seems that the screws afford a more serviceable arrangement. 477. A contrivance for holding a board against the front of the bench while its edges are being planed must now be sought out, and this may be effected in the manner shown in fig. 222. At the distance of from 9in. to I2in. from the end of the board which forms the front of the bench and along its entire length, with this exception, a slip of x;9e»d, A, is screwed, about iXin. thick and i^in- deep. This slip may be substitute for fixed in this position, and bench-vice, remain so until the bench is taken to pieces ; its upper edge should be about 4111. from the lower edge of the front B of the bench. As there is now a space of Sin. between the upper edge of this slip and . .. the surface of the board c, which forms the top of the , 9^ ' ^ contrivance. bench in front, it is manifest that any board whether Qin. or 1 1 in. wide may be planed along its uppermost edge, while the lower edge rests on the slip, as shown in the diagram by D. If the tvood whose edges are to be planed be very narrow, another tempo- rary slip must be screwed on to the bench front higher up, as a rest lo receive the lower edge of the board, so that the upper edge may be raised above the top of the bench. A stout piece of wood, say 2X1^. thick, 6in. wide, and Sin. long, that will not readily split, should then be cut in the shape shown at E, in fig. 222, above, and in longitudinal section in fig. 223. Let c(g, in fig. 223 be 3>^in., then, through c make a vertical saw-cut to a, just half the depth of dg. Set off i /, equal to Fig. 222. SUBSTITUTE FOR BEXCH-VICE. -w. ^^ 214 Household Carpentry and Joinery. a quarter the depth of dg, and then join a b, and cut through the wood trom b \.o a \ the part that is severed from the block by the saw-cut, t^ I ^ ca and b a will come away, leaving a slant- !^ ing face a b about sin. long or very nearly so. The block is then screwed to the front of the bench, as shown at E in fier. 22'? : but rlG. 223. SECTION OF SUB- i^v-»iv-ij, cij s.iv^..ii aL x. ug. ^^J , wri.» STiTUTE FOR BENCH-VICE, care should be taken to bring the line H K, (fig. 222) through which the screws pass, exactly opposite the central line down the front of the front-leg of the trestle that stands to the left, so that additional strength may be obtained by the entry of the screws into the leg of the bench. Substantial screws, at least sin. in length, should be employed for this purpose, and the heads should be deeply buried in the block, provision being made for this with a countersinker. When the board has been placed in position, abutting against the sur- face ac oi the block, two wedges, F and G, flat on the side next the board and bevelled on the other side to correspond with the slanting surface of the block a b, must be driven in with two or three sharp blows. These wedges will hold the board as firmly as the ordinary bench-vice. There are other means of making a stop, or quasi-v'icc, to hold the end of the board, but they need not be described. One or two methods will doubtless suggest themselves to every intelligent amateur mechanic. 478. Another plan for securing the board, whose edges are to be planed, to the front board of the bench, is to make some buttons of the shape shown in the annexed figure in Another . , , , ^ , , K5$l simple section, and screw them to the front board, ^ substitute. ^ i 1 1 j 1 , •, ,- , SO as to hold down the lower edge of the board, and the end furthest from the operator. The space, or rebate, in the button at A may be made lin. in depth, so as to button tightly over an inch board. If the board be less in thickness, a slip of wood equal to the pi 224. difference between the space at A and the thickness of the p,^ board must be inserted, so as to keep the board whose button for , . 1 1 T r . holding edges are to be planed from moving. board. 479. The merits of the bench that has just been described are, that it is easily made, even by an amateur who can do little more than make Merits of this ^ ^'^^'S^*^ saw-cut, and that there is nothing that presents f^^'^h ^"^ difficulty that cannot be overcome in the way of pro- viding substitutes for the bench-stop and bench-vice. The amateur, however, will never rest content with such a bench as Ibxi, however well it may serve his purpose for temporary work out of Ordinary Carpenter's Bench. 215 doors, or as a makeshift even in the workshop itself ; and one of his fir'' serious undertakings in carpentry, when he is able to manage his tools tolerably well— provided always that he ^^kl better has not purchased a bench, either new or secondhand, bench. or had one made by a carpenter— will be to make a bench for himself. 480. This bench will either be an ordinary carpenter's bench, made very much on the lines that we have already laid down for the tem- porary bench, or one replete with shelves, drawers, recesses, . 1 • J r Ordinary and various fittings of one kmd or another suited for carpenter's - -J 1 i- /■ bench. his peculiar requirements. Let us first consider the chief points in a plain bench, made in the usual manner, and then see what mode of construction may be adopted for utilising the General open space that there is between the four legs of the principles of , , , , , -1 1 1 • 1 construction. frame and the top of the bench and the ground on which the bench stands. Supposing the bench were 3ft. high, 2ft. wide, and 6ft. long, outside measurement every way, roughly speaking there would be about 36 cubic feet of empty space below the table, which is too much to be wasted in a small workshop, especially when it may be turned to account with but little trouble, as we shall see presently. 481. For the ordinary carpenter's bench that we are about to describe, let us take the above dimensions, namely, height 3ft., width 2ft., and length 6ft., as these will be found convenient for the ma- convenient jority of amateurs, and let us see how it may be provided dimensions. with bench-stop, bench-holdfast, and ordinary bench-vice with wooden screw. We will next consider varieties in the form of bench-vices and bench-stops, and after describing the shooting-board, a useful adjunct or accompaniment to the bench, used for squaring-up the edges of pieces, proceed to what we may term, for want of a better name, the " composite " bench. 482. The first step to be taken is to provide some quartering of different dimensions, that is to say, about 12ft. of 3in. X2>^in. for the uprights or legs, about 36ft. of 2>^in.X2Xin. for the hori- zontal pieces of the frame, 4ft. of board 9in. wide and of different i^in. thick, and 24ft. of board gin. wide and i>4^in. thick. If the bench is to be 3ft. in height from the ground to the top of it, cut off 4 lengths of 2ft. iiin. from the wood provided for the up- rights, and plane them up. Next cut 5 lengt-hs of the smaller quar- tering 6ft. long, and 2 lengths 2ft. long, and plane these up also ; lastly, cut 2 pieces of the i >^in. board 2oin. in length, and plane up these as well, bringing the sides to a smooth surface, and making the edges true and square. 2x6 Household Carpentry and Joinery. Fig. 225. END OF carpenter's BENCH 4S3. When this has been done, the necessary steps may be taken for putting all these pieces together, which will be done with mortise Jointing pieces ^""^ tenon joints. Let us frame together the ends first of together. ^^^ ^^^ jgj. ^^^ 225 serve as an illustration of the method to be adopted in doing this. In this representation of either end of the bench, let the broad side or width of the uprights be supposed to face the reader, as shown in A and B. The piece C has already been cut 2oin. long ; cut D to the same length, and then proceed to cut the ends of each into tenons lin. in length. Cut the tenons at either end of D to one-third the thickness of the wood ; but let the ends of c be cut in the manner indicated by the dotted lines in fig. 225, and on a larger Double tenon scale in fig. 226. The Wood is i^in. thick, therefore desirable. ^ rebate must be cut in it lin. wide and ^in. deep, and the rebate thus made, as shown in transverse section at A, must be cut as shown in B, in which there is a tenon all the way down, for — . the width of y?'m., the remainder being cut away so as to leave two projecting pieces of about 2%\'a.. long, the re- maining 4Xin. being equally distributed in lengths of i%\n. over the three notches at a, b, and c. This is an adaptation of the form of tenon shown in page 188, at fig. 175. Cut mortises in A and B to receive the tenons that have been cut at the ends of C and D, and fit the pieces together. The tenons should fit tightly into the mortises, but not so tightly that they cannot be withdrawn without great force. The opposite end must be made in precisely the same way. 484. The narrow faces of the uprights were to be 2>^in. wide, and it will be useful to suppose that these are the actual dimensions after the wood has been planed up. The bench is to be 6ft. long, Construction . , , •,,, ■, r ■, t • i- t of bench from end to end, and the length of the horizontal pieces of the framing, from shoulder to shoulder of the tenons at the ends, must be exactly 5ft. yin. We are supposing that the boards com- posing the top and front are to be 6ft. long, and that their ends are to be flush with the ends of the bench ; but such a frame as is now being described will allow of the use of boards 6ft. 6in. long, so that they will overlap 3in. at the ends on either side. To return to the hori- tontal pieces of the framing, the tenons at the ends of these must be 2>2in. long and one-third of the width of the stuff. The tenons at the C0NSTRUCT10i\ OF CARPENTER'S BENCH. 217 ends of the uppermost horizontal bars should be cut as in fig. 227, and the mortises as shown by the shaded parts in fig. 225 ; three in the front legs, and two — one at top and one & . Tenons of at bottom — in the uprights behmd. A uppermost bars. third bar may be added tn the back part Fig. 227. TENON ' ,..,,, ,, J OF UPPER BAR. as wcll as in the front, and it will be as well to do this, for it will give additional strength and firmness to the bench. The reason is now clear why the tenons of the pieces C and D, in fig. 225, are not made longer than they are, for being no more than lin. in length they do not interfere with the tenons of the horizontal pieces being carried right through the uprights, so as to show the end grain of the former. When the whole of the framing has been completion put together, the front will present the appearance repre- °^ ^^^®- sented in fig. 228, and the back will look like this too, if a third rail has been put in between the two others at top and bottom ; and, if not it will look like fig. 228, Kb n with the middle rail A re- moved. When it has been ascertained that all the tenons fit fairly tight into the mortises, and the shoulders of the tenons fit closely to and squarely against the parts on which they butt, they must be glued and put into place for the last time, and the whole frame pinned together with wooden pegs, driven through each mortise and the tenon that is thrust into it. The frame is now complete, and ready for the top and front. 485. In making a bench it is usual to have the uprights intended for the front legs or uprights iX in- wider than the back uprights, so that tTprights for the face may be cut as shown in fig. bench. 229 for the reception of the fronts. In this figure, A shows the side, and B the front of a piece thus cut. The piece C is taken right away, so that the board that forms the front of the bench may be dropped into the The top of the projection is cut in a slanting direction from the viside to the outside of the upright, and the board notched accordingly, to fit over the angle. The simple notch shown in the trestle of the temporary bench does equally as well, although it Fig. 228. FRONT OF carpenter's bench. — vT- 1 ' c ;c '' i J I— ' D ••■' B A Fig. 22g. UPRIGHTS IN FRONT OF BENCH. j.g(,ggg ^^^^ j^ade 2i8 Household Carpentry and Joinery. weakens the board more and there is more chance of the end or comet beyond the leg spHtting off or being knocked off. As no provision of this kind has been made for letting the front board into the upright, all that is required to be done is to screw a piece of wood on to the face of the upright of the same thickness as the board, in order that the latter may appear flush with the face of the projecting part thus added to the upright. The top should be cut of the shape shown in fig. 229, and the board notched accordingly. 486. With regard to the centre rail A in fig. 228, it may be added to the framing or dispensed with altogether, at the pleasure of the maker of the bench. When introduced it gives additional stability Centre rail , . . , , , . , in front of to the Structure, if we may apply such a word to a simple framing of uprights and rails ; and although its presence is more important in the front than in the back of the bench, it is, we are inclined to think, better to have it in the back also, for reasons which will appear presently. It is also desirable to put a board at the back of the bench similar to that which is fixed in front, faces being screwed on to the legs below to bring them flush with its surface, or a rebate being made for its reception as already described. The boards at front and back are not to be screwed on until the interior of the bench is completed, which we will now proceed to describe. 487. At the end of the bench to the left hand the wooden screw of the bench-vice will enter, and work backwards and forwards, and _ • ion in pj^ovision must be made for its reception. The space front for between the boards in front and behind must be left open screw ©f ^ bench-vice, go that nothing may hinder the progress of the screw, and no attempt must be made to enclose the bench by boarding up ihe space within which the screw works, as this would prevent us from making proper use of the old-fashioned bench-stop and bench-holdfast, if these be used in putting the bench together and fitting it up. The end to the right hand, however, may be boarded at the bottom so as to form a well for the reception of saws and large tools, which it WeUln ^ . • V J •. beach for may be convenient to stow away m such a depositoiy Returning, then, to fig. 228, and taking this to be a fai- example of the framing requisite in front and rear of the bench, the central rail A being introduced in both parts of the frame, insert a , cross-piece of wood from front to back as shown at C D, Another mode "^ of making cutting grooves for its reception to the depth of )4'm. in the rails A and B, and letting the end showing the grain project between the rails on either side and come flush with the outer surface of the rails, as at E. Screw a slip of wood, or c/ea^, as it is Formation of Wells in Carpenter's Bench. 219 technically termed, to this cross-piece at F, and another to the end rail at G, and then lay pieces of board as shown at H from rail to rail, the ends being flush with the outer surface of the rails on either side. A shallow well about 6 inches deep will thus be formed for the purpose indicated to the right of the bench. b r If the central rails have been dis- | ■ pensed with and it is still desired ^ to make a well, a convenient method of doing this is shown in fig. 230. ^^^ ^^^ method of making well In this let A represent the inner in bench. surface of the board at the back of the bench. To this, at a dis- tance of two-thirds the length of the bench from the right-hand end, screw the perpendicular slip B, and the horizontal slip c, the latter being fixed flush with the edge of the board if it be wished to make the well as deep as possible, or higher up if a shallow one be desired. Let the end D abut against the slip B. Screw slips similar to these to the inside surface of the front board, and when the framing has been completed by fixing these boards in the proper position, lay boards as at E, E> E, along the horizontal slips on either side, the slips forming supporu for the ends of the boards. Let the side of the first board touch the slip B. Then, at the distance of ^4: in. or lin. from B, screw on another slip F, which forms with B a groove on either side, into which a board ^in. or lin. thick, according to width of groove, may be dropped, forming one end of the well, the end rail of the framing, as before, constituting the other end. Provision for the well must in all cases be made before the frame is put together, especially when a centre rail is used in the framing at front and back, as shown in fig. 228 at A. 488. When the front board is screwed on to the framing, if it be allowed to project a little beyond the up^ rights, say to the ex- tent of j^^^t^j two or bench, three inches, the ap- pearance or elevation of the front of the bench will be like that shown in fig. 231 ; bu ^ 1 O - . riG. 231. ti- .-■ I OF BENCH WHEN COiMPLETE. the bench is \ < incomplete, for the benrh-stop and bench-vice have to be added, and c lop has to be put on. Uf the bench-vice we can speak 220 Household Carpentry and Joinery. at once, but as the old-fashioned bench-stop has to pass through the top, mention of this had better be left until the top comes under con- sideration. 489. The bench-vice — it must be remembered that we are now speaking of the wooden adjunct to the bench, and not the iron holding- tool also called a "bench-vice," because it is often attached its ' to one end of the bench to hold a piece of metal for filing construction. -.^ri-ji-jii j j — consists of a broad, solid cheek, a wooden screw, and a nut or female screw attached to the framing or front board in which the screw works. In fig. 232 the construction of the bench-screw is The bench- showQ in section, with the exception of the screw, the ecrew. thread of which is drawn entire, to show its purpose the better. The screw A B has a solid head A, perforated, as at C, for the reception of a wooden peg or bar D, which works easily in the hole C, and is furnished with a knob at each end to prevent it from slip- ping out while the screw is being turned, or when it is at rest, if this bar happen to be vertical. The neck of the screw passes through a solid piece of wood E, about i8in. 232. BENCH-SCREW. j^^^^ ^j^_ ^^-^^^ ^^^ ^in. thick, and the shoulder of the screw-head A abuts against this board and forces it against the front of the bench when the screw is turned in, or against anything that may be placed between this solid cheek and the face of the bench holding it firmly. The thread of the screw is deeply cut, and the screw itself, after passing through a hole F cut for it in the front board of the bench, works in a large nut or block of wood in which a female screw is cut, and which may be fixed between the rails of the bench H H, as at G,' or bedded against and screwed to these rails, as shown by the space K K. If there be no rails — for sometimes even the top rail is dispensed with, much to the detriment of the bench — the block in which the screw works must be attached to the front board. The position of the bench-vice is shown in fig. 231 at A, and that of the block in which the screw works at K in fig. 228. This, it must be said, is the most ordinary form of bench-vice or bench-screw that is used. Cost of "^^^ screws may be purchased at from is. 6d. to 2s. 6d. bench-screws, each, according to size, at any shop where carpenters' tools are sold. The cheek is not included in the screw. Bench-screws of iron are more expensive, costing from 3s. 6d. each to 9s. or. los. Excellent iron and wood bench-screws are supplied by Messrs. Construction of Top of Carpenter's Bench. 221 ChurchiU and Co. The prices of the wooden bench-screws are : — 2in. in diameter, is. 6d. ; 2%'m., is. yd. ; 2^in., is. 8d. The wrought iron bench-screws, cut with double thread and fitted with wood handles and movable collars are : — lin. in diameter, is. 6d. ; i>^in., is. lod. ; I X in-j 2s. 3d. ; I yi'in., 3s . These bench-screws are remarkably cheap, and are strong, well made, and serviceable. 490. For cutting a tenon at the end of a rail or upright, the wood may be placed in the bench-screw and screwed tightly against the bench ; but when it is necessary to plane the edges of a xjses of the board, it is requiyte to provide some support for it along Trench-screw, the front of the bench. In the temporary bench this was managed by screwing slips horizontally to the piece of wood that formed the front ; but in the permanent bench the same end is secured by ^ ^ Additional making two or three rows of holes in the front board, as supports for boards, shown m fig. 231, into which pegs are inserted, on which the lower edge of the board rests, the end furthest from the operator being held tightly in the bench-screw. 491. Let us now proceed to the construction of the top of the bench, which is shown in plan in fig. 233. Of this it may be first said that if there be no well in the bench, all that is to be done is ConBtmction to screw the two gin. boards, that were originally pro- of top o / f of bench, vided to form part of the top, on to the rails and boards at the front and back of the bench, and then to fill up the space of 6 inches that remains between these boards with another board cut to fit ; but if there is to be a well, cut a strip i>^in. wide off each board, reducing them to a width of 7j4'm., leaving a space of gin. between them when put in the posi- tion they are to oc- cupy. The solid lines in the figure represent the edges of the boards as they appear to view when the top is complete. The dotted lines from A to B and from C to D represent the edges of the boards forming the front and back of the bench ; and the dotted lines from A to C and from B to D the edges of the end rails of the bench. Those from E to F represent the upper edge of the board let into grooves formed by slips, as shown in fig. 230, to form one end of the well, the end rail of the bench to the right being the other. Two bearers are notch^*" into the boards at front A E tf K B ; ; ! . ; ■ :• : ;S. : - .! ; ! "^i . , . . .0 r -- ;r 11 ^ IN ; 1 ! ! X i 1 M 1 Yl 1. _N _1 j Pz i ! i ,1 "i -'""i rI" " "^ f H L Fig. 233. PLAN OF TOP OF BENCH. 222 Household Carpentry and Joinery, and back, and fixed in position as shown by the dotted lines from G to H and from K to L. Before the boards forming the top are put on, the rectangular space S T U v is entirely open, forming the well. The boards on either side may now be laid on the top of the bench and marked, so that two slips, M and N, may be screwed to their under surface, forming, with the bearers G H and K L (or such of these as may project beyond the boards w, x, whose edges rest on them), a rest- Covering ^"S place for the board Y, which forms the cover for the for weu. ^gjj^ ^ rebate might have been cut in the board on each side of the well at M and N to receive the cover, which must also be rebated, to fit into the rebates of the others, and the slips dispensed with ; but the amateur will often find it useful to form a rebate in this manner instead of cutting one, and this mode of doing so may as well be adopted here. Moreover, it suits the width of the boards employed, which are gin. wide; and if a rebate of ^in. had been cut on either side it would have been necessary, in order to save waste, to form the rebate in the well cover by bradding on slips /^in. square, so that it is as broad as it is long any way,.to use an old saying. Next, a board gin. wide and 6ft. 6in. long must be taken, and cut into three parts, corresponding to the parts marked w, Y, and x in the figure. The pieces w and x may be joined to the boards on either side by a groove and slip-feather, or by a dove-tail groove (see p. 195) ; the whole "being glued up, but the amateur will find it easier to dowel them together with pegs. When dry the top may be screwed on to the bench, or nailed on — it does not matter which ; but in either case the heads of the screws or nails, as the case may be, should be deeply buried in the wood. When the top has been screwed on, the opening O P Q R is left for the admission of tools into the well, and into this opening the piece of board Y will drop nicely. It will perhaps occur to the reader that the opening to the well has been made as large as possible first to facilitate the putting in and taking out of such a tool as the hand-saw, and to leave as little space as possible covered between the ends and sides of the well, so that the hand may be passed with ease to any corner of it in search of any small tool that may have been put in or dropped in. The amateur, however, is cautioned against keeping any small tools in such a depository as the bench well, which is best calculated for saws, planes, squares, hammers, and any large and heavy tools of this kind. 492. The next thing to be considered is the bench-stop, against which aboard maybe fixed during the process of planing its sides. In its simplest form it is a rectangular block of wood, about 2 inches square The Bench-stop and Bench-holdfast. 223 and 8 inches or 9 inches long. The shaded square marked Z in fig. 233 is a good place for it, because, as shown in fig. 234, in ,.,.,, , . . .,,. The bench- which A IS the bench-stop in section, one side lies closely stop : its , , ., ,,,.,.,, , , .. confftruotlon. against the end rail B on the left of the bench, while against the other side a stop can be abutted as at C ; and, indeed, additional stops may be placed on the other sides, so that the depth of the socket in which the bench-stop works may be increased as much as possible. A hole is cut in the top of the bench for the bench-stop to pass through, and the top of the stop is furnished with a piece of iron, D, cut so that its edge presents four or five points which enter the edge of any piece of wood pressed against it as at E, and prevents it from moving sideways. The stop is moved up and down by knocking bench-stop. it at the bottom or at the top as may be requisite, and when it is down its top should be flush with, or slightly below, the surface of the top of the bench, a groove being cut for the reception of the projecting teeth. With this addition the carpenter's bench, in its most simple and ordinary form, may be considered complete. 493. There was an old Indian officer of artillery, long since gone to his rest, who was an adept in sketching and drawing in pen and ink and painting in oil colours. He was also very fond of An smoking, and finding some little difficulty in managing additional his pipe or hookah, when he had his palette in one hand and his brush in the other, wis prone at times to wish for a third hand as supplementary to the ot aer two, which he could put on pipe duty when the other two were otherwise engaged. Possibly many a car- penter in olden times has wished for a third hand to hold down a piece of wood tight to the bench while he was cutting a mortise in it, holding his mallet in his right hand and" a chisel in his left hand; and the wish, in process of time, was the parent of the bench-holdfast, in a certain sense. 494. Anything more unpromising, at first sight, for the purpose for which it is used than the bench-holdfast can scarcely be found. Its shape, and the mode of using it, is shown in fig. 235. ^^^ holdfast The holdfast is a simple hook of iron, one side of which ^°' ^^nch. is short and terminates in a broad flat plate, while the other side is much longer. When it is desired to make use of it in order to hold a piece of wood A, shown in section, tightly to the top of the bench B, the shank c is passed through a hole D, cut in the top of the bench, and larger than the diameter of the shank, and the wood is placed 224 Household Carpentry and Joinery. under the flat disc e, and a blow or two given to the holdfast on the Its construc- tion and operation. Fig. 235. BENCH-HOLDFAST. top of the bend F to fix it tightly. To prevent any injury to the surface of the piece of wood A from the disc of the bench hook, a piece of wood may be slipped in between A and the iron, which will prevent it from sustaining any damage. To make the hole at D a little deeper a collar, G G, may be attached to the under part of the bench in continuation of the hole. When it is desired to release the wood the hook must be hit lightly with the hammer at H, which will produce the desired effect. From the shape of the holdfast, whose arms diverge and become wider apart the farther they are from the bend F, it is manifest that a blow at F will cause the sides of the long shank or arm C to press tightly against the hole through which it passes at the points K and T^ and it remains in this position because there is but little, if any, force in an upward direction * to lift it out of its place. For this reason a blow at the back of the hook is necessary to loosen it and bring it up. 495. In the improved holdfast shown in fig. 236, the principle of construction is the same, but improved ^he tightening of the hook and its holdfast, loosening are effected by the action of a screw A, which passes through the end of the short arm B, opposite the disc c, and acts on the long shank at D, just above the part improved h6ldfast. where it is bent to form an arm into which the short limb is fastened, as at E. 496. A pair of holdfasts afford a useful substitute for a bench-screw Vi holding a piece of wood to the front of the bench so that its edges Holdfasts as may be planed. The method adopted for using it for such a purpose as this is shown in fig. 237, in which A is the top of the bench, B the front, and C the wood whose edges are to be planed, all shown in section. A row of holes is made a little above the lower edge of the bench front, as at D, through two of which the long shanks of a pair of holdfasts are passed, as shown in the illustration. The ordinary holdfast costs but little, being merely a bent iron bar, and such as may be quickly made by any smith should Fig. 236. substitute for benoh- Borew. Patent Bench-stop : Shooting-board. 22.5 Fig. 237. HOLDFAST AS BENXn-SCKEW. difficulty be experienced in procuring one. The improved holdfasts with screw are more expensive, ranging in price from 6s. to 9s. 6d., according to size and quality. 497. The amateur artisan will find it useful to add a simple holdfast to his tools, and to cut a hole in his bench through which Holdfast to put the long shank ; but he useful 10 amateur should trust to it merely for hold- ing down work on the bench, and not as a substitute for the bench-screw. And when making a bench permanently for his own use, it will be better for him to provide himself with the improved bench- stop instead of fitting his bench with an old-fashioned one. 498. The improved or patent bench-stop is shown in fig. 238. At A it is closed, at B it is raised ready for use. In appearance it looks some- thing like a hinge, and indeed is made on that principle. Improved or A hole is sunk in the top of the bench for the reception patent bench- stop. of the stop, which is let into the wood until its top is level with the surface of the bench. On raising the screw E, the part D, which is attached to the lower part or bed C by a hinge joint, rises, and presents above the surface of i_J- Fig. 233. IMPROVED CENCH-STOP. the bench, as shown at B, a row of teeth, f, against which the edge of the board to be planed is pressed. Thus, with this patent bench-stop, the inconvenience of knocking the old-fashioned stop up and down to the desired height is obviated, the same effect being gained by a few turns of the screw. The price of this kind of stop ranges from is. 2d. to 2s. 3d., according to size. 499. The shooting-board has been mentioned in a previous page, and a description has been promised of it which it may be as well to give here. It is very simple, being merely two boards of r^j^g shooting- different widths screwed together, so as to form a rebate t>o^'^- in which any piece of wood whose edges are to be planed and squared up Riay be rested. It is used on the bench. It will be of great assist- ance to the amateur to possess one of these boards, which he may get made for him by any carpenter if he is not skilful enough to do the work for himself. 500. The construction and principle of the shooting board may be ii 226 Household Carpentry and Joinery. best explained by the aid of a diagram in section, as in fig. 239. In this A represents the top of the bench, and B the front, C tion and being the shooting-board. This is composed of two pieces prmcip e. ^^ ^.qq^j^ o^e a wide piece and the other a narrow piece, the narrow piece being laid on the wide piece as E lies on F. The boards are screwed together, and it is necessary that the edges G and H of both boards should be per- \( ^s^mm^^^^ ;v,N M Fig. 239. SECTION OF SHOOTING- BOARD. fectly straight and even, and that the edge H should be parallel to the edge G. The boards thus con- structed and put together form a broad rebate, in which any board K whose edge is to be squared up is laid. To do this, the shooting- board is laid on the bench as shown in the diagram, and abutted against the bench-stop, A stop is also screwed across the end furthest from the operator, to prevent the board K from moving out of its place while its edge is being shot. The shooting-board may be held firmly down to the bench by the aid of a pair of holdfasts. When all is ready, a jack-plane or trying-plane L — either will do — is taken and laid on its side on the bench, so that the cutting-iron is turned towards and- touches the edge of the board to be squared up. The plane is then moved along the bench, which can be done easily enough, and the operation of planing the edge is performed with the plane in this position, the side being slid along the bench, which acts as a guide for it. In the same manner, the edge G of the lower of the boards that compose the shooting-board acts as a guide to the sole of the plane. 501. It will occur to the reader, without doubt, that a shooting- board thus made can only be used for planing boards of a certain ■Utility of ^\'idth, the width in any case corresponding to that of the Bhooting- rebate formed by the two boards. It is dangerous to board •' ° limited, attempt to shift the upper and narrower board, lest by any mischance the edges G and H should be rendered not parallel to one another. Here, however, is a hint for a Universal ■Universal ^, . , , .,,.,, . t .. .i, shooting- Shootmg-board, to suit all widths up to inn. Let the lower board A ofio in fig. 240 be isin. in width, and let the upper board B be 2in., so that the differ- ence in their width is just Fig. 240. UNIVERSAL SHOOT) NG- BOARD (section). 1 1 in., the width of the widest board usually obtainable in deal. Across the width of A, two, three, or more grooves, c, are cut, according to Universal Shooting-board. 227 the length of the board, in each of which travels backwards and forwards the square head of a bolt, which is kept in place by two plates or flanges of metal laid over the opening of the groove, at a width apart just sufficient to allow the shank of the bolt to work up and down with ease. The upper surface of each metal plate is graduated in inches and BE o parts of inches. A nut that fig. 241. universal siiooting-board. can be turned with the (plan.) thumb and fingers passes over the screw-end of the bolt, which passes in its turn through the central line, longitudinally, of the narrow board B. Now it is plain on looking at fig. 241, that the board ^ 00 Itscon- B, by relaxing the nut or thumbscrew at the upper end of stiuction and •^ principle, each bolt, can be moved to any distance from the edge C C up to iiin., and secured in that position by tightening the thumb- screws. The metal plates at C, C, being graduated, it must follow that if the board B be correctly set its edges must be parallel with the edge CC, and either side of the board A can be used with pleasure for shooting the edges of other boards. To hold in position the board whose edges are to be planed, a stop may be provided, attached with screws at either end of the board, and so transferable at pleasure. 502. Before proceeding to what, for want of a better and more appropriate name, we have called the " composite " bench, it is neces- sary to return for a brief time to the bench-screw. The great evil of the ordinary bench-screw is, that it is apt to get strained, and fails to grip fairly any thick piece of wood, as a piece of quartering, ^^.^ ^^ placed between the cheek and the front of the bench, ordinary " Dencn-screw. The head of the screw is in the centre and bears directly against the centre of the cheek, and it is not difficult to see that when a piece of wood is put in on one side and the check screwed tightly up against it, there will be a tendency on that side of the check which bears against the wood to project a little further than the other side, which is pressed inward by the screw-head, but meets with no piece of wood within it to counteract this force and keep the inner side of the cheek parallel in all parts of its surface to the face of the bench front. To overcome this tendency many contrivances have been sug- gested and brought into use, some of which are well worth ou. con- sideration, and which it may be useful to describe here. 503. The most simple means of preserving parallelism between the faces of the bench-front and the cheek of the bench-vice is to be »rund, perhaps, in the use of a second and smaller screw attached to the oench- 228 Household Carpentry and Joinery. cheek, and passing through the bench -leg opposite to which the cheek is placed, as shown in fig. 242. In this illastra- of paraueiism tion, A represents the bench-top, B the bench-front, c the between bench and bench-leg, opposite to which the bench-vice D is placed, E bencb-vioe. , i i , 1 • , • 1 j the bench-screw, and F the block which is attached to the back of the bench-leg, and through which the screw works. Th', smaller screw G, by which the parallelism between the bench and ^ bench-vice is preserved, is fastened im- movably to the bench-vice at its head H _ri^ and passes freely through a hole bored j through the bench-leg at K. The nuts L and M work up and down the screw at the pleasure of the operator. When it is re- quired to move the vice inwards or out- wards, it is clear that the nuts must be turned till one reaches the head ll and the other the end G of the screw, and that when the cheek of the bench-vice D has been Fig. 242. REGULATrON OF , , . . . J ^ »i. .... PARALLELISM BETWEEN brought inward or outwards to the extent BEN'CH AND EExcH-vicE. required, the nuts must be again turned in the contrary direction until they are brought against the bench-leg. This necessarily involves a great deal of trouble, and causes a great waste of time. Moreover, a hole must be sunk in the face of the bench-leg large enough to receive the nut M ; for if this were not done the face of the bench-cheek could never be brought into close proximity to the bench-leg. 504. Having now some idea of the broad principle of the method by which parallelism between the bench-vice and bench-leg may be The Croix de obtained and preserved as long as may be needed, let us St. Pierre, ^^j-j^ ^q another method by which the same end may be attained without the least trouble and loss of time. This ingenious con- trivance for keeping the inner surface of the cheek of the bench-vice parallel to the outer surface of the board that forms the front of the bench is the "Croix de St. Pierre," or, "St. Peter's Cross," as it is called on the continent, where it is very generally adopted and used by all carpenters and joiners. 505. In fig. 243 the Croix de St. Pierre, its manner of action, and the mode of fixing it, is shown in a section of the bench and stiuction bench-vice, which affords the most convenient method of naa action, g^^itji^j^g these points clearly and intelligibly. In this figure, as in fig. 242, A represents the bench-top, B the bench-front, The Croix de St. Pierre. 229 C the bench-leg, opposite to which the bench-vice D is placed, E the bench-screw, and F the block at the back of the bench-leg, perforated by a female screw, in which the bench-screw E works. It will be noticed that in this and the last figure, the cheek of the bench-vice, instead of being about the depth of the board which forms the bench-front or a little deeper, as in the ordinary carpenter's bench, is long and comparatively narrow, extending d o w n w a rds nearly to the ground. It is, moreover, placed ex- actly opposite the leg of the bench, so that the bars which form the cross may be conveniently attached to both bench and bench- FlG. 243. THE CROIX DE ST. PIERRE, vice, and work m a suitable manner. The Croix de St. PieiTe is nothing more than two flat bars of iron of equal length connected at the centre of each by a pin, G, about which they turn freely. For the reception of the bars, two deep grooves, H and K, are cut in the bench-leg and cheek of the bench-vice, exactly opposite to each other, and of the width of the two bars placed together or just a trifle more. The ends L and M of the bars are fastened by pins running through the bench-leg and bench-cheek respectively. The other ends N and O are left free, and work up and down the bottom of the grooves, which may be lined, if desired, with a piece of iron-plate cut to fit them exactly. Now, as the bars are secured at the upper end of each and fastened together in the centre, it is manifest that they will act in the same manner as a pair of scissors, and that when the ends L and M are pushed apart or drawn together the ends N and O will be pushed apart or drawn together in like manner. When the bench-cheek is close to and touching the bench-front and leg, the ends N and O of the bars will touch the ends of the grooves ; but as the screw is turned so as to bring the check outwards, the ends L and M are drawn apart, and the ends N and O follow the course of the dotted lines, exerting an outward thrust, the one on the bench-leg and the other on the bench-cheek, and preserving i^o Household Carpentry and Joinery. perfect parallelism between the faces of the two. When the screw is turned in the opposite effect is produced, but it may be necessary to assist the return of the bench-cheek by a little gentle pressure at the bottom, which might be applied with the foot. This would be rendered unnecessary if the free ends of the bars were con- trived so as to work in a groove similar to that employed for the rack of a window-blind, and as shown in section at P. This, however, would tend to make the contrivance very costly. I am not aware that the Croix de St. Pierre is made and sold in England. On the continent it costs about 5s., but any blacksmith would make the cross and the irons to line the grooves for less money. 506. Many amateurs will doubtless prefer the broad cheek that extends for about i8in. along the bench-front, and for this reason — that it presents a more convenient shape for holding in a Broacl ^ ^ , . „ cheek: why vertical positi-on any piece of wood, especially quartermg, at whose ends it is desired to cut tenons. The St. Peter's Cross, however, can be easily adapted to a cheek of this description, and the parallelism can be perfectly preserved by the help of two screws, which can be easily worked at one and the same time by a very simple arrange- ment. In fig. 244. let A B C D re- present the outer face of the cheek, and E, F, the heads of two iron screws cut square, so that the square openings in the arms G, H. may be fitted over them. At the other end of each arm are square projections K, L, over which openings in another plate, M, may be fitted, in the centre of which is a handle, N. Now it is evident that the screws may be turned in or withdrawn at the same time by turning the handle N to the right or to the left as may be necessary, and that by the double screw action the parallelism of the cheek and bench-front will be '^^BBr^nf preserved. To give greater steadiness to the cheek a parauelisni. ^^^ pg^er's Cross may be introduced between the cheek and the bench-front in the position shown by the double-dotted line from O to P. It is not, however, a stJie qua non, as the double screw action will be perfectly effectual in keeping the cheek parallel to the bench-front in all parts. 507. There are many other contrivances, but none will be found to beat the double screw turned simultaneously in the manner described A Q ©^ Qb %_ M ' i Al \m^ J^ \. m \ D ^="^ N £^ j ~' c P Fig. 244. DOUBLE SCREW FOR BENCH CHEEK. Use and Construction of the Runner. 231 THE RUNNER. The principle involved in the double screw is made use of to a cer- tain extent in the runner, which, in order to render the de- ' . The runner, scription of the carpenter's bench as complete as possible, may as well be noticed here. The object of the runner is to preserve the parallelism of the cheek and bench-front. In fig. 245 A shows the runner and the way in which it is attached to the cheek B. This runner works in a case, formed by the boards C, C, which extend from front to back of the bench and enclose the runner on both sides, keeping it in position. The screw D may also work in a case, whose sides E, E, should just touch the threads of the screw as lightly as possible. An adaptation of the runner to the screw, extending the whole length of the ^^^^^^^^^^ bench-leg or nearly so, is shown in f^gs. 246 and 247, "^^g'^^^^^ of which the former shows the end elevation of screw, cheek, runner, and bench, and the latter the front elevation of the bench-vice. The position of the screw in this arrangement is a good one, because more space is given between the upper part of the screw and the top of the bench for holding short boards. The ^ reader must now be so familiar with the component parts of the bench as to render un- necessary any reference i n detail to these parts as shown in the figures. The runner A is a piece of board let into the lower end of the check and passed through a hole cut in the leg for its reception. A series of holes are bored in the runner, and when the vice is screwed up a pin of wood or iron is inserted in the hole that happens to be neaie^t the leg, to prevent further progress of the runner inwards. It may be Ei ^ Fig. 246. RUNNER- ELEVATION. Fig. 247. RUNNER- FRONT ELEVATION. 232 Household Carpentry and Joinery. Laws' bench. of use to say that all runners should work tightly, but with ease, in the cases made, or holes cut, for their reception, and this effect is best produced by keeping the runners greased. The runner should be made of hard, close-grained wood. 50S. A simple but useful kind of bench has been suggested in " Design and Work" for ordinary purposes, which is possessed of much merit, and is evidently the work of a practical man. It is, furthermore, one step towards the construction of the composite bench, with a description of which it is proposed to conclude our remarks on carpenters' benches. The bench now under consider- ation was the invention of Mr. Joseph I\I. Laws, of Bridgeton, who estimates its cost at about 5s. or 6s. — a sum which places it within the power of the poorest amateur to possess a carpenter's bench. The plan of this bench, as viewed from the top, and the end elevation are shown in fig. 248. The height of the top from the ground Its dimen- sions and is 2ft. 6in., and the breadth across the top is exactly the construction, , , . , , . - same. The length is not stated, but it may range from 5ft. to 7ft., according to the space at the amateur's command in his workshop. A and A are v/orking boards which form the top of the ^;=ii ^H i^y ^ Fig. 248. laws' eenxh. (i) plan looking up. (2) end elevation. bench on either side, and on which all planing, mortising, etc., is done. These boards are g'm. wide and i>^in. thick. The space B between the working boards is fitted in with a board I2in. wide, and 34' in. thick, so that a shallow trench, as it were, ).('m. deep is formed between the working planks, offering a convenient place for laying down tools which cannot possibly fall or be knocked off the bench. F and F are two slips of wood, i>2in. broad and ^sin. thick, attached to B, and usea for resting planes on so that the edge of the plane-iron may not come in contact with the board B below it. H, H, are bench-stops, which Laws' Bench: The "Composite" Bench. 233 are placed at opposite ends of the working boards, thus rendering the bench reversible, or making it possible for the owner to plane boards, etc., on either side, as he may find most convenient. The legs of the bench, which are 4in. wide and 2in. thick, are shown at c, c, c, C. These legs are connected near the bottom by cross-pieces (g in end elevation) screwed to, or let into, the outside faces, 4in. wide and 34'in. thick, and forming a rack on which pieces of board may be laid. The upper ends of each pair of legs are tenoned into a cross-piece, D, 4in. wide and 2in. thick, the end of which is fitted with a piece of wood, E, 5in. thick, and cut so that its inner surface forms an angle with the bench-front. A wedge, \v, I4in. long and Jj^'m. thick, is used for jamming a piece of wood against the bench-front when it is necessary' to plane its edges, the wedge being driven into the opening at D, between the wedge grip E, and the surface of the board to be planed. The bench-stops H, H, are of the old-fashioned kind, and should be 9in. long, and 1^-2 in. square. Each side of the bench is covered in with a board 3;/ in. thick. In this board holes should be drilled for pegs to support boards, whose edges require planing up. The bottom of the bench may be boarded up entirely, or as far as the inner faces of the legs, and if only thus far, boarding should be nailed against these inside faces parallel with the ends of the bench, so as to form cup- boards, on either side marked L, for the reception of tools, etc. The door, L, of the cupboard may be hinged to M, and open outwards, thus forming a kind of shelf in front of the cupboard when let down. This cheap and ingenious bench is recommended to the notice of amateurs who cannot afford to spend much in appliances of this kind. 509. We now come to what we have chosen to term the "composite" bench — a bench in which an attempt is made to turn to account every portion of the space that the bench covers, between the ground below and the inner surface of the bench-top. The arrancre- ,t,v .. ^ ^ The com- ment of this bench was also suggested by a writer in P°^i'e" ^^J^ch. "Design and Work." Its general construction will be readily under- stood after all that has been said on the subject, but a few remarks by way of explanation will perhaps be desirable. 510. This bench (fig. 249) is 6ft. long, ift. 6in. wide, and 2ft. 9in. high, and therefore occupies as little space as it is possible for a bench to take up. Six legs are required, 3in. by 3in., which ^ Its dimen- are iramed together with rails half the thickness at top sions and J , , consti'uctioc and bottom, as shown by dotted lines across the top, at A, B, and C. The bench is fitted in the usual way with a bench-stop at D, and a bench-vice with screw at E, and runner at F,both of which work 234 Household Carpentry and Joinery. through the front leg of the trestle A. The top is formed by two boards gin. wide, the working board being i>^in. thick, and the board at back lin. thick, but nothing is gained by this difference in thickness, so the boards may as well, both of them, be ij^in. thick, and joined by a groove and feather slip or dove-tail feather. The side- FlG. 249. THE "composite" BENCH. board G is gin. wide, and lin. thick and the faces of the legs in front should be flush with the face of this board. The back of the bench should be boarded up, unless it be fixed, as it may be very con- veniently, against the wall of a workshop or shed, just under the window. The end H between the trestle A and the end of the bench to the left is converted into a shallow cupboard, which may be fitted with shelves so long as they do not interfere with the screw and runner ; but this they need not do, as the screw and runner work in the front leg of the trestle, and can be securely cased in by boards nailed on either side of the trestle. The space K between the legs and trestles, A and B, below the bench- front, is fitted with four drawers, and that between the legs, B and C, at L, is converted into a cupboard with a door hinged at the bottom to let down on the ground. The space between the trestles, a and B and B and C, between the bench-front and the back, by cutting the back board on top, and attaching it to the back of the bench by hinges, may be converted into a well, which will be useful for stowing away planes and other large and heavy tools. The space Wheel and ^° ^^^ ^'^S^^ between the trestle c and the right-hand end treadle, ^f jj^g bench may be fitted up with a wheel and treadle, which might be turned to good account in working a small lathe, placed on the bench, or in turning a grindstone or circular-saw of small size, motion being imparted to the lathe, grindstone, or saw above, by a strap or cord passing round the wheel M, and through holes cut for its Standard Instantaneous Grip Vice. 235 passage in the top boards of the bench. For the accumulation of power, any contrivance that is worked in this way should be fitted with a fly wheel, which, when the wheel M was put in action, could work over, and parallel with, the right-hand end of the bench. 511. The bench that has just been described is best suited for one that is fixed against a wall, which is the position which in all proba- bility will be most convenient for the amateur artisan, and Suitabl2 for one which he would prefer to any other. There are, of fixture against course, many other ways by which the interior of a bench may be turned to good account, but want of space forbids us to dwell upon them here. Every amateur will doubtless think of some little modification which will render his bench better suited for his own peculiar wants, and when he is engaged in making a bench for himself it will be well for him to exercise his ingenuity in this respect. 512. The chief objections to the ordinary bench-vice in its simplest form are, that it takes up a great deal of time to adjust and screw up and unscrew the cheek, and that the pressure exerted bv ' Objections to the cheek on the board, or whatever else may be placed ordinary within its hold, is not uniform at every point of its surface owing to a want of perfect parallelism with the bench-front. The con- trivances that have been introduced at one time or other to procure the desideratum of perfect parallelism have been described ; but after all there is not one of these that tends to save time by its adoption and use ; but rather, on the contrary, some of them cause a still greater loss of time in looking to their adjustment. What is most to be de- sired, both for working carpenters and joiners and amateurs, is a bench-vice in which the action shall be speedy, the parallelism perfect, and the grip certain, and these requisites are to found combined in the *' Standard Instantaneous Grip Vice," a most ingenious in- Standari vention patented by Messrs. Smith, Marks, and Co., and instantaneous sold by Mr. THOMAS J. Syer, Cabinet Mamifaciierer, the "^ sole agent for London, at whose office and workshops, 45, IVilson Street, Finsbury Square, E.C., it can be seen in use. An illustration of this vice is given in Fig. 250. The workman has simply to raise the lever or handle A to a perpendicular position with the left Itsconstruc- hand, and draw out or close, as may be necessary, the tion and r • I -i- XT , . action. front jaw B the necessary distance. He must then place the piece of wood, or other material on which he is about to operate, between the jaws B and c, after which he must press the front jaw B nearly close to the wood, then press down the lever, when the wood will be held firm in the vice. To remove the piece of wood he must J36 Household Carpentry and Joinery. raise the lever as described above. The grip is caused in tlie follow- ing manner. On the under side of the plate, on which the word "patent " is marked in the illustration, and in the straight line that lies be- *^ tween the let- FlG. 250. THE "STAXDARD INSTANTANEOUS tCrS D, E, is a GRIP VICE." , • J , J plate indented with a row of V shaped depressions inclined at a slight angle to its sides, being in fact, to describe it as accurately as possible, a longitudinal strip cut out of a female screw. At the end G of the bar F G, which is held in position, and travels in and out between two curved flanges projecting from the under side of the plate, is a short cylinder which is grooved along part of its surface after the manner of the threads of a screw, the remainder being left plain, and carrying a stop or stud which is shown in the engraving, and which prevents the progress of the screw beyond a cer- tain point so as not to cause injury to any substance placed within the powerful bite of the jaws. When the piece of wood, or any other material, as the case may be, has been placed within the jaws, and the front jaw pushed nearly dose to it, the downward turn of the lever or handle brings the threads of the male screw within the threads of the female screw, and dra7vs\h& front jaw against the wood so tightly, and with so firm a grip, that it is utterly impossible to remove the material without injuring it until the lever is raised and the pressure relaxed. It is the draw27ig action of the screw that gives value to the " Standard Instantaneous Grip Vice," by causing the pressure of the jaws to be brought gradually, though swiftly, to the point that is required to hold the material immovable within their grasp. 513. The principal advantages of this bench-vice are: (i) that it grips and relaxes its hold instantly in any distance up to i3/^in. ; (2) Advantages '■'^^.t the action and working of it are so complete that a o grip-vice. pjg(-g Qf ordinary writing-paper can be secured and held as firmly as a piece of timber ; (3) that it effects a saving of about 75 per cent, of the time employed in working the ordinary bench-vice by its easy action and certainty of its grip ; (4) if wood facings are fitted to the faces of the iron jaws all possibility of indentation of the article placed in it is removed ; and (5) that it can be fitted to any discriptio> Sv£/^s Improved Portable Cabinet Bench. 237 of bench, new or old. The price of the vice is 183., or if suppHed with wood facings fitted to the jaws, 20s. As the jaws are of iron it is evi- dent that the vice will serve the purpose of an iron bench- jj.g ^^^^ j^_ vice for holding pieces of metal, as well as that of an i>iiity to " ^ ' various ordinary bench-vice for holding wood, and that the ama- '^^i^^^^^s^-s- teur who possesses one of these has no occasion to go to the expense of purchasing an iron bench hand-vice. By placing within the jaws two pieces of wood of sufficient length to hold a saw, this vice may be further utilised as a saw-vice. Mr. Syer also supplies a most useful article for workmen and amateurs in his "Improved Port- o , t, • r byer s Regi3- able Cabinet Bench," which is shown in Fie:. 2sr. It is ^erei Portable ° -' ' Cabinet perhaps, unequalled for lightness of structure, compact- Bench, ness, and capability of easy removal from place to place. It may be Fig. 251. syer's portable catiixet bench, with grip-vice, stop, axd bench knife. described as a composite bench, being formed of an iron stand or bed, made in separate pieces, and put together with screw bolts, and a wooden top. The supports or standards are also attached to the top with screw bolts, and when put together the whole structure is firm and rigid. The bench is of the ordinary height, and the .... . r ,1-11 J/- CapabiUtis3 top, which IS made of sound white deal, traversed from of Cabinet side to side with three iron bolts to prevent warping, is 6ft. by ift. loin. On examining Fig. 251 an upright piece of wood will be noticed to the right perforated with holes to take a peg to support wood, one end of which is held in the grip-vice. The space between this and the standard to the left can be partly filled with a small chest of drawers, one large one at the bottom and two tiers above, each containing two smaller drawers. These chests are 22in- long, i8in. high, and i6in. deep, and are supplied with the bench at an extra cost of j[^\ 15s., the price of the bench itself being ^3 i2s- 238 Household Carpentry and Joinery. If the chest is not wanted, the ledges within the cast-iron standards can be utilised as supports for boards on which saws and other large tools can be laid when not in use. 514. There is another vice similar to the above in general appear- ance, but differing from it in internal arrangement and construction^ which affords perfect parallelism and sudden grasp com- Kenyon's bined with rapidity of action. This is Entvvistle and Instantaneous hit- A-i GripParaUei Kenyon's "Instantaneous Grip Parallel Vice' (Riley s patent), sold in London and the surrounding districts by Messrs. C. S. Mallet and Co., ^, London Street, Fenchurch Street, E.C., sole wholesale agents for these parts. They are made in various sizes for engineers with jaws from 3in. to 1 2in., opening from 3in. to 8>^in. The joiner's vice, with which we have more to do at present, and which is well adapted for cabinet-makers, carpenters, amateurs, Principles of ^"^ those engaged in all kinds of constructive trades, is construction, furnished with Qin. jaws to open lain., and is sold at i6s. The front jaw is a loose sliding jaw which may be moved inwards and outwards at pleasure ; the inner jaw is immovable, and to the bottom of it a steel rack is fastened. Another short steel rack, with the upper surface indented so as to fit into the indentations of the rack fastened to the fixed jaw, is fixed to the innermost end of the sliding jaw. The short rack is thrown into gear with the long rack, at any part of it, when the jaws have been adjusted to the material placed between them, by half a revolution forward of the handle, and this short, quick movement puts the grip on the work. The racks, it should be said, are thrown into gear by means of a scrolled cam attached to the inner- most end of the shaft to which the handle is fi.xed. Half a revolution oackwards of the handle brings the short rack out of gear with the long rack, and quite clear of it, leaving the loose sliding jaw at liberty to be moved in or out at pleasure. 515. There are two things that yet require mention in this chapter, as, if not forming part of the carpentei-'s bench, they have a claim to be considered in connection with it. Of these two articles, Adjuncts to carpenter's one is the trestle, or sawing-stool, and the other a means of fitting up and working a small circular-saw, for cut- ting tenons, and making small saw-cuts generally of this description. 516. Firstly, let us take the trestle, or sawing-stool. Every amateur artisan should make two of these for himself, as he will often require a „ . ^ pair of them on which to set a long piece of quartering, bawing-stooi. gt^^ when cutting mortises in it, or a long board that ne is engaged in ripping down with a rip-saw or hand-saw. The Trestle, or Sawing-stool. o9 A c \ :.o I 517. In fig. 252, a trestle, or sawing-stool, is represented in section or in elevation at either end, being the mode of representation best '^ " * — adapted for showing its construc- r ° Its dimen- tion. A is a piece of wood about sions and conetructioD. 2ft. or 2ft. 6in. long, 4in, wide, and 3in. thick ; and B and C are two pieces of wocd about 2>^in. by 2in., or a little stouter if it Y>t thought necessary. A notch is cut in the upper end of each leg, as at D e f, so that when Fig. 252. " ^^^ ^^S^ ^^^ P^*^^^ ^" ^^^ position ^^^^^ ^ ^^^ SAwiNG-sTooL. (END.) shown in the drawing, the sides ofnetUe. and bottom of the piece a may rest in the notch thus formed, the sides of the notch being at right angles with each other. The notch may be made deeper, as at G H F, to afford a better bed or resting-place for the block A, or the sides of the block may be slightly grooved so that the part G H E D of the leg may be let into the body of block. When four legs of this description have been cut out, and the block grooved, if it be thought better to do so, for the reception of part of the notched ends as described, they must be nailed firmly to the block, two at either end, opposite to one another. To give stability to the trestle, a piece of inch board of the shc^pe K L M N is nailed to the legs on the outside, and two strips lengthwise from leg to leg, as shown at N and O. The appearance of one of the legs at the side is shown in fig. 253, in which A is the block that forms the top as before, C the leg, N M the end show- ing grain of the piece of wood k L M N, and the slip nailed from leg to leg on the same side. A stool or trestle thus made is very strong, and will bear plenty of heavy blows and hard usage without being damaged beyond the injury that such knocking about may inflict on the surface. The end of A is often cut as at D E F in fig. 254, the angle D E F being a right angle, or an angle a little less than a right angle. A notch ^ of this kind forms a convenient rest- ing-place against which to rest a y,^ piece of quartering for cutting tenon at the end. Fig. 254 also shows a plan of the top of the trestle pj^ 255. at one end ; A being the block, and B and C the upper ends clamp. of the legsthusletteredinfig. 252, which are let into shallow grooves in A. Fig. 253. S-A WING- STOOL. (CIDE.) Fig. 254. END OF SAWING-STOOL. 50 |& i\ 'll'll'l'l'"""""™ 2^0 Household Carpentry and Joinery. as already described. The amateur artisan will find it useful to provide ,^ . himself with a couple of clamps of the kind shown in fif. Clamps: their r r uses. 255, for holding down to the stool A any piece of wood that may require mortising, as w. In fact, a couple of small clamps of this kind will be found useful in many an operation in household carpentry and joinery. 518. Machinery of any kind is a powerful aid to progress in handi- craft work of every description, provided always that it be suitable to the nature of the work in hand. All tools are machines, reudered°by SO far that they are contrivances by which certain opera- machinery. ^.^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^g effectually performed, though not in the sense in which the word is generally used in the present day, namely, in reference to some complex structure of many various parts. In carpentry, man himself is the motive power of the tools that he employs, and if he be tolerably expert he will be able to get through all work of an ordinary character. He will m.ost crave for the assistance of machinery in sawing and planing ; but the attachments necessary for circular-saws are so costly that the tool manufacturer, or rather tool seller, never keeps them in stock ; and as for planing machines, they are, as it has been said, out of the reach of the amateur altogether, for they are not only very expensive but require steam power to work them. More, however, will be found on these points in the Appendix. 519. For motive power, then, the best thing the amateur can do is to trust to his hands and arms, and back and legs, resting content -- ,. with the ordinary run of tools. It is somewhat hard, how- Motive power ■' ' for amateurs, ever, to be without a circular-saw, considering the amount of work that may be got through with one of these in a very short space 01 time ; and the thing now to be considered is how the amateur may manage to fit up a saw that will do light work, and even rip down a piece of board under an inch in thickness. 520. Suppose that A B in fig. 255 represents the width of a small bench, showing its transverse section from side to side ; or, what is Mode of equally to the purpose, let us suppose it to represent the worMng^a transverse section of a board forming the top of a narrow cirouiar-aaw. bench Or platform in which the saw is to work. As near to the under surface of the bench as is possible, let there be an iron axle H K, bent at G so as to be turned by the rod N attached to a treadle worked by the foot ; and let this axle work at either end in sockets, L and ^f, fastened to the underside of the plank A, or fitted into the boards in front and at the back of the bench, if the saw be fitted to a carpenter's bench. A small but heavy fly-wheel should be Metiiol of Working Small Circular-saiv. 241 Fig. 256. METHOD OF WORKING SMALL CIKCULAR-SAW. attached to the end H of the axle. Slots must be cut in the board A B — one at C, through which the saw D E may work ; and another at F, through which the crank G may work, during its passage through the upper semicircle of its revolu- tion. When the treadle is set in motion with the foot the saw will revolve, increasing in rapidity by the action and weight of the fly-wheel, and requir- ing less and less pressure from the foot of the operator on the treadle. There would be from one fifth to one-fourth of the diameter of the saw above the surface of the bench ; that is to say, if the saw were 5in.in diameter there might be from lin. to I X in. of its diameter above the surface. It would not be possible to use a saw of any size on account of the power required to drive it, owing to the resistance offered by the wood when it is brought against it, and the friction arising from the passage of the saw through the wood. This is the simplest method of working a small circular-saw. If the operator had some one to help him by turning a handle, Multiplica- it would be possible to impart far greater velocity to the tion of wheel than could ever be attained by the use of the treadle, by means of a series of wheels attached to the side of the bench at B and acting on a toothed-wheel keyed on to the axle at K, the handle being fixed at some point near the cir- cumference of the largest and last of the wheels comprised in the series, reckon- ing from the wheel at K as the first. Supposing that there were such an arrangement of three wheels, as shown in fig. 257, in which A is a wheel with ten teeth keyed on to the end of the axle at K, B an intermediate wheel with twenty teeth, and C a third wheel with forty teeth, in the circumference of which a handle D is placed. Now, it is manifest as the number of teeth in C are double those in B, that for every single revolution of c the wheel B will go round twice ; and as B has twice as many teeth as A, the wheel A will go round twice for every revolution of B. Th* wheel A will therefore be turned round four times for every singles revolution of c, and the saw, which is keyed on to the axle, like the 16 Fig. 257. MULTIPLICATION OF SPEED. 242 Household Carpentry and Joinery. wheel A, wUl also revolve four times. It will be seen that the speed of the saw will depend on the relative number of teeth in the wheels. It is only the principle that it is sought to explain here. The amateur will now be able to work out any combination of wheels for himself. 521. On looking at fig. 256, it is clear that if a slip be screwed lengthwise to the top of the bench, as at O, in which such a slip is Guide slip for shown in seotion, and the operator hold a board against ^fath1;o be ^^^'^ guide slip, as shown by the dotted line at P, also in c^t- section, it will be ripped down lengthwise by the saw, and the width of the slip to be cut from the board may be regulated by moving the guide slip to a distance from the plane in which the saw revolves, equal to the width required to be cut. Too much care cannot be taken in making use of a circular-saw. The operator must keep his hands well out of the way, and when the board is nearly cut through, use another piece of board instead of his hands to keep it going in an onward course until the saw has completed its work. For cutting tenons, an arrangement might be made by which the axle of the saw would be above instead of under the bench, but this would be useless for ripping down a long piece of board ; and in cutting a tenon it must be remembered that the saw can only penetrate to a depth somewhat less than half its diameter, if the axle be above the bench, for as a matter of course the progress of the wood would be stopped by its coming in contact with the axle. PART IT. £Drnamental ann Constructional Carpentry antJ Joinery. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY— ORNAMENTAL CARPENTRY AND ITS VARIOUS BRANCHES. Grammar of Carpentr>'—Prine7pies ot Cons cr^^Bn— Branches of Ornamental Car- pentry— Cabinet-making— Turning— Derivation of the Term— General Principle of the Lathe— Various parts of Lathe— Derivation of word " Lathe "—Articles made in Lathe— Fret-sawing or Fret-cutting— Familiar Example— Articles' to which Fret-cutting may be applied— Decoration of Flat Surfaces— Ornamentation of Box— Importance of the Work— Effect of Bold Patterns— Meanings of Term " Fret-work "—Wood-carving— Kenihvorth Sideboard— Requisites for Success- Carving : what it is— Meaning of Term. 522. When a man knows how to use the different tools employed in Carpentry and Joinery, and has learnt to perform the ordinary opera- tions by means of which pieces of wood are framed Qrammar of together, he may be considered to have become ac- carpentry, quainted with what may be termed the grammar of carpentry ; and, as the simpler processes that come within the province of the house carpenter and joiner are now tolerably familiar to him, he may turn his attention to ornamental carpentry, which involves greater delicacy of manipulation and more careful use of the tools employed, and apply himself to the task of learning the principles of construe- principles of tion comprised in articles of every-day use that he sees construction, about him ; and, having learnt how they may be made so as to be as strong and efficient as it is possible to render them, to proceed to the repairing and the making of the articles themselves. 523. There are various branches of ornamental carpentry or working in wood which present more than ordinary attractions Branches of ' , . ornamental to the amateur artisan, and for whose execution special carpentry, kinds of tools and implements, and even special machinery, are required. These branches are — 244 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. I. Turning J 2. Fret-aiiting or fret-sawing j 3. Wood-carvi7i^ ; and in one or the other of these, if not in all three, the amateur artisan should endeavour to attain proficiency. He cannot always be exer- cising his ingenuity as a carpenter in putting up outhouses, sheds, summer-houses, and in making such buildings and other plant that may be required for his various operations in this line out of doors ; nor will he continually be able to find scope for his constructive powers as a joiner in making pieces of furniture such as tables, chairs, bookghelves, and book-cases for his house and home, or in repairing damage done to its interior woodwork, and its blinds, locks, and other Cabinet- fittings. In cabinet-making, however, that is to say, in making. ^^ higher branches of the joiner's art, and in the three kinds of ornamental working in wood specified above, there is always something to be done, either in adding to the furniture already gathered together, or in improving plain pieces of work, or the wood- work of the house, by ornamental additions. 524. Turning may be defined as the act of forming solid substances, as pieces of wood, ivory, bone, etc., into different forms by means of a lathe, or of imparting a smoothness and entirely sym- Turning. metrical form to a metal casting by the same means. Turnery may be taken to mean the art of working, as just described, by means of a lathe, or the things or forms which are made by a turner or in the lathe ; thus we can speak of a man as being well skilled in the art of turnery, or of the wooden soap bowls, and other articles of a similar kind, sold with brushes, etc., for household use, as turneiy. 525. The term finds its origin in the word iornos, a turner's chisel ; whence was formed the Greek verb torncitein, to work with a lathe Deri-vation of '^^^ chisel ; thence through the Latin torniis, a lathe, and the term. tomare, to work in a lathe, or to round off; through the French tourner, and the Anglo-Saxon tyrnan, we obtain our English word " turn," which is used in other senses than that of working in a lathe, the primary meaning having suggested and brought into use others akin to it in import. 526. The broad principle ot the lathe, or turning-lathe, as it is in- differently called, may be described here, the details of its construction and its manifold uses being reserved for the following General pnn- cipie of the chapter. From a strong frame called the lathe-bed rises a lathe. . couple of uprights called heads or poppets. Of these, the one on the left hand is fitted with a mandril and pulley ; while the other on the right, generally called the back poppet, is pierced by a long-pointed screw, which can be turned by a bar passing through its General Principle of the Turning Lathe. 245 head like an ordinary bench -screw, or by a wheel with a handle inserted at any point of its circumference, which answers precisely the same purpose as the handle attached to the iron axle of a grindstone, the handle being bent so as to form two arms at right angles to another. 537. Thus in fig. 258, A B is the strong frame that forms the top of the lathe-bed, formed, as shown in fig. 259, of two stout pieces of wood, a d, c d, bolted to^rether and kept apart by the ends of various parts ' ^ , ■ of lathe, the uprights C, D, so as to form a long narrow openmg or slot in which one or both of the heads may be moved backwards or forwards as maybe necessary. In the head E is the mandril F, over which passes a pulley G. In the back poppet H is the screw K, turned by the bar L, which passes c through its head. The inner end of the mandril is fitted with a screw so as to receive different kinds of fittings, such as a piece of metal fitted with three points to enter into the end of such a piece of wood as M, into the other end of which the extremity of the screw K is forced, the wood being thus held in posi ^^ ^K Fig. 258. EI.KVATION OF LATHF- JD Fig. 259. PLAN OF BED OF LATHE. tion. On one side of the lathe-bed and beneath the frame that supports che heads is a wheel N, the axle of which is bent at O, to receive a crank hook P, connected with the treadle Q. A cord passes over the cir- cumference of the wheel N, and the compound pulley E, and by work- ing the treadle Q, motion is imparted to the wheel and pulley, which is communicated to the wood M, which revolves with great rapidity. A tool rest, R, works backwards and forwards along the front of the frame which forms the top of the lathe-bed, and on this, as the name implies, the tool is rested which is used to cut the wood as it revolves. It must be remembered that the foregoing is not so much the descrip- tion of a lathe as the description of the general principle of its con- struction, how it is set in motion, and how it acts. It is inserted here to give the amateur mechanic some idea of one of the most useful and important pieces of machinery which is used every day in cabinet- making and ornamental cnipentry and joinery. 528: The word " lathe" is supposed to be derived from the German lade—a. frame, or that which holds or encloses something else ; thus, 246 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. bettiade is a bedstead, or the frame on which a bed is supported. It ^ . X. , has been sugcrested that it is akin to the word " ladder," Denvation 01 °° word "lathe." ^yhich in itself is a framework of bars, each bar having each end inserted into longitudinal spars which form the sides. 529. From the general description which has been given of the broad principle of the lathe, its uses will at once be made manifest : . ,. , ^ bars, pillars, whether long or short ; the legs of chairs— that Articles made ' r j o ^ in lathe, jg to say, if they are straight ; knobs for handles of drawers and doors, pedestals for lamps, and an infinite variety of articles which it would be long and tedious to enumerate, can be easily and quickly made. The manufacture of such articles as these involves the use of both mandril head and back poppet, as it is necessary to support both ends of the wood to be operated upon ; but in turning such an article as a bowl, the wood is fastened on one side only to a suitable chuck, which in its turn is screwed on to the mandril. It will be noted that the wood to be turned revolves with the mandril and pulley, becoming, as it were, merely a prolongation of the mandril : the screw that passes through the back poppet is immovable, and the wood into which it is forced revolves freely about its point. It will also be noticed that the axis of the mandril and that of the screw of the back poppet must of necessity be in one and the same straight line. 530. We will now pass on to a consideration of the second kind of ornamental carpentry, namely, fret-sawing or fret-cutting, in which an amateur may attain excellence with a far less expenditure Fret-s^awmg ^^ ^.^^ ^^^^^ .^ necessary to excel in turning, and by means fret-cutting. ^^ ^^i-^\^T^ ]-,£ may lend to many articles of furniture or household fittings that are plain in themselves, a highly ornamental appearance and character. A familiar exemplification of Familiar ^^ 1 j 1 i- j example, fret-cutting may be found in the perforated woodwork lined ■A'ith coloured silk that forms the front of that part of a cottage or upright piano, which is immediately above the key-board, and against which the cover of the key-board rests when it is raised in order to ylav on the instrument. As in the case of turning, the description of ihe tools and manipulation required will be reserved for another chapter. Our purpose in mentioning these branches of ornamental carpentry here is to point out to the amateur how he may make this Articles to handicraft peculiarly useful in a decorative point of view which fret- jf j^g chooses to adopt it and follow it up. Fret-work in cutting may '^ j i i he applied, itself is Strictly ornamental in character, and can only be applied to decorative purposes. Brackets, paper-cases, book-stands, and \ variety of small pieces of ornamental furniture of this kind can be Decoration of Flat Surfaces by Fret-work. 247 adorned most effectively by fret-cutting ; and the raised rim that usually surrounds three out of the four sides of each shelf of the whatnot oi wagonette ; and the thin boards by which the Canterbury or receptacle for music is usually divided into narrow compartments may be enriched by this kind of decorative work. 531. There is, however, another purpose to which fret-work may be applied which seems to have escaped notice, though it is speciall) adapted to the requirements and powers of amateurs. Decoration of This is the decoration of flat or plane surfaces by raised ^^^ surfaces. work. It is, in fact, what is usually called diaper carving, but done by means of the fret-saw instead of in the ordinary way with V chisels, gouges, etc., and any pattern, however elaborate, may be executed thus with this advantage, that the ground-work on which the pattern appears in relief will be smooth instead of rough, as it must be when the wood that has filled up the parts between the pattern is removed by cutting with a sharp instrument. Let us, for instance, suppose that it is desired to impart an ornamental character even to so simple an article as an ordinary rectangular box. The sides of the crnamenta- box having been stained, pieces of thin wood of the size tion of box. of the ends, front, and top should be taken— and for the back, too, if it be considered necessary to extend the ornamentation to this side of the box — a suitable pattern marked out on them, and the pattern produced by cutting out the interstices by the aid of a fret-saw. As piece after piece is finished it must be attached to the box by means of glue and brads, and the whole of the work, when the attachment of the fret-work is complete, stained, sized, and varnished. There is no absolute need to stain the sides of the box before the fret-work is applied, but by doing so the colouring of the entire surface below is insured, and if any part of the fret-work is accidentally broken off, the injury is not so conspicuous when the surface has been previously coloured as it would be if no staining had been applied until the fret- work was secured in position. The importance of this kind i„,poi.tance of decorative work — and, as far as we are aware, this is the °* *^® work, first time that the adaptation of fret-work to this species of orna- mentation has been described— will be readily seen and acknowledged when it is considered what a wide field is opened up for the adornment of such pieces of furniture as chests of drawers, the flat sideg of book- cases, book-shelves, etc., which up to this time may have ^^^ ^^^ been regarded as incapable of decoration in an effective bold patterns, and suitable manner. The effect of a bold pattern of flowers and foliage conventionally treated on a skirting-board or any narrow pro- 248 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. jecting surface, and the enrichment of panels deeply set in the sur- rounding framework with diaper extending over the entire surface, or a border next to the framework, with a monogram or some other figure in the centre, may be readily conceived. 532. Fret-work in the Arts has two different meanings : it is applied, on the one hand, to work that is produced by cutting or wearing away as by the action of a saw ; and, on the other, to raised or Meanings of term embossed work such as is obtained in embroidery by "fret- work." ,,,..,. , , means of a needle. It is m this sense that the poet Spenser speaks of one " Whose skirt with gold was fretted all about." In this sense the word fret is to be traced to the Anglo-Saxon frdtii, " ornament," or fi-dtvjan to adorn ; but in the sense in which it is used in the term fret-cutting it is akin to the Anglo-Saxon fretan, to eat or gnaw away, and the French /rc'//^?r, to rub, which is derived in its turn from the Latin word fricare, to rub. In Architecture a fret is an ornament consisting of fillets intersecting each other at right angles, while in Heraldry it is a bearing of bars crossed and interlaced. 533. The highest branch of the entire art of working in wood is undoubtedly that of wood carving, for in order to arrive at any ^ . eminence in this noble decorative work it is necessary carving. 4}^^^ ^ man be a genuine artist and not a mere artisan. Of course we are not speaking of the ordinary carved work that is exhibited on the bowed legs of chairs and other parts of household furniture, as the curved and boldly projecting legs or leg of a cotisole table, the claws of a round or oval table that is supported on a central pillar, or the hideous scroll-work in distant imitation of foliage that often disfigures the frame of a pier glass ; but of the fine copies of still life that were produced by the chisel of Grinling Gibbons ; the elaborate panels and decorations of the Kenilworth -. ., ., sideboard, one of the most notable features of the Great Kenuwortn ' sideboard. Exhibition of 1851 ; the thrones of the bishops in many of our cathedrals, and the carven screens that adorn many of our village churches. To excel in such work requires time, patience, and Requisites abundant practice, and, as it has been said, the spirit and for success, feeling of a true artist. Much, however, may be done in a humbler, less ambitious way, and the amateur need not despair of turning out work sufficiently good and appropriate for the adornment of his home. It is a pleasant pursuit, anyway, and perseverance in the prosecution of any art never yet failed to bring its own reward. Carving: What it is. 249 534. Carving is the art or act of cutting wood or stone in a decora- tive manner, and a carver is one vvlio cuts wood or stone in such a manner. Our English word " carve " is closely allied to carving- ihe Dutch kerven^ and the German ksrben. It differs but ■'^^*'' "^• very slightly from the Danish karve, and owes its parentage imme- diately to the Anglo-Saxon fv point. being applied to it, or heavy cuts being taken off ; for fin- ^ _ ishing sharp angular comers ; anc >. V for internal work, such as large ^ holes or cavities, into which the ^ other tools cannot be got conve- niently. The point only is used for the first purpose, and the point and sides for the second and third. The point should seldom or never be held above the centre. Cranked or internal tools, one of which is shown in fig. 281, are used for turning recesses in a piece of wood, or for turning holes when any portion of the interior is either not straight or larger than the orifice. The cutting point is held level with the centre. 570. The tool-rest must be altered to suit the work. It will generally be required rather above the centre, but the height of the operator must » govern this to a certain Management " of tool-rest, extent. The nearer the rest is to the work the greater is the pRoli/vfEW. sIde v?eW command that the amateur artisan diamond point. has over his tools. To get it sufficiently close it will sometimes b€ necessary to place the rest at the same angle as the work ; but in whatever position the rest is placed, care should be taken that it is firmly fixed. To the experienced turner it is a matter of very little consequence whether the rest is an inch or two from the work or quite close to it : but until the amateur l-nows his tools, and begins to work with some degree of confidence or certainty, he should not, if he can avoid it, have his rest more than an inch from that portion of the work on which he is operating. If kept at a greater distance than that he will be very liable, or indeed he will be almost certain, to catch in his tool which, flying up, will strike him in the eye or mouth. 571. When turning anything down to a certain size, we cannot do it Bow CALLIPERS : HOLE AND SOCKET CALLIPERS. 265 near enough by the eye, but must use instruments called callipers ; and although these have already been mentioned in a previous . . Tirming down chapter, it will be useful to refer to them agam here, as it to certain is in turning that they are found especially useful. The callipers must be set to the proper size, that is, to the diameter to which the work is to be turned down, and occasionally applied to the work until it has been made small enough. 572. The ordinary forms of callipers are represented in figs. 2S2. 283, Fig Fig. 283. BOW or half-moon CALLIPERS. Fig. 284. HOLE AND SOCKET CALLIPERS. and 284. That shown in figs. 282 and 283 is called the bow or half- moon callipers. It is represented in two positions, viz., for ^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ external work in fig. 282, and for internal work in fig. 283. j.^'fj^"^^^ Fig. 284 is a representation of the hole and socket callipers, which will be found very useful in turning boxes and covers. When one end is set to the size of the hole the size at the other ^^^^ ^^ end will be that of the cover of the box, or the socket socket ' calupers. that fits into the hole. 573. No amateur should be without an oil-stone. His tools, not only those used for turning, but his joiner's tools, will con- ou-stone tinually get dull and blunt ; he /nus/, therefore, have some indispensable. means of slvarpening them. The subject, however, of oil- stones has 266 Orxame^tal Carpentry and Joinery. been fully discussed, and is only alluded to here as a reminder to the amateur, who is generally far more careless than he ought to be with regard to sharpening tools. 574. After the required size and shape has been given to the article, unless it has been very well done and with exceedingly sharp tools, a sheet of glass paper should be held against the work as Finishing oil o _ -with glass it rapidly revolves. This will smooth it and take out paper, etc. any little asperity or tool mark that may have been left there. If the article is a pattern for a casting in metal, so far as the lathe is concerned, it is finished ; if it is a handle, a little oil is often poured upon some fine shavings, and these are applied to the surface ; this will greatly improve its appearance. Articles which it is intended to French polish can be done much better in the lathe than by hand. 575. Before the amateur turner tries his hand on work that must be done tolerably well, he should put some rough First efforts wood in the in turning, j^^j^^ ^^^ -commence operations Fig. 285. handle for chisel, etc. upon that. He should next turn his attention to those things which, although they are better done well, are not spoiled if done in an in- different manner. Now he will require several handles, some of the shape of fig. 285 — these are used mostly to hold turning tools — and some of the shape shown in fig. 2S6. These will be wanted to hold tools for several kinds of work. The first sort should be about 10 inches or 12 inches long and about i inch and a quarter in diameter at the largest part ; the ferrule F should be about three-quarters of an inch, internal diameter. The other sort should be of several sizes, from 3 inches t04 inches in length, with a ferrule ranging from a quarter to three-quarters of an inch in diameter. The rough wood is put into the lathe, and the end nearest the centre turned down to such a size that the iron or brass ferrule can be hammered on tightly. The remaining portion can then be finished. 576. It may be useful to give a few other examples for turning of a tolerably simple character on which the amateur turner may try his hand. If he can manage to turn out any one of these in Higher branches of a tolerably workman-like manner, he may rest assured turning. that he is sufficiently advanced m the art of turnmg to carry out anything he may be called on to do in the way of ornamental Tool handles. Fig. 286. HANDLE FOR BRADAWL, ETC. Top: Steam Cylinder: Table Leg. 267 carpentry and joinery for the house and garden. It is the chief object of this book to help the ama- teur to do rea! the higher br ing will require far more prac- tice than most amateurs are to help the ama- rVIiil^-T't-Tr -"'"^ -ft .ally useaa work ;rWfj®m^^^^^^^^ branches of turn- ^MiiiiM'i.^My Fig. 2S7. Spinning-top. SPINNING TOP IN POSITION FOR TURNING. inclined to give, and those who can do so will find detailed in- structions for every kind of turned work in Bergeron's work, or in any of the less pretentious treatises that have been written on this subject. 577. In fig. 287 a spinning-top is represented in the position in which it should be turned. " Bo.xers," as they are called from the material of which they are made, are considered to be the best, but any other sort of wood besides box can be used. A hole for the spill should first be bored up the centre, and this hole should act as the centre hole for the steel point of the lathe. 578. Fig. 288 represents the position in which the pattern for a steam cylinder should be placed to be turned. A rough piece of wood should be selected rather larger than the required shape. steam This piece must be sawn in half, the cut surfaces planed ^^ ^^ up, and a coat of glue given to each ; a piece of thin paper should then be put between the pieces, which should be brought together and held tightly in this posi- tion until the glue is dry. The piece can now be put into the lathe and turned. Care must be taken that the centre line passes through the joint. After being turned it can be easily knocked into two parts, and the plain portions put on in place. 579. In fig. 289 the leg of a table is shown in position for turning. It should be made of some fancy wood, such as walnut or mahogany. This cannot be done too well. The shape need not be ex- actly like that ^"-"- -'^5' "^-^B^^ LEG IN POSITION FOR TURNING. shown in the engraving, but the turner can vary the form to suit his taste or fancy. In fig. 290 is represented a piece of wood for a table-top, stuck to the face plate with Turner's Fig. 283 steam cylinder in position for TURNING. Leg of tabl9. 268 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. Top of table. Prices of lathes, etc. cement. The tool-rest is also shown in the proper position at A When one part of the top is turned it may be knocked ofif the plate. A piece of wood should now be fastened to the plate, and in this wood a re- cess turned out of such a size that the turned portion of the table-top will lightly fit it ; the remaining portion can then be turned to shape. If the table is turned in this manner there will be no holes or marks to disfigure it, as will necessarily be the case if it be done in either of the chucks. 580. We must now consider briefly the prices of lathes and tools used in turning, and this may be best done by bringing under the reader's notice two or three of the best kinds of small lathe suited for the amateur's purpose. The price of a lathe depends entirely upon its size and fittings, and if the amateur desires to become the possessor ^.^^ ^^^ table-top in of a large and powerful lathe, big enough to position for titrnixg. turn a post for a four-post bedstead — or, in other words, a lathe with a 6ft. bed — the best and cheapest way of going to work is U buy the different parts and make the lathe, or have it made by a ^ ^ ^ joiner. Occasionally an excellent lathe may be picked up SGcona-nanci J "^ lathes. second-hand, or two or three old lathes may be bought for next to nothing, from the component parts of which a new and serviceable lathe may easily be constructed. The various parts and fittings of a lathe are always to be bought separately, and the descrip- tion and engravings of an ordinary foot lathe already given are sufficient to show their respective uses, and how they are to be put together. 581. A good working lathe, with strong wooden standards and wooden 3ft. bed, or even a 4ft. bed, v/hich is large enough for any purpose as far as the amateur is concerned, may be made good working for about £$, supposing that new poppets, cone mandril, grooved wheel, cranked axle, treadle, etc., are bought expressly for it ; but by going to work in the manner above described a lathe may be built for half this sum, or even less. 582. Turning to lathes supplied by the manufacturers, these vary in price according to size of centre and bed, and additional fittings in the shape of chucks, slide-rests, etc., from about £7 los. to £$<=>■ The Prices of Different Kinds of Lathes. 269 following are selected from the list issued by JOSEPH Blxk, 56, Ho/- born Viaduct, and 164, Waterloo Road, Lo7idon—z. maker ^^^^^ ^^ V. hose lathes and tools, be they what they may, are always ^^^^^'^ >=^'^^^- good and to be depended upon. The lathes are classified according to size : 3jin. Latlie, with 3^. bed, iron standards, and 2 chucks 7 15 o ,, ,, 6 chucks, and slide-rest ... 1300 ,, 2ft. bed, with legs to fasten to bench, 4 chucks, but with- • out standards, driving-wheel, or treadle S 10 o 4 ill. best lathe, with 3ft. bed, iron standards, 3 chucks, pulley divided, index point, etc ''' ° ° 4ii!i. lathe, with 3ft. bed, iron standards, and 2 chucks 9 i3 o „ best lathe, with 3ift. bed, 5 chucks, and divided pulley 17 10 o „ back-geared lathe', with 3ft. bed, 3 chucks, and compound slide-rest... 10 10 o 5 in. l.-ithe, with 3jft. bed, iron standards, and 2 chucks "'5 o ,, best lathe, with 4ft. bed, and 5 chucks ^? 5 ° „ back -geared lathe, with 4ft. bed, 3 chucks, and compound slide-rest ij 10 o „ self-acting and screw-cutting, with 6ft. bed, co.mpound slide-rest, and change wheels for foot or driving power 33 ° 6 in. back-geared l.-ithe, with 5ft. bed, 3 chucks, and compound slide-rest 25 o o „ self-acting and screw-cutting, with 6ft. bed, compound slide-rest, and change wheels for foot or driving power 40 o o Slide-rests of an ordinary description cost from £^ to /6 each. A circular-saw table to fit the T rest of a lathe may be purchased from I2s. to 30s. ; and it may be mentioned here while speaking of circular saws, that a circular saw bench to work with treadle, complete with a 7in. saw, may be bought for £7 15s. 5S3. Plain treadle lathes consisting of iron frame with bed planed true, iron cone mandril, cylinder poppet head, rest and two tees, turned grooved wheel, crank and treadle complete, with Meihuish's 3 chucks, are supplied at the following rates by Messrs. ^^.thes. R. Melhuish & Co., 84, 85 and 87, Fetter Lane, Hotborn, B.C. ^ s. d. i. s. d. 3^in. centres and 3ft. oin. bed ... 7 15 o, or with slide rest ... 1200 4jin. „ „ 3ft. oin. ,, ... 8 10 o ,, ,, ,, •-. 13 o o 5 in. ,, ,, 3ft. 6in. „ ... 10 o o ,, ,, ,, ... 15 o o 6 in. ,. 4ft. oin. ,, ... 12 o o ,, ,, ,, •.• '7 '3 o 6 in centres, 5ft. bed, with chucks, slide rest, etc. (with gap bed i6s. extra), £20. 4in. centres, 5ft. bed, foot power, self traversing, screw cutting back geared, gap bed lathe, £z-- 584. Turning tools may be bought at from 8s. per dozen, or 8d. each upwards. A useful set of 6 chisels, handled, for soft woods, may be had for 8s., and the same number of gouges for 9s. fuming Tools for hard wood, including chisel end, round end, *°°^«- parting tools, side tools, point tools, bead tools, quarter round, bevel end, square, etc., may be had assorted at 15s. per dozen. Turning squares with steel sliding blades range from 5s. to 9s. ; callipers, from IS. to 7s. 6d. ; arm-rest, handled, for 2s. 6d. ; lathe carriers from 270 ORNA.yEXTAL CaRPE^'TRY AND jfoINERY. 2s. 3d.; and slide-rest tool holders from los. to 21s. each. The number of tools that an amateur really requires on commencing has been already mentioned. 585. Let us now turn to a class of lathes more especially suited for amateurs, with respect to capability, size, and price. Of these we shall describe and give representations of two, namely, the Special j ii -n i » lathes for Improved " Jiureka amateurs, p^^jj^^^ Spindle Lathe, and the American Hollow-Spindle Lathe with back geared head. These, which are all modifications :9I. IMi'KUVED EUREKA LATHE. in one form or another of the foot lathe already described, are all sold by Messrs. Churchill and Co., 21, Cross Street, Finsbury, E.C. 586. The Improved Eureka Lathe is a complete and per- fect lathe capable of turning a piece of wood 2oin. long and Fig. 292 FRKT-SAW ATTACHMENT FOR SMALL LATHE. 6in. in diameter. The bed is of iron, with planed ways. The spindles and centres are made of cast steel, and the spindle is arranged with The Improved Eureka Lathe. 271 patent bearings, so that all wear may be taken up and the spindle kept true. The lathe may be run at a high rate of speed without showing perceptible wear. The parts are interchangeable, and any single part can be replaced in case of breakage. The ^^^^^^^^ lathe is suitable for amateurs or any one requiring a small' '^^^^^ convenient lathe. The lathe in all its parts, with the driving-wheel, is represented in Fig. 291. The fret-saw attachment in Fig. 292 is not now supplied with the lathe, but the illustration is given' here, partly to show the nature of a saw attachment of this kind, and partly to help those who may be inclined to try to make one. Such saw at- tachments can be connected in a moment to the face-plate of any lathe, and will do all fret-sawing of an ordinary kind. The saw-table of the attachment exhibited in Fig. 292 is Sin. in diameter, and will swing iiin. under the arm. 587. Various attachments are supplied with the Eureka lathe, which greatly add to its general utility, and these are the slide-rests, circular-saw .^^ ^ attachment, and amateur chuck. The slide-rest shown for Eureka ' , . lathe. in fig. 293 has a longitudinal motion of 3/4'\n., and a transverse motion of i^/in. It can be used for turning straight or taper work, boring straight or taper holes, or, in short, for any purpose for which a slide-rest is intended. It can be raised or lowered to suit any lathe from 2in. to 3in. centres. Each slide-rest is fur- nished with four tools. The circular-saw attachment repre- sented in fig. 294 consists of an Fig. 293. EUREKA SLIDF.-KF.ST. Fig. 294. EUREKA CIRCULAR-SAW ATTACHMENT. iron table, measuring I2in. in length and 9>^in. in width. It has a steel spindle which runs on the lathe centreo. An iron brace is connected to the frame, having one end hinged to the table and the other moved through a slot, and held at any required angle by the tightening of a thumbscrew, thus enabling the operator to do rabbet- ing, and all kinds of sawing necessary in making picture frames, puzzles, etc. Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery, 588. The amateur chuck, of which the 2in. size is represented in Am teur ^S- 295, is especially designed for foot lathes, and for all chuck. purposes where a chuck is used. It is made to attach to the lathe by a taper-plug or face-plate. It can be used in a drill-chuck. The 2in. size will hold pieces 2;^ in. in diameter with No. i jaws, and with No. 2 jaws will hold drills from -jVin- to fin. Screws to fasten the face-plate are sent with each chuck. Prices of 589. The prices of the Eureka lathe in various sizes Eureka lathe. ^^^ .^^ numerous attachments are as follow :— £ s. d. 2 10 o 3 10 o 400 2 15 O 5 5° ) 10 o o 10 1 5 o 056 Larhe with 3oIn. bed without foot-power, weight 3olb.s ,, with 3oin. bed, and 14111. foot-power, weight 561bs ^_ ,, ,, igiii. ,, weight 681bs „ with 36ln. bed _ ,, with table as shown with American Lathe (page 273), weight it4lbs. Slic'e-rest with four tools, weight 4lbs Fx ra tools, each _ Circular-saw attachment, with 510. saw and spindle, weight gibs Extra saws, each •• ••• 210. amiteur's geared scroll chuck, with i set of jaws and face-plate fitted, weight 2lbs 'j' ^ ^ ° 2in. amateur's geared scroll chuck, with 2 sets of jaws and face-plate fitted, weight 2lbs. _ _ ••, 112° ±\n. amateur's geared scroll chuck, with i set of jaws and face-plate fitted, weight 4lbs •• i i" ° 4ip, amateur's geared scroll chuck, with 2 sets of jaws and face-plate fitted, weight 4.^1bs i iS ° 590. This lathe will commend itself to the amateur from the fact that any part that is accidentally injured can be easily repaired, and that the different attachments can be bought one by one as they may be re- quired, or dispensed with altogether. The form of the lathe, Why well , . , . • ,, adapted for which is specially recom- aaiateur. 1 i , ^i .- r mended to the notice 01 the amateur, is that with a 36in. bed and I9in. foot-power, which can be purchased for ^3 1 8s. It is next to useless to buy a lathe without foot- power, as this must be furnished in one way or another ; but if the ama- teur has a driving-wheel that he can connect with the lathe, the Eureka with a 36in. bed will only cost him £2 8s. 591. The American Hollow Spindle Lathe, \sith back-geared head, is a new and useful lathe for amateurs. Its form and construction is shown in Fig. 296, in which the back-geared head is clearly defined. This head enables the operator to work at a very slow speed, at the same time having greater power. Much heavier work, especially on Fig. 295. AMAlF.u'.< GEARED SCROLL CHUCK. American Hollow Spindle Lathe. 273 metals, may thus be executed on this lathe, which is of a superior finish throughout. The spindle of steel runs in conical American bearings of iron, with arrangements for taking up all wear. g^^^ There is a hole, Xin. in diameter, running through the La«^e. spindle, which allows small rods to be passed through and held in a Fig. 296. AMEKICAN HOLLOW bi'I.NLLE LATtlE. chuck, a valuable addition when small screws or other small articles are to be made from rods. The tail-block has a sliding spindle, worked by the screw and wheel. The head has a pulley with three speeds, which, iS 2 74 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. combined with the back-gear, gives great variety. It has sin. centres, and the bed is 3oin. long, so that work i8in. in length may be turned ill this lathe, which can be used with equal facility for turning, drilling, polishing, sawing, etc. 592. The following pieces are supplied with the lathe : two T rests, one face-plate, two plain centres, one spur-centre for wood, one plain drill-chuck, one drill-pad, and one centre left blank to turn ^suppued down as a fitting for a universal chuck. The Eureka ^^ * ^' slide-rest and improved circular-saw attachment are fitted for this lathe, for which the drill-chucks are supplied properly fitted. It may be said that in every respect this lathe is suitable for all purposes for which such an instrument is usually required by amateurs. The table is neat and strong, and the fly-wheel is igin. in diameter and weighs 3olbs. The following are the prices at which this useful lathe and its fittings are supplied ; the weight of the whole machine, as offered to the buyer, being stated in each case : £. s. d. Lallie, as in illustration, with b^ck-gears and table, complete, weight loSlbs. 700 ,, with back-gears, but without table, weight jilbs 4120 Foot-power, igin. wheel, standard, and treadle, weight 39lbs i 10 o ,, i4in. ,, ,, „ weight zslbs 100 593. As this is certainly the best, cheapest, and most complete lathe that the amateur can obtain, and one which can be rendered adaptable foi all purposes by fittings which are constructed so as to be used with it, and which have been already named, it may be useful to complete our notice by appending the prices at which these fittings are supplied. It must be remembered that they are extras, and are not lathe and included in the ordinary pieces that accompany the lathe at the prices above named. A slide-rest with a set of four tools may be bought for £^\ los. ; a circular-saw attachment with spindle and 5in. saw, for ^i 5s.; a 2 inch amateur chuck with one set of jaws and face-plate fitted, ^i 9s., or with two sets of jaws, ^i i6s. ; a 4 inch amateur chuck, with one set of jaws, etc., £\ lis., or with two sets of jaws, £\ i8s. 594. There are many other lathes, all agreeing in general principle, but differing in some points in construction, about which something Ordinary ^^'^^ ^^ ^^^^ further on. All that is now requisite is a fev T rest. remarks on the nature of the slide-rest, which has beei. mentioned tv/o or three times in the last few pages. The ordinary T rest, described with the foot lathe, fits into the holder by means of a round spill, and can be fixed in a position parallel to the bed of the lathe, or at any angle to it that may be requisite. The tool, however Principle of the Slide-rest. 275 remains entirely under the control of the operator, that is to say, he must give it such motion when on the rest as may be necessary to make the cuts that he requires. He must push it forwards or pull it backwards, or move it from one end of the rest to the other as may be necessary. 595. With the slide-rest, however, it is very different. The principle of this useful addition to the lathe is nothing more nor less than that of two slides working at right angles to one another, the upper one principle of carrying the tool which is clamped to it. This will be seen sUde-rest. on looking closely at the engraving of the Eureka slide-rest (fig. 293). The entire attachment is fixed to the bed of the machine, and the tool in use is shown in position at the top secured by the clamp. By moving the wheel to the right by the handle which is attached to its circum- ference, the screw to whose head the wheel is attached will be turned, causing the upper part to travel along the lower part in a direction parallel to the screw, or, in other words, up and down the length of the screw, according to the direction in which the handle is turned. The wheel to the left is attached to the head of another screw, which works at right angles to the first screw, and by which the tool is withdrawn from or propelled towards the work. The main or lower slide is contrived to work on a central pivot, thus imparting a third movement to the slide. Thus, by the combination of these three movements, the operator can, by merely turning the wheels or altering the position of the rest with respect to the lathe bed, give any direction whatever to the cutting edge of the tool, which is of the greatest importance, and indeed indispensable in turning tapered work, and cutting screws and spirals. The spiral columns sometimes seen in furniture are turned by the aid of the slide-rest. Cl^APTER III. VENEERING AND CURVP:D WORK. Veneering : what it is — Laying Veneer not difficult — Laying Veneer on Flat Surface — Veneering Hammer — Preparation of Ground — Preparation of Veneer — Re- nioval of Creases — Relaying Veneer — Cutting Veneers — Proceedings after work is dry — Veneering with Caul— The Caul : its construction — Locking Caul by Handscrews — Warping of Woods— How to remedy Warping — Prevention ol Warping — How to make a Drawing Board — Clamping Ends of Board — Warping of Rings of Wood — Cur^-ed work in Wood — Steaming and Bending Wood — Making Curved Rail— Adjustable Circular Plane — Rounded Wook for Framing — Rounded Corner of Passage, etc. — Curved Work in thin Wood — Description of Process — Strengthening Curved Work thus made — Curved Work thus made not true— Curved Work for Castings, etc — Acute Curves — Construction of Thick Curved Shapes — Building up Curved Work — Curved Work in Pattern-making — Patterns, pattern-making, etc. — Patterns necessary for Castings — Amateur should make his own Patterns — Flange : meaning of term — Flanged Casting- Method of making Flange in Pattern — Sharp edges to be avoided — Sides to Pattern to Taper slightly — Holes in Castings— Cylinder pierced with Hole — Globe or Sphere with Hole — Patterns better r/iade in Parts — Sudden change in size of parts of Pattern undesirable. 596. Whilst explaining the first method of dove-tailing (see section 457) it^ ^^'3.3 remarked that it was seldom used for outside joints unless Veneering: ^^^ outside was to be afterwards veneered. By veneering what It IS. is rneant the laying a thin sheet of valuable wood upon a common and cheap wood. This is sometimes done to cover and hide joints, but mere frequently to give the less valuable wood the appear- ance of the ornamental wood of which the veneer is made. If done well it will be very durable, and is a cheap way of getting a handsome effect. Of course the larger the article the greater will be the saving : indeed, for very small objects the extra labour will out-balance the saving in material, and therefore such articles are seldom veneered, but made of the solid, valuable wood. Veneers, as it has been already said (see chapter ii.), are generally cut from mahogany, rosewood, bird's eye maple, or walnut, but veneers of almost any other sort of wood can be obtained of the cabinet-maker. 597. The operation of laving a veneer is not very diffxcult or trouble- Preparation of Ground and Veneer, 277 some. The amateur artisan should be careful to get well-seasoned veneers, and to use the strongest and best glue: upon j^^yj^^g^g^gg, these his success mainly depend. Bird's eye maple is ^°^ difficult, laid with least trouble and difficulty ; rosewood is the most troublesome to lay. xqS. When veneers are laid upon flat surfaces the operation is simple enough, and n^ust be effected by the ope- ration to be described presently ; but when they are Laying veneer laid upon o^fl3,tBtirface. curved surfaces, an instrument the shape Fig. 257. SIDE VIEW. Fig. 298. front view. VENEERING HAMMER. of the curve, and called a "caul," is generally used. The amateur artisan, however, will find that the veneering hammer, of which the side view is shown in fig. 297, and the front view in fig. 298, will enable him to lay veneering his veneer quite as well as, and sometimes better than, hammer. can be done with a caul. 599. Supposing the hammer is to be used, the ground, that is to say, the surface upon which the veneer is to be laid, should be planed or otherwise cut into the required shape, and roughened by preparation rubbing it with a coarse file or rasp, and then warmed, °* ground, either by holding it to the fire or by passing a hot iron over it. The outside of a veneer should be held over a basin of boiling water, the steam arising from which will slightly damp it ; or, if this preparation cannot be done, it may be damped with a cloth dipped in °^ veneer, hot water. A thin and even coat of glue must then be given to the inside of the veneer, after which it should, with all possible speed, be laid on its place, and the thin broad edge of the veneering hammer passed over it in all directions, beginning at the centre and working towards the edges, so as to expel the unnecessary glue and air from between the surfaces. 600. Should it happen that the glue dries before the whole of the air is got rid of, or that any creases are left in the veneer, or indeed any- thing occur that will render it necessary to remove the Removal of veneer after it has been once laid, the amateur artisan creases, must be very careful in raising it, or he will damage the thin sheet of veneer. When once laid it is rather a difficult job to remove it. The proper way is to thoroughly clean off any glue or dirt that may be stiafc- 2/8 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. ing to the outside — some warm water and a cloth will generally do this Belaying — ^^^^ ^^ ^y ^^^ ^^^> ^^'^ whilst hot rub into the surface veneer. some linseed oil. Then hold the veneer to the fire until the oil has disappeared, and as soon as this Is the case remove it and rub in some more oil. Two or three warmings and oilings will generally moisten and dissolve the glue. The veneer must then be ver)' gently removed, and the old glue entirely cleaned off, after which it is ready to be again laid, and this time, perhaps, with success. 6oi. The veneer should always be cut a little larger than the surface it is intended to cover, as it slips a little when laying. When laid and Cutting dry the projecting edges can be removed with a sharp veneers, pj^^g q^ chisel. The surface of the veneer should be gone over several times with the hammer, working the broad edge over it in every way until the two surfaces have com- Proceedings ' "^ after work pletely adhered in every part. A slight blow here and is dry. there with the back or rounded part of the hammer will indicate this by the sound. As soon as the process is complete some weights should be placed on the veneered wood, and the whole allowed to remain in a warm room or near the fire to dry. 602. The process that has just been described is that of veneering with the hammer ; it fs now necessary to describe the method of Veneering veneering with the caul. Although the hammer is all with caul. ji;jat is required for veneering broad surfaces, such as the front of a drawer or broad curved surfaces of great extent in which the curves are shallow, or even mouldings into which the edge of the hammer is useful for forcing the veneer when the hollows are deep, the caul is desirable and convenient in veneering long narrow lengths of wood, such as are used for picture frames. These may be purchased ready veneered for use at the picture-frame makers in long lengths, but when the amateur is inclined to try his hand at work of this kind, he will find it more convenient to prepare his framing in short lengths. 603. The caul is the exact converse of the surface to be veneered ; thus in fig. 299, if A is the wood to be ve- Tiie caul : its Peered, represented in section construcUon. ^ j^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^j ^j^^^ is to be laid upon it. In fact the surface of the caul should fit with the greatest ac- iic. 299. uie lall. curacy on the surface to be veneered, any hollow or depression in the latter having a corresponding pro.Iiberance in the former, and vice versa. The caul should be rr ade of dry and well-seasoned pine wood. Management of Caul: W'akfing of Woods. 279 In practice it is found to be advantageous to make the caul of wood thin enough to bend slightly under great pressure, and to cut it in such a way that, while it touches the surface to be veneered in the middle at c, it does not fit so closely along the sides or edges d, e, so that in fact when the surfaces were brought together they would move slightly on and along the line of contact c, and each of the edges ni d or e would open according as one or the other in each surface were brought closely together, the opening being sufficient to admit a thin piece of cardboard. 604. When the article has been prepared for veneering and the veneer is ready to be placed on the surface to be veneered, all that is necessary is to glue the surface with thin glue, lay on j- , • the veneer, and then the caul, which should be warmed caui by handscrews. before it is used. Handscrews must now be applied to lock the caul, the veneer, and the wood to which the veneer is glued closely together. Before using the cauls they should be rubbed over with a piece of the best yellow soap, or a strip of paper should be laid between the caul and the veneer. This will prevent the caul and veneer from adhering should any of the glue find its way through a hole in the veneer. By reason of the caul touching only in the middle of the work, it will be found that when the caul and the wood to be veneered are brought forcibly together along the edges by means of handscrews, the pressure will have commenced along the centre line c and proceeded from this line outwards on each side as the edges were brought together, forcing before it any superfluous glue, which will ooze out along the edges ^and e, and must be cleaned off when dry. 605. All woods are more or less affected by the weather, damp or heat causing them to warp and get out of shape. This is sometimes the occasion of great trouble and annoyance. After -warping of having carefully planed a piece of board true, and having woods. laid it on one side while doing something else, to find, when you have occasion to do something further to it, that the sun's rays have caused it to warp half-an-inch out of truth, is, to say the least of it, rather provoking to any one who does not know how to remedy the evil. In order to repair it, the only thing to be done is to call in the aid of the same agency that caused it to warp, namely, heat. 606. Apply heat to one side of a piece of board, and its edges will turn towards the source of heat ; if, therefore, the convex side of the board be held to the fire, it will return to its original shape or nearly so. Should it have warped very much, the concave side should be dam^ 28o Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. There would then be two agencies at work : the damp would cause the fibres on one side of the wood to expand, and the How to remedy warping. heat would cause the side that is turned towards it to contract. If a piece of wood has become warped by lying exposed to the sun's rays, it will in nine cases out of ten return to its original shape, after the other side has been exposed to the sun in its turn. When it is of importance that a piece of wood should not be affected in this manner, but retain its original shape, we must adopt some means of preventing it from warping. This at first would seem to be easier said than done, but when we come to observe that the wood always warps in the direction of the grain or fibre the difficulty vanishes, for another piece being glued or otherwise fastened to it so that the grains are in contrary directions, it is obvious that each piece will keep its neighbour in order. 607. An example of the simplest way of preventing a piece of wood from warping is shown in the annexed illustrations, which represent in tion P^^" (^S- 3C0) and section (fig. 301) a drawing-board of the of warping, cheapest and commonest form. ABGH is a piece of wood, the grain of which runs in the direction of its sides or in the direction of the line A B. If this piece of wood were ex- How to make . , . , i j • ^ j 4.1 „ adiawing- posed to heat the sides ab, G H, would rise towards the ^°^^^' source of heat, bringing the ends AH, BG, into a curvi- linear form. No amount of heat would cause the edges A H and E G to rise and bring the edges A B, H G, into a curvilinear form, fl To prevent such a board from warp- ing, all that is necessary is to take two slips of wood whose grain runs in the direction of their length, from C to E and from D to F, and to screw them down to one side or the other "b of the board close to or at a short Fig. 300. PLAN OF DRAWING-BOARD, dlstattce from the edges A H, B 0, as ^ ^^ 3 shown in the illustration. Now, if a i^-^!^ »__- board thus treated be exposed to the Fig. 301. SECTION ok dkawing-coard. gun's rays or to the heat of a fire, it will be found, as said above, that " each piece will keep its neighbour in order." The tendency of the board A B G H to warp will be counter- acted by the counter pressure of the slips C E, D F, which will prevent the edges A H, B G, and consequently the whole extent of the board between them, being drawn into a curvilinear form, while the screws along the edges of the slips will keep them in their place, although Clamping Ends of Board. 281 ll' -'=i_^-=^ ^ > n --' H A L £ i Fig. 302. BOARD TO Bli CLAMPED. Fig. 303. CLAMP. they are, in fact, too narrow to warp, for it will be noticed that the wider a board is the more readily it will warp under the action of heat. 608. The method just described, although it is an efficient method of preventing a board, or any number of boards fitted together edge to edge in the direction of the grain, from warping, it is not clamping . , , ■ -111. ends of board. one which can be adopted m every case, especially when it is desirable to have the surface on each side perfectly level from end to end, as in the case of a drawing-board of the better kind, or in the top of a square deal table. So m n c u in such a case as this the plan must be adopted which is shown in figs. 302 and 303, which is technically called "clamping." In this case the board A B C D, whose edges are to be clamped, is tenoned on either side, as shown along the double lines from B to C, and at E and F. The grain of the piece of wood A B c D runs from end to end, or from A to B in the direction of the tenons. Two pieces of wood having the grain in the contrary direction are then grooved from G to H and mortised at K and L ; and when ready these pieces are fitted on to the tenoned ends of the board which have been previously glued, the tenons E and F entering into their re- spective mortises K, L, and the long slip B C into the groove G H. The end A D M N shows one of these clamps in position after being fitted on the tenons, which are shown by the dotted lines. It is manifest that the connection of pieces of wood whose grain is in opposite direc- tions in this manner is as effectual to prevent warping as the method previously described. 609. This warping tendency is not confined to flat pieces of wood, but rings cut out of a solid piece of wood, and exposed either warpmg of t 1 • 1 J 1 rings of wood. to sun or damp, will very soon lose their shape and get quite elliptical. The method of preventing this will be described further on. 610. It is often necessary to make curved work in wood, as may be exemplified in the rounded or elliptic front of a chest of drawers ; a rounded corner in projecting wood-work in a passage or curved work lobby where a right-angled projection might be somewhat "^wood. dangerous or in the way ; the rounded door of a corner cupboard often ill the exact form of a quadrant or quarter of a circle ; and in the flanges of patterns for castings. 282 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. Fig. 304. CURVED rail. 611. Wood of any kind may be steamed and bent into shape, and this is the method generally adopted for all curved -work in carpentry and joinerv, and for bent wood furniture ; for when the steaming j ^ j .... and bending wood has been steamed, bent mto the desired position, wood. and allowed to dry in this form, it will e.xhibit no tend- ency to return to its former shape. When a framing is required of which the curvature is but slight, the rails may be sawn out of a sohd piece of wood, and the rails thus made and the connecting uprights then fitted together. 612. Thus, in fig. 304, if a curved rail were required an inch in thick- ness and 3in. in width, the extent of curvature from the centre of the Making face to the centre of the Straight ^ e ^curved rail, jjj^g joining its extremities, shown in the figure by the dotted line A B, not being more than 3in., it is evident that such a cur\'ed rail may be got out of a piece of wood 3in. square, and of a length a little more than that of the straight line C D, from end to end of the inner arc of the rail. For working the outer and inner surfaces of such a piece of wood as this, it is desirable to Adjustable , a j Circular have the Ad- Plane. • , 1,1 ,"■ justable Cir- cular Plane supplied by Messrs. Churchill and Co., shown in fig. 305. Both ends of this plane can be adjusted at the same time by means of the screw- handle. It can be used for either straight, concave, or convex work down to I3in. in diameter. It is furnished with another screw for adjusting the iron, and is neatly made, and strong and simple in every respect. Its price, with a i^^^in. cutter, is i6s. 6d. 613. All rounded work for framing is done very much in the manner described, and the panel is cut in thin wood, exposed to steam — a good jet from a boiling kettle will often prove sufficient when Rounded •' ° r t-i work for the wood is thin — and then secured in the frame. The framing. .,1,1 -i. j moulding must be treated in a way that will be described presently. For work that is permanently fixed, such as the rounded Fig. 305. ADJUSTABLE CIRCULAR PLANE. Rounded Corner of Passage, etc. 283 Fig ROUNDED CORNEK. comer of a passage, another method is adopted, which is shown in general principle in fig. 306. In this figure the corner ^^^^^^^^^ is supposed to be in the form of a quarter of a circle, the ^^°^^^ll{^_ shape which for obvious reasons such a corner would most frequently take. A plan is marked out, and boards of the height re- quired are taken and fitted together lengthwise by a groove and slip-feather, the edges being bevelled, as shown in the figure at A, B, c, D, and E, so that the section of each board is in the form of a four-sided figure whose two sides are in- clined to the longer and exterior face at an angle of 78° 45', and whose inner and outer faces are parallel to each other. If more than four boards are employed, as shown in the illustration, the angle will be greater than 78° 45', and if less than four boards are employed, the angle will be less. It is found thus: first find the angle A F B (or any of the four angles at f) which is 22" 30', being the fourth part of a right angle or 90^. Then, as the three interior angles of every triangle are together equal to two right angles or 180°, the angles fab, fba, must be together equal to i8o°— 22°3o', or 157° 30', and as these are equal angles, each will be an angle of 157° 30' divided by 2 or 78° 45'. If there were three boards, fab would be equal to 30", or the third of a right angle ; and the angles FAB, FBA, would each be equal to 150'' divided by 2 or 75°, and so on for other numbers of boards. When the boards have been glued up and allowed to dry, all that remains to be done is to reduce the angles at C, H, K, L, M, with a plane— a trying-plane is best for the purpose, but a jack-plane will do— until a perfectly circular surface is produced. The inside is left just as it is shown in the illustration. 614. When amateurs have occasion to make any curved work, although th-ey generally take a great deal of trouble about curved work . , - . r-1 111 in thin wood. it, they seldom make a neat job of it. Should the piece to be curved be thin, such as, for instance, the flange of a pattern, one of the two following methods will be found to answer. 615. Cut out a piece of wood of such a length that will, when curved, occupy the required space. Plane it down to the proper shape and size, and then with a tenon-saw make some saw-cuts all Description , , , , , ,r of procesB. on one side of the wood, and rather more than half-way through it. Suppose, for example, that A in fig. 307 shows the side of a 284 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. thin and somewhat narrow piece of board along which saw-cuts a, b, ^in., 3s. per dozen. 641. The Archimedean drill-stock, which is represented in fig. 328, consists of a stock like the broad boss of a brace, into which a drill Fig. 328. ARCHIMEDEAN DRILL-STOCK. Archimedean is inserted ^in. from the How to make Cncl, screw-press. . a notch lin. long and >^in. deep, into which fit cross-pieces of wood about 4in. or 5in. long, forming tw o frames, as shown in fig. 337 at A and B. Next Fig. 337. scREW-PEE.ss. procure two strips of hard wood aft. long or more, and at least lin. thick, and exactly as wide as the space between the strips that form the uprights. A joiner's clamp must then be bought which will flirnish the screw and nut, which Designs for Fret-sawing. 303 latter will be merely one of the jaws of the clamp. Bore a hole through one of the long strips, exactly in the centre, a trifle larger than the diameter of the screw, and fasten the jaw of the clamp directly under it. Then by slipping the frames over the ends of the long strips the press will stand as shown in fig. 337. A few square wooden blocks and a couple of square pieces of plank will be found convenient to use with it. It will be readily seen that, as the various parts of which this press is composed are movable, it is equally well adapted for large or small articles which are to be glued. A 6in. strip fastened transversely at the bottom of each standard will serve as a foot to keep it upright and steady. Of course the proportions stated can be varied to suit the taste and the requirements of the amateur. 660. The amateur will find no difficulty in obtaining patterns or designs for this work, but it may be as well to point out Designs for here that the best and most suitable that he can pro- ^e*-sawing. cure for any and every purpose are Williams's " Ornamental Designs,"* a new and valuable series of books, containing mechanical -^mig^mg. designs of full size for immediate use, which are suppHed Ornamental ° J iri- Designs. by Messrs. Churchill and Co. 661. The design to be worked in wood should be traced from the original by the following process. Lay the design to be . copied flat and smooth upon a table or wide board and design from "^ original, cover it with a piece of tissue paper or very thin tracing ' The following are the designs included in each book and its price, which varies according to the number of designs that are contained in it : — Part I, price 3s., contains designs of picture-frames, small brackets, wall-pockets, book-racks, fancy letters, and figures. All designs in this and other parts are of full size. Part 2, price 4s.. is devoted exclusively to brackets of medium to large size. Over one hundred patterns of brackets are figured in this book. Part 3, price 4s. , is devoted to fancy work, baskets, ladies' workboxes, easels, pen-racks, watch-holders, watch-pockets, match-boxes, paper-cutters, calendar- frames, thermometer-stands, fruit-baskets, table-platters, etc. Nearly one hundred designs. Part 4, price 2s., contains many patterns of various articles entirely new and of special elegance. Part 5, price 2s. 6d., contains over one hundred designs of silhouettes and fancy scroll sawing and inlaid work, containing patterns of animals, birds, children, horses, dogs, crosses, scenes of poetry and sentiment, women, soldiers, deer, flowers, mot- toes and fancy ornaments, all ready to saw out, and most beautiful for inlaid work. Part 6, price is. 3d., contains twenty-nine patterns of picture-frames, ea-'os, visiting card-case, bracket, doll's carriage, mirror-frame, fancy match-box, p^j. Part 7, price 2s. 6d., contains sixty-two patterns of easels, work-ba'-kets, wall- pockets, motto "Welcome," photograph-frames, wheelbarrows, crosy.s, match-box glove-box, savings' bank, standard match-safe, etc. Many of the designs given m this and the other parts can be handsomely carved. J04 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. paper, fastening both down to the board with some drawing-pins. Let Multiplication it be free from wrinkles. Trace the pattern through with a of copies. ^QQ^ igad pencil. If desirable a sheet of prepared carbon or impression paper placed between pieces of tissue paper may be also laid beneath the design, thereby producing two or more copies. 662. The tissue tracing paper can be easily fixed upon the wood if a little care and patience are exercised. Let the paste —made of wheat Fixing design Aour — be rather thicker than usual, and brush it over the on wood. gpj.jjg surface of the wood. It is difficult to describe in print how thick the paste should be, but it must be just wet enough to barely moisten the paper. The paste must be applied to the wood only, as the least stroke of the brush upon the thin paper would spoil it. The design being correctly drawn, apply one edge of the tissue paper to the pasted surface, carefully sweeping it on with a gentle motion of the hand, avoiding all wrinkles. When drying, the paper will shrink a little, which will render it quite smooth. Thi.s plan of attaching the paper to the wood is both easy and convenient, as the paper can subsequently be removed with great facility by damping it with a moist sponge, and a few rubs with sand-paper entirely obliterates all traces of the paste. On no account should the design be traced directly upon the wood, as the least deviation of a line would disfigure light woods, and on dark woods the impression could hardly be seen. 663. In simple fret-work sawing the modus ope7-andi is easily under- stood. The piece of wood, prepared with the design that is to be cut Method of °"^ ^""^ pasted on its surface, must be pierced in every ^m^°e'fret- P^^' '^^'^'^ '^ ^° ^^ ^^^ away with a hole sufficiently large work sawing, to admit the saw. It must then be laid on the cutting- board, if a frame-saw be used, and on the platform, if a fret-cutting treadle machine be used, and every opening or interstice carefully cut out with the saw, taking care to keep as closely as possible in the lines of the design, so that as little filing and trimming as possiblemay be necessary. 664. The various pieces of which the work is composed Putting tho . work must now be joined together, and this must be done by together. J o > 3 the aid of fine tacks and good glue. 665. The easiest and best way to melt glue is to break it into pieces sufficiently small, put them into an earthenware vessel, just cover How to make them with warm water, and set them aside until the glue good glue, jg thoroughly soaked and forms a stiff jelly. Then pour ofl all the surplus water, put the jelly into a double glue-pot, and place it on a stoveor by the side of the fire to melt. The outside receptacle Saxd-pafering and Finishing Fret-work. 305 of the glue-pot must be filled with hot water, for it is very easy to spoil the glue by roasting it. It should only be melted at a temperature not higher than boiling water, and not in any excess of supply at one time, as frequent melting diminishes its strength. When applied to any work it should be quite hot, and of such a consistency that it will just drop from the brush. The pieces to be joined should be warmed, so that the glue may not chill suddenly, and only a thin coat of glue should be applied. If the shape of the work will allow, it must be immediately fastened in the press, which has been described, confined with clamps or tied around with string, and left until the glue is perfectly dry. Instead of using brads wherever the thickness of the wood will allow it, small holes should be drilled not quite through the wood, and wooden pegs of the same colour driven in carefully, which will afford an additional hold. 666. A few words may be necessary on sand-papering fret-work, which should be done immediately after the removal of sandpapering the paper from the wood, and before the various pieces of which the article is composed are glued together. 667. Sand-paper should be very carefully applied with a very light pressure, lest it wear away the surface unequally. A convenient holder for sand-paper can be made with two oblong Holder for pieces of hard wood }i'm. thick, and of any convenient ^^^ -paper, size. In the piece of wood intended for the bottom, fix a i^^in. screw exactly in the middle, sinking the head a little below the surface. At each end of the other piece fasten three small steel pins, with points, filed sharp, and let them protrude about 3-i6ths of an inch ; bore a hole in the centre the size of the screw. Place the top piece over the lower one, fitting a small wooden knob to the screw, which will serve to keep the two pieces from coming asunder while in use, and also for a handle to hold them by. A piece of sand-paper can be placed upon the bottom piece just long enough to lap over and be held by the sharp points. The bottom piece should be curved upwards slightly towards each end, so that a sharp edge may not injure any part of the work. 668. The work must be finished by polishing, oiling, or varnishing. All work which is to be oiled, polished, or varnished must first be rubbed as smooth as possible with very fine sand-paper, punishing otherwise every little imperfection in the grain of the touches. wood will exhibit itself to critical eyes. When the work is too delicate to bear any strain or pressure, it is best to partly polish the weed before cutting out the design, and give it a finish subsequently. The polished surface must present an even appearance, as nothing . 20 3o6 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. looks so unworkmanlike as blotches and streaks, and when there are any such they must be well rubbed down with an oiled cloth. Only enough oil is needed throughout the operation to cause the rubber to glide along easily without adhering to the surface, which would pro- duce unsightly daubs. 669. Polishing is easy work after a little practice and attenti\e Poiishine notice of the effect. French polish is made in the follow- wood. ing rnanner : — Recipe. — Take 2oz. picked shell lac, loz. gum arabic, loz. gum copal, and iX pints of spirits of wine. Dissolve the gums thoroughly „ , in the spirits, and strain all through a bit of fine muslin. How to *^ ' *= make French It should be about the consistency of treacle in hot polisli. weather ; if necessary it can be made thinner by the addition of some more spirits. If the gums are pure and good this will give a light-coloured polish. If a darker colour is desired, sub- stitute loz. of gum benzoin for the gum arabic and copal, and use only I pint of spirits of wine. If it is required to further colour the polishes it may be done by adding to the mixture a little dragon's blood. 670. French polishing is done with a pad of cotton-wool or with a rubber consisting of a few folds of cloth. The cloth is moistened with How to apply the polish, and a thin piece of linen rag placed over it, ^ ^° ^^ ■ on which are poured a few drops of linseed oil, and the whole is applied evenly on the surface of the work with a circular motion. This polish dries quickly, and when dried out more of it must be applied to the rubber as before. Porous wood will take up a great deal of it, and if economy is any object, a thin coat of size may be put on to fill the pores previous to French polishing. Two or more applications of the polish, thinly applied, will show more finely than one thick coat. 671. The artisan will find it expedient to use judgment in the finish of his work, and not use pohsh,oil, or varnish indiscriminately. Some Judgment work looks better with the plain wood, while a true idea '^^finisWng^° <^^ ^^^ would dictate further manipulation only when some work. more beautiful eft'ect can be produced, exhibiting more clearly the grain or the colour of the material. Raw linseed oil may be frequently used to good purpose. It should be applied in limited quantity, so that the surface shall not present a greasy appearance. The pores of the wood having become filled, scarcely any further application is necessary. A mere shiny appearance should be strictly shunned in every case. French polishing cannot be well performed The Improved Rogers Fret-saw. 307 with a brush, as the process depends altogether upon patient and con- tinued rubbing. 672. The fret-saw attachment formerly supplied with the Eureka lathe has already been noticed, and it now only remains to speak here of the Improved Rogers Fret-saw, which is one of the ^j^^ Rogers best cheap machines in the market, and one with which Fret-saw. the amateur would do well to provide himself, as he could not make one at less than the price asked for it, which is only 17s. 6d,, or 203. with nickel-plated table and emery wheel. 673. If the reader has carefully perused the description that has been given of a home-made fret-saw treadle machine, he will readily recognise the various parts shown description in Fio^ "^^S ot naachine. and their uses. The ma- chine is provided with a drilling attachment and iron table, adjustable for inlaying. All the working parts are of iron and steel, and its weight, with bo.x, is not more than 4olbs. It should be said that the iron and steel parts are polished or japanned, and the woodwork that enters into its construction is painted a dark colour. The height of the table above the floor is 32in. The larger belt-wheel is I2in. in diameter, and the smaller balance-wheel 5in. in diameter. The arms, which are i8in. in the clear, are furnished with the latest improved FIG. 33S. THE iMPROVF.n ROGERS FRET-SAW. damps for holding- the saw. The driving belts, extra drills, and a wrench are supplied with each machine. The weight of fret-saw complete is 2 5lbs. 674. Fret-sawing, as the reader will have observed, and as we have 3oS Ornamental Carpentry and Joinjlry. already taken occasion to remark, is a " study of outlines " — the diver- „ ^ . sification of a flat surface with perforations, the whole Fret-sawnng ^ ' a study of being bounded by a certain outline, but flat and without outliues, . ' ' relief, exhibiting a perfectly level surface throughout. For relief in the ornamentation of the surface in any material such as wood and stone, but more especially wood, we must resort to carving, success in which can only be attained by the aid of sharp tools, natural tact, a steady hand, and patient love for the art. 675. Indeed, " patient love for the art " is the only price that can be paid for success — the only coin, so to speak, by which it can be Success must purchased. There is no speedier way to achieve it. Every ■with^pa- little chip must be cut for a purpose, either to mar or to tience. beautify the work, and he who is unwilling to tax his time and patience over each tiny line of depression had best avoid carving. Capacity itself cannot be purchased ; it is a result of industry, energy, and will. 676. The tools have already been described, and an endeavour must now be made to tell the reader how best to use them ; but, as it has „ ^ been said with respect to the tools used in ordinary car- How to ^ _ learn to use pentry and joinery, a little showing is worth any amount of telling, and an hour spent in watching a carver at work will do more towards helping a would-be carver to a proper notion ot how to handle his tools than any number of pages of careful and elaborate description. 677. Let us suppose that the object in view is a carved letter-rack, for which a suitable design is given in fig. 339. The rack consists of Cai-ved ^^'^ pieces— the back, solid in the centre, and surrounded letter-rack, y.^^]^ ^ frame and scroll work of leaves, and four pieces perforated, as shown in the design, and fixed to the back one above another at a very small angle. Such an article would look well carved in white holly wood, with the background within the frame formed of a piece of black walnut wood let into the white frame, or the white wood depressed TviVn'n the cross bars that compose the framing, and covered with a piece of ruby, green, blue, or black velvet. The pieces in front of the rack and fastened to it for the purpose of holding cards, letters, etc., are also made of white holly, if this be the material used for the back of the rack. 678. Now it is manifest that the first thing to be done is to make Preliminary ^ tracing of the design and fasten it with paste to the proceedings, pieces of wood that have been selected, and next to cut out the outline and perforations in each piece with the saw. The appear- Carved Letter-rack. 309 ance presented by the pieces of wood will then be that exhibited in the lower part of the illustration, which presents an appearance of solidity and substance that is common to fret-work pure and simple without any extra embellishment by aid of the carving tools. The reason of this is, that the whole of the flat upper surface meets the eye, but as soon as the edges of the various parts are taken off and the leaves are fiG. 339. CARVED LETTER-RACK. chiselled out and sloped from the veining in the centre to the eog^, as shown in the upper part of the illustration, roundness is given to the various parts, the harsh squareness of the outline is removed, and some parts are brought into light, and other parts thrown into shadow, giving an agreeable relief to the surface which before was to a certain extent monotonous. FjG. 340. LON'GITUDINAL SECTION OF LEAF. 510 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. 679. Assuming, then, that the requisite attention has been paid to iharp edges, and that the rough outUnes of the design here given have been cut out carefully with the saw, let us see how the Application of carving carving tools may be applied so as to brmg out the best tools, effect. And, first, let us study the leaves. At the extreme points they have a slight curvature upwards, which, however, is not any higher than the thicker portion, or that which is The leaves. / o ^ > apparently the thicker portion. This, perhaps, may be more intelligible on an inspection of fig. 340, in which A B C D represents the section of a leaf through ^ -T^--^— -— ^ — B . the middle vein or rib. Now ^|>----=.iL^^;^^-^-^-''''''7n_r7r~~"~~^^ „ --'| it v--ill be obvious that the greatest reduction of surface exists between the points E and F and the points F, G, and D. The solid line egd represents the course of the middle vein from the stem G D, this being the line of greatest depression in the middle 1 ^ of the leaf. From this the surface of the leaf rises, as shown in fig. Fig. 341. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF LEAF. ., ^ ,, j ,.. j ^^ 341, until F, represented by a dotted line in fig. 340, is reached when the surface falls until the greatest depression is reached at H, whence it rises slightly to the edge of the Depressions ^^^^ ^- Wherever a depression exists in a leaf we must in leaves, begin by hollowing it out with the chisel, but only very gradually, for we must bear in mind that the surface of the leaf again slopes down from the edges, and it is far easier to cut away too little material, for more can always be taken away, while it is impossible to add any when more than is necessary has been scooped out. Expert carvers would use a gouge with a somewha^t flat edge for such work, but less practised hands would find the skew-chisel a more convenient tool. The cutting should be done both ways from E and F towards H, the centre of the depression, following the grain of the wood as much as possible. With such work it is not necessary to observe a mathe- matical exactness in the outline ; a little irregularity adds to the effect and prevents stiffness of appearance. This irregularity will be more requisite in carving such a design as that represented in fig. 340, because, while the outer edges of the leaves are somewhat rounded, the edges which join the frame will be almost angular, in order to throw them more into relief. 680. The veining-tool must be used for marking the ribs, the larger one being made by cutting a double line from the stem, and then Management of Work in Carving. 3ii gradually merging the two lines into one as you work towards the end, and then the lateral or side ribs are to be formed of j^i^a marked a smgle line joining the centre or mid-rib. An attempt ^^^^^^^S- has been made to show this in fig, 342, in which a leaf, as shown in fig. 340, is represented on a large scale. These veins or ribs should not be cut deep, but distinct enough to show a clear, sharp line. The surface of the leaf can be neatly smoothed with the mez- zotint scraper — a tool which resembles a double-edged eraser — used in scratching out ink marks on paper, and which will be found more convenient for this purpose than sand-paper. The stems should be rounded but left rough, in order to preserve natural appearance, and the frame should be worked up in Treatment of stem.s. Fig. 342. LEAF ON LARGE SCALE. 107 of centre. Sand-papei the same way ; but as it is intended to be rustic, a series of fine lines should be cut upon its surface, as in fig. 343, in order to give it more Manipuiat roughness. The centre, if it be not covered with velvet, should be worked with cross hatching to match the rustic sides. Sand paper should not be used at all for such work as this, and for the few occasions on which it may be absolutely necessary to use it, the carver will find it very convenient to cut out slips of rough wood, somewhat in the shape of files, to which strips of sand-paper may be glued. A clear clean cut with the tools will, in general, be quite sufficient. Whenever practicable, the work to be carved should be fastened firmly to a table, for both hands Fastening will be needed in using the tools. To accomplish this down work, clamps of various sorts are used where the shape of the work will admit. A simple method of fastening down work to the surface of a table or cutting-board d^& ci E^ca- is shown in fig. 344, in which A is the table \ in section, B the work to be carved, and C a flat bar of wood, having holes at each end through which round-headed bolts D and E are passed. These bolts go through holes in the table corresponding with holes in Fig. 344. CLAMP FOR FASTENING DOWN WOKK. 2,12 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. the bar, and the bar is brought down tightly on the wood so as to hold it securely by screwing up the nuts F, G. It is an essential point to have the work immovable, except at the will of the carver. The tooV Guidance of when in use, should be guided by the fingers of the left cutting tool, iiand while it is pressed forward by the palm of the right hand, which should rest on the top of the tool handle. Thus steadiness will be given to the tool, and if the steel is good and the edge sharp, the cut will exhibit a corresponding smoothness. 68i. Carving is a slow process, though so beautiful in its results. The rules are few, and the art difficult to explain ; practice illustrating it vastly better than precept. But however true this is, General direc- . . . - , tions for some plain and general directions may be given for the guidance of the amateur carver, leaving it to his judgment and intelligence to make such variations and applications as mechani- cal tact may indicate as being necessary. 682. First with regard to outline, or contour. This should always be devoid of stiffness, and a graceful, natural appearance preserved. „ ... Intersections of stems should be neatly worked out, by cut- Outline, or j i j contour. \vc\^ away a portion of the wood on each side of the under stem where the upper one crosses it. The depression must not be too abrupt, lest it seem like a dent made purposely, but the line of slope should be begun far enough back from the point of junction to allow a harmonious blending, and show a distinction between each stem. 683. With regard to the direction of the cutting, or, in other words, the direction given to the tool, this should be invariably down and not Direction of ^ip — away from and not towards the higher surfaces, cutting. .pj^jg ^^.^ i^g governed by the grain of the wood. The material, as it has been said, is always strongest in the direction of the fibre, and wherever a good strong purchase can be maintained it is best to render it available. Care should be taken not to splinter the surface. No more force must be used than is just sufficient to separate the chip without detaching any adjacent fibre ; in other words. the work is to be done altogether by cutting, and never by rending. 684. The carver must have complete command of his tools. Me will sometimes find it expedient to use his chisel with the bevelled end Carver must upwards, which will cut away only a thin shaving as tb.e mand°of' direction of the edge is thus changed and it is not able tools. ^^ enter the wood to so great a depth, and the chip is rather like a fine shaving made by a plane. By this simple plan a great deal of carved work can be wrought more easily with a chisel than with a jrouge. Carving Tools, and their Prices. 313 685. The mezzotint scraper, of which mention has been already made, and the shape of the head or scraping part of which is shown in fig. 345, will be found useful in accord- ance with its name for making Mezzotint _ smooth such surfaces as re- ^"aper. Fig. 345. MEZZOTINT SCKAPER. quire its action, its shape adapting it to a variety of modes of applying it. It is not in the cjuantity of tools that true skill consists. A clever workman will often do better work with one simple tool than others will with twenty. 686. Carving tools, because of their shape and the necessity of having them well tempered, are more expensive than similar tools ot their class ; or perhaps it should be said, that it is better „ . ^ , > t^ ^ ' Carving tools, for the amateur carver to buy good carving tools, and but and their •' ° o 7 prices. a few of them, and give a good price for them, than to provide himself with a great many at a cheap rate. Such tools may be had at all prices, but it is always more economical in this case, as in many others, to buy the best, as these will prove the cheapest in the end. The following are the average prices of good and reliable car- ving-tools, and they may be purchased at these rates of most dealers in this class of goods : s. d. One dozen Files in leather case, assorted i 6 Carving Chisels, Gouges, etc., of all kinds, from 6d. eacli to i 6 Best Stone Slips for sharpening carving tools, from is. to i 6 Chequering Punches, Star Punches, etc., each o 6 Small Table Cramps for securing work to table, each from i 6 Small brass Hinges, with screws, for folding brackets, etc., per pair o 2 Wood Varnish, per bottle IS., or twice the quantity in stone bottle 2 o Japanned Tin Case for pocket, containing six Carving Tools, Oil-stone Riffler, Star and Chequering Punch 14 o Casec ontaining Saw-frame, Brace and Bit, si.x dozen Saws in Leather Case, one dozen Files assorted, one dozen Gouges and Chisels for solid carving. Bottle of Vamibh, Star Punch, Chequering Punch, Oilstone and Spring-vice 60 o Mezzotint Scrapers, each o 6 Riflflers, each about i 6 687. No mention has been made of the star and chequering punches and the riffler, and the purposes to which these tools are put may need some little explanation. The riffler is in point of fact star and a variation of the file, each end being bent and ridged as p^^c'he^s^and in fig. 346. The end of the tool being curved can be in- ^^ ^'' troduced into comers and crevices into which the ordinary file cannot penetrate. The punches are intended for imparting a rough appearance to the ground-work on which is a raised pat- '^ Fig. 546. RIFFLER. tern of diaper or other work, the interstices between the pattern having been cut away, leaving the pattern in relief on the ground that is thus worked with the punch. 314 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. 688. A few more remarks on the general mode of procedure to be adopted in cutting out work, and bevelling edges, and putting work together, will bring our necessarily brief notice of fret- General O ' J J • 1 mode of pro- sawing and wood-carvmg to an end ; and with some C6(lUT6. observations on inlaying and overlaying as branches of fret-sawing, and on cui'ving solid objects in wood, we must bring to an end our remarks on the theory and practice of Ornamental Car- pentry and Joineiy. 689. The method of holding and managing the hand saw-frame, and where to begin in cutting out a design in fret-sawing, first require Holding and Our attention. The hand saw-frame requires all the steadi- TnSw"^* ness obtainable. The tail of the frame should rest along frame, ^j^g fore-arm, and against the shoulder if the frame be a long one, or under the shoulder if it be short. This will prevent the frame from swinging round and bending the saw-blade, and so causing It to cut crooked. The saw will actually dip or describe the arc of a circle as it passes through the wood, and this dip is reduced to the minimum by making short strokes instead of long ones. Thus will plainly appear the great superiority of treadle machines, which possess this steadiness in a greater degree, being fixed at those points where the support of the workman's arm and shoulder would be otherwise necessary, leaving both hands free to guide the work. 690. Saw-gates, or holes for the entrance of the saw, should in all cases be bored as near to an angJe as possible. All the interior should be cut first, if possible, so that the surplus wood, round the Saw-gates, or , 1 r ..• entrances outside, may serve as long as may be for a contmuous or saw. g^ppQj.j. ^Q ^Yie frailer portions. In cutting a circular or oval frame, for example, surrounded with scroll-work, it is generally best to begin at the top of the design, boring the saw- Interior of , • • 1 j • • r ^.u work to be cut gate near an angle, and cuttmg in the direction ot tne line until the angle is reached at the junction of the two curves. Now run the saw back a little more than its breadth, turn it half-way round, and run it close down to the angle again. A very slight twist of the saw will now cause its cutting edge ^^Tf^saw'^S'' to catch upon the wood fibre as a cut is commenced upon cutting. ^j^Qjj^g^ iij^g_ Having reached the points at the top of the line, a slight sudden twist of the saw will cause its teeth to catch and follow yet another line. Backing the saw would be useless in such a case, as the angle is not acute enough to allow it to turn round. 691. In looking carefully at the wood when a design has been placed on it, it will be noticed that some of the lines run according to Cutting Design and Fitting Parts Together. 315 the grain of the wood. Such parts gain all the advantage of support from the grain at every point where the fibre of the wood Grain of , , J • .• wood. IS not severed or cut away, and wood is many tmiCb stronger on the line of its fibre than in any other direction. It will be further noticed that other lines of the work run across the grain, espe- cially the little projections or horns on the outside edge of the frame. These being the weaker points, all the adjacent support which they depend upon for most of their strength must not be removed too soon. If the weaker portions are cut away first, whenever practicable, the support will be decreased gradually, and the danger of ^^^^ ^^^^^^ breaking will be diminished. The outer edge of the design ^^^'^^^^ obtains an abundant support from the waste wood of the margin which, at the same time, contributes somewhat to the strength of the interior portions, therefore this waste wood should be cut away the very last of all. 692. It must be remembered that the saw-blade is frail and easily snapped, and that the material should not be fed to it any faster than the teeth will cut. When the saw-blade is in action the Feeding mate- simple pressure of the fingers is all that is required for rial to saw. holding the work to the table, and moving every part of the line to be cut in due succession against the cutting edge of the saw. The eye should be fixed upon the point where the saw-blade is operating, and follow the line, so that there shall be no deviation, for the mazy outlines will distract and puzzle the vision that wanders all over the design. 693. Many a good fret-sawyer, who can cut out work in the best manner possible, tinds great difficulty in putting together the various 7 parts of which it is com- ; • 11 , Putting parta posed, especially when of article they slope at an angle to one another. It is frequently requisite to join portions of work together when the appearance of the joint is objec- tionable. To avoid this as much as possible a knowledge of the relation of angles to each other must be acquired. By the accompanying plan of a hexa- gonal basket, shown in fig. 347, it will be observed that if the sides were set up just as they are, they would meet each other only on the inside edge, while on the outside quite a Fig. 347. PLAN UF HEXAGONAL BASKET, 3i6 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. separation would appear ; therefore a proper angle must be made by Bevelling cr sloping the inside edges sufficiently to make a close fit, mitring, ^^d this process, which has been explained in section 461, is technically called bevelling, or mitring. 694. The method of determining the degrees of different angles is very simple. In the case of such a basket as that which is indicated in fig. 347, measure the distance between the outside edges Determining ^ , . , . , , , angles of from the pomt A to the pomt B, as shown on a larger scale in fig. 348, while the sides are held together in proper posi- tion. This will show the exact amount of bevelling the pieces will re- quire, but you must divide it equally between two sides of the basket, so that each may have an equal share. A small pair of compasses will be found convenient for determining the measurement, and then, calculating the exact half, mark it off from the inside edges of each piece, when the surplus material can be cut ofi with a saw or shaved down with a sharp chisel. Now this, although it will answer well enough for very thin pieces of wood, is not an exact method, for reasons which will be obvious at once to any one who understands geometry ; for from an inspec- ED^Es If Tm7B0AK%. tion of fig. 34^ it will be seen at once that A B, or half the distance between A and C, is less than the distance from D to F, at which the line marking the limit of the bevel or mitre should be . ^ marked on the inner surface. Let the pieces be put in the Method to be employed, position they are to occupy, as F D A, c D E, and trace the plan on paper with a fine-pointed pencil. Then divide the angle ADC into two equal parts, which is easily done by producing the lines indicating the outer surfaces of the boards in the direction A G and C G, and drawing a straight line D G through the point D, where the inner surfaces touch, and the point G, the point of intersection of the outer surfaces produced. Then, if lines be drawn through A and C, namely A F and C E, parallel to D G, these lines will indicate on the plan the extent to which the edges F D A, E D c, must be cut away in order that the sides n:ay be joined together closely and accurately ; or, what is the same thing, distances D F and D E, equal to A G or G C, may be measured from D along the inner surface of each board, thus indicating the extent of the bevel. 695. Inlaying is the art of cutting out pieces in one piece of wood, which may be termed the ground, and filling them up Inlaying, ^^.^j^ pieces of wood of a different colour, or with pieces of ivory, tortoise-shell, or metal When wood is used the work is called Marquetry, Buhl-work, and Overlayisc. i\j marquetry, and when metal, etc., is used it is termed buhl-work. Doth kinds of work are used in the ornamentation of furniture, I^ 3XQ u 6 trv desks, workboxes, cabinets, etc., and fall within the pro- and - , - , . , buhl-work, ^in. full in width, or even T^in., so as to allow for saw-cuts, and, by the aid of a straight-edge, draw lines along the length of the board from one end to the other through the points of division. Saw the board into strips with a fine nand-saw, and plane up the rough sides of the rectangular slips thus obtained. Cut the top with a paring-chisel into a pyramidal form, and sharpen the end of each stick. This should be done in the winter months, and the sticks painted and put away for use in the summer. In making flower-sticks always use board of TWckneas oi the thickness required for the width of the side of the square stick or the diameter of the round stick. Thus, if you want sticks I in. square or lin. in diameter use lin. board, and if you want to make i)4in. espaliers or stakes for fruit trees use i>^in. board, always dividing the wood in spaces equal to the thickness of the board. 709. For flowers that require more support than can be afforded by |. a single stick, a compound stick may compound , , , • n . • i flower-sticks, be made, as shown m ng. 353, consist- ing of two uprights, so to speak, connected by trans- verse bars. The sides should be closer at the bottom than at the top ; they should be formed of pieces of wood twice as wide as they are thick, and holes must be bored in them to receive the pointed ends of the bars. Compound sticks of this de- scription look better and lighter when made of wire. 710. Rails with pegs attached for hats, clothes, FiG- 333- ^^j^'" etc., are always wanted in a house ; and when the POUND FLOW LR- ' ^ STICK. tenant or owner thereof, as the case may be, can use his tools, any special want of this kind may be 33^.^,^553^ speedily provided for. Rails may be fixed to walls by ciothes-rai'is. means of nails or to woodwork by screws ; and they may be suspended by means of brass rings, somewhat stronger than those used for pictures. A rail should never be fixed across the How to fix inside of the door of a room, nor should nails be driven into the styles of any door, or hooks screwed on to them, for hanging clothes; for the weight of the clothes has a tendency to drag the door out of place, and prevent it from shutting closely against the stops as it should do. Let it be a fixed rule with every one never to fix rails, or drive nails into, cr screw hooks to, doors. Fig. 354. HOOKS, PEGS, ETC., FOR KAILS. 324 COXSTRUCTIONAL CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 711. A rail for the purposes above mentioned is simply a piece of wood from ;^in. to 3/111. thick, and from 3in. to 3;^ in. wide, and as Mode of loi^g as may be necessary. The face or front, sides and making rail, ^^^j^^ j^^^g^ |^g nicely planed up, and the arris, or sharp edge formed by the meeting of the front with the sides and ends, must be chamfered or taken off with the plane, as shown at A, fij. 354, or \j rounded witli a beading plane, as shown at r.. Both these figures are in section. At C is also shown the Wooden old-fashioned way of pegs. niaking the peg in wood, and fixing it to the rail by letting one end into a hole made by a stock-and-bit for its reception. Pegs of this description should be turned in a lathe, by which means the knob at the end and the shoulder which butts against the rail can be more easily formed. At D is shown the double nietal-hook for hat and coat. There are a great variety of these, single and double, made in iron, brass, and bronze, or metal coloured to imitate bronze. Brass hooks are often furnished with porcelain knobs, but the bronze hooks are iieater, cheaper, and more serviceable. The old-fashioned Iron hooks. Straight iron peg, bent at an angle to the heart-shaped pegs, etc. pi^te^ in which are holes for the passage of screws to fix it to the wood, is shown at E and F, the former representing the side view, and the latter the plate when viewed from the front. Japanned iron hooks of this kind may be bought at id. and 2d., according to size. At G is shown a useful kind of single hook for hanging clothes, costing about id. or i> ^ o Easy mode together, and this, if the curtains be closed as a regular oi drawing curtains. thing every evening, tends to damnge and soil them. By a very simple arrangement of cords and pulleys curtains may be drawn and withdrawn at pleasure. The cords by which this is eilected 336 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. will hang behind one of the curtains at one side of the window, after the manner of the cords of a Venetian blind. It will be understood that this arrangement can be carried out far more easily for curtains hanging from a straight cornice than from one of the kind shown in fig. 365. 735. We must now take brackets and shelves into consideration, and consider what they are, how they may be made, and how they Brackets and ^^^^ ^^ fixed. The shelf being generally of some length sbeives. jg mostly fixed to the wall, and constitutes what is termed a fixture. Brackets, which are short, small shelves, may also be fixed to the wall, but as they are not intended to carry or support any great weight they may be made and hung so as to be movable from place to place. 736. It has been said above that a bracket is a short, small shelf. Strictly speaking, however, the bracket is the piece of wood, or iron, or What a even stone, that is used to afford support to the shelf, which bracket is. j^ ^ piece of wood, or some other material, laid upon the bracket in a horizontal position. But because the ledge on which any article is to be placed cannot be supported or fixed to the wall without the bracket, the combination of ledge and bracket has now come ta be spoken of under the simple term bracket. In architec Corbels. ture brackets, or corbels, as they are sometimes called, are often taken advantage of to enrich the building to which they belong by ornamenting them with carving or sculptured work. 737. In considering any kind of constructional work — that is to say, work which consists of two or more pieces framed together, or other- ^ . . wise connected — it is always useful to examine the Principles of constiuotioa principles on which such work is made, and to trace of bracket. '^ ^ ' them to their simplest forms. Let us do this in the case of the bracket, taking the bracket, first of all, in its original acceptation as being a means of support for a superincumbent ledge. 738. The simplest form of bracket is manifestly a piece of iron bent in such a manner that the two arms of which it is formed are at right Simplest form angles to each other. When bent in this way, as shown rac e . j^^ ^^^ ^gg^ ^j^^ bracket is often called an angle iron, and used for affording support and strength to articles made of wood in which one piece is attached to, or supported on, another piece at right , , , angles to it. Brackets of this description, when the arms Angle iron. '^ '^ ' range in length from 4in. to 6in., are often used to support narrow shelves in greenhouses, shops, etc. For this purpose they are made in the simplest and roughest form of plain iron, pierced with Brackets of Different Kinds. )Z7 holes for screws, so that one arm, A B, may be screwed to the wood- work, whatever it may be, at the back, and the other arm. a c, to the ledge or shelf. A better kind of bracket of this rjanped , ... ,,. ., •• •! ••1 bracket, description is made of iron with a projecting rib on either side, as at x, so that the head of the screw sinks into the groove between the ribs ; these are either galvanised or japanned. Now this kind of bracket being made in so cohesive a material as iron will support a con- t_ siderable weight without giving way, but it is clear that the longer the arm p,^^ ^^g^ p,o_ gg,, y\g. 36S. A C is made the common ekacket. bracket with strut, ornamental bracket. less will be its sustaining power. This may be best explained by supposing two brackets of this form, in one of which the arm A c is 6in. long, and in the other I2in. long. If a 561b. weight were hung at the end of the projecting arm of each bracket, it would be found that the extent to which the longer arm would be bent downwards would be much greater in proportion than the deflection of the shorter arm. 739. This being the case, means must be devised to impart rigidity or inflexibility to the bracket, and this is accomplished by attaching an iron strut to the interior of the bracket, as shown by Bracket D E in fig. 367. This strut is strongly riveted to the arms ^ A B and AC. If a heavy weight be now suspended from the end C of the arm A C, there is no chance of the arm bending and giving way under the downward pressure, for a considerable part of the weight is transmitted down the strut D E in the direction of D E, and is received and resisted by the wall or wood-work at B, which presses outward, so to speak, against the weight to exactly the same extent as it is pressed against by the weight. A much heavier load may now be placed on A c than before the strut was attached to the bracket, for the wall now helps to support the weight, while before it was the arm A C alone that offered any resistance to the downward pressure. The next step in the formation of iron brackets or metal brackets of any kind is omamentai shown in fig. 368, in which the ornamental scroll-work D E answers the same purpose as the simple strut in fig. 367. In this kind of bracket the arms are made much wider than in the ordinary metal bracket, as shown at V, so that holes for screws may be made in the flanges that project on either side of the ornamental work. Simple iron brackets maybe bought from id. to 3d. or 4J. each, according 22 338 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. to size. Ornamental brackets range, according to size, from 3d. to is. Cast-iron or IS. 3d. Capital cast-iron brackets for greenhouses may torackets. ^^ bought for 5d. or 6d. a piece. Iron brackets are now sent to this country in great quantities from America. These are slighter and more elegant in appearance than the English brackets, and are japanned and finished with greater care. Brackets of this sort in every size and shape may be obtained of Mr. Melhuish. 740. Being now acquainted with the principles on which iron Wooden brackets are constructed so as to combine strength and rac e a, j-jgi^jity y,yii\i an ornamental appearance, we may proceed to see how far these principles enter into the construction of wooden brackets for the support of shelves, etc. 741. Looking back on fig. 366, we can see at once that it is utterly impossible to construct a wooden bracket in this manner. The wood Principles of ^^.cks the cohesion of the iron, or, in other words, the fibres construction, ^f ^j^g wood do not lie together so closely, and hang to- gether so tightly as the atoms or molecules of which the iron is com- posed. You can cut off a shaving of wood with a knife, but it takes far more trouble to detach a particle of iron from the mass of which it has formed a part, and to do this with a knife is not possible. If, how- ever, we look at fig. 367, we see at once that a wooden bracket can be made on this principle, though not precisely in the same manner, for it will be necessary to adapt the method of connecting the pieces of which the bracket is composed to the material that we are working with. The chief points at which we have to look are these ; namely, Proper union ^ow the separate pieces can of paits. i^ggj. ^g framed together, and how, when the bracket is made, it can be attached most securely to the wall. Now a man who knew little or nothing about carpentry would, in all probability, take a piece of wood, such as is shown from A to B in fig. 369, as an upright, and another piece, as from C to D, and a third piece with the ends cut on the bevel, as at E and F, and nail the three pieces together, putting one nail through the end D of C D, into the end A of A B, and two more through E and F, so as to nail E F to the pieces A b and CD. A very little consideration will serve to show that in such a piece of work as this there can be no strength whatever, and that to obtain a proper union of parts that shall give strength and security to the bracket, very different means must Fig. 369. WOODEN BRACKET. Method of Making Wooden Bracket. 339 be used. In the nrst place, a piece of wood longer than A B must be taken, such as is shown by G B. To this upright the horizontal piece C D must be connected by a tenon let into a mortise just half the width of the pieces B G, c D, which of course must be of the same width and thickness. Lastly, the ends E, F, of the strut E F must be cut, as shown in the figure, and let into notshes cut for their reception, one in the upright B G, and the other in the horizontal C D. These notches need not be more than %\n. deep in the deepest part. The best way to cut a strut is first to make the notches in the upright and -^^^ ^o horizontal, and then, having connected these two pieces °^' ^'^*- by the mortise and tenon joint made for this purpose, to lay them on the piece of wood intended for the strut, placed, of course, exactly in the position it is intended to occupy, and then mark off the angles at which the ends of the strut are to be cut, with a scribe or lead pencil. A wooden peg should be used to fasten the mortise and Fastening tenon joint, but the ends of the strut may be secured in mortise, their places by screws. A bracket thus made will be found strong enough to sustain any weight in reason. No attempt is made to give dimensions : as long as the principle involved in the construction of any article is made clear, it is all that is absolutely necessary. Each amateur who is making brackets on this plan can settle the dimensions according to his requirements, 742. The next thing to be considered is how such a bracket as the one just described is to be fixed. If it is to be fixed against woodwork, three or four screws of sufficient length, passed through f|j.jjj- g^^ . the upright B G — one at the top, another at the bottom, and bracket, one or two in the middle — will be sufficient ; but if it is to be fixed against a brick wall, the wall must be plugged by driving pieces of wood into the wall between the bricks in the most convenient positions, to afford holding for the nails which must be driven through B G, and which would not hold in the brickwork. 743. From the bracket whose construction has just been explained the transition is easy to the bracket of ordinary shape . - ,.,.,- Ordinary shown m ng. 370, which is the form most commonly used bracket for for the support of shelves, wherever a single shelf is required. The dotted line A B shows the direction in which a weight placed on the shelf just above A is transmitted through the bracket to the wall or support to which the bracket is fixed. The rounded part ADC serves no useful purpose whatever : as far as the strength of the bracket is concerned, it might as well be removed as not, but if it were cut off, the appearance of the bracket would not be so pleasing to the r^^ssfsj^^ 3;o Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. eye. Tlie part C E F, projecting beyond the part C B of the line A B, is both useful as well as ornamental, for a screw can be better inserted at 13, if the lower part of the bracket takes this shape, than if it had been triangular in form, ('/-^ j 'jS as indicated by the dotted line A C B. Still '^^ '• th« amateur must remember that it is only \ this triangular part A B G of the bracket that is instrumental in sup- Connectioii of bracket porting the shelf, and any weight that may and shelf. be placed upon it. Whether the bracket be used singly for the support of a short piece of wood, or with another for the support of a long shelf, it is bet- ter to connect it with the superincumbent shelf by mor- tises and tenons, as shown at G and H. When fixed to woodwork, the edge G B of the bracket and the edge of the shelf may be skew-nailed to the support behind ; when fixed to a brick wall, the Plugging ^^^^^ must be plugged to take the nails. If the shelf is in -walls, ^lot too large and heavy, small slips of metal may ' at- tached to the back of the shelf with a hole in the upper part, so that the metal may be screwed to the woodwork behind, as at L. 744. In making brackets for attachment to garden walls to hold pots, a broad piece of wood, say 4in. in width at least, should be fixed to the Brackets for ^^^^ ^^ *^^ bracket and shelf above it, and two holes garden walls, made in it by which it can be suspended on nails driven into the wall. There is no necessity for attaching the lower part of the bracket proper to the wall ; it will be held against the wall by the weight of the pot and the earth it contains, and serve to transmit the pressure of the weight above to the wall, which is its chief use. 745. The amateur will not expect anything to be said about making tlie ledges or shelves that are laid on the brackets. He will take care to cut his wood of the necessary length and breadth, and Ledges or shelves on to plane up the top surface and the edges of the board in front and at the ends. If the shelf is high and the under part is visible, that should also be planed. If it be found incon- \enient to connect shelf and supports by mortise and tenon, the shelf can be fastened down to the brackets by screws. 746. Ornamental brackets have been sufficiently treated in the chapter on fret-cutting and fret-sawing, and there will be no necessity Ornamental ^^^ speaking further on the Subject here. The principles brackets, involved in their construction are precisely the same, but to add to their appearance perforated work is generally added above How TO Prepare and Fix Shelf. 341 the shelf and below also ; and they are often constructed, by the aid of hinges, so as to fold together. This is useful for packing and con- venience of carriage. 747. The amateur may often find it desirable to fix a shelf in a recess or in the comer of a room or passage. We will give one cr two examples of the method of doing this, and then recess or proceed to explain the construction of a larger kind of shelf or bracket-table for a small hall or passage. 748. Suppose that A B C D E in fig. 37 1 represents the plan of a recess in a room on one side of a fire-place, ABC being the corner of the chimney breast. The first thing to be done is to determine How to the height of the shelf, for which 3ft. or a little more prepare and will be found convenient. Let us take the height of the top surface of the shelf to be 3ft. The shelf will be in all probability an inch thick, or very nearly so, when planed up, so that if its surface is to be 3ft. above floor level, marks must be made on the wall just 2ft. II in. above the surface of the t- fioor. The amateur will find that it is not always desirable to work Fig. 371. by the flooring, because this is not shelf in recess. always level ; so as soon as the marks have been made, a straight-edge must be applied to them, and the correctness, or otherwise, of the marks tested by means of a spirit-level. When the marks have been accu- rately adjusted by the aid of the level, ledges, as shown at F, G, and H, must be nailed to the wall. On these ledges the shelf may be dropped, and fastened down with screws or nails. Ledges for the support of shelves of this kind should be lin. thick and 2in. wide ; the outer edges of the ledges F and H should be sloped off towards the floor, from the topmost edge ; or, in other words, their corners should be cut off. Sometimes the ledges are made of two slips of wood, especially where very neat work is required ; in this case the inner piece is nailed to the wall, and the outer piece screwed on to it. The heads of the screws may then be concealed with putty, or a hole may be made into which the screw may be sunk flush with the bottom, the opening being filled up with a piece of turned wood in the form of a disc or button. 749. The shelf should be cut. to fit exactly into the recess, and scribed round so as to fit closely and accurately against the wall. Fig. 372 will show what is meant by this. In this figure let A B C D repre- 342 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. sent the recess. The wall at the back having been badly plastered is irregular in form, having such an outline as is shown by Cutting shelf to fit the line B E F G C. Let the shelf be a little deeper than is absolutely necessary, and when all is ready for fixing, push the shelf against the back of the recess, until the straight inner Operation of ^^^^ ^FC touches it where it will. Measure the breadth " scribing." of the space between the shelf and the wall, where it is widest — in this case from E to K — with a pair of iron compasses. If the means of doing so are attached to the compasses, set the legs that they may not shift their position, Fig. 372. SCRIBING SHELF. ^nd then, keeping the point of one leg against the wall along the line B E F G C, press the point of the other leg on the surface of the shelf. As the points of the compasses pre- serve their relative distance throughout, a line H K L M N, similar in every respect to B E F G c, is traced on the upper surface of the shelf, and when the corners B ii K and C N M, and the hollow K L M, have been cut away with keyhole-saw or chisel, it will be found that the shelf may be pushed home to the wall, and will fit tightly against it. 750. Returning to fig. 371, the shelf must be made wider than the recess, so that the outer edge, shown by the straight line K L, may pro- sheif wider J'^*''' ^^^ ^^"' ^"^ 1.^1^1. beyond the face of the chimney than recess, breast, and lap over the chimney breast A B, as shown at K. If preferred, the outer edge of the shelf may be kept level with the chimney breast, as shown by the straight line B M, and a piece of wood may then be screwed on to the edge, as shown by the space be- tween the straight lines B M, K L, deep enough to conceal the ends of the ledges. If the shelf be brought out, in the first place, to the line K L, the ledges may be concealed by a piece of neat moulding nailed or screwed to the lower surface of the shelf, or by a slip of wood let into a groove made to receive it in the under part of the shelf. 751. Brackets in the form of a quadrant or fourth part of a circle are out of place in a recess if used singly, but a pair of them may be Brackets in P^^^^*^ '^^ the Opposite corners of the same recess, or in recess. similar corners of two recesses — that is to say, in the corners nearest to, or farthest removed from, the chimney breast. Otherwise when used singly they can only be placed with propriety in the angle formed by two walls of a room. A bracket of this descrip- tion is very useful just outside the door of a bedroom, when the door is close to an angle of the passage without the room, as a shelf whereon to rest a jug, candlestick, lamp, etc., when necessary. Bracket Shelf or Table. 343 752. The mode of putting up one of these right-angled brackets, with a circular sweep in front, is shown in fig. 371, at the right-hand corner. The ledges D M, D N, are nailed to the contiguous Fixing right- faces of the wall ; and, if the bracket be a large one, another angled rail may be attached to them, as shown by the double dotted lines from N to M. Notches should be made in the ledges D M, D N, at M and N, through half their thickness, and the ends of the rail M N cut accordingly, and dropped into the notches and fastened down by skew-nailing. The triangle thus formed will afford a firm support for the shelf, which must be cut as shown by the curved dotted line O P. 753. It is almost impossible to have too many resting-places oi this kind in the corners of rooms and the passages of a Brackets house. They are always handy for pet>t.leum lamps, if ^^"arts^f ^^ there be no gas in the house ; and if there be, they can iiouse. always be made available for jars and vases and other ornaments, which will be suggested by the circumstances of position and the good taste or peculiar fancies of those who live in the house. 754. The bracket-table, with a flap to move up or down at pleasure, suitable for a small hall or passage, or even as a temporary table at a window, or as an occasional sideboard in a small room, is „, , ' ' The bracket a little more difficult to make than the fixed bracket ; but ^^^^^ °' shelf, the difficulties are such as may be easily overcome. We shall proceed as before to deal with the general mode and principles of construction, leaving it to each amateur who may be inclined to make one to settle its dimensions for him- self. All that need be said here on this point is that 24in. or 3oin. by I Sin. will be found a convenient size. 755. The several parts of the bracket-shelf 01 table are exhibited in I figs.373and ;P 374 first thing to be done is to make the _ I ,r How to make nap or shelf and put them O X Fig. i'LAN OF KAIL OF lUiACKKT SlILLF. Several parU The °^ table. Fig. 374. ELF.VAFION OF KAIL AND BRACKET OF BKACKET SHELF. together. to be at- tached to a rail that must be fixed to the wall, the attachment bein? 3:4 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. made by means of hinges. The shelf should be made about 2^2 in. less than the width desired for the table, the entire width '^ ^ ^ ' being made up by the rail shown in plan in the laider part by A B in fig. 373, and in elevation in fig. 374. The rail may be from 2in. to zYiXCi. wide, but its width must depend very much ^ "^ ' on the thickness of the skirting-board below, shown at C D, for reasons that will be apparent presently. When all the separate parts are finished the rail must be fastened to the wall behind, and rendered immovable. Next a bracket must be made, similar in con- struction to that shown in fig. 369. This bracket is shown The bracket. ^^ ^ .^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ upright F G must be cut as shown in the form of circular pegs, projecting for about l/in. beyond the ends of the upright to fit into holes made— one in the rail as shown at X In fig. 373, and F in fig. 374; and the other as shown at G in fig. 374, and Y in fig. 375. Fig. 375 is the plan of a piece of Rest or sup- , , ... • r t-i • • c port for wood, shown m elevation at H K m fig. 374. This piece ot bracke . ^^,qq^^ when the pegs at the ends of F G are inserted in the holes cut to receive them, is screwed firmly to the skirting. It is plain in order to keep F G upright that the distance from the inner edge of the rail to the hole X (fig. 373) must be the same as the thickness of the skirting-board plus the distance of the hole Y, from the inner or straight part of the support shown at H K in fig. 375. The pegs F and G must, when all the parts are ready, be slipped into their places, and the rail and the support at the bottom screwed or fastened— the one to the wall, and the other to the skirting-board. It will then be impossible to pull the bracket E out of its place, the only motion it can have being from side to side as it turns on its pegs or pivots F and G. When the flap. Fixture of ^'^i^h is attached to the rail by hinges, as shown at L and aap. etc, ^j ji-^ f5gg_ 273 and 374, is let down, the bracket E folds away completely under the rail a b ; but when the flap is raised, the bracket must be pulled out until it is at right angles to the wall behind. The posi- tion of the bracket and the flap when the latter is let down are shown in fig- 374) the outline of the flap being indicated by the dotted line A P Q B. The table, flap, and fittings may be made of mahogany or of nicely grained red deal, stained as the fancy of the maker may dictate, and French polished. The edge of the flap should be neatly moulded, and the moulding should be carried on to the rail on either side for the sake of uniformity. For small houses and small rooms few things will be found more convenient than these bracket-tables. 756. Similar to these table flaps in construction and general purpose are brackets made to let down, the bracket folding back against the Brackets against Wall : Mantel-shelf. 345 wall, nnd the flap falling down over it. These are seldom seen in modern houses, though they frequently formed part of the equipment of old houses in the country. They afford a let down useful support for a lamp, a candle, a wine-glass, a tumbler, ^sams w a cup and saucer, a small workbox, or any of the numerous things one may require when sitting snugly by the fire on a cold winter afternoon or evening. 757. Sometimes the mantel-shelf above was converted into a sort of tram-road on which, by the aid of a couple of cords, a couple seated one on one side, and the other on the other side, of the passing the fire-place might pull a bottle of port backwards and for- tottie. wards between them, and so pass the bottle without the trouble of moving from their chairs. In such a case, the folding bracket mentioned above formed a convenient resting-place for the wine- glass. 758. Here our notice of shelves and brackets must be brought to an. end. It will be understood that in a work of this description it is impos- sible to speak of everything that partakes of the nature of . .^ ^ , , . . , Mantel-shelf, a shelf. For example, there is no necessity to speak par- ticularly of an ornamental shelf covered with cloth or velvet, to be placed on a narrow or old-fashioned mantel-piece ; for with the instruc- tions already given the amateur will be at no loss how to prepare the board, how to mould it in sweeping curves in front to suit his fancy, how to cover it with such material as may be deemed most suitable, to surround it with fringe of silk or worsted attached to the edge of the board in front and at the sides by gilt-headed nails made for the purpose, and, finally, to fix it to the wall by means of small metal plates with holes in them to admit of the passage of brass-headed nails by which they are held to the wall. The little plates are of course screwed to the back of the shelf, and the holes appear above it. 759. The gilt nails to which allusion is made above are sold at the ironmongers', and are also used for fastening strips of leather to the edges of bookshelves. The simplest and cheapest nails om nails for of this description are the small round-headed chair nails, mantei-sheif. which are sold at the rate of 3s. gd. per 1,000. The larger and more ornamental nails, which are of ormolu, gilt, and washable, vary, accord- ing to size and pattern, from i>^d. to 5d. per dozen. A nail consisting of a white head, something like a conical bullet, but much smaller, attached to an iron spike, is also sold for this purpose, at the rate of 2d. per dozen. CHAPTER VI. TAI3LES, STOOLS, CHAIRS, AND COUCHES: GENERAL PRINCITLIS OF CONSTRUCTION, MAKING, AND MENDING. Furniture Mended rather than Made by Amateur— Desirable to know Principles of Construction of Furniture— Word "Table" variously applied— Ordinary Rec- tangular Table— Telescope Tables— Kitchen Table : how to make it— Table height— Supports or Legs— Rails connecting Legs— Parts to be glued and pegged —The Top of the Table— How to fasten Top to Rails— Blocking Table— Meaning of " Principles of Construction "—Modifications or Extentions of Principles- Support for Round Table— How Wide Base is obtained^Construction of Round Table— Area of Support— Mobility of Desk or Top— Rim to Round Table- Catch or Latch— Gipsy Table— Construction of Gipsy Table— Parts to be well adjusted before glued— Coffee or Chess Table— Principles of Construction- How the Table is made— May be called " Bracket Table "—Modifications of Brackets for Table— Writing Table, or Occasional Table— The Supports— Slips or Ledges— Mode of Construction— Top of Table— How to Fasten it Securely —Modifications in Shape easily introduced— Construction of Chairs — The Ordinary Type of Chair— Chief parts of Structure— How to make the Back- Preparation of Front of Chair— Framework of Seat— Connection of Parts- Windsor or Kitchen Chair— Same Principles of Construction to be traced in all Chairs— Old-fashioned Arm-chair— Chair height— How to make a comfortable Arm-chair— Cutting out the Timbers— Fitting the Parts together— Seat of Chair : how formed— Stuffing of Chair— Over-all of Chintz— Mending Chairs— Sources of Injury to Light Chairs— Effects of Heat of Fire— Nails not to be used in Repairmg— Fracture of Chair-rail, etc. — How to Mend it— Fracture of Rail of Seat— How to Repair it — Fractures in Windsor Chairs — Mode of Mending Fracture— Stools : wliy taken after Chairs— Structure of Windsor Chair and Stool similar— Principles of Construction of Three-Legged Stool— Fixing Legs — Wedging up Rails— Stools that Amateur will make— Fender Stool : its Construction— Stuffing the Top— Kneeling Stool— Ottoman or Box Stool- Construction of Ottoman — Good way of making Top or Lid— No limit to what Amateur may do— Sofa or Couch— Useful Couch for Invalids— Construc- tion of Frame— The Panels : how to make them— Hinges to Connect Panels — Panels useful in Spine Complaint — Webbing or Iron Laths— Cushions for Couch— Conversion of Couch into Bed— Old-fashioned Sofa— Simple Bedstead— An X Bed always comfortable— Construction of X Bedstead— Connection of the Legs — Sacking and Head-piece. 760. It is not to be supposed that the amateur mechanic will often take in hand the making of a piece of furniture, such as a table, stool, chair, couch, or bed. He will, however, often be called on to try his hand at mendincr either one or the other durin^j a long course of Ordinary Rectangular Table. 347 married life, if it please God to spare him to his wife and family, and permit him to see his children's children ; and it is there- j,^j,^it^Q fore desirable that he should know the general prin- ^^^jf^^/^jf^ ciples of their construction. This knowledge, moreover, made by is absolutely necessary to him, if he find it necessary, or to his advantage, to make a writing-table, or occasional table for house or garden, an invalid couch, or even a simple bed for a child. 761. It will be useful, therefore, to glance at the principles of con- struction involved in the manufacture of I. Tal>les. 2. C/tm'rs. 3. Siools. 4. Couches. 5. Beds. It cannot be expected that we can enter into the construction of all the different varieties that belong to each individual heading, j^^gj^^^j^ It is only possible to deal with such single articles as ^t°^^°°J^j may be considered to be fair types of each group. Thus, constructien ■' ..of furniture. in speaking of tables, all that can be done is to describe the method of making a square table and a round table, and to show variations from these general principles in modes of constructing writing-tables or occasional tables, gipsy-tables, and garden-tables ; and to do the same as briefly but yet as dearly as possible for the other articles of furniture that have been enumerated. 762. The word " table" is very variously applied ; there are at least thirteen or fourteen different applications of this word, as the reader may ascertain for himself on referring to any large word . - ^ )i 1 • 1 X " table " "Dictionary of the English Language," which enters variously _ . . -,■ applied, fully into and deals exhaustively with the subject. In Carpentry, however, a iadk is taken to be " a flat slab, board, or the like, havirig a smooth surface placed horizontally and supported by legs, which is used as an article of furniture for a variety of purposes, as to eat, work, or write upon." This is Webster's definition of the piece of furniture called a table. 763. The ordinary kitchen table is a good type of the square table, and if the amateur can make a table of this description, he will be able to make any kind of square table, or, speaking ordinary more correctly, any kind of rectangular table. It will ^^^^^^^i^" be understood that tables that can be lengthened or shortened at pleasure, such as telescope dining-tables, do not come within the compass of our plan ; their construction being too compli- cated, and requiring too much space and too much illustra- Teiescope- tion for description here. A telescope-table must be **^^«^- studied in all its parts and movements before any attempt can be made to mend or make one. H= !i 348 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. 764. In making a kitchen table we have to consider, first, the supports or legs ; secondly, the rails by which the legs are connected ; and, thirdly, the slab or board which is laid on the frame Kitchen ' ■' table: how to formed by the legs and rails, and which completes the malce it. . , . , table. In fig. 376 the elevation of on<» side of a kitchen table is shown; and in fig. 377, the plan of the framing made by the legs and connecting rails, or rather a part of it, as it is unnecessary to give the whole, for by the aid of the diagram the amateur will be able to make a complete plan for himself according Fig. 376. ELEVATION OF KITCHEN TABLE. ^^ ^^^j^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^ -CT^ given are not drawn to scale, \_Jhj for reasons that have been 1 1 already stated. The legs Fig. 377. PLAN OF FRAMING OF should bc made out of KITCHEN TABLE. . . , , •. i pieces of good red deal at least 3in. square when planed up. " Table height " is reckoned to Table ^^ ^^'■- 3^"* °'' ^^^- 4'"'' reckoning from the floor to the height, surface of the table; the former is the more convenient height for general purposes, but as much work is done on a kitchen table in a standing posture, it is better to have a table of this kind an inch or two higher. Supposing that the slab or board which forms the top of the table is iji'm. thick, the length of the legs will be 2ft. 2|{in., Sunportsor Supposing the table to be 2ft. 4in. in height. It will be legs. noticed in fig. 376 that the legs are bevelled or sloped slightly on the /tvo inner sides to give a lighter appearance to the table when finished. The rails may varj' in depth from ^%\n. to 6in., „ ., according to the length of the table ; for the amateur will Rails ° ° ' connecting remember that the longer the joist or rail, the deeper it must be in order to prevent deflection under any super- incumbent weight. The legs are to be kept square as far as the depth of the rails, but from the bottom of the rails or a little distance below it the legs may be bevelled as drawn. The rails are cut at each end in double tenons as shown in fig. 378. These tenons fit into mortises cut in the interior faces of the tops of the legs, as shown in fig. 2,77 , the shorter part of the tenon going only as far as the lines drawn across the tenons in the diagram, and the longer part entering the leg to the full depth. WTien the legs and rails have been accurately fitted to- Making Top of Table: Blocking Table. 349 gether, the tenons are glued and driven home into the mortises, and se- cured with wooden pegs. The amateur is cautioned never ^^^^^ ^^ ^^ to put a nail through a mortise and tenon joint, especially gi^ed acd in making furniture, for a wooden pin can be easily bored out with a gimlet or stock-and-bit, while the extraction of a nail will tend more or less to the injury and consequent disfigurement of the wood. The value of this advice will be acknowledged when the amateur finds it necessary to put a new rail into a table. 765. The framing being all ready, the top may be placed on it. The top must be made of boards securely jointed together by one or oti er of the various modes adopted for this purpose, and which ^^^ ^^^ ^^ have been fully described in sections 443-446, in Part I., *^® **^^^- and clamped at the ends (see section 608 and figs. 302, 303), in order to prevent warping. The top or upper surface must be planed smooth ; the under part may be left rough if preferred, but the plane should be passed over the edges and the under surface where it overlaps the sides, which it should do for about 3in. The top may be fastened to the framing by means of screws ; notches should be cut in the inner g^^^^j^^j.^^ side of the rails and the screws driven upwards in a tqptoraus. slanting direction as shown at A in fig. 379. This can only be done when the rail is a substantial ^^^^ one. In slighter tables the top I ^ n 1 is usually nailed down to the frame, but in larger tables of c — fs^a I < /^%i this kind it is useful to be able ( _J EM to remove the top at pleasure. Fig. 379. fastening top of table ^ . , . TO RAIL. Sometimes a deep groove is ploughed in the inner part of the rail, as shown at B B, and a button with a short projecting flange, as shown at C, is screwed to the under surface of the top of the table, as at D. The button turns on the screw, and the flange may be turned in or out of the groove at pleasure. There should be a button at least at every foot all round the table. When the top of any table of this kind is a fixture, it is generally ♦' blocked ;" that is to say, rectangular blocks of wood, as ^looking at E, are glued at short intervals into the angle formed by tables. the meeting of the under surface of the top and the inner surface of the rail, to give additional strength and stability to the structure. 766. The term "principles of construction" has been frequently used in these pages, and from the foregoing description of the mode of making a kitchen table, its meaning may be fairly gathered. It has been shown that the component parts of the table are the legs, the rails 350 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. at sides and ends, and the top, and it has been further shown how these various parts are to be put together. The parts Meaning of . ^ , , ... " principles of and the putting of them together set forth the principles construction." . . _, • . , . , of construction. These principles enter into and govern the making of any kind of table, or support used after the manner of a table ; as, for example, a washstand or dressing-table. The back of either of these, the sides connected with the back, the frame and sub- table of the washstand on which the ewer may be placed when removed from the basin, the drawers that are sometimes appended, and other additions are merely modifications or extensions Modifications . , . • , i • , , •,,,,, or extensions 01 the Same principles, which the amateur will be able to of principles. j , ,• j r ■ ■ r reduce to practice and carry out after an inspection of any article of furniture of this kind that he may wish to make or repair and a due consideration of the relation of its various parts. 767. A square or rectangular table is for the most part supported by four legs, one at each corner ; a round or circular table and an oval Support for ^^^^^ ^^^ usually supported by one leg or pillar in its round table, centre. To each general rule there are exceptions ; for example, a folding square card-table is sometimes supported on a pillar, while a round or oval table is sometimes sustained on a frame-work having three or four legs. If a disc or circular piece of wood be sustained by a central pillar only, it must of necessity be unstable and devoid of strength. In making a round table we must therefore con- sider what means may be used to prevent it from tipping over when a comparatively small weight or force is applied at the cir- Howwide ^ , , ,. , . , ... , base is cumference of the disc, and to give necessary stability and obtained. ^ , _, ..,,.., firmness to the top. These means manifestly he in the extension of the base of the support, which stands on the ground, and the superficial area of the top on which the disc is laid. 768. All this will become clear on an inspection of the accompanying diagrams, of which fig. 380 represents the elevation of the table ; fig. 381 the arrangement by which stability and support is Construction . , ,,-^, , , ■ ^ , r of round given to the top; and fig. 382 the means by which the foot or base of the table is extended to prevent it from being easily turned over. Suppose that in fig. 380 the only two members of the table were the top A B and the pillar c D, it is manifest that the only part at which the top can touch its support is the small circle at the top of the pillar at c, shown in plan in fig. 381 at C, and the extent to which the pillar rests on the ground is the slightly larger circle at the bottom of the pillar at D, also showTi in plan at D in fig. 382. It is equally clear that a very little pressure at A or B, or any other point of Principles of Construction of Round Table. 351 c ^ LJ I^U^ \.^ Fig. 380. ELEVATION OF ROUND TABLE. Fig. 33:. under part of top in plan. R.A the circumference, would upset the table. The area of support tn the circular disc A B is extended from the small circle , Area of C to the parallelo- support, gram E F G H, by keying the top of the pillar C into a square block of wood of tolerable thick- ness, shown by K L M N in fig. 381, and attaching arms or stout slips of wood E F, G H, to the sides K N, L M, of the squari piece of wood. Screws are then put through these slips to fasten down the top of the table to them. This is the mode pur- sued when the top of the table is fixed immovably to the pillar and its adjuncts, but sometimes it is convenient that the disc maybe turned from ^obUity cf a horizontal to a ver- <^sc or top. tical position. The slips E F, G H, are then attached to the top of the table only, and not to the sides, and thumb-screws are passed through holes in the slips, as shown at o and p, and enter blocks of metal let into the square piece of wood at two opposite and contiguous corners. The blocks are in reality fixed nuts, as they are pierced with female-screw cuts in which the thread of the thumb-screw works. The top of the table turns on these thumb-screws as on pivots, and is held in place by a catch at Q. A table of this kind is not so firm and stable as one whose top is immovably fixed. Looking at fig. 3S2, we see that the area of support on which the table stands is increased from the circle D to the triangle R S T, which renders the table tolerably firni and less apt to be overturned. It does not, however, for obvious reasons, offer the security that a square base would give. As it is only necessary that the base of support should touch the ground at its ex- treme points, each corner is generally supported or raised above the greund on a turned knob, or a piece of wood carved in imitation of a lion's foot, hence a round table is generally described as having foot or base in plan. 352 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. Qipsy-table. " pillars and claws." The end D of the pillar is keyed into the piece R S T, in the same manner that C is keyed into the square block K L M N. Instead of being strictly triangular in form, the piece that forms the base is usually curved out in the manner represented in the drawing (fig. 382). In the better kind of tables, a rim, as shown at v Rim to ^"^ ^ ^^ ^S- 3S0, is fastened to the under side of the disc ; round table, partly to give an appearance of solidity and massiveness to the top, and partly to hide from view the slips E F, G H. In the catch Q, in fig. 381, the catch or latch is pressed outward, and kept Catch or °"^ ^° ^^^ fullest extent by a spring. When the table latch. jg jj^ ^ horizontal position the bolt is caught and held by a plate in K L M N, and the top is thus retained in its place until the latch is drawn back by the hand. 769. As gipsy-tables are always round, and the most useful form of garden table is a circular disc, it will be as well to look at the methods by which these may be made before considering how to make a rectangular writing or occasional table. Of these the gipsy-table, as it is called, possibly because it is supported on a tripod, resembling in some measure that on which gipsies sling a kettle in order to boil water, presents the greatest difficulties in its construc- tion. Still these tables are fashionable ; and the amateur by taking a little trouble may easily add one to his stock of furniture. 770. The elevation of a gipsy-table is represented in fig. 383. A B is a flat circular disc forming the top of the table. This top, when the Construction table is finished, is usually covered with cloth or velvet, of ^pey-tabie. ^^^ surrounded by fringe to match, nailed to the edge with gilt-headed nails. The means of support is a double tripod, consisting of three rails above and three rails below, projecting from a ball or globe of wood. The ball and rails are usually turned, and the rails are more orna- mental than shown in the diagram, being generally formed so as to look like a number of small balls strung on a wire, as it were. In turning the ball, the ring or zone at top and bot- tom, at which the legs or rails enter the ball, should be indicated as an aid in boring the holes to receive the rails. These holes should be bored in a straightline from the surface oftheball towards the centre. Indoingthis with accuracy, and in cutting the rails to the proper bevel at the ends, Fig. 383. ELEVATION OF GIISV- TABLE. Coffee or Chess Table : How to make it. 353 so that the table-top may rest upon the upper rails, and the lower rails on the ground in a proper manner, lie the chief difficulties ° ^ ^ , , , ^arts to be in making a gipsy-table. The amateur should not attempt weu adjusted .,.,,,,.,. , before glued. to glue the rails mto the ball until tne parts are properly adjusted one to the other. The upper set of rails are screwed to the top of the table by screws put through them in a slanting direction. 771. A table that will serve equally well as a coffee-table or chess-table within doors, and a garden table out of doors, may be made by a very simple contrivance. The writer has never seen any tables coffee er of this description, but it by no means follows that there '^ ®^^ ^ ^' are not many in existence made on the same plan. It is a modification of the system on which small three-legged pillar tables used to be made half a century ago ; the shaft being comparatively short, and the legs issuing from the bottom of the shaft, and descending in a principles of curved sweep to the ground. In the adaptation of this °°^^ ™° °^' mode of making a table, strength is gained by making the shaft or centtal pillar longer, and giving the legs a greater length of attachment to the shaft. The supports for the table-top are similarly made, 772. In this kind of table a is a circular pillar or shaft shown in elevation in fig. 384, and in plan in fig. 385, which, as the shaft is of -. the same diameter throughout, will serve as the plan of How the tabia the top as well as of ^' '^^'^^■ the bottom. Deep grooves are cut in the shaft at top and bottom, at B, c, and D, to receive the brac- kets E, F, G, which may be glued and skew-nailed to the shaft. The brackets may be pierced, as in the manner shown in fig. 384 ; but the perforations, while they tend to give lightness to the general ap- pearance of the brackets, must not be made so large as to detract from their strength. The top must be laid on the upper set of brackets, and attached to them by screws from above and below, as shown in fig. 384. By a little manage- ment, and giving a slanting direc- FiG. 384. BRACKET TABLE (ELEVATION). Fig. 305. BRACKET TABLE (PLAN). tion to some of the screws, they may all be put in from below, thus 23 J54 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. preventing any injury to the surface of the table. The shaft of the table for out-door purposes should be about 4in. in diameter, and the brackets should be of iXin. stuff planed down, which will reduce its thickness. For in-door purposes a lighter shaft and thinner stuff may be used, and the shaft may be ornamented in the lathe to give addi- tional lightness to it. When finished the table should be stained and varnished or French-polished. The brackets that form May be called "bracket- the legs may be supported on turned knobs. As table." brackets are so freely used in its construction this table may be appropriately called the " bracket-table." 773. For the sake of imparting some degree of variety to tables made in this manner, the grooves, made at each end of the shaft for the recep- tion of the brackets, may be continued throughout its whole Modification ' •' ° of brackets length, and each pair of brackets, one at the top and the for table. ^ ' ^ ' , , . other at the bottom, be cut out of one and the same piece of wood, and be made symmetrical. In this case the wood connecting the brackets should project the whole way beyond the surface of the shaft, forming a raised rib, as it were, between the projecting parts. The ingenuity of the amateur will suggest many modes of treating the brackets and intervening ribs so as to render them highly orna- mental. 774. A simple method of making a writing-table or occasional table is that of supporting the table-top at each end on legs crossed in the form of the letter Xj after the manner of the stand that is used or occasional to support a butler's tray, but constructed so as to be rigid table instead of movable. Writing-tables and library- tables are generally narrower in proportion to their length than ordinary tables supported on four legs ; they have, however, when the legs are crossed, this inconvenience, that it is not possible for persons to sit at the ends, but as they are seldom used by more than one person the incon- venience is materially lessened indeed, and reduced to a matter of the least importance. 775. In this kind of table, as in all others, we have to consider the supports, the frame, and the top ; but here, however, the frame is not so conspicuous a member of the structure as in the square The BnpportB. table, and holds a more subordinate position. In fig. 386 the end elevation of the X table is shown ; the front or side elevation being presented in fig. 3S7. To make the saltire-shaped supports, four pieces of good straight-grained red deal must be selected, two for each end, each piece being about 3ft. long and 6in. wide. This will leave room for cutting the boards in some such manner as is shown in fig. Writing Table: Mode of Construction. 355 386 so as to give an ornamental appearance to the legs. As the pieces are to be framed together by halving them into one another at the e n c ps or ledges. Pig. 3S7. WRITING TABLE (FRONT ELEVATION). FiG. 386. WRITING TABLE (eND ELEVATION). part marked A where they cross, the wood used for the legs should not be less than lin. in thickness when planed down; and if i>^ in. stuff be used it will add greatly to the stability of the table. Across the upper part of the cross formed by the legs, a slip or ledge siips of wood F l^fin. thick must be screwed; this is the only part that answers to the framing of the square table, and serves to- siipport the ends. Themodeof construction is sufficiently Mode of shown by fig. 386, and will need no further explanation. '=°'^struction. When the cross-pieces have been halved together and the ledges securely screwed on, the supports for the ends of the table-board or top are complete, and it now only remains to consider how they may be connected, which is shown clearly in fig. 387. 776. The top of the table must be formed in the usual way of ^fm. boards glued up together, and held in clamps till dry, or connected by tongue and grooves as already explained (see Part I. sec- tions 308, 443). To give strength to the table-top, ledges should be screwed across the boards on the under surface, as shown at D, D, D. The supports for the ends must now be connected by a rail B B, whose ends are cut into the form of a tenon, and passed through the part of the support where the cross-pieces are halved together. A hole is made in each projection, and through the hole a wooden pin is given, locking the supports in an upright position against the shoulders of the rail at either end. To afford a better support to the table-top, and additional strength to the supports, another narrower rail c C is passed through the ledges and secured in a similar way by pins inside and out. This rail should be placed in such a position that the ledges may bear tightly upon it. Even greater firmness and stability may be given to the table by making the rail c C as deep as the ledges D, D, D, that is to say, as deep as the dotted line E, and notching it at the top to receive Top of table. 356 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery, these ledges, which may be concealed by a slip of wood about in. in depth screwed to the under part of the table on each side. These slips should be just of the depth of the shoulder F in fig. 386, and this shoulder should not be less than lin. The table-top should be screwed How to fasten down securely to the broad edges at either end. When 1 secure y. ^^j^j^ j^ done the whole structure will be found to be as secure and rigid as any table made in the ordinary way. It will be understood that there is no necessity whatever to make the rails B B, CC, perfectly plain as shown in the illustration ; they may be shaped to suit the fancy of the maker, after the manner of the legs of the table in fig. 386. An infinite variety of forms will suggest themselves, but Modifica- care should be taken to let the pieces of wood, out of shape easily which rails and legs are made, be deep enough to admit m roduce . ^^ being cut into without impairing the stability of the table. The dotted lines in fig. 386 show the width of the pieces of wood used for the legs before the indentations have been made. 777. Let us now consider the principles of construction of chairs in the same manner as we have considered how tables are made, so as Construction to present the greatest degree of firmness and stability. In doing this, it will be useful to see, first, how a common wooden chair may be made. This will show the general method on which chairs are made, there being, of course, certain modifications in different kinds of chairs which cannot be described in a work of this kind. Afterwards we can pass on to a review of the most common fractures and injuries that happen to cane-bcttomed chairs and Windsor chairs, which are chiefly used in ordinary houses, and see how they may be best and most easily repaired. 778. It may be objected that the chair shown in the accompanying "a a ' .■ ■ nl K C l< M lL_ N i_ Fig. 392. s!DE. F.G. Fig. 390. FRCNT. DIAGRAMS OF PARTS OF CHAIR, SHOWING PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION. illustration is a very ordinary wooden chair of ugly appearance. It is so assuredly, but as the matter now before us is how a chair is The Chair: Principles of Construction. 357 generally made, and not its beauty from an artistic point of view, the plainness of the illustrations may be pardoned. The ordinary It is sought here to give merely a typical chair, in order type of chair. to exhibit as clearly as possible the general principles that enter into the construction of most chairs. When the amateur has mastered these by the aid of the diagrams and the inspection of any ordinary chair, he will be all the better able to repair his chairs when broken, and to make any structure to serve the purpose of a chair. 779. In a chair, the chief pieces are those parts of the structure which form the back, front, and seat. The legs in front and behind are connected by two or more rails, which serve as the sides, chief parts Lastly, the framework of the seat must be furnished with a board or bottom of some kind, in order to complete the chair. 780. Let us take the back first, as shown in fig. 388. The first thing to be done is to cut out two pieces of wood, as shown in the figure at A B, A' b', the front elevation of these pieces How to make being shown at A B, and the side elevation at a' b'. It will be noticed from the side elevation that the legs of the chair are cut so as to project outwards behind beyond the area covered by the seat ; the legs in front, especially in cane-bottomed chairs, are cut to project in the same manner. This is done in order to make the base of the chair as wide as possible, and so to render it less liable to be turned over. The back is completed by connecting these pieces of wood with three rails— two broad and flat, to afford support to the back, as shown at C and D, and one round, as shown at E. Two notches are cut at G and H to receive the rail F, which forms the back part of the seat. To help the amateur to comprehend the structure of the chair completely, the back part of the seat is shown as a rail, inserted in the back in the notches cut for its reception. The manner in which the rail F is joined to the back is shown more clearly in fig. 389. The shaded part shows the extent to which the rail F enters the leg H. It is secured in position by driving in a peg, sometimes put in angle-wise, as at z. 781. We must now pass on to the front, which consists of two legs, K L, K L, attached to each other by the rails M, N. The _. ' ' ■' ' Preparation rail O is the front of the framing of the seat, and is intro- °^ f^ont of ° ' chair. duced here to show the connection between the front legs and the seat. The framework of the seat itself is shown in fig- 39^- ^" t^^^ ^^^ have in plan, at F and O, the back Framework and front of the frame, as shown in elevation at F in fig. 388, and O in fig. 390. It will be noticed that t]:e front of the 358 Constructional Carpentry and Joinerv. chair is always broader in front than behind, in order to accommodate the extension of the legs which always takes place when one rests on a chair in an easy sitting posture. The front and back of the seat- frame are connected by short rails, P and Q, attached by horizontal tenons of no great length, that enter mortises cut in front and back in order to receive them. 782. The back, front, and seat being now ready, holes must be made in the under part of the front rail in order to receive the upper ends Connection of the front legs, which are cut in the form of pegs to o par s. gjijgj. thg holes, as shown in fig. 390, Two rails are also made, as shown at T in fig. 392, in order to connect each front leg with the corresponding leg behind, and to give additional stiffness to the chair. The front and back, it must be understood, have already been securely glued and clamped, and all that now remains to be done is to glue the notches at G, H, in the back, and the pegs at K, K, in the fi-ont, and the ends of the rails T— two of these rails being wanted, one for each side — and then to drop the seat into its notches, and over the pegs of the front legs, and the rails (t in fig. 392) into their places, and bring the whole firmly and closely together by the aid of clamps. Lastly, the seat may be made by boarding over the seat-frame, or by inserting strips of cane interlaced, to give support one to another, and forming a strong but elastic net-work. 783. In the wooden chair, known as the Windsor or kitchen chair, the construction differs slightly, inasmuch as no framing is required Windsor or ^or the seat, which consists of a solid piece of wood ■ slightly hollowed out, in order to render the seat more comfortable for the sitter. The legs are inserted in holes bored for their reception in the under part of the seat, and the back, which is formed in a variety of ways, is dropped into mortise holes cut in the seat to take the ends of those pieces which form the uprights of the back. No illustration of the Windsor chair is necessary here. An vxamination of one will fully explain its construction. It is, to describe it roughly, nothing more than a flat piece of wood almost square in shape, raised on legs and furnished with a back. It is, in fact, little more than a simple stool with a back attached to it. 784. As in the case of the legs of the X table, however varied the ornamentation or form of the pieces of which the chair is Some pnn- *^ cipies of con- composed, the principles of construction will remain struotion to '^ ' ' ^ be traced in much the same throughout. Thus in the ordinary cane- all chairs. ° 1 j • 1 bottomed chair the front of the seat is rounded m shape, approaching very closely to the arc of a circle, while the side rails that Comfortable Old-Fashioned Arm-Chair. 359 connect it with the back-piece of the seat are slightly serpentine in form. This is merely a modification of outline, the general principles of construction are in no way altered or departed from. 785. The most comfortable kind of chair that can be devised is the old-fashioned arm-chair, with a seat of webbing, sustaining a thick and comfortable cushion, and padded sides, and om-fasWoned arms and back. Any amateur who can use his tools tolerably weil may make a chair of this kind, and furnish himself with a comfortable retreat and resting - place on cold and wet winter evenings, and in times of fatigue or sickness. It will be worth while to describe the general structure of a chair of this kind. 786. Before proceeding further it may be as well to remind the reader that there is a " chair height " as well as a " table height," which governs the height of all ordinary chairs above the chair ground. When the height of a chair is spoken of, the "^ height of the surface of the seat above the ground level or floor is meant. Table height, it was said, varies from 27in. to 29in., 27in. being the ordinary height, while 29in. is an extreme height, and one that is not often used. Chair height for an ordinary chair is I7in., the height being measured from the ground to the upper surface of the front rail of the seat. Easy chairs and lounging chairs are slightly lower, music chairs higher. The seats of ordinary chairs are level ; but those of easy chairs are generally lower behind than in front to admit of a slightly reclining position for any one who may occupy the chair. 787. Fig. 393 will furnish the amateur with a good idea of the side elevation and general construction of a really comfortable arm-chair — ^o— I a veritable easy chair that will aftbrd rest / / I and promote repose. A chair / / ; of this kind may sometimes be a comfortable /oil •' arm-ctiair. / I picked up at a furniture sale, / I and cleaned, re-stuffed, and repaired ; but failing this the amateur may make one for himself without much difficulty. It is bet- ter to make the frame out of a harder kind of wood than deal. Beech is the best wood, but if beech cannot be procured, and if, when obtained, the amateur finds it some- FiG. 393. what difficult to work, good red deal can OLD-FASHIONED ARM-CHAIR, i »j • i_ j o-u r- .. »v x u be used instead. The first thing to be done, is to cut out the timbers that form the hind legs and the sides or 35o Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. chief supports of the back, as A B in fig. 393. It will be noticed that Cutting out the part above the seat is not so thick as that below the the timbers. ^^^^.^ rj,^-^^ affords opportunity for making a projection G, which carries one end of the rail c. This rail is mortised to the back upright at E. The tenon may be carried through the upright or not, according to fancy. The joint will be stronger if it be carried right „,^ »^ through. The rail C should be made a little thicker in Fitting the ° parts together, fj-gnt at H than behind at E, in order to give a due slant or fall to the seat, by causing the upper surface of the rail to slope gently from front to rear. The lower surface is perfectly hori- zontal, so that the front leg K may be perpendicular. This leg may be plain or ornamental. It is usually turned and screwed into the block L, which in its turn is attached by screws to the bottom of the rail C at H. The rail D is mortised into A B at F ; this rail is of the same thickness throughout, and should be perfectly level. A short upright, M, serves to connect the bottom rail C and the top rail D, and affords a support for the latter. The sides of the chair are connected by cross-pieces of timber at H and E, and similar rails connect the uprights of the back at A and a little above F, completing the frame- Seat of chair, work. The actual seat of the chair is a movable cushion how formed. ^^ ^^^^ thickness, but the support for the cushion is obtained by webbing nailed in the direction of the width of the chair and parallel to the front and back rails of the seat, interlaced with webbing in a direction parallel to the rail C, and nailed, one end to the front rail and the other to the back rail, connecting the sides. The webbing thus nailed on affords a strong and tolerably elastic support for the cushion, which is indicated in section by the dotted line N. The arms and back are generally well padded inside, canvas being stuffing nailed neatly over the outside of the chair, over each side, of chair. ^^^ ^^^^ ^j^^ ^^^^j. j^ j^^^p ^^^ padding in its place, the sides and back may be sewn with a ong packing needle, the string that is used being passed through patches of leather, circular in form, to keep the string from cut- ting through the canvas or hessian with which the framework of the chair is covered, as shown in fig. 394. It will be understood that the skeleton only Fig. 394. of the chair is shown in fig. 393 ; the stuffing or PADDixG OF CHAIR, p^j^j^g jg j^^^ showH. Additional comfort may be gained by attaching a side-piece to the chair, as at o, as a sup- port to the head when asleep in the chair. Chairs of this kind are generally covered with an overall of pretty chintz or cretonne. How TO Mend Broken Chairs. 361 When the legs of the cLair are plain this covering may be allowed to descend as far as the dotted line P, but when the front overall of legs are turned it need not come lower than the under sur- face of the rail C. Legs of this description for arm-chairs or couches may be bought at the turners' or upholsterers' ready made, if the amateur is not possessed of a lathe in which he may turn them for himself 788. It depends very much upon the kind of fracture that a chair has received whether or not it can ever be rendered serviceable again, and it may be useful here to consider one or two of the Mending injuries by breakage to which cane-bottomed chairs and chairs. Windsor chairs are most subject. The amateur will seldom be called on to repair other kinds of chairs, and if it happen that the broken chair is a valuable article of furniture, the best thing he can do is to send it to the cabinet-maker, who will repair the damage so as to be all but imperceptible and send it home again looking, to use a common phrase, " as good as new," 789. Cane-bottomed chairs and Windsor chairs are not the strongest structures in the world, and by "ricketting" them about, ' ■' ^ Sources of or moving about on them as young folks often will, so as injury to light chairs. to bring the chairs on two legs instead of four, they often get unduly strained, and the legs and rails are loosened. Another fruitful source of injury to a Windsor chair, used in the kitchen, is turning it into a temporary horse before the fire for drying anything that may be wet. The heat of the fire cries the wood and Effects of causes it to shrink, and as a natural consequence those teat of fire, portions of the chair which are glued together get loose. In such cases, the best thing to be done is to glue up the loose parts afresh, and hold them in place with clamps until the glue is hard and dry. Never attempt to put a nail through the seat into the top of the leg, or through the leg into the end of the rail that connects it Nails not to with the opposite leg. These chairs are generally made of be used in repairing. beech or elm, and nails will not readily enter these woods. Indeed, both beech and elm, when the wood is not very thick, are liable to split when a nail is driven into the end of a rail, etc., on account of the closeness and crookedness of the grain. On the contrary, nails may be driven into deal with impunity in most cases, for the wood is soft, and the straight grain yields readily in all directions to afford a passage for the nail. When it is said that a Windsor chair is made of elm, it must be noted that it is the seat only that is of this wood, the back and legs being generally made of beech, or some hard wood resembling beech in its general character. 362 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. 790. If the rail of a chair breaks, whatever may be the shape of the fracture, it is useless to try to mend it. The best thing to be done, in Fracture of every case of this kind, is to make a new rail. The old chair rau, etc. j.j^j|^ j(. jg jj-^g^ j^^y ^^g fished and spliced, but the remedy will be pretty nearly as bad as the disease, and even this mode of repairing a fracture is impracticable when the line of breakage is close to the leg. When through a fall or any blow, the leg of a chair gets broken, as legs will break sometimes, when the grain runs in a slanting direction across the leg instead of up and down its length, it is well-nigh impossible to mend the fracture in a creditable manner. All that can be done — unless a new leg is put in, which is out of the How to question, because part of the leg is turned in the lathe — is mend It, j-q j-gsort to fishing and splicing, or to glue up the broken part and wrap a piece of canvas or stout calico smeared with glue around it to keep the parts in place. After a few days the wrapping may be torn away. If the joint has been neatly made and the glue is good, the chair may last for some time longer, but it is by no means to be depended on, and should be used as little as possible. 791. Referring to fig. 391, the framing of the seat of a chair, it often happens that the side-pieces, P and Q, will sometimes break across Fracture of ^^°^^ ^° ^^^ tenon by which the piece , rauoxseat. jg attached to the hind rail. Sup- , x — -1---' 1 pose A in fig. 395 to represent such a fracture. ■=— -r^-f-^ 1'' There is manifestly no way of uniting the broken ^ i] z" ' pieces by nails, screws, or pegs ; as no nail. Fig. 395. fracture in ,,,,,,. , FRAME OF SEAT OF CHAIR. screw, or peg would hold the fracture together. All that can be done to render the chair serviceable for a while longer is to notch out a piece of wood as at B, so that the ends may How to come against and be flush with the outside of each hind repair it. igg^ ^nd then to screw it up, as shown by the screw at E, to the piece that forms the hind part of the frame of the seat C, which is notched into the leg D. The piece of wood B, extending from side to side of the chair, affords a support not only to the broken side-piece, but to the sound one as well, and the chair is rendered nearly as strong as before. Instead of a piece of wood, means of support for the broken side-piece may be obtained by screwing an angle-iron into the angle formed by the side-piece and the leg as at F. For this purpose ex- cellent angle-irons, in the best malleable iron japanned, are supplied Dy Mr, Melhuish in various sizes, from 2in. to 5in., at prices ranging from IS. 6d. to 3s. per dozen. These angle-irons are strengthened by being made much thicker at the bend than the ordinary angle-iron, How TO Mend Broken Seat of Chair. 363 and the larger ones consequently make admirable brackets for sup- porting shelves. Brass brackets of the same kind, strengthened at the angle, may also be obtained— ij^in. brackets being is. 8d. per dozen ; 2in. brackets, 2s. 6d. per dozen, and larger sizes in proportion. On account of their great strength and superior finish, amateurs will find these useful for connecting and strengthening the parts of various structures in wood as well as for mending chairs and supporting shelves. 792. The practice of attempting to repair any damage done to a chair by nailing the broken or disconnected parts together is much to be reprehended. Driving in nails will only, in nine cases out of ten, make the damage worse than it was before. If the end, or rather corner, of the seat of a cane-bottomed chair gets loosened from the leg into which it is notched, the course generally adopted by , . ., , til-,. Fractures in the amateur is to drive a nail or two through the leg into Windsor the rails of the frame of the seat. The proper thing to be done is to bore a hole through the leg into the frame with a small auger- shaped bit, and after gluing the corner of the frame, to make a peg a trifle larger than the hole so that it may fit tightly, and after dipping the end of it in glue, to drive it into the hole. This is shown at z in fig. 389, but instead of a single peg, two may be used, one through the back and the other through the side of the leg, their respective ^^^^ ^^ directions being at right angles to each other. This will mending effectually prevent any further withdrawal of the frame from the notch in the leg. A common line of fracture in the elm seat of a Windsor chair is shown in fig. 396, Elm is gnarled, crooked-grained stuff", and it has hap- pened that by undue pressure on the leg, per- haps by the rails that hold the leg to those opposite to it in the front and behind, that a piece of the seat has been broken off along the line A B. To attempt to nail it on is useless. ^,5 3^5. fracture m It must be held in its place by a clamp, and ^^^"^ "^ «'''^''^°« '^"^'"^ the holes bored through the broken part and into the seat with an auger bit as at D, E, F, in the directions shown by the dotted lines. The broken piece must then be glued and fastened to the other part of the seat with pegs dipped in glue, the whole being held in a clamp until the glue is perfectly dry and hard. The leg may then be inserted once again into the hole after the end has been glued, and the rails also glued and clamped till dry. The circle marked on the top of the seat is intended merely to show the direction that the leg takes, 364 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. and that the line of fracture is on the interior of the hole into which the leg is fitted. It is impossible to describe any and every kind of damage that may happen through breakage, but what has been already said will prove generally useful to amateurs in the matter of mending broken chairs. 793. It has been thought better to take stools after chairs instead of before them, although in reality the stool may be con- stools, why taken after sidered to be the parent, so to speak, of the chair. What, indeed, is the Windsor chair, but a board supported on four legs after the manner of a stool, which has sometimes three and sometimes four legs, the back having clearly been an after-thought ? 794. The structure of the lower part of the Windsor chair, or the Windsor chair without the back, is identical in almost every respect strnoture of ^^^'^^ ^he stool ; but as the legs of the stool — taking the stool ^a^d°stoof"^ °" which a dairy-maid sits when milking a cow — are short, Bimiiar. there is less need to connect them with cross-rails. Thus it may be laid down as a rule that in all stools of this form, when the height is not more than I2in., the legs need not be connected by cross- rails; but when the stool is above I2in. in height, and especially when above chair height, as in the case of a music stool, the structure should be strengthened by cross-rails. 795. The reason of this will be apparent from fig. 397, in which the principles of construction of a three-legged stool are shown. These Principles of principles are identical with those on which a four-legged o'fti^*e'?.i^g°ged ^^°°^ ^^ made, so that a single illustration will serve for Btooi. ]3ot^ jf ji^g iggg ^j.g short, as in the milking stool, they will be stiffer and less liable to be driven outwards, provided they are properly fixed in the seat, when a heavy weight, as of the human body, is deposited on the top of the seat. Thus, if the legs of the stool are cut off at A, b, and c, as shown in the diagram, there will be no need of connecting them; but if they be longer, as in a music stool, it will be safer to have rails ; for the longer the legs . - , , the weaker will be the structure, the tendency ^'^ ^^^ to drive outwards under an equal weight being three-leggId^' stool. Fixing legs. "^"^^ greater. In fixing the legs in a stool of this kind, either as a temporary garden seat or a stand for a plant, the holes for the legs should be bored clean through the board that forms the seat with a stock-and-bit, the ends of the legs should then be sawn across to the depth of lin. or i^in., and when they have been Fender Stools : Ottoman or Box Stools. 365 driven into the holes as far as they will go, wedges of hard wood should be inserted in the saw-cuts and hammered in as far ^^r ^ • Weaging up as possible. Anything that projects beyond the level of '^^''• the seat must then be neatly sawn oft. Whenever the end of a rail or projecting piece of wood is fixed into another piece, going right through it, whatever may be the form of the end, it should be wedged up in this way. It is to impress this necessary mode of imparting additional security and firmness to work of this kind, that *' wedging- up" has been dwelt on here to an extent that might otherwise appear needless. 796. The stools that the amateur will be chiefly called on to make for use within doors will be fender stools, and ottoman or box stools. These come more within the province of the cabinet - maker and upholsterer than that of the ordinary carpenter and joiner ; but it will be useful for the amateur to know how to make amateur them, in order to mount any piece of work, in the form of ^^ °' either Berlin-wool work, or braided cloth or velvet, that may have been executed for this purpose. 797. A fender stool may be of the box or ottoman form, that is to say, constructed with top, sides, and ends of wood ; but it is sufficient to have a piece of board only for the top, with three or four supports beneath it that will bring the top of Btooi : its the stool just level with the top of the front of the fender. °°^^''^°*i°°- In making such a stool solid supports are far belter than legs. There should, of course, be a support at each end ; it will depend entirely on the length of the stool ;t^-j.---j^5^fiEJ^-^-'^^3 whether there should be one more ^ „ ^ Fig. 398. END SUPPORTS OF Fig. 399. kneeling support in fender stool. stool. the centre of the board that forms the top, or two having the same distance between them as there is between each of these and the end support next to it. That is to say, if the stool be 4ft. 6in. long, and the supports be lyi'm. thick, and the ends of the stool overhang the supports for ij^in., the clear distance between each support, there being four of them, will be one-third of 4ft. 6in. less gin., or one- third of 3ft. gin., which is ift. 3in. In the fender stool, the ends and centre pieces used as supports should be mortised into the board that forms the top of the stool. It will add to the general appearance of the stool if the outer edges of all the supports and the outer faces of the 366 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. end supports be carved as indicated in fig. 398, which shows the outer face of an end support, and how it should be mortised, as at c, D, int< the board A B. A piece of strong canvas or hessian should be tacked to the edges of the board A B, one end being left open, the canvas being a little wider than the board, to admit of the introduction of the staffing the Stuffing, which may be clean cotton flock. This must be top. pressed into place along the whole length of the stool, proceeding from the closed end to the open end. To do this properly a long stick must be used, broader at one end, after the fashion of a ramrod. The further corners must be filled first, and the stuffing then proceeded with regularly and evenly until the nearer corners are reached ; these must be closely packed with flock, and the canvas or hessian drawn tightly over them and nailed to the edge. The work must then be strained over this foundation, and finished round the edge with a handsome bullion fringe tacked on with gilt-headed nails. 798. In fig. 399 a stool of convenient shape for kneeling when praying in church, or when reading family prayers, is indicated. It Kneeling consists of a flat board, longer or shorter, according as it Btooi. jg intended to run the whole length of the pew, or for one person only, raised on two or more supports of the form shown in the figure. The top may be stuffed as in the fender stool above described, a piece of felt carpeting being strained over the canvas instead of work, or even a piece of green or scarlet baize. When the stool is used as a support for the feet as well as for kneeling, any chance of soiling the dress or trousers of the kneeler may be prevented by nailing a flap of baize or carpeting to the back of the stool along the edge A, large enough to cover the whole of the top of the stool when pulled forward over it. This should be thrown back when the feet are placed on the stool. The woodwork of this and the fender stool should be stained and varnished. The kneeling stool may be finished with fringe or gimp round the edge. A strip of leather, as wide as the board that forms the top is thick, contrasting in colour to the material with which the stool is covered, looks very well when nailed round the edge of the board with gilt-headed nails. Carpeting of a sober pattern should be used for kneeling stools in a church ; a blue, green, or scarlet ground, with a fleur-de-lys, or cross, or small diapered pattern in black or som€ contrasting colour, is most appropriate. 799. In figure 400 the construction of an ottoman or box stool is ottoman or shown. These stools are generally square in form, and box stool, jj-g usually upholstered with a handsome piece of Berlin- wool work. They may, however, if intended for use, rather than orna- Construction of Ottoman or Box Stool. 367 ir.ent, be covered with carpeting to match the carpet of the room for ^hich they are intended. If the sides ^^. ^m^mmmm^^ ^ _ of the box are covered as well as c'' ^ ■ '' the top, the best finish is a piece of heavy silk cord round the top and bottom of the sides of the box, and ~^,,^ ^qq ottoman or at the corners, a tassel to match ^o^ stool. being attached at each of the upper corners. In the diagram the sides are supposed to be of wood, stained, if of deal, and French-polished. The construction is simple enough. Four pieces of wood conatniction that form the sides are dove-tailed together in just the same °^ ottoman, manner as the sides of a box. These pieces are about sin. wide and from I2in. to isin. long. The top is boarded over flush with the frame ; but a broad ledge, as at A B, is nailed round the bottom, leaving the interior of the stool open. The breadth of this ledge serves all the better for attaching the balls or bosses that form the feet of the stool, which are put on with screws. The work is strained over the top, which is stuffed in the manner already described. If the work covers the top only, and not the sides, it is desirable to cover the edge with a rounded moulding, as shown at C D. Another moulding of different form is placed in the angle formed by the sides of the frame, and the ledge below, as shown at E and F. This does away with the abrupt and ugly appearance that the angle would otherwise present if left unfilled. A good plan for making ottomans of this kind Qo^^^ay is to strain the cloth or material that forms the top, what- °^^^^^^^ ever it may be, on a separate piece of wood or frame of the same size as the top of the box, or just so much less than the thickness of the work when nailed on, which will bring it to exactly the same size. The moulding c D should be raised slightly above the upper edge of the frame, or rather top of the box, that the board with the work attached to it may be dropped into the recess. When made in this way the piece of wood on which the work is strained must be screwed down to the top of the box with a few screws driven in upwards from the inside. 800. It will be at once manifest to the amateur that it is impossible within the limits of this work to touch on every kind of article that may be comprised within the general and comprehensive ^^ „^ )^ ^^ term, " household furniture." If he can use his tools well what amateuj- ' may do. enough to make a small and strong kitchen-table, and til\croughly understands the principles of its construction, he can make, as we have said, any kind of table or article that acts as a table, in 368 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. furnishing a stand or support for anything, as, for example, a wash- stand, so that there will be no necessity to say anything about furniture of this kind here. Cupboards, chests of drawers, etc., and their com- ponent parts, such as door and drawers, must be dealt with hereafter. 8oi. The amateur, in all probability, will never seek to make a sofa or couch— at least such a sofa or couch as is sold nowadays with Sofa or suites of furniture in mahogany or walnut, for dining- couoh. rooms and drawing-rooms. If he has purchased an old sofa or couch and seeks to repair it, he can gather how to do it, when he has looked into its construction, from that which has been already said on the general principles of carpentry and joinery. As a rule, however, the men who are obliged to help themselves are compara- tively poor, and unable to give those that are nearest and dearest to them all they require in the form of a comfortable couch. We will therefore endeavour to describe a couch that an amateur may contrive to make, and which may prove of great comfort and service to an in- valid wife or child who for some cause or another has to pass many hours in a recumbent posture. 802. The couch to which allusion has been made is shown in end Fig. 401. END ELEVATION. FiG. 402. SIDE ELEVATION. USEFUL INVALID COUCH. elevation in fig. 401, and in side elevation in fig. 402. The first thing Useful couch to be done is to make a strong frame 6ft. long and 2ft. 6in. for invalids, ^j^^ y^^ ^j^j^ purpose two pieces, 6ft. long, about 2in. or 2Xin. thick, and 3in. wide, should be selected ; and two more 2ft. 6in. ConstrucUon long) and the same in width and thickness all of sound, of frame. ^^^ ^^^j ^j^^ longer rails are shown in A B in fig. 402. the shorter ones in AC in fig. 401. The shorter rails, when all have been planed up, must be mortised into the ends of the longer rails as snown at D in fig. 401, so as to form a strong, 'solid, and substantial Construction of Useful Invalid Couches. 369 frame. Square blocks as at E and F must be screwed to the frame, pierced with female-screws into which the ends of the legs are screwed. These legs, supposing the block to be 2in. thick, may be I2in. long exclusive of the castor attached to the lower end of each leg ; they may be bought ready made of the turner or upholsterer ; or if the amateur has a lathe he can turn them for himself, or get them turned by any one in his immediate neighbourhood who executes work of this description. A long slip G H just lin. square, or a little less, is nailed along the outside edge of the sides of the frame, and in the framing itself for the distance of about lain. from each end, as shown at K in fig- 403> notches are cut in order to form a kind of rack for a purpose that will appear presently. This completes the frame of the couch. The length of the side rails, as shown in A B in fig. 402, has been taken above at 6ft. This is long enough for children and women of average height ; but when the couch is required for a tall woman, or for a man, it will be better to make the side rails 6ft. 6in., or even 6ft. gin. long. This kind of couch is especially useful in spinal complaints. 803. The next thing to be done is to make three panels, two i8in. in length, and one about 3ft. 3in. long (or a little longer if the side rails be more than 6ft. in length), all of them being 2ft. 6in. wide at the top, but 2ft. 4in. at the bottom, so as to fit into the rebate made in the sides of the frame as at R in fig. 404, by nailing ^^^ panels • on the slips to the sides of the frame as previously ^°^t^g^*^® described. The dark shaded part in R shows the notch- ing in the frame as mentioned above. To fit the rebate thus formed the sides of the framing of the panels must be made as at S, the panel being shown at Q. The framing and the top of the panel will thus be flush throughout, and the ledges in the outer part of the framing will fit over the slips on the sides of the frame of the couch. When the panels are lying flat on the frame they will be in the positiou shown by T u, in fig. 402, the short panels being indicated by K and L, and the longer panels by M. The short panel K does not pro- ject beyond the end A of the frame, but the long panel M, being 3m. longer than half the length of the frame, projects to the same distance beyond it over the end B. The panels must now be con- Hinges nected by hinges, those which connect the panels K and ^° conneot L being screwed on below, while those which connect the panels L and M are screwed on above ; so that the panels K and L may be raised upwards in the form of the letter V reversed, thus /\, while the panel M may be lifted so as to form a V with the panel L. In the upper part of fig. 402 the panels are shown lifted into this posi- 24 370 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery tion as at k', l', m', the hinges connecting the panels, and the relative positions that they occupy, being shown at N and O. The bottom of the framing of the panel k' is kept in position by the rack at the end A of the frame of the couch ; the panel M is kept in the inclined position, as shown at M', by a frame v, which is hinged to the back of the panel at P. Thick cushions of cotton flock, rather longer than the panels, are made to suit each ; and to sustain the cushion on the panel K in position when raised into the zig-zag form shown at K', l', m' in fig. 402, a ledge is fixed across the bottom of the panel, as shown at w in this figure, and fig. 401. By making the cushions a little longer than the panels, no gap is visible between them when the panels are raised in the manner shown at k', l', m'. The comfort to be derived from a couch of this description is very great. The panels when made of wood are p^ J . better calculated for complaints of the spine when the in apinai patient is obliged to lie for some hours every day perfectly complaints. ^ ° j j r j flat on the back. The construction of the couch is such as will admit of the patient lying at full length, as when the panels are flat, as shown at K, L, M, or in a more comfortable position with the legs bent slightly, and the back raised when the panels are as shown at k', l', m'. If there is no absolute necessity for having wooden panels, sacking or webbing may be stretched over the frames, or iron laths, Webbina or similar to those used for iron beds, may be interlaced ron a s. ^^^ screwed down to the. framing with screws whose heads are round above and flat below so as to grip the lath and hold it tightly to the wood. When the frame is nicely stained and varnished, and Cushions for the Cushions covered with a pretty chintz or cretonne, couc . j^j^g whole makes by no means an ugly piece of furniture, and if it appear to be somewhat stifif and formal in appearance, these defects are amply atoned for by its comfort and utility. 804. When the panels are laid perfectly flat so that their surfaces form one dead level from end to end, a head board maybe fixed across the upper end, as shown by the dotted lines at X, and a Conversion rx- 7 j of couch into pillow for the head placed against the head-board as indicated by the dotted circle at Y. The method to be adopted for fixing the head-board will be described in section 809. 805. If the amateur can make a couch of this description, he will not find much difficulty in making an old-fashioned sofa with upright oia-fashioned ends and back, or a couch with one end and a back about ^° ^' two-thirds of the length of the couch. Both sofa and couch may be made with a frame as shown above, to which the ends and back must be attached ; or, in the case of the sofa, ends may be made Construction of Simple Folding Bedstead. 371 something like the back of the easy chair shown in fig. 393, these ends being connected with rails to form seat and back. For the couch only one raised end will be needed. The form that either will assume when completed must be left to the requirements and taste of the amateur ; it is only with the general principles of construction that we are here concerned. 806. It is not to be supposed that the amateur carpenter will ever seek to make for himself an elaborate four-post bedstead, or even a wooden French or Arabian bedstead; but if he be an simple emigrant in one of our coionies, he may find it useful to be able to make simple bedsteads for general use ; and if he be a com- paratively poor man at home, he may find it equally answer his purpose to make a bedstead for a servant or a child, or even foi a spare bed which may be put up anywhere in a few minutes as occasion may require. 807. The bed about to be described is one that from the form and arrangement of its legs is called an X bedstead. It is im- ° . An X bei possible to find any kind of bedstead, however elaborate it always ,,_,.,., o- J comfortable, may be and however well fitted with sprmgs, that aifords a more comfortable resting-place. The writer, as a boarder in the Gram- mar School at Plymouth, close to St. Andrew's or the " Old Church," but now devoted to other purposes, slept for years in a bed of this kind, in a large room which was supposed to have been the refectory of the monks who once were said to have tenanted the building ; and he re- members with gratitude the many comfortable nights' rest he has had in it, and the pleasure, not unmixed with ap- prehension of coming evil, he has experi- enced from the so- called steeplechases, which were generally held on Sunday morn- ings, round the room from bed to bed, and which unfortunately ended more than once in broken legs, the sufferers from this calamity being the bedsteads, and not those that tenanted them. 808 To return, however, to our subject, namely, how to make an X SIMPLE FOLDING BEDSTEAD. 372 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. bedstead. The first thing to be done is to get two pieces of deal, about ction 3'"' ^^'^^ '^^^ about 2>^in. thick, to form the sides of the of X bedstead, ^gd. Qne angle of each of these pieces must be planed off all along its length, so as to bring it in section to the shape shown at A and B in fig. 405, which represents the head of the bed as seen from behind. Other pieces of stuff — hard wood will be found better than deal — about 2in. wide and i^in. thick, or even a little stouter, must be taken for the legs, which will have to be mortised into the rails that form the sides, as shown at C and D. These legs must be cut at an angle, as shown at E and F, so that they may stand flat on the floor when the bed is opened out. Care must be taken to cut the mortises in the rails in such a manner that the legs attached to one rail may come against those in the other rail. This may be better explained by aid of fig. 406, in which, supposing that A and B are the surfaces of the rails in which the mortise holes are to be cut, if the mortise holes in A are made in the positions indicated at C and D, the mortise holes in B must be made in the positions indicated by E and F, so that both the legs inserted at E and F may be passed between the legs inserted at c and D, the outsides of the former pair being in close contact with the insides of the latter ; or the mortise holes in B may be made in the positions indicated by E and G, so that the legs inserted at E and G may pass both on the right side of the legs with which they are respectively brought in contact. C f/yy/yj Fig. 406. DISPOSITION of ^^ '^ precisely on this principle that the LEGS IN FOLDING BEDSTEAD, stand for 3. butlcr^s tray is made ; the chief points of difference between a butler's tray-stand and an X bedstead being, that the legs of the former are longer than those of the latter, while the rails on which the tray rests are shorter ; that each pair of legs of the butler's tray-stand is connected near the bottom by trans- verse rails to strengthen them, while those of the bedstead are not ; and, lastly, that the sacking from rail to rail in the bedstead is replaced by three pieces of narrow but strong webbing in the tray-stand. Most amateur carpenters will have a tray-stand of this kind, and an exami- nation of it before beginning to make the X bedstead will greatly assist them in the work they are about to enter on. 809. The legs are fastened together at the point where each pair cross one another by a bolt and nut, as shown at G in fig. 405. The head Connection °^ ^^^ ^°'^ '^ shown in the illustration ; the nut, which of the legs, should always be inwards, being on the other side of the legs, and therefore hidden from view. A piece of strong sacking is Construction and Use of Head of Bedstead. 373 then nailed across the bedstead, from rail to rail ; it should extend from the comer N to the comer O. The sack-cloth will pre- „ , . i^ Sacking and vent the legs from opening beyond a certain extent, and, iiead-piece. when the bed is opened for use, affords a comfortable and tolerably elastic support for the mattress and any one who may occupy the bed. The head is formed by a piece of board, as shown in the illustration, with pieces of wood or iron screwed to the back, as at H and K, with pins at the bottom which fit into holes, L and M, bored through the sacking and into the side rails for their reception. The head is put on after the bed is opened to its fullest extent, and prevents the bed from collapsing or shutting up, as it might do, under the pressure of any weight that might be placed on the sacking if there were no con- trivance of this kind to keep the sides extended and the legs tolerably rigid. CHAPTER VII. WINDOWS, DOORS, AND GATES. Windows — AVhy treated separately — Classification of Windows — Casement Windows — Cross-bars not Essential — Definition of Casement Window — Simple Casement Window and Frame — How to Make the Frame — Tlie Frame for the Glass — Connection of Frame and Window — Knob and Fastener — Stops : where to place them — Hingeing at top or bottom of Frame — Rack and Stay Hook — Principle and Construction of Rack — Stay Hook : how it is fixed — Rack wth Knuckle-joint — How to attach Rack — Stops on Window-frame — Description given applicable to all Windows of this kind — Casements suitable for Framed Houses — Construction of Double Casements — Casing and Stops— Suitable finish for Casement — Sash Windows— Machine-made Sash-bars — Making of Sash- frame difficult — Closure of Upper and Lower Sash-frames — Amateur should know how Sash-frame is made — Construction of Sash-frame — Weights balancing Frame — Breakage of Sash-line — Mending broken Sash-line — Description of interior of Frame — How to take out Sash — The Pocket in Frame : how to find it — Weight to be taken out — How to get in new Cord — Knotting Cord to Weight — Naihng Cord to Frame — Replacement of Sash, Bead, etc. — Windows and Doors : how defined — Classification of Doors — Ledge Doors : their appear- ance — Frame for Ledge Doors — How to make a Ledge Door — How to fix the Door — T Hinges or Cross-garnets — Latch and Fittings for Door — Framed Doors — Why Framed Doors are used — Parts of a Framed Door— Rails, Styles, and Panels— Construction of separate parts of Door — Grooves for Panels — Moulding in Panels — Position of Stops — Butt Hinges — Hanging Door a difficult opera- tion — Fixing the Hinges— Sinking Hinges in Work — Styles and Rails for Cup- board Doors— Construction of Simple Cupboard Door — Temporary Door for Hanging Closet — Conclusion of Remarks on Doors — Gates of different kinds — Ordinary Field Gate — Posts or Supports — Construction of Gate — The Strut and its use — Light but strong Gate— Fasteners for Gates — Simple method of making small Gate — Gate at top of Flight of Stairs — Garden Gates — Good Gate for Garden — Construction of Gate. 8io. As windows form an essential, though a separate and distinct, part of house-building, as far as it may be practised by the amateur in the construction of sheds, greenhouses, etc., and as doors Windows. ' ^ ' ' also, whether for cupboards or any small enclosed space, or as the means of entrance to rooms or outbuildings of any kind, are also pieces of carpentry that are complete in themselves, a short Why treated chapter may be devoted here to their consideration. It separately, jg q]\ ^jjg more necessary and convenient to take windows and doors separately, because it is impossible to treat of the construe- Windows: Definition of Casement Window. 375 tion of a cupboard or wardrobe without mentioning the door which is so essential a part of each ; and, when the structure of various kinds of doors have been described, a mere allusion to them is all that will be necessary when speaking of those various structures, and articles ol furniture of which they form a part. 811. Windows maybe broadly classified as being of two kinds — casement windows and sash windows. Casement windows are hung on hinges like doors, or made to move on pivots inserted ciaBsificaMon in the centre of the sides of the window-frame. Sash of windows, windows, on the contrary, slide up and down, being raised and lowered and retained in any desired position — whether slightly open or opened to the utmost extent— by counterbalances in the form of iron weights attached to the window-frame by means of sash cords that work over pulleys set in the frame in which the sashes work. 812. For outbuildings of all sorts, whether sheds or constructions used as workshops, greenhouses, or summerhouses, casement windows will be found most convenient and most suitable to the case-nent purposes of the amateur. From the description of one windows, casement window and the method of hanging it, the amateur will easily see how all windows of this formation, whether large or small, may be made and hung. In all kinds of windows, as glass ci.oss.bars not is now so cheap, the amateur is counselled to make them essential, without cross-bars, resorting to them only when the window is of great size, and even then restricting himself, if possible, to vertical bars, which will reduce the size of the panes sufficiently for all purposes and positions with which the amateur may have to deal. 813. A casement window may be defined as a movable frame, fastened by hinges to and within another frame fixed in position. In brickwork this fixed frame is placed in position, and the Definition of bricks built up around and over it ; but when the structure casement window. IS made entirely of wood, advantage may be taken of the vertical timbers of which the framework of the building is made to hang the casements to these, and so save the cost and trouble of making a special frame to receive them. 814. Let us, first, take the case of a simple casement window and frame inserted in a brick wall. The elevation of a window of this kind is shown in fig. 407, and the transverse section in fig. 408. y^r , ■■,■,■■ r ■ 1 , Simple case- Of course here, as m other descriptions of articles to be ment window and frame, made by the amateur carpenter, dimensions are altogether neglected, for these are relative and subordinate to the position and extent of opening to be filled by the window, and must be determined 37(3 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. cC ZJB Fig. 407. ELEVATION'. accordingly. It will be sufficient to say that in most cases timber 3in. wide and from 2 in. to 3in. long will be sufficient for the frame, and from i>^in. square to 2in. by l>^in. or ^] ] 2in. square for the frame in which the glass is to be inserted. The di- mensions having been settled, and a working drawing having been made, the amateur may proceed to the con- struction of the window and the frame that encloses it. 815. The first thing to be done is to cut off the requisite lengths — the horizontal pieces A B and C D, and How to make ^^^ vertical pieces E and the frame, p, and then mortise E and F into A B and c D, leaving the ends A, B, and c, D, of the hori- zontal pieces projecting beyond the outside surfaces of E and F. Ja o?- --i^ FlG. 408. TRANSVERSE SECTION. CASEMENT WINDOW. This is done for two reasons, first, to give greater strength to the mortise and tenon joints, which would be weakened if the projecting pieces were cut off flush with the outside surfaces of E and F ; and, secondly, to enable the frame to be fixed with greater security in the brickwork ; the projections entering into the brickwork and being held abov^e and below, if not on all sides, by the bricks somewhat after the manner of a mortise and tenon joint. When the uprights have been mortised into the horizontal pieces and secured by pins, the frame is complete, and ready to be put in its place. 816. The frame for the glass is made in much the same manner, but a rebate must be cut in the pieces of which the frame is composed for The frame the reception of the glass. In the case of the inner frame for the glass. ^^^ horizontal pieces are mortised into the uprights instead of the uprights being mortised into the horizontal pieces, as in the outer or fixed frame. Thus in fig. 407 the horizontal pieces G and H are mortised into the uprights K and L, and firmly pinned together. The lines within G, H, K, L denote the rebate, which is shown more clearly at M and N in the section in fig. 408. In small windows of this kind no cross-bars or even vertical bars are required ; if, however, the window be of some size and the chances of breakage from stones, etc., be above the average, as it will be in some cases, it may be desirable to reduce the size of the panes by vertical bars or even cross-bars. The Stops of Casement Windows. z77 window-frame having been primed and glazed, it will be necessary to fix it in position. We will assume at first that the window is to open inwards. In this case the inner frame must be inserted in the outer frame, and the extent marked round the inner surface of connection the outer frame with a pencil. Stops, as shown at of frame ^ and window. O, P, Q, R in fig. 407, and in section at O and P in fig. 408, must then be nailed round the inner surface of the outer frame, the inside of the stop in every case just touching the pencil mark. The window must then be attached to the frame by a pair of hinges, 2>^in. or 3in. common iron butts being the most suitable, as shown at S in fig. 408. A knob is usually attached to the inside of the window, being inserted in the side opposite to that to which the Knob and hinges are screwed, for the purpose of pulling the window open. The window is fastened and kept from being forced inwards by wind or any other pressure by an iron or brass button, screwed to the fixed frame so as to be turned over or away from the window at pleasure. 817. It will be at once apparent to the amateur that if he wishes the window to open outwards the stops must be put inside instead of out, and the window brought flush with the outside of the fixed stops : where frame instead of the inside. The hinges will also be ° ^ ^°® ^^' turned outside instead of inside. In fact, the window and window- frame are precisely the same as described above, only that what was the inside of the window in the first case is the outside of the window in the second case. When the window opens outward, the button which is screwed on inside must be fixed to the window instead of the frame, and be turned at pleasure over or away from the stops. 818. It may be convenient for some reason or another to hinge the window to the top or bottom of the frame instead of either of the sides. In this case the mode of procedure is precisely the same ; Singeing at but when the hinges are attached to the bottom of the ^^^f^^^^g"™ frame, it is necessary to prevent the window from opening beyond a certain extent by means ol '=^k^=== - '• 1^ 9 a small piece of iron or brass chain * Fi g. 409. RACK. attached at one end to the frame, and "^ ^ * at the other end to the window, by Fig. 410. STAY HOOK. ,, ^ , rr .u« small staples. If the Rack and hinges are attached to the top of the window and top-rail ° ^^ of the frame, the window must be kept open by means of a rack or stay-hook. The rack is shown in fig. 409, and the simple stay-hook in fig. 410. 378 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. 819. The rack is an iron bar pierced with holes that fit over a peg A, which is screwed to the frame, the rack itself being screwed to the window at B, a piece of iron to which the perforated bar Principle and ^ construction is attached by a pin, on which it moves to risrht or left as of rack. j r ^ o may be necessary. The stay-hook, on the contrary, is fixed to the frame by a staple, as shown at A, and the hooked end drops into an eye B, which is screwed in-to the frame. Btay-hook : ^ ■' how it is The rack costs from 8d. to is., according to size; the £.26(1. Stay - hook from 3d. to 6d. There is another kind of rack, consisting of two arms moving on a pivot, by which they are jointed together in the middle and fastened at the other end by pins to plates which are screwed, one to the window and the other to the Rack with frame. Some of these racks are fitted in the centre with knuckle joint. ^ grooved joint, technically called a " knuckle joint." Thus the raised part of one arm is pressed into the grooved part of the other arm by means of a thumb-screw, and the extent of opening may be regulated at pleasure, the arms being fixed in position by the action of the thumb-screw. These racks are more suitable for attach- ment to the sides of windows when hinged at top or bottom. They should never be attached to the part of the frame that is opposite to the hinges ; for, as this moves in an arc of a circle, it is manifest that How to the two-armed rack will not act properly unless placed attach rack. ^^ ^^ ^j^^^ ^qx windows that are hinged at the top and open outwards, the stay-hook or the bar-rack figured above are the most suitable. For greenhouse windows an arc of iron is often used, pierced with holes at intervals. This arc moves within a piece of iron whose sides are also pierced with holes, and when the window has been opened to the desired extent, a pin is thrust through the holes to prevent further motion outwards or inwards. 820. While speaking of greenhouse windows, it may be useful to say that, instead of putting stops round the inside of the frame to prevent them from being pushed inwards, the same result window- may be attained by nailing a slip of wood about lin. in breadth all round the window on the outside, projectmg about fgin. beyond it. When the window is closed this acts as a stop to keep it from further progress inwards ; it also tends to prevent the ingress of rain between the window and the frame, which often causes the wood to swell and renders it difficult to open the window. 821. The preceding description of the casement window and the method of hanging it by hinges to its frame holds good, as far as Casements Suitable for Framed Houses. 379 the making and fixing of the window itself is concerned, to a window attached to the framing of a wooden building as well as peggj.iptio^ to one fastened to a frame built into brickwork. All ^^^^^ ^P'^ that is necessary here is to see what provision should be windowB^of made for finishing a window such as we have been con- sidering, when the framing of the building is adapted to furnish the frame of the window. 822, This kind of window will be found particularly useful by those who are building weather-boarded houses or framed houses covered with Lascelles' Patent Concrete Slabs. Let us suppose casements that A, B, and C are three uprights or vertical timbers framed mortised below into the horizontal timber that lays after the manner of a sill on the concrete footing, and at the uppef ends into D, a timber on which the roof is sustained, if the ^ structure be what is called a lean-to. It has been de- termined to have a double window, that is to say, two windows, one on either side of the upright B, hinged, the one on the right to A,and the one on the left to C. Hav- ing determined the posi- tion and the length of the window and the thickness of the sill, it will be necessary to notch two pieces of wood, as E and F, into the uprights above and two more, G and H, ^^^^^^^^.^^ into the uprights below. The lower timbers G and H ^.^gg^g^ig^ form a bed for the sill, and suitable means of attach- ment for the boards or slabs, as the case may be, that are put up immediately under the window-sill. When these transverse pieces have been fixed in their places, the next step is to put on the sill K, which should be notched into the uprights at each end and in the centre, and sloped slightly on the upper and outer ledge, so that no rain may effect a lodgment on it, but may trickle off to the outer edge. When this has been nailed securely in its place, two rectangular openings are formed, round which a casing should be nailed, as shown at L, M, N, and O, in each opening. This casing may vary from ^in. to I in. in thickness, and should project beyond the outer face of the uprights and other parts of the frame-work sufficiently to allow the / c ... B P- A i F Z U L N 11 a i h H a Fig. 411. CASEMENT WINDOWS IN FRAMED HOUSE. 380 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. weather-boarding or slabs, as the case may be, with which the frame- work is covered in to drop within them to the extent of at least >^in. cai3ing There is no absolute necessity to continue the casing at and stops, ^j^g bottom, as at O, but it makes a neater and more symmetrical piece of work when this is done. The casing takes the place of the frame in which the window is placed when set in brick- work, and to this the stops must be nailed and the windows hung. There is no necessity to show the windows in the drawing, or even the stops, for the windows themselves are made and fixed in a similar way to that shown in fig. 407. A piece of wood must be dropped between the casings and nailed to B to give a proper finish to the window, and take away from the depth between the casings H and L on either side of it ; and it will look all the better if two pieces of wood are nailed on, one at P and the other at Q, as if the casing were continued along the Avhole length of the double window. It is practicable to use the uprights and horizontal pieces as the frame of the window without the intervention of any casing ; but in this case that which is now con- sidered to be casing in- fig. 411— namely, L, M, N, o, in each window- will be stops, and narrow pieces of wood must be nailed to the uprights A, B, and C, and the cross-pieces E and F, to serve as projections, within which the ends of the weather-boards or the slabs may be dropped. Of course these projecting pieces must be nailed on flush with the inner edges of the openings. 823. Referring back to fig. 407, in which is represented a window in a Suitable finish fr^i^e set in brickwork, or a concrete wall, a finish may be for casement, gj^en to the frame and window by nailing a neat moulding round the frame, both on its inner and outer surface, close in each case to the outer edge of the frame. 824. With regard to sash-windows, it is unlikely that the amateur will ever attempt to make a window, having the sash divided into many Sash ^^'^ small compartments as was usual in the latter part windows, ^f jj^g j^g^ ^j^^j ^j^g g^^jy p^j.^ Qf ^j^g present century, until the duty on glass was taken off— and glass being consequently much cheaper, the fracture of a pane is not a matter of so much moment as it was years ago. Indeed, except in fancy work for greenhouses and conservatories, sash mouldings are now but seldom used. In most cases the sash at top and bottom consists of a frame in which one large pane is set, or at the utmost the space is divided into two parts by one vertical bar, or into four parts by a vertical bar and a horizontal bar crossing each other at right angles. 825. When a frame of this kind is made, sash-bars moulded to the Construction of Sash-frame. 381 desired form by machinery are used. The making of the frame is easy enough as far as construction goes, but difficult on j^^g^B^Ih- the other hand, inasmuch as the whole work throughout bars, its various component pieces requires to be very neatly and accurately framed together. The transverse pieces at top and bottom ^^^}^l^^ must be mortised into the upright pieces or the sides ; cufficiut. the upright bars in their turn must be mortised into the transverse pieces of the frame, and the cross-bars must in their turn be mortised into the sides and vertical bars. When every part is ready, the pieces musi be glued up, and put together with a few strokes of closure of upper and the mallet, the tenons being tightly fastened mto the mor- lower sash- tise holes by wedges. The bottom rail of the lower sash is made from two to three times as broad as the upper rail. The bottom rail of the upper sash, instead of being planed flush with the rest of the frame, is made in a sloping direction inside, the width of the lower part being the greatest. In the same manner the outer part of the upper rail of the lower sash is made to slant outwards and upwards, so that the upper part of the rail is the thickest. This will be clear from fig. 412, in which a section of the upper rail of the lower sash is represented in A, and a section of the lower rail of the I r^^^ f upper sash in B. The grooves in which the sashes respectively work are shown at C and D, E being the parting-bead between the two sashes, F the inner bead- ing which confines the inner and lower sash, and G that portion of the sash-frame that confines the upper Fig. 412. J ^ 1 JUNCTIO.V OF and outer sash. sash-frames. 826. It is far more useful for the amateur to understand the con- struction of the sash-frame than that of the sash itself, for he may be called on, now and then, to repair a broken sash-line. Amateur *^ ' should know and, unless he is aware how the sash-frame is made, he iiow sash- frame is will find this no easy task : indeed, it is very doubtful if made. he will be able to do it at all. The construction being known, the mode of going to work in order to substitute a new and strong sash- line for the broken one is easy enough. 827. The frame into which the sashes are fitted is a somewhat com plicated arrangement, or at least it will appear so to the amateur. Between the solid sill at the bottom of the window, which construeUon rests on the stone ledge or sill, and the thick piece of °* sash-frame. wood which forms the lintel across the top of the window, two box- shaped sides are fixed, to which are attached the beads or guides which keep the sashes in their places, and in which are inserted the 383 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. pulleys over which run the cords to which the weights are attached, which are concealed out of view in the boxes. In fig. 413 this Weights arrans^ement is explained ; J is the lintel at the top of the balancing frame. sash-window, and K the sill at the bottom ; H and I are perpendicular pieces of wood that form the fronts of the boxes that are fixed on each side of the win- dow, the sides that are next the observer, who is supposed to be within the room, being cut away, except near the bottom of the win- dow, so as to show the weights. These weights, w, w, work over the pulleys, P, P, that are inserted trans- versely in the fronts, H and i, of the side boxes. The weights that meet the view in the illustration are those attached to the bottom sash, which is closed. When the weights are near the top of the frame, the sash, as it has just been said, is closed, consequently when Fig. 413. WEIGHTS BALANCING WINDOW, the sash Is ralsed the weights will descend, keeping the sash in any position to which it may be lifted, allowing it to be raised until the top-rail is nearly in con- tact with the lintel. When through length of time the sash-line is worn and breaks, the weight falls with a crash to the bottom of the Breakage of frame, and the window is rendered incapable of being sas - e. ■yvorked with ease, and to a certain extent dangerous ; for if the other cord break, as it will do sometimes if it is attempted to work the window with only one cord and weight, the sash will fall with considerable weight and force, breaking some of the glass by the con- cussion, if the glass be thin and the panes many as in old-fashioned windows, and perhaps inflicting a severe bruise, and breaking the skin of the back of each hand of the person who is raising the window, and who, being unprepared for its sudden fall, has not had time or presence of mind to pull them out of harm's way. 828. The question now is — how is the damage to be repaired ? In the first place, some sash-line must be bought. The best sash-cord is b^k^nsash- "^^^^ °^ ^^^' P^^i^c^ >* twisted rope is useless, for the line. very way in which it is made renders it apt to cause a weight attached to it to turn round, and it will tighten in wet weather, Interior of the Sash-frame : The Pocket. 3S3 and get longer in dry weather after the manner of all kinds of cord, causing it to be unfit for the purpose under consideration. Amateurs requiring sash-cord for repairs should get Austin's " Patent Flax Sash Line," the most useful sizes are Nos. 4, 5, and 6, sold respectively at 7d., gd., and iid. per knot of 12 yards. 829. To understand what course to pursue under such an emergency an inspection of fig. 414 is necessary, which shows a section of the frame on the right-hand side of the window. In this F is Description ° of interior the space without the lower sash, which is occupied by of frame, the wooden window-sill ; B is a section of the right-hand upright of the lower sash ; c is the bead within, and E the parting-bead, which act as guides to keep the sash B in its place, and with A form the groove in which it works up and down on the right side; the upper sash working in the groove } "^l-pq ^" 1 formed by E, the continuation of A and the projecting edge G of the board H, which forms the outside of the frame or box in which the f-i ^ weights work. The front of the box is formed / f „ [d by the board A, K being another board which I forms the inside of the frame towards the \^~ room. A parting-bead L is inserted which * divides the box into two parts, one for each sAsS-FRAMls^Howr.fa weight, and keeps the weights from clashing weights, etc. one against another in their passage up and down. The frame is completed by another board, which goes across from H to K, parallel to A, and to which the boards H and K are nailed. 830. Supposing the cord which attaches the weight w to the right- hand side of the sash B is broken, the amateur must first proceed to remove the bead C on the right-hand side of the window. How to take lifting it out of its place with a chisel. This will not be °^' ^*^^' very difficult, as it is merely bradded in its place by thin nails ; care should be taken not to injure the paint more than can be helped. The bead C being withdrawn, the sash B may be easily slipped out of its place, and the side exposed to view, in the upper part of which is a shallow groove D, just deep enough to hold the sash-cord, and in which the end of the broken cord will be found to be nailed by two or three clout nails, or nails with flat, round heads. The nails must be pulled out and the cord removed. A close inspection of , . , ^ ^ . The pocket in the side of frame will show the amateur where the frame : how " pocket " A is. This is a long slip of wood nearly as broad as the groove in which the sash B moves ; it is fitted tightly into 3 84 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. a long slot cut for its reception, but may be easily lifted out with a chisel. The top of the weight will then be visible, this must be taken out Weight to be and the cord removed. The next point is how to get in the taken out. ^^^^ cord. To effect this a piece of twine must be attached to one end of the new piece of sash cord, and a small piece of chain to How to get in the twine. The chain must then be passed over the pul- new cord, j^^ -^^^^ ^-^q frame. Its weight will soon take it to the bottom of the frame, dragging the twine with it, by means of which the sash cord may be drawn into the frame, over the pulley, and Knotting cord brought out at the bottom. The cord must then be knotted to weight. ^^ ^j^g weight, and the weight returned to its place, and the piece of wood that has been removed fitted carefully into the slot from which it was taken. It now remains to nail the cord to the frame, Nailing cord ^^'^ ^° determine the proper length at which it must be to frame, (.y^ ^ff . ^he weight must be pulled up nearly to the top, and the cord cut off about Sin. or g'm. below the lower rail of the top sash ; the end must then be laid into the groove D, and attached to ^ , , the frame of the sash with nails. The sash may then be Eeplacement of sash, bead, replaced and the bead c restored to its original position, etc. which completes the operation. When it is necessary to take out the top sash, the bead C and the lower sash must first be re- moved, after which the parting-bead E must be slipped out, which is a matter of no difficulty, as the bead is merely dropped into a groove ploughed in A from top to bottom for its reception. 831. Windows and doors, from one point of view, may be described as the means by which ingress and egress are afibrded to and from ^, , ^ any room or enclosed space. It may be objected that Windows and •' ^ •' / doors : how windows do not generally aflford this, which is true to a defined. . certain extent and under certain circumstances, for persons are often compelled to enter and quit a house by a window when the house is on fire ; and some windows, as for example French windows, partake of the nature of doors and are used in precisely the same way. Thus the broad definition holds good, and as the bat is looked on as a connecting link between animals and birds, and the flying fish as a connecting link between birds and fishes, so may the French window be regarded as connecting the window proper with doors of all kinds. 832. In considering doors we may look on them, speaking generally Classification as divided into ledge doors and framed doors, the construc- of doors. ^j^j^ ^^ which we will proceed to describe ; after which it will be useful to say a few words on gates. Ledge Doors: How to make them. 385 ^22- In fig. 415 is shown the construction of the ledge door. In order to do this clearly, and to exhibit the way by which it is attached by hinges to the side-post or frame, it has been necessary Ledge doors : to make this illustra- their , , . . appearance, tion the elevation of the door as seen from the inside. Outside nothing more is seen than the lines in which the planks that form the door meet ; and as match- boarding is generally used for doors of this description, the line of junction assumes the form of a bead. We may now proceed to show how the door is made. 834. If the door is to befitted to a framed wooden building, provision will have been made Frame for to adapt part of the ^'^^^^°°'^^- Fig. 415. THE LEDGE DOOR. r • ^i • u -J ^ -^ frammg as the jambs or side-posts and lintel ; but if the door is to be inserted in a brick wall, or a wall of any other material, a frame must be made for its recep- tion. In either case the principles of construction are the same, and as the amateur does not now require to be told how to make a frame for a door, we will take it for granted that the door is intended for some outbuilding that he has built of wood, for a work- shop, or any other purpose. In this case A and B are two up- rights, portions of the framing, mortised into the horizontal piece of wood D at the bottom, which serves as the sill of the door. At a suitable height, say 6ft. in the clear above the sill, a piece of quartering, c, is mortised, or notched, into the uprights, as may be most convenient. Mortising is strongest and neatest, and as the insertion of C should be provided for when the framing is in course of constructioii there will be no difficulty in putting in the lintel in this manner. If the frame is made separately for insertion in a wall, the ends of the sill and lintel should project beyond the uprights, as shown at E, F, G, and H. 835. Now for the door. Suppose the width between the uprights to be 2ft. 3in., three pieces of match-boarding, ^'m. or 3;(in. thick and 9in. wide, will be sufficient for the vertical planks shown how to make at K, L, M. These planks, it need scarcely be said, extend * ^ ^® from top to bottom. Two ledges or slips of wood N, O, about 6in. wide 2S 386 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. and ^in. thick, are then placed horizontally, as shown in the figure; and to these the planks K, L, and :m are nailed with c/as^ nails, which should be used because the ends can be turned and clenched in the ledges. These nails are driven in from the outside. When the door is a light one, two ledges are sufficient, but when it is large and heavy, it is better to use three ledges, one in the centre, and one near the top, and a third near the bottom of the door. To strengthen the door shallow notches are cut in N and o, at P and Q, to receive the corners of the brace R, to which the boards that form the door are also nailed and clenched. When three ledges are used two braces are required ; these braces must be inserted in precisely the same manner as the brace shown in fig. 415. 836. The door is now complete, and all that remains to be done is to fix it in the position it is intended to occupy. In helping us to How to fix uriderstand how this is to be done, fig. 416, which shows the door, jj^g pj^n or section of the door through one of the ledges, will prove of service. The door must be fitted nicely into the opening and held in position between the jambs A and B, so that the outer i^__e D ^^^ surface of the ledges is flush with the ^t^l. ■ ■ ,' ■ ' '^ ^ inner surface of the jambs. Marks p,Q 5 with a pencil must then be made to SECTION OF LEDGE DOOR. show how far the outer surface of the door projects along the opposite faces of the jambs. The door must then be removed, and stops, as shown by c and D, nailed to the sides of the jambs and the under surface of the lintel. The door must then be set against the jambs, and two thin pieces of wood inserted be- tween the sill and the bottom of the door, so that the door may not drag or bear against the upper surface of the sill when it is opened or shut. A T hinges or P^irof Thinges, sometimes caMtd cross-ganieis, xxiust then cross-garnets. ]-,g screwed to the jamb A, and the ledges N, o, as shown at S and T in fig. 415, andat Sin the sectional diagram, fig. 416. Hinges of this description vary considerably in size, the smaller sorts being used for box-hinges, and the larger kinds for doors, the lids of dust-bins, etc. For a light door, the tongue of the hinge, that is to s ly, the part which is screwed to the ledge, should not be less than gin., and the cross-piece about 4in. ; for a heavy door a larger and stronger hinge should be used. Lastly, the latch of the door must be put on, and Latch and . ^ . , , fittings this may be a simple thumb-latch, unless a sprmg-latch for door. or a lock is preferred. If a thumb-latch is used, a small block of wood, u, must be fixed to the door, of the same thickness as the ledge, and to this the lifting bar of the latch must be screwed and Construction and Parts of Framed Door. 387 the iron loop within which it works, the catch into which it drops being screwed to the jamb B. A hole must be cut through the board M and the block U to admit of the insertion of the lever by which the bar of the latch is lifted. Such is the ledge door, and as this is the kind of door which will be chiefly made by the amateur for his sheds, tool- houses, and outbuildings of every description, except greenhouses, care has been taken to describe every part of it, and to show its construction and the mode adopted in " hanging " it, as clearly and fully as possible. 837. A framed door is much more elaborate in its construction, and consists either of a simple single panel in a frame, as used for dwarf pjamed cupboards, or two, four, or doors, six panels, enclosed between styles and rails. The reasons why doors are made in this manner are, firstly, because they present a better and far more satisfac- tory appearance than a door -^^^y framed with an almost plain and*^°°^«^«"^®<*- unbroken surface as a ledge door ; secondly, because it is far lighter than a door would be made of the same thick- ness throughout as the wood which is used for the styles and rails ; and thirdly, because less wood is used in its construc- tion. This effects a saving in the cost and quantity of material used; but this, when the door is made by a carpenter, is counterbalanced by the extra time taken in making, and the consequent extra cost of labour. 838. As a suitable example of a framed door, we may as well take a four-panelled frame door, because it will afford the key to the mode of making most doors of this description, whatever may be pai-tsofa the number of panels used, whether one, two, four, or six. ^a™ed door. In fig. 417 the door is shown complete, when all the component parts have been put together. The parts are three rails, or cross-pieces A, B, and C, of which B and C are always wider than the top rail A ; two long styles, D and F, forming the sides of the door, and two short styles, E and G, in the centre between the rails ; lastly, there are four panels, h, i, j, and K, which are inserted in grooves cut in the styles and rails for their reception as shown in the figure by the j^aiis, styles, dotted lines /, w, n, o. With regard to the dimensions of and panels. the door and its dififerent parts, these must be left to the amateur thai Z A K F 1 1 i H Q K e J c Fig. 417. FOUR-PANELLED FRAMED DOOR. 3SS Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. lie may adapt them to his special requirements. It may, however, be said that the panels are generally made of sound straight-grained ;^in. stuff, and that the styles and rails of wood range from iXin. to 2in. in thickness ; the styles are generally about 4in. in width, the top rail about 5in. or 6in. wide, and the middle and bottom rail about twice the width of the top rail. 839. Let us turn now to fig. 418, in which every piece that enters into the canstruction of the door is shown separately in its entirety — that is to say, ex- 1 r Construction ..... , \~^\ i'V ■ A I ct 1 of separate hibitmg the tenons \ " j |_i_i ! I parts of door. . . ., ,. of the rails and the full extent of the panels. All the pieces, moreover, are in the position they occupy relatively to one another, and in which they must be placed before the tenons are glued up, and the component parts all brought together. An examination of the figure will show that tenons must be cut at a and c in the rail A, e and/ in B, and ^ and h in C, which fit into correspond- ing mortises in the styles, shown by the same letters, namely, a,e, and ^ in D, and c,/, and /« in F ; tenons are also cut at the ends ^'^- ^''- '^^^' °^ ^^^"'^^ ^°°^- d and d of the short style E, and at the ends z and j of the short style G, which fit into mortises similarly let- tered in the rails A, B, and C. In the t'nfier edge of the two long styles and the top and bottom rails, and on both edges of the short styles and centre rail, grooves must be ploughed Grooves ^^out YzXXi. deep to receive the edges of the panels, which, for panels, therefore, must be made about lin. wider than they seem to be when the different parts of the door are all brought together. This is clearly shown in fig. 419, which is a section of the door across the upper panels i and H and the styles D, E, F. In doors for ofifices and ordinary purposes nothing more is done, but in doors for houses it is usual to finish the inside of the door — that is to say, the side which is seen from the room to which the door is fixed — with a moulding, as [ii: l.t.A 13 ^a Fig. 419. section of framed door. Stops and Hinges for Doors. ^89 shown in figs. 417, 419, and on a larger scale in fig. 420, in which A is the style in section, B the panel, and Mouidicg C the moulding. The moulding m panels, should be of such a thickness as to be flush with dsl H ^iNG tTpA^K^^ the styles and rails in its thickest part. When a six-panel door is made, the second rail from the top is technically known as the "frieze" rail, the others retaining their ordinary names ; s for the four-panel door. In all doors of this description the middle rail is sometimes called the lock-rail. In making entrance doors and all doors in which great strength is required, ^ and frequently in doors in which the styles and . « — Lj rails are not more than iXin- i" thickness, C J— the panel is rebated, as shown at D m fig. 421, fig. 421. panei, so that one side of the panel may be flush with ^^^us" ^^'^"^ ^'r^^'=- the style. When this is done it adds very much to the appearance of the door if a bead is run round the edge of the rebated part of the panel, as also shown at D in fig. 421. 840. As the doors of rooms as a rule open inwards, the stops must be put on, as in the case of the ledge-door above described, on the outside. It may be said as a general rule that all doors, position whether of rooms or of cupboards, open into the room ; of stops. thus far the doors of rooms and cupboards are similar ; but in one respect they are not similar, and that is in this, that whereas the room door opens inwards into the room to allow of ingress or egress, as the case may be ; the door of a cupboard opens outivards from the space enclosed and shut in by the cupboard door or doors and their frame, so as to give more ready means of access to the interior of the cupboard and those things which have been placed in it. 841. All doors of rooms and cupboards are hung with hinges tech- nically called butts. These hinges are made of two pieces of cast iron of equal size, longer than they are wide in the proportion ^ ' '^ BiUt binges. of about three to one, furnished at the inner edge, one with two or three loops, and the other with one or two loops. Thus in fig. 422, which represents a butt hinge, the three loops a a «2 are on the inner edge of the flap A, and the two loops b b are on the inner edge of the flap B. The loops b b are inserted between the loops aaa, and a stiff pin on which the flaps turn is passed through the loops, which are perforated to receive it. fig. 422. Hanging a door or window is a delicate and trouble- butt hinge. some operation. When the hinge is closed, the edge of the style of jgo Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. the door on one side and the door-jamb on the other should not ex- tend further than the dotted line C D in fig. 422. The a'dTfflcuit°' method of fixing hinges will be more apparent from fig. operation. ^^^^ .^ ^^j^j^j^ ^^^ ^^^j^ ^^ ^j^^ ^^p ^ j^ ^^^^^ closed down upon A. This flap is buried to its edge in the edge x Y of the style of the door, a depression of suit- „. . .. able size having been cut out with a chisel to Fixing the ^ hinges. receive it. In the same manner the flap B is sunk in the door-jamb, until its inner surface is flush, or indeed a little below the surface of the door-jamb. To make the door complete, a mortise or rim-lock must be added to it, with the necessary fittings. Of these, a momof f"]x. mortise-lock is embedded in the style in the centre ■^<^ hinge. of the middle rail, but a rim-lock is screwed on the inner face of the middle rail of the door. As the general construction of locks will be noticed elsewhere in this work, no further description of the principles on which they are made wfU be required here. The utmost nicety is required in regulating the depth to which the flaps of Sinking hinfi'^s^^'^o^^ must be sunk in the wood. If by some mischance in work, ^qq niuch of the wood has been removed, a thickness or two of cardboard or coarse brown paper must be let into the groove to diminish the depth. Very few will hang a door or casement window or French window so as to work with perfect ease at the first essay, and even an experienced hand will sometimes spend an hour or two over a job of this kind. 842. The styles and rails of cupboard-doors, for cupboards, chefFo- niers, wardrobes, bookcases, and all kinds of articles of this description, are made of thinner wood than that which is generally styles and rails for cup- used for the Styles and rails of room-doors. A modifica- board-doors. tion of the construction described above for frame-doors will therefore be necessary, and we will now proceed to give soma idea of the principal points which characterise this modification. 843. For a simple cupboard-door two styles and two rails maybe framed together, as shown by figs. 424, 426, the former of which represents one corner when seen from within, and the other another Conulruction of simple cup- corner of the same frame seen from without. Both styles board-door. and rails are rebated, as shown by the shaded part in fig. 424 and in the sections represented in figs. 425, 426. Into the rebate a panel is dropped, which is secured in its resting-place by brads. The panel is shown at A rn fig. 425, and at B in fig. 427. The panel may be finished by a moulding, as at c, but a very nice appearance is Cupboard Doors and Temporary Doors. 391 given to a door of this description by a bead slightly rounded on the exterior, as shown at D in figs. 426 and 427, and put on in place of the moulding c. This bead is preferable to a mould- ing in all pieces of furniture which are stained and var- nished or French-polished. It should project slightly beyond the face of the frame of the a j ^ ■ door. When it is found neces- Fig. 425. section. Fig. 427. section- sary to make a temporary ward- modes of making cupboard doors. robe in a recess, or indeed to fit up a recess as a hanging closet for dresses, coats, etc., a very light, pretty, and ornamental >peinporary door may be made by dropping into the rebate of the ^°°rj°^ hang- frame, another frame, as shown between the dotted lines at E in fig. 425, made to fit into the rebate with tolerable ease, over which some chintz or cretonne has been strained. This fabric will be as effectual as the panel of a door in keeping out dust, and the extra thickness of the material when passed over the edges of the frame and nailed to it on its inner surface will make the frame fit tightly into the rebate, to which it must be secured with a brad here and there. 844. Here we must bring to an end our remarks on doors and the method of making them. The reader must remember that it is im- possible to describe pieces of furniture in completeness of detail in every part, as, for example, to give directions for remarks on ■' ^ ' ' 1 / v^ doors, making a cupboard, wardrobe, or bookcase, and go into the minutiae of door-making, with each article ; but from what is said here on the modes of making different kinds of doors the amateur need not be at a loss how to proceed when he is engaged in making any of the articles that have been mentioned. The information given has, in all cases, been rendered as broad and general in its application as possible, so that with regard to any branch of carpentry, joinery, or building work, what is merely hinted at in one part of the work, taken as a whole will be found fully and minutely described in another. The object chiefly in view has been to help the amateur to make any- thing and everything that it is possible for him to make, and not to give detailed descriptions of a few articles with regard to length, breadth, and thickness of every part, and the manner in which these parts must be put together. 845. The amateur artisan will perhaps be sometimes called on to 392 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. make a gate, which is nothing more than a door formed of styles an(3 Gates of dif- bars or pales instead of being solid. The various ways in ferent kinds, ^i^j^.^ gates may be made are well-nigh countless, and all that can be done here is to describe the general principles on which gates of all kinds are made. For this purpose it will be enough to describe and illustrate the ordinary field-gate, a little wicket-gate, and a garden-gate of rather more elaborate construction intended to close the entrance from the roadway into a garden in front of a house. 846. First, let us take the ordinary field-gate, which is represented in fig. 428. In this the supports of the gate are formed by two stout Ordinary posts, A, A, the lower end of each, B, B, being left rough field-gate. ^^ ^^ ^^ gj^g them better holding when put in the ground, A hole having been dug for the posts, they must be set upright by aid of the plumb-level and then surrounded with brick-bats, stones, gravel, lime core, etc., which must be beaten in tight with a rammer. To make the gate two styles, C, D, are first cut out, the style C, to which the hinges are fixed, being called the hang- ing style, while the style D, to which the latch is fastened, is called the falling style. Five or six rails, as G, G, G, are then mortised into the styles Posts or and wedged up as tightly as possible. The hinges, E, F, Buppcrts. ^j.g p^^ ^^ along the top and bottom rails. They consist of a loop of iron, which slips over a staple driven into the gate-post, Construction and two tongues or straps of iron which pass along the of gate, ^^p ^,^jj ^^ either side, bent to clasp the rail as well as the hanging style, and pierced at equal intervals with holes, through which small bolts are driven and riveted. It will be obvious to the reader that the gate, being longer than it is wide, will by its weight exercise a great strain on the hinges, and have a tendency to drop towards the ground at B. To prevent this, and to keep the end of the falling style Fig. 428. ORDINARY FIELD-GATE. How TO Make Gates of Various Kinds. 393 from touching and dragging along the ground, struts, H, K, should be put across the gate from corner to corner, by which the The strut and strain is taken off the rails and thrown on the bolts and ^'^ ^^®' straps of the upper hinge. The ends of the struts are butted against the styles. Sometimes only one strut is used, and in this case it does not matter in which direction the strut crosses the gate. Sometimes, in order to increase the angle at which the strut crosses the rails, or, in other words, to render it less acute, a piece of timber is mortised to the hanging strut, projecting in a direction slanting upwards over the plane in which the rails lie, and the strut is brought between the end of this projecting piece and the bottom of the falling style, as shown by the dotted lines in the illustration. 847. When a light but strong gate of this description is desired, the strut and styles are made of the same thickness and framed Light but together in the same plane. Holes are then bored through ^''^°°s gate. the styles and the strut, through which round bars of wood are driven and wedged up at each end. 848. Field-gates are fastened wiih a hook attached to the gate and falling into a staple driven into the post, against which the gate falls. Park-gates and entrance-gates of this description have Fasteners for a hole cut in the falling style, through which a short, flat gates. piece of iron curled at one end is passed. This iron works on a pin driven through both style and iron which is pierced for the purpose, and the gate is secured by the bar dropping into a notch cut in the piece of iron of some thickness, which is attached to the face of the falling post. 849. When making a small gate of this description, the amateur may A A savehimself the trouble of ^—^ f\ cutting and simple □ , • ^ method of planmg out making small round bars ^^^^' by buying a few broom- handles, which may be bought for 2d. each of most ironmongers, oil and _3 colour men, and others -L. who deal in brooms and Fig. 429- GARDEN OR WICKET GATE. brushes. The same handles make a neat fence when inserted at equal distances in two parallel and horizontal rails made to receive them and mortised at convenient lengths, say from 9ft. to 12ft. in stout uprights. They may 394 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. also be used instead of iron bars in making a little garden or wicket gate, as shown in Fig. 429; but as the wooden bars are much larger in diameter than the iron ones, the styles, rails, and struts must of course be made in proportion. In the gate exhibited in this figure the rails and struts are a trifle narrower than the styles into which they are mortised, and to give lightness of appearance the top rail and struts are chamfered. This should also be done with regard to the lower rail and styles, exactly as it is shown in the drawing. Holes are then bored in the top and bottom rails and the strut, through which bars of iron are driven. Hinges, consisting of loops and straps, are fastened to the rails as in the gate above described, and these hinges rest on perforated plates driven into the hanging post or otherwise secured. A vertical bar is then passed through loops and plates, on which bar he gate swings. 850. A handy gate of this kind for the head of a flight of stairs to keep young children from accidents from falling downstairs Gate at top i- J " o of flight of may be made with very little trouble, laths about ^im. stairs. thick and lyi inches wide being nailed to the rails and strut instead of iron bars. The gate may be hung to a pfece of wood about lin. in thickness, attached to the wall or the newel at the stair head as may be most convenient, the falling post consisting of a simi- lar piece of wood attached conversely to the newel or the wall as tlie case may be. 851. For a garden-gate, closing the entrance from a roadway to a garden, the kind of gate just described will not be sufficiently orna- _ , ^ mental in cha- Garden-gates. racter, though _j it may be substantial ^ enough for all purposes for which it is required. In this case the amateur will have to make a gate altogether different in description. An infinite variety of designs are to be had or made for gates of this class, but the most ^'^- 43o- garden-gate. convenient will be found to be a gate that is solid below and pierced above for lightness' sake, because it is better adapted for keeping passing dogs out of the garden. 852. In fig. 430 a good type of gate is shown, consisting of a central Garden-gate of Gothic Character. 395 circle chamfered and attached by the four arms of a cross, also chamfered to the styles and rails. It will be noticed that Oood gate for in the drawing the centre and corners are left open pur- e^rden. posely, because there are many different modes of treating them. It is objec- tionable to leave them unfilled, because animals, such as cats and dogs, can go in and out through any of the openings at pleasure. The whole of the openings may be furnished with vertical bars ; or the lower corners may be panelled, the upper ones and the centre being barred ; or all the openings may be filled with iron castings which may be bought for this purpose ; but in this case the castings must be obtained first of all and the frame of the gate then made to suit them. If the amateur completes the sketch of this gate on Fig. 431. gothic gaeden-gate. a larger scale, he will be the better able to judge of its construction general effect. In fig. 431 a massive garden gate of Gothic ° s^ ®- character is shown. The principal parts of this gate are the styles and cross rails, which are fastened together by tenoning the rails into the styles. The lower part of the gate is filled with substantial boards, forming one large panel. In the upper part the corners are filled with pieces cut to form an oval or ellipse on each face, but chamfered or hollowed within so as to form four points springing out from the under edge of the curve. The open centre is partly filled with a simple ornament in wrought iron, consisting of flat bars halved together at the centre, and having shorter pieces springing from each side of the arms of the cross. The extremity of each arm may be finished with projecting pieces, as at A, for attachment by screws to the inner edge of the oval. CHAPTER VIII. BOXES, DRAWERS, PIGEON-HOLES, CHEST OF DRAWERS, WAl'DROPE, CUPBOARDS, BOOKSHELVES. Boxes and Drawers— Chest of Drawers— Meaning of the word ' ' Box "-Various kinds of Boxes — The Window-box— Construction of Boxes of this kind— The Nail-box— Principles of Construction — Housemaid's Box— Box for Knives or Plate — Procedure in making Boxes— Ornamentation of Window-box — To make Window-box stand level— Pierced Panels— Zinc Box or Lining— Drainage of Window-box— Virgin Cork : its Use and Price— Ornamentation with Split Rods- Boxes with Lids or Covers — Cover of ordinary Box— Fittings for Wooden Boxes —Hinges for Boxes— Locks for Boxes— Handles for Boxes— Construction similar for all kinds of Boxes— The Tool-box— Methods of arranging Interior— Lid with Rim— Bottom of Box for large Tools— Leather for small Tools— Locker for Chisels, etc. — Recess for Glue-pot, Oil, etc. — Another mode of arrangement- Handles of Rope— Construction of Lid— Trays for Tools— Trays in form of Drawers— Travelling Trunk or Box— Construction of Travelling Trunk— Case, or lower part of Box— Top of Box — Hinges and Hasp-lock — Division of Interior into Compartments— Tray within Box— Use of Domed Top — Boards need not be Planed without— Hinges, Tapes, etc. — Materials for covering Box — Mode of putting on Covering— Flap of Leather round Cover — Flap over Lock of Box — Straps and Buckles — Angle Irons to strengthen Box — Drawer : what it is — Drawers in many Articles of Furniture — Principles of Construction of Drawers — Front, Back, and Sides— Bottom of Drawer— Runners for Drawers— Pigeon- holes — Construction of Pigeon-holes — General Rule for Construction — Ornamen- tation of Pigeon-holes— Analogy between Pigeon-holes and Cliest of Drawers — Frame-work of Chest of Drawers — How Frame-work is constructed — Sides and Bottom of Case— Cross-pieces — Ledges in Interior — Back of Drawers — Top of Drawers — Legs, etc. — Fronts of tlie Drawers — Cupboards Fixed or Movable — Cupboard in Recess of Room — Treatment of Skirting — Frame for Door or Doors —Rail across Frame— Top of the Cupboard— Shelf or Shelves within— Dwarf Cupboard in Recess— Small portable Cupboard — Example of Portable Cupboard and Desk combined — Desk to project beyond Cupboard — Old-fashioned Three- cornered Cupboards— Construction of Three-cornered Cupboard — To increase holding capacity — Cupboard : how Supported — The Wardrobe — General arrange- ment — Proportions of Wardrobe — Thickness of Timber used — Box for Bonnets, etc.— Compartment with Trays— Drawers at Bottom — Plinth— Connection of Body and Plinth- Doors for Compartments— Glazed Panels— Kitchen Dresser- Construction of Dresser — Slab for Dresser-board— Back of Dresser— Drawers in Front — Pot-board — Uprights for Shelves— Ledges : why nailed on Shelves— Hooks for Jugs, etc. — Appropriation of Shelves — Why sides of Dresser should be high — Space behind Shelves — Bookshelves — May be made of simple Materials — Book- shelves of Boards of Egg-boxes — To make thin Boards look substantial — Forma- tion of Cornice— Leather Strips on Shelves— Brackets under Moulding — Good Boxes and Drawers : The Window Box. 397 Designs for Bookshelves — Shelves in Dwarf Cupboards — Extension of sides — Simple and useful Bookshelves — How to Construct them — Made in Compartments — Structure of End-pieces — Standards between End-pieces — How to put Parts together — Board at Top— Cornice and Brackets — Bottom of Bookcase — Uses of space below Bottom Shelves — The Shelves, and how to finish them — Bookcase on this Principle may be extended or diminished — Doors not recommended — American Bookcase on Expansive Principle — Plan of Construction — This mode suitable for those who change Houses often — Furniture for Book-room may be made by Amateur— Leather Cloth on edges of Shelves. 853. In allthe various articles to be treated in this chapter there is a cer- tain degree of c;;ViiIar'ty. As a rule, all of them are rectangular in form, the chief exceptions being the dies', of drawers with cir- Bozea and cular or elliptic front, and the old-fashioned three-cornered drawers, cupboard fitted into the angle or corner of a room, but now very seldom used. Boxes and drawers are rectangular receptacles devoted to various purposes, and differing somewhat in construction according to the purpose for which each is intended ; but, putting aside minor differences of construction, a box may be regarded as a drawer with a cover to it. Again : what is a chest of drawers but a set of che=t of pigeon-holes on a large scale, fitted, for greater conve- ^awera. nience, with drawers that move in and out of the pigeon-holes. Thus it will be convenient to begin with the simplest form of box, and so pro- ceed onwards, as the construction of one kind of article in the above category generally pro\es the key to the construction of another. 854. The word dox, in its primary signification, means " a hollow wooden case : " the term is applied to cases without covers as well as cases to which covers are attached. The simplest form is Meaning of to be found in the window-box for plants, which, when the word it is devoid of all ornamentation, consists merely of four sides and a bottom. The amateur mechanic's nail-box, and the house- maid's box for blacking brushes, etc., are merely modifications of the window-box, on a smaller scale as regards length if not in breadth. The knife-box or knife-tray, and all boxes of this descrip- yj^jig^g jj^^g tion for household use, to hold cutlery and plate, are °^ boxes, closely akin in form to the boxes that have just been mentioned. Let us first see how boxes of these kinds are made. 855. The length and breadth of the window-box must be governed in all cases by the dimensions of the window-sill on which it is to stand. Supposing that it is desired to make a plain box ,j^^ window- devoid of ornament, and in the simplest manner possible, ^°^' all that has to be done is to cut out the ends and the sides of the in- tended box, and then to nail the long sides to the short ends. A frame 398 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. is thus formed, and all that is necessary to be done to convert the frame into a box is to nail on a piece of board of the requisite size to form a bottom. Additional strength may be given to all boxes and cases constructed in this manner by nailing strips of iron, bent so that one half is at right angles to the other half, at each corner of the box, and over the sides and bottom. 856. Now in making a box in this way, which is the plan generally adopted for common boxes and packing cases of all kinds, no very great amount of skill is required. All that is necessary is of boxes of that the various parts should be cut square, so that the this idnd. ^^^ itself may be truly rectangular in form when com- pleted. There is another method which is sometimes adopted in making small boxes, such as nail-boxes, etc., and that is to plough grooves in the sides at each end, into which the pieces that form the ^ ends of the box may "be dropped, as shown at B in j fig. 432 ; the other side, A, of the same figure exhibit- i ing the mode of simply nailing the parts together I when flush, as previously described. The amateur fisj carpenter who has gained a tolerably intimate know- FiG. 432. SIDES ledge of his business will choose neither of these BOX NAufED^ methods when he wishes to form a stout and strong TOGETHER. ^ase, but will dovetail the ends and sides together in a truly workman-like manner ; and when he does make a box or case as described above, as well as in the best possible manner, he will — unless the projecting edge is likely to be in the way, as it would be in some cases — allow the bottom to project slightly beyond the sides, as shown by the dotted lines in the above figure, and round off the edges so that they assume the form of a bead or circular moulding. This mode of procedure is most desirable for a nail-box, housemaid's box, or window-box. 857. As a general type of boxes of this kind let us take the nail- box, because this is a box which every amateur artisan must have. The elevation of a box of this kind, when viewed from The nail-box. either side, is shown in fig. 433, the plan m fig. 434. It may be as large as the maker pleases, but a box from I2in. to I5in. long, 9in. or loin. broad, and 2Xin- or 3in. deep, will be found the most convenient size. The sides and ends of the box must first be Principles of framed together, the tenons being cut on each side of construction, ^j^g ends, and the dovetailed notches, into which they are dropped, in the sides. Before the ends and sides are put together grooves must be cut at A and B in the ends to receive the central par- Nail Box and Housemaid's Box. 399 Vi'. . 433. NAIL-BOX (ELbVATION), r 1' A K B 1 r > l-l F L I C 1 r — 1 Fig. 434. NAIL-BOX (plan). tition A B, which should be nearly twice as wide as the sides. This piece of wood must be cut in the shape shown at C in fig. 433, and pierced with a longitudinal hole, as at D, for conve- nience of carriage. Grooves must then be made in the sides at E, F, and G, and in the central partition at H, K, and L, to receive the partitions E K, H F, L G, the tops of which must be flush with the edges of the sides and ends. The side of the box with two partitions should be put together first, and the partitions secured from moving by means of brads driven into them through the sides. Then the partition E K should be inserted, and the remaining side put on ; or, what may be better, the ends and partitions may be first bradded to the central piece, and then the whole locked together by putting on the sides. Lastly, the bottom must be put on, which should be nailed to the sides and ends, and project slightly beyond them, as shown in the plan in fig- 434- 858. Now simple modifications of this kind of box will do for the housemaid's box, and the knife-box or plate-box. The housemaid's box will only require a central division and one subdivi- Housemaid's sion, as at H F or LG in fig. 434, for the blacklead dish ; ^°^- an old jam-pot being as good as anything else for the purpose. The box for knives or plate will require the central division ^^^ ^^^ only, but it should be made of mahogany, and, when in- ^\Yte.°' tended for silver, be lined with green baize. Sometimes knife-trays, especially when intended as a means for collecting them and carrying them from table after they have been used, are made with the sides and ends slightly sloped, so that the top is narrower and shorter than the area enclosed by the upper edges of the ends and sides. 859. Thus for boxes of a plain ordinary description— and it may be noted here that the method to be employed in making boxes or cases of every description is precisely the same— first of all, procedure in the ends and sides are to be nailed or dovetailed together, t^^^^s boxes. and then the bottom is to be nailed on from the outside. No ornamen- tation is required or desirable in boxes of this description, but a little decorative work adds very much to the appearance of a window-box. 860. The window-box represented in fig. 435 is light and tasteful in 400 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. Ornamenta- tion of back, and the window-box. appearance, and may be made in the same pattern in various ways. The ends, the ' "^ - ------ - _^ bo ttom may be made of plain timber in the usual way, but the , . , J r^ -1 Fig. 435. WINDOW-BOX. front IS framed of two rails and four uprights, which are stop-chamfered, as shown in the illustra- tion. The uprights divide the front into three compartments. The panels may be filled with tiles, or framed of wood sunk sufficiently below the framing to admit of an overlay of fret-cutting. An ovolo moulding is added above the frame, and this moulding must be re- turned round the sides. The edge of the bottom board, on which the framed front rests, and the edges of the same board at the sides are moulded, and below the moulding a slip of wood cut in scallops is affixed. This serves to break the interval between the bottom of the box and the sill of the window. The space left here is owing to the slope of the window-sill. It is necessary that the j-- box should stand level, and therefore To make win- , . . , , , dow-box slips of wood, as shown at A and shaded in fig. 436, should be nailed to the bottom of the box, one at each end and one in the centre, or even more at equal distance from each other and from the slips at the ends, if the box be more than 3ft. in length. The piece of wood, B, nailed to the edge of the bottom will hide the space between the bottom of the box and the front edge of the window-sill. The Pierced pierced panels may be treated in various ways. If the panels, frame and panels are of dark wood, a piece of light wood may be put in behind, so that the circles and triangles will show in agreeable contrast to the frame. Tiles may also be set behind the pierced panels ; or, as it is desirable to have a zinc lining for such Zinc box or ^loxes as these, the zinc front of the inner receptacle will lining. serve to fill the open spaces, and may be painted or treated according to the taste of the maker. The zinc box which is dropped into the outer case should be made of stout zinc, and wire rings should be attached to the ends by which it may be lifted out of the case when necessary. Before plants are placed in this case, whether in pots or Drainage of °"^ °^ pots, provision should be made for carrying off the window-box. surplus water after watering by means of a short pipe at llic corner to whi^i a tap is attached. When plants in pots are placed Fig. 436. supports of window-box. Ornamentation of Window-boxes. 4CI Ornamenta- tion with Bplit rods. in the case, and the interstices between the pots filled with moss, which will tend to keep the pots cool and moist, no crocks, etc., need be put at the bottom of the zinc case ; but if the case is to be filled with earth the bottom must be crocked to the depth of lin. at least. That the water may the more readily escape, the bottom of the zinc case should be made so as to fall from one end towards the oth;r at which the water is to be drawn off. 86 1. The amateur will discover for himself many desirable methods of ornamenting the front of a window-box. One of the most suitable modes of doing this is to cover the entire front with the virgin Cork : bark of the cork tree, commonly called Virgm Cork," itsureanci price. which may be procured from the Virgin Cork Company, Up^er Thames Street, E.C. The price is generally about is. gd. for 7lbs., but in larger quantities it may be obtained at lower rates. Another very effective mode of decorating the front of a window- box is to cover it with pieces of hazel or other wood with the bark on, disposed in patterns all over the surface. The sticks or rods must be cut ^^S *J»sS(l^ in short lengths, GJ^?^ f>^ and then split or sawn in two, so as to present one flat surface which is to be placed against the wood, and the other rounded, which forms the exterior of the front, and must be varnished or coated with boiled oil, the better to preserve it. Fig. 437 gives a good illustration of this kind of work. 862. We must now go on to consider boxes made with covers, the covers being attached to the receptacles or cases over which they are fitted by means of hinges. The sides and ends of all Boxes wj.th , . , , -1 J . ^t. lids or covers, boxes must be, or had better be, dovetailed together, especially when the wood is not hidden from view by chintz, cretonne, or damask, or any other textile material, as in the case of an ottoman- box ; or by leather, American leather-cloth, or painted canvas or hessian, as in the case of a trunk or travelling-box. We will first make a few general remarks on box-making, and then proceed to the general details of construction in making a tool-box, and a travelling-box, or clothes-box. 26 Fig. 437. wiNDOW-nox. 402 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. ■n Fig. 438. box in section. 863. The cover of an ordinary box consists of nothing more than a piece of wood, or even two or three, glued up and clamped together if Cover of necessary, cut flush with the sides and ends of the box. or ary box. ^ ^jj^ ^^ wood or a rounded moulding is then put on round. the edge of the cover, and this moulding comes from X'm. to fi'm. Over the front and ends, and adds to the general appearance, while it serves to keep out dust, etc., which might if ^'^ otherwise more easily find an entrance into •4-M ' the box. This moulding is shown at A in the section of a box represented in Fig. 438. It is put on at the front and ends of the cover f ]c_ B ' only ; it must not be put on at the back, for \o "^ ■■-.■'n-^K- lij jf •(. ^,gj.g j.j^g i^Qjj could not be opened. Sometimes, when it is desirable to make a very neat job and to conceal the edge of the bottom from view, the lower edges of the back, front, and ends are rebated as shown at B and c, and the bottom is then cut so as to drop into the rebate. Again, when the edge of the bottom shows all round, having been cut flush with front, back, and ends, and nailed to them, it may be hidden by a moulding, or slip of wood with a bead as the top, nailed round the bottom of the box, as shown at D and E, so as to form a plinth. Lastly, when boxes are intended to hold clothes, tools, etc., and to stand on the floor, it is desirable to nail a slip or ledge of wood to the bottom at each end and, if the box be a large one, in the middle, so that there may be a free passage for air right under the box, as well as around and above. 864. The fittings used for a wooden box are three in number — the hinges, the lock, and the handles. For small boxes, long, narrow Fittings for brass hinges, made like the iron butt hinges, are used -, ■ but for larger boxes a hinge of the shape shown in fig. 439 is used. The manner in which this hinge is attached to the box is shown at H in section in fig. 438, but the general Hinges form will be better understood from fig. 439. A notch is cut in the edge of the back to receive the part A, and if a tray is to be fitted into the box the part B should also be fitted into a recess cut in the inner surface of the back for its reception. The strap c is simply screwed to the under side of the cover. Such is the ordinary box-hinge, which answers very much in general character to the T hinge, the principle being the same though it differs somewhat in shape. Fig. 439. HINGE FOR BOX. B Fig. 440. LOCK for box. Locks and Handles for Boxes. 403 865. The ordinary box lock is shown in fig. 440. This must not be confounded with the hasp-lock used for trunks and portmanteaus, whose construction will be ex- Looks for plained presently. The mode in which the lock is fixed is shown in section in fig. 438. First of all, an indentation of sufficient depth to receive the plate a (fig. 440) is cut in the edge of the front of the box, so that the upper surface of the plate may be flush with the edge of the box. The inner surface is then recessed slightly to receive the plate B, but a deeper hole or indentation is cut away to receive the box C, which holds the bolt, etc., of the lock. A hole must then be made through the front to admit the key, the barrel of which fits on over the peg or spike shown at M in the figure. Care must be taken not to cut away an atom more wood than is necessary to admit the box c, otherwise there will be nothing to hold the screws which pass through the four holes shown in the plate B, and which fasten the lock to the inside of the box. Lastly, the hasp D must be screwed to the inside of the top in such a position that it may drop easily into the lock as shown at E. There is no great difficulty in fixing a lock of this kind, but it is a piece of work of some nicety and requires time and care. 866. Boxes, especially when filled, are heavy and awkward to move, and for this reason it is desirable that iron handles should be fixed to . . them, one at each end. The handles com- Handles n j-ul monly used for this purpose are shown ^°' ''o^^»- i^!^ Jr^jin fig. 441. To a plate in which are four holes for \O ^ m^,0^Oy f screws, two projections are attached. In these Fig Adi projections are holes into which are inserted the ends HANDLE FOR BOX. of 3. swlng handle, the ends of the handle being constructed in such a manner that the handle will lie flat against the plate, or be turned upwards just so far that it stands out at right angles to the plate and no farther. The average prices of hinges, locks, and handles for boxes will be found in the price list of household iron- mongery given in the last chapter of this section of the work. 867. The remarks that have just been made refer to the constmctlon construction of boxes generally, but they will be found aiiki^sof applicable in many points to the boxes which we are now boxes, about to describe. Of these we will first take the tool-box, because it is one which the amateur must have, and which, without ^^^ tool-box. doubt, he will desire to make for himself 401 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. 868. The general mode of construction having been gone through ..,._. J, in detail, it will only be necessary to exhibit convenient Methods of ' •' ' arrangtDg methods of arranging the interior. First, it is necessary interior. ° ° ' ^ to point out that the lid or cover of the box must be made deep enough to receive the tools that are shown as being placed within it; a depth oftwo inches will be sufficient. The rim of the lid should be of the same thick- ness as the sides and ends of the box, and made to fit exactly upon the lower case. A hasp- lock, such as is used for a trunk, Fig. 442. INTERIOR OF TOOL-BOX. ^j^ ^^ g^j^^^j^ for a box of this description, but a box-Iock may be put on equally well. Within the lid may be placed the hand-saw, tenon-saw, square, keyhole-saw, pincers, drill, and a few smaller tools. The best way of doing this is by blocks with thin brass buttons attached to turn over the tools and keep them in place, with some loops or ledges to take the blades of the saws, square, etc. Below, at box for the bottom of the box, large tools, such as planes, th© laxge tools. J & J r J wooden mallet, hone, and hammers, are kept, with the long large rasp used for wood. Along the back strips of leather are nailed to hold small tools, such as bradawls, gimlets, files, scribes, Leather for reamers, etc. The front of the box, it should be said, is smau tools, removed so as to show the interior. At A is a small locker with a cover, which is useful for keeping such tools as the various kinds of bits that are used wilh the stock. In this locker chisels Locker for ^^'^ gouges also may be stowed away. At B, c, D, E chisels, etc. ^j.g jr^yg divided into compartments for screws and various small pieces of ironmongery and brass ware that are frequently wanted in carpentry. The nails are better kept in the for glue-pot, nail-box than within the tool-box ; while below A, and oil, etc. covered with a sliding panel, like the sliding cover of a box containing a dissected puzzle, working in slips nailed to the sides of Lid with rim. Arrangement of Interior of Tool-box. 405 the box, is a recess in which the glue-pot, oil-can, and bottles of varnish, etc., can be put away ; and at G, H are two small drawers, which may be dispensed with if the box is not deep enough for them. 869. The kind of tool-box just described will be found very useful by the majority of amateurs ; but for those who may not lilce this method of arranging the interior, and who may require more room, the accompanying longitudinal section, mode of ' f^ ' ° ° ' arrangement. shown in part only, of a box 2ft. Qin. long by i6in. broad, may prove acceptable. This box is 21 in. high, the thickness of the wood of which it is made and the depth of the different compartments within being shown in the figure. Ledges A, on which the box stands, are nailed to the bottom, and round 3)0 both the upper and lower edges of front, back, and ends slips of wood are nailed, forming a plinth B below, and a projecting ledge c above. To the ends clumps of wood D are nailed, through which are passed pieces of rope to Handles serve as handles. The lid E is made of rope. A Fig. 443. INTERIOR with a double rim, so that the inner rim F rests OF TOOL-BOX. , , , , ^ . ^1. I J on the box, and the outer rim G on the ledge outside, nailed round the top of the front, etc., so that construction the box is dust-proof and almost watertight. Within ofUd. are three trays, H, K, L, each about 2Xin. deep, resting on ledges M, N, o, graduated to take the trays, and screwed on to the ends inside the box. Below the third tray L is ample room for all large and heavy tools — such as planes, etc. ; the saws Trays can be secured to the top of the box, within the lid, ^°^ ^°°^^- as in the foregoing example, and so can the square, bevel, etc. All the other tools can be disposed in the trays as may be most convenient. Some readers might object to this arrangement that con- siderable loss of time and trouble would be involved in lifting out and replacing the trays, in order to get at the tools which are stowed away in them. This, however, is obviated by making the trays just half the width of the box, and fixing rings or knobs to the front, by means of which they may be moved on the ledges from the back to the front of the box, thus exposing the interior of any of the trays rpraysin without touching the others. Thus it will be seen at once /°rm of o ai'awers. that the tools in the bottom of the box can be taken out and put back again at pleasure without touching the drawers or trays. This mode of making a tool-box and fitting up the interior is recom- 4o6 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. mended to the amateur carpenter as being both ingenious and con- venient, enabling him to get at any tool he may require without a moment's delay or the slightest trouble. 87a Trunks and portmanteaus are expensive to purchasers, and are only used occasionally in travelling and in periodical visits to Travelling ^^^ Seaside or elsewhere for change of air and scene, trunk or box. Increasing numbers in a family often renders an increase of articles of this description very desirable, and for the assistance of those who may wish to make such an addition to the baggage depart- ment, a useful form of travelling-trunk, equally adapted for ladies' or gentlemen's use, shall be described and illustrated. A trunk should be made in such a way as to provide three compartments below and a tray above for cloth clothes, dresses, etc., which are creased, or, to use an expressive though not elegant word, "crammed," by over- much folding and squeezing. 871. The general construction of a useful travelling - trunk, as suggested above, is shown in the accompanying illustraticns, of which fig:. 444 represents a section Construction ° ^ ^^p oftraveUing- of the trunk, and fig. 445 /i"'" trunk. . Ji-V- the plan. Dimensions, as ly 5 heretofore are left to the discretion of'- the maker, who will know his ov/n requirements best ; but for general purposes a box about 3ft. long, i8in. wide, and I5in. high will be found to ^ be of useful size. First of all, the case or lower part of the box Case, or ^ lower part must be made in the usual of box. manner, and as the box must be covered with leather or can- vas, which should be painted, the sides, ends, and bottom may all be nailed together, to save the time that must otherwise be expended in dove- tailing ends and sides. The cover must be made to fit exactly over and flush with the sides and ends. The top may be flat or rounded, as shown in fig. 444. There is no difficulty in making an arched or domed top ; all that is requisite is to F'g. 445- travelling-trunk (rLAui. Top of box. Construction of Travelling-trunk. 407 cut the two ends of the cover in the form required, and then to nail boards across from end to end, bevelling the edges of the boards as may be necessary, so that they may be brought accurately and closely together. The case and the ccver must be con- Hinges ana nected with hinges as at x, and a hasp-lock fitted on at ^^^' °° Y ; the lock itself being put on from the outside of the box, and the hasp that fits into it to the outside of the cover. We will speak pre- sently of the mode to be adopted of finishing off the exterior of the box, and turn at once to the fitting up of the interior. 872. The solid lines in each figure and the space enclosed between them show the boards of which the case and cover of the box are formed ; to prevent confusion these lines are not lettered. Division cf . , , V . interior To divide the box into three compartments, slips must into com- be nailed to the sides, as shown in A in each figure. ^^^ Each pair of slips forms a groove, and in the grooves thus formed a board B slips up and down, movable at pleasure, so that if necessary these boards may be removed, and the box thrown open from one end to the other. The utility of the boards, however, is manifest ; for while the outer compartments may be closely packed Avith under- linen, etc., the central one may be occupied with hats and bonnets without any chance of their being crushed ; or, if these be carried in a separate bonnet-box or basket, with boots and other articles that it may be desirable to keep apart from the wearing apparel. 873. The tops of the slips that form the grooves, the tops of the boards that divide the box into compartments, and two ledges, screwed on, one to each end, inside, as shown in fig. 444 ^^^y within between the dotted lines c and d e, will form a sufficient *'°^' support for the tray — Avhich is a frame 3in. or 4in. in depth, with a few pieces of webbing stretched across it, and nailed to the edges to form a bottom. This frame is shown in plan in fig. 445 by the dotted lines L, M, N, R, and in section in fig. 444 by the shaded parts D F, EG. The dotted line HK merely shows the line in which the case and cover of the box meet. The tray should not be made to fit too tightly within the sides of the box, but so that it may slip in and out with ease. It will be noted that the tray projects above the top of the case from the line H K, and that the part above the plane that passes through this line projects upwards into the cover, which closes down over it when the box is shut. The use of the domed top use of is now obvious, for it is clear that there is more room for °™^ ~'^' dresses, etc., that may be laid in the tray than if there had been a flat top to the box immediately above the line F G, fitting close over the tray. 4o8 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery 874. As the box is to be covered with some kind of material such as leather or canvas, there is no necessity to plane up the boards of which it is formed on the outside, but they should be Boards need , . ., , • , -n j -.1^1- not be planed nicely planed on the inside, which will do away with the necessity of papering the box within, which is resorted to by the professional trunk-makers, not so much for the sake of orna- ment or neatness, but to conceal the roughness of the boards which are left unplaned. For a box of the dimensions above given, sound board of >^in., or at the utmost >^in., in thickness will be sufficient. If the wood be thick enough three butt hinges of brass may be used. Hinges, or hingcs consisting of two straps connected by a pin tapes, etc. ^^^^ ^^ screwed on from the outside, and made to form part of the ornamentation of the box. Strong tapes should be attached to the cover of the box at one end, and the case at the other, to prevent the cover from falling back too far when the box is opened. 875. Leather will be found far too expensive for the material to be used for the outer covering of the box, and the amateur will save the outlay which he must incur if he buys leather for this Materials . ,•,•■• . • j for covering purpose by using canvas or hessian, which must be sized and painted black after it has been stretched over top and case and securely nailed to the edges. American leather-cloth has a nice appearance when first put on, but it is highly Mode of , . . ^ , ., putting on susceptible of injury from rough usage at railway coveiin . gj^|.jQj^g^ g^-^^ when travelling. When the canvas has been put on and painted, a ledge of wood should be nailed all round the bottom to keep the bottom from coming into contact with any surface on which it may be placed, and which, possibly, may be wet, as in rainy weather. A flap of leather should be nailed Flap of , , , • 1 -1 , leather round all round the cover, except behmd, and even there a strip of leather may be nailed along loosely, if it be thought desirable, to keep out the weather whenever the trunk may be exposed to the rain. The flap of leather ^V should be nailed along the cover lr-=- about ^^^in. above the line H Kin ' fig. 446, which, as in fig. 444, shows the line in which the cover and the case meet. In fig. 446, AB is this '- Flap over ^P of leather, c a lock of box. ^^^^^ fl^p ^Q (,oyer and protect the lock, fastened down by straps and buckles D and E. Fig. 446. LEATHER FITTINGS TO BOX. Principles of Construction of Drawers. 409 strong strap and buckle, as shown at F, should be placed on each side of the lock to take off part of the strain from the hasp of straps and the lock. Lastly, angle-irons lacquered with black varnish should be placed along the edges of the box ; those at ^gie.jj,ong the bottom having been put on before the ledge spoken to stre^ngthen of above is nailed to the bottom. 876. A drawer is a box without a cover, made in such a manner that it may be easily pulled out from or pushed into a case or frame which is specially made to receive it. An assemblage of drawers, Drawer: fitted into a single frame, is called, together with the frame in which the drawers are placed, a chest of drawers. Drawers enter into the construction of many articles of furniture, as, for example, library tables, kitchen tables, sofa and side tables, dress- j^^^^^^.^ j^ ing tables, washstands, wardrobes, kitchen dressers, and i^iany articles o ' > ' of furniture. cabinets ; the principles of construction, however, are in every case the same, and on this account it will be more convenient to consider the construction of the drawer separately, without special reference to any article of furniture of which it may form a part. 877. A drawer, as a general rule, must be rectangular in form. The only exceptions to this rule are in drawers that fit into chests of drawers having rounded or elliptic fronts, when the front of each ^ . . , o r J ^ Principlea of drawer must of necessity be curved in accordance with construction ■' of drawers. the shape of the frame in which it is placed. The way in which a drawer is made may be understood from the accompanying diagrams, of which fig. 447 represents the elevation of a drawer when seen from the side, and fig. 448 the section Fig. 447. drawer (elevation). of a drawer. Fig. 447 shows how the front, back, and sides wr U. of a drawer are dovetailed to- 1^' Z" ""'h' ' "' k"'" s gether. As it is desirable that Fig. 448. drawer (section). the front of the drawer should present one unbroken sur- Front, back^ face, the outer end of each side is dovetailed to the front, as shown at a. The details of this particular kind of dovetailing have been given in full in Part I., Chapter vii., and need not be repeated here. Grooves are made along the inner surface of the front and sides a short distance, say ^sin. above the lower edge, to admit the bottom, which is made of thinner wood than the front, Bottom back, and sides of the drawer. The back of the bottom ° ^^"' generally projects a Kttle beyond the sides, as shown in both figures 410 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. at D, and the back of the drawer reaches to and rests upon the bottom, as shown between c and D in fig. 448. The mortises and tenons are glued up and the edges of the bottom are glued in front and at the sides, and the parts are then put together and closed up, nails being driven through the tenons of the sides into the front and back to aid in keeping the whole together. 878. The lower edges of the sides of the drawers, as shown at E F, act as runners on which the drawer is drawn out and run in. As the Rarmers edges of the sides of the drawer are the only parts that or awers. ^^^^ ^^ ^.^^ framing within when the drawer is in motion, it is manifest that the friction is far less than it would have been if the lower surface of the bottom had been in the same plane with the edges of the sides. Sometimes the bottom is strengthened by putting small blocks in the angle formed by the lower surface of the bottom of the drawer and the inner surface of the sides just below the groove, as at G, H, K. When the knobs, which serve as handles to pull the drawer out and push it in, and the lock are put on, the drawer is complete. The prices of knobs, drawer-locks, and cupboard-locks of various sizes will be found in the last chapter of this part of " Every Man his own Mechanic." S79. A very little consideration will serve to show that " pigeon- holes," into which letters and papers are thrust in such order as may be convenient to the person who makes use of them, and Pigeon-holes. "^ the framework which, together with the drawers, forms a chest of drawers, are intimately related ; although the way in which pigeon-holes are made is by no means identical with that in which the framework of a chest of drawers is made. But one to a certain extent affords the key to making the other, and as the pigeon-holes are the simpler of the two we will consider these first. 880. Fig. 449 will serve to explain the principles that govern the construction of pigeon-holes as well as a more elaborate diagram showing a considerable number . Construction ° /, of of holes. The size of the pigeon- pigeon-holes. holes and the length, breadth, and depth of the entire framing having been deter- mined, two boards — A B, c D — must be cut and planed up for the top and bottom, and two — A C and B D — for the sides. Grooves must then be made in the top and bottom on the kig. 449. inner surface at E and F, for the reception of pigeo.n-holes. the vertical partition E F, and grooves must be made on each side of this partition at H and K, and in the inner surfaces at G and L, for the Framework of Chest of Drawers. 411 v>— ^tion of the horizontal partitions G H, K L. When this has been dont the pieces of wood A B, C D, A C, and B D must be put together- dovetailing at each angle of the frame is the most desirable and efficient mode of joining them— and then the upright partition E F must be gently driven into the grooves 'cut to receive it, and lastly the horizontal partitions G H, K L. In the small set of pigeon-holes under consideration it is unimportant whether the vertical or hori- zontal partition be in one piece. A safe rule for general guidance seems to be that 7v/ien the length of the pigeon-holes is ^^^^^^^ ^^^^ greater than the height, the horizotttal partitions shall each ^^^g J°'gtJon. be in one and the same piece frotn side to side, the vertical partitions being grooved into them and the top and bottom; but when the height is greater than the length, the vertical partitions shall each be in one and the same piece, and the horizontal partitio7is grooved into them and the two sides, 881. Such is the general method adopted in making pigeon-holes. Many modes of ornamenting them will readily suggest themselves to the amateur— as, for example, hiding the openings and Qj^a,inenta- their contents from view, and putting the latter beyond ^^^^°^,^^^^^^ the prying inspection of other people, who may have access to the room or place where they are, by a pair of doors panelled and adorned with fret-work ; but all this may be left to the maker's good taste, judgment, and requirements. They may be easily turned into a set of drawers for holding small articles, as is often j^^iogy done in chemists' shops and many houses of business, piggo^f^^iea where a number of small, convenient receptacles for many ^J^^^^IrB. different kinds of small articles are required. And when we have said this, the analogy between a set of pigeon-holes and the framing of a chest of drawers must be apparent. 882. We will now proceed to a consideration of the framework of a chest of drawers, which is, in fact, nothing more than a set of very large pigeon-holes ; but in order to save material and to pjamework render the article less weighty when completed, only just ^f^'^^f^^^ so much of the framing is inserted as may be absolutely necessary for the support aitd division of the drawers. For this reason the framework of the chest of drawers m.ay be looked upon as being a set of skeleton pigeon-holes. 883. The reader will easily see how the interior framing of the case of a chest of drawers is made from fig. 450, from which the top has been removed in order to show as clearly as possible the general principles of construction. The illustration and the description, with 412 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. r, few verbal alterations, are taken from "The Illustrated Carpenter and Builder," a Sides and bottom of case. How frame- woricia work which is constructed. well worthy the attention of amateur workers in wood, and merits a place on their bookshelves. The sides and bottom of the case are of inch pine. about i8in. wide. The bottom is run into a V- shaped groove in the sides, as this affords continuous support to the edges on both sides and does away with the ^ unsightly appearance that would be presented if it were mortised into the sides. ^ M K ;i 1 K l\N L^- ^1 axx :l! \\ ^ \ -^1 / - ^— S'l Fig. 450. framework of chest of drawers. The bottom should be blocked round below to impart additional strength to this part of the structure. The cross-pieces ro3s-p eces. ^ ^^^^ ^ ^^^ dovetailed into the top edges of the sides, and these serve as ties to hold the sides together at the top. The ledges C, D, and E are also mortised into the sides, but the ends of Ledgea ^^^ tenons must not appear on the outer surface of the in interior, sides ; and the ledges which run from each of these on each side to the back are also attached to the sides by screws after being glued to them. A piece of inch stuff, 3in. wide or a little more, is notched into the top rail A and the bottom, as shown at G. A hori- zontal ledge H is mortised into this upright and the horizontal rail C, to serve as a bearer for the sides of the small top drawers ; and in order to keep them apart and in their places when being drawn out and pushed in, an upright K is mortised into B and C, and a vertical rail about lin. or iXi"- tleep screwed along the centre of H. The in- Back terior is now complete, and the back must be put on. of drawers. This consists of alternate pieces of >^in. and 34'in. stuff, the edges of the thicker pieces being rebated so as to cover those of the thinner ones. Thus the surface of the back is flush within through- out, but without one piece projects beyond another. It is almost needless to remark that the two outside pieces that come against the sides should be thick pieces. The ends of these uprights are nailed Cupboard in Recess of Room. 413 to the top rail A and the inner edge of the bottom, and the sides are nailed down to the thick pieces of the back on each side. 884. Lastly, a top is made of inch pine, flush with the thick pieces of the back behind, but projecting lin. over the sides and Top front. It is screwed on to A, B, F, and L from the inside, of ^J^a'^^ers. It should have been pointed out that F and L are ledges screwed to the sides for this purpose, running from the top-rail B to the top-rail A. The sides are made in one piece throughout, and are cut out at the bottom, as shown at M. Pieces are then attached to the front at N and O, to give the appearance of dwarf legs, on which the ^^ chest of drawers seems to stand. A moulding is run round the top of the case in order to take off the harsh appearance of the sharp rectangular edge. Sometimes the bottom is moulded and projects slightly beyond the general plane of the front, and instead of dwarf legs or feet, as shown in the figure, the sides are not carried below the bottom, but blocks are screwed on to the bottom at each angle in which short turned legs or knobs are inserted. Fronts of The fronts of the drawers should be made of inch wood, *^® drawers, and the sides and back of Kin. stuff, >^in. stuff, or ^^in. being used for the bottom, which is run into grooves cut in the inner surface of the front and sides as already described in the section devoted to the con- struction of drawers. When finished, the chest of drawers, and indeed all articles of furniture made of pine, may be painted and grained, or stained and varnished, or French-polished. 885. A cupboard is a space enclosed with doors and fitted with shelves or rails bearing pegs or hooks, according to the purpose for which it is used. A cupboard may be fixed or movable, cupboards, that is to say, it may consist of a recess in a room which ^lll^°l is covered in by a frame and doors hung within the frame ; or it may be made with sides, bottom, top, and back, like the case or frame of a chest of drawers, having doors in front. It is manifestly impossible, as it is also unnecessar>', to describe all the different positions in which cupboards may be constructed, or all the different articles of furniture which partake of the nature of cupboards ; we shall therefore confine our descriptions to the method of fitting up a recess by the side of a fireplace as a cupboard, and the mode of making a small portable cupboard, and of making and fixing the old-fashioned but useful comer cupboard. 886. Let us suppose, first of all, that we are about to make a cup- board in the recess of a room already finished, and that in fig. 451 A B represents the line of the chimney breast, and BCDE the recess 414 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. that it is required to convert into a cupboard. There xs a skirting round d in '■^^ room which must not be cut away, as our object is recess of to remove the cupboard at some time or other, and to room. '^ ' leave the recess and skirtings as unharmed as possible by our operations. The skirting will project beyond the face of the Treatment "''^^^ A B c D E at the bottom of the room, as shown by the of skirtmg. lines, and the white space enclosed within, A B c D E, which, it should be said, represents the ^ 5 plan of the recess. Our first Frame for . , . . , door or care is to make a frame with a door or doors hung within it, 1. the frame being represented in section by » ♦'L the shaded parts L M. Part of the frame at Fig. 451. M must be cut away so as to fit over the cupboard in recess. skirting at E, and to abut against the .surface of the wall D E, but a slip of wood shown by the black block at B must be nailed to L on the inside to fill up the space that must intervene between L and the wall A B above the skirting against which the bottom part of the frame rests. It must be left to the option of the maker whether he will have a rail Rau across across the frame at the bottom ; if not, he must take care frame. jq keep the sides in place by nailing a thin slip of wood across them, and keeping it there until the frame is fixed. The frame being ready and the doors hung within it, but removed temporarily until the frame is fixed, arrangements must now be made for fixing it. First nail two slips of wood, F G, H K, shaded in the figure, to the floor close against the skirting, and to the wall at the requisite height nail ledges, shown by the white spaces B c, C D, D E, to the surface of the Top of the wall. On these ledges the top of the cupboard maybe cupboard. ^iLid and fastened do\\'n, supposing always that the cup- board does not reach to the top of the room. To this top the top rail of the frame is to be nailed, the bottom of each side butted against the skirting and slip FG on one side, and the slip H K en the other, being secured by skew-nailing to the floor. The frame and top are now complete, and the doors may be re-hung. If the Bhelf or f ) j b shelves recess is to be fitted up with shelves, ledges must be within. nailed to each side of the recess to support the shelves, but the amateur is already acquainted with the best methods of doing this and of putting up rails fitted with pegs or hooks. 887. If a dwarf cupboard is to be made the same plan is to be pursued, but instead of the thinner top of inch stuff or even less, which may be used for the taller cupboard, a slab of i/^in, or i^in. Portable Cupboard and Desk Combined. 415 stuff should be inserted ; or if thinner stuff be used, an appearance of thickness should be given to it by nailing on a strip of wood or a moulding to the edge of the slab. The slab board in should project beyond the surface of the frame and doors ; but if a slip or moulding be nailed to the slab, the edge of the slab may be flush with the frame, etc., and the projection made by the slip or moulding which may be nailed to it. 888. We will now proceed to consider how a small portable cup- board may be made which, with various slight modifications, may be made available for a variety of purposes and situations. : . SmaU Such a cupboard is very closely allied to the chefifonier, portable and may be easily adapted to do duty as such. Without any further co*iment, it will be understood that this and all other articles of furniture which may be described in this chapter may be grained, or stained and varnished, or French-polished. The style in which the amateur may decide to finish his work must be left to himself. 889. The illustration which is now presented to the reader will speak for itself, and requires no description in detail as to /loza it is to be made. The sides are made flush throughout from Example of top to bottom, and to these" the panels and frames which portable cup- form the doors are hung. The back is made in precisely desk com- the same way as the back of a chest of drawers, and the top, when a simple top like that of a chest of drawers is used, is Q. c\ Fig. 452. SIDE EI-EVATION. FiG. 453. FRONT ELEVATION. SMALL PORTABLE CUPBOARD. put cti in a similar way. In some cases it may be convenient that the top of the cupboard should consist of a sloping desk with a ledge at 4i6 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. the back. This mode of construction is shown in the side elevation in fig. 452. To make the desk, ledges must be screwed to the sides and a rail mortised into them in front, against which the top of the cupboard may rest when closed, and on \Yhich the bottom of the cupboard may be dropped in. The sides of the cupboard may be carried high enough to form the sides of the desk, and a flat piece must be nailed across at B, to which the lid of the desk must be attached with hinges ; but in this case allowance must be made at the top for the projection of the desk beyond the cupboard jelft be°yond' front. If, on the other hand, it is not desired to cap the cupboard. ^yp^jQ^j.^ ^yjjj^ ^ (jgs]j^ ^^le sides should be carried up square, as shown by the dotted line A C, so that a drawer may be put at the top instead of the desk, and a ledge carried round the top to prevent anything from being knocked or pushed off the slab at top ; but in the case of the desk the sides of the ledge will only reach as far as the beginning of the slope. The brackets at the sides, as shown in both figures, form a useful addition to the cupboard, especially in a small room. 890. The old-fashioned three-cornered cupboard for the corners of rooms is now very seldom seen in any but old farmhouses and Old fasUoned cottages. Its modern representative consists of three three- shelves, decreasing in size from the lowest to the highest, cornered ' ° cnpboards. ggj- jjj side pieces which fit against the walls of the room, and are adorned with fret-work. The cupboard in this form is little more than a bracket in three tiers, and it is suitable for nothing else than a stand for china and other curiosities of value. There are many places, however, in which a corner cupboard shut in by a door, and thus rendered a receptacle in which articles can be kept under lock and key, will be found not only useful but appropriate, and for this reason some remarks are now added on its general construction and the method of fixing it. 891. For all practical purposes, the plan of the three-cornered cupboard given in fig. 454 will be sufficient to show the amateur the constrtiction general principles of construction of articles of this kind, cor^rld A B and B c are the sides of the cupboard, which must be cupboard, dovetailed together at right angles, so as to fit against the walls that meet and form the corner of the room. The common method of procedure is to bevel off the edges of these sides at an angle of 45°, and fit against them a frame shown by the double dotted lines A F and G C. To this frame the door F G is hung. Now it is clear that when a corner cupboard is made in this way its Construction of Corner Cupboard. 417 capacity for holding articles, such as cups, jars, etc., is very limited ; the corners at F and G being almost useless. The holding capacity of the cupboard may be increased without increasing To increase the size of the sides, by dovetailing or otherwise fixing holding capacity. Sides, as shown at A D and C E at right angles to the main sides A B, B c. The sides A D and D c will serve as the frame for the door, which may be hung to either of these side-pieces as may be most con- venient. In the figure the door D E is shown as being hung to C E by hinges as at E. Whichever way the cupboard may be made, there is no necessity for stops inside, as the edges of the shelves will furnish stops to stay the inward progress of the door. To receive the shelves, ledges as at F H and H G should Fig. 454. plan of be screwed to the interior of the sides three-cornered cupboard. A B and BC. When the cupboard is made with a projecting front, as indicated by A D, E c, the corners at A and c are rendered useful. With regard to other details — which would appear in a drawing of the ele- vation, but which is not given, as the amateur will be capable of working this out on paper for himself — according to plan No. i, the top and bottom should be added to the sides first of all, and the frame in which the door is hung made to cover the whole, and be flush with the outer surfaces of both top and bottom. According to plan No. 2, in which the cupboard is made of greater capacity, the bottom of the cupboard may be brought beyond the lines AD, D E, E c, as shown by the outer dotted line, and neatly rounded off in the form of a bead. The top, in this case, may also be nailed on over the door, but flush with it, and not going beyond it ; and a ledge may be screwed firmly to the upper surface of the top, flush with the edge that appears over the door, in order to carry a neat moulding or crestboard, which will impart an appropriate finish to the top. This may be ornamented according to the taste of the maker. 892. To support the cupboard, ledges should be nailed to the wall in the same manner as for the support of the shelves within the cup- board at F H and H G, and to these a rail may be mor- tised, running from the outer end of one ledge to the outer how^'^ end of the other, forming with them a skeleton shelf on ^^^^°^ ® which the cupboard may rest. To keep the top of the cupboard close against the wall, two pieces of iron, as shown at x, may be screwed to 27 4iS Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. The wardrobe. the sides A B and B C, and a brass-headed nail driven through the hole Y in the top of each iron. 893. The wardrobe may be described as a combination of the cupboard and chest of drawers, as most wardrobes are made with a cupboard at top, and a deep drawer below which is sometimes made available for holding hats and bonnets. It is not likely that the amateur will ever go so far in joinery as to construct a wardrobe ; he will, in all probability, be content with fitting up a recess in a bedroom as a hanging closet, in the manner already described ; but as there is no knowing what a man may be led General *° ^° ^^^° ^^^ plenty of time on his hands, the elevation, arrangement, section, and details of construction of a very useful ward- robe are given below. The plan of this wardrobe and the accom- panying illustrations have been taken from the pages of the " Illustrated Fig. 458. SECTION of docks. "^; — tT- i ^-^ Z:.3 1 •^ . A i •->! A '! A V ;| L A i A V j, A 1 A 1: ^ A 1 r^ T nn i -^ _. Bf '"^ Fig. 457. TRANSVERSE SECTION. Fig. 455. FRONT ELEVATION. WARDROBE. Fig. 456. ELEVATION OF DOOR. Carpenter and Builder," a most useful serial pubhcation, which we have already recommended to the attention of all amateur carpenters and builders. 894. The body of this wardrobe, as will be seen from an examina- tion of fig. 455, must be made in two parts, with the cornice above Construction of Wardrobe. 419 and the plinth below separate. Suitable proportions for such a ward- robe as this are 7ft. high, including plinth and cornice, proportions and 4ft. 6in. wide. Its depth should be i8in., without of wardrobe, the doors. Allowing 4in. for the plinth and the same for the rornice, the size of the parts or carcases in which the Thickness of rt-ardrobe is made is 6ft. 4in. by 2ft. sin. The back timber used, edge of the frame of each part must be rebated to allow of a >^in. framed back, or a back may be put in as already described for a chest of drawers. The sides of the frame should be made of i}{in. stuff, well planed down. In the part to the right hand is a hanging cupboard at the top, with a rail for pins or hooks for hanging clothes. At the bottom is a deep box for hats and bonnets. The -^^^ ^^^ front of this box is a fixture, and the top sHdes in and tonnetB, etc. out. The part to the left hand is made to contain six trays above for clothes, etc., which pull in and out, and two drawers be- compartment low, the lower drawer being of the same depth as the ^"^ *^*y^- bonnet-box in the right-hand compartment. The construction of the left-hand compartment is shown in section in fig. 457. Drawers at The trays A, A, etc., run in grooves made in the sides of bottom, the compartment in which they are placed; they are lin. apart, and are about 6)4in. deep, with sin. fronts. They have very much the appearance of six small butlers' trays fitted in one above another. As there is the depth of lin. between the trays, the amateur will find it easier to screw J^in. ledges on to the sides of the compartment, on which the trays may run, instead of ploughing grooves in the sides of the compartment and making the bottom of each tray to fit the grooves. The drawers at the bottom are Sin. and loin. in depth respectively, and as the depth of the lower drawer and hat-box correspond, the latter in the right-hand compartment must also be loin. deep. 895. When the two compartments are finished, the plinth B is framed so that the compartments may drop within it, and a moulding C placed round the top. The plinth must be made broader ^^^^_ than the compartment to allow for the doors, which must open and shut just clear of the moulding and over a slip of waod which is nailed to the top edge of the plinth, wiVim the mould- ^^^j^^^^j^^^ ^j ir\^ and flush with the top of the moulding. When the body and T 1. plinth. compartments have been placed side by side of the phnth, two or three screws may be driven through the inner side of one com- partment into the adjacent side of the other to keep them firmly together. 896. One of the doors for the compartments is shown in fig. 456. 420 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. A frame is made to receive a circular-headed panel. The wood used for the frame should be iXi"- thick when planed down, compart- and the hanging style should be 4)4\n. wide, and the fall- ^ ^ ' ing style 2)4\n, wide. The manner in which the panels are inserted and the bolection moulding put on is shown in fig. 458, which represents a transverse section of the doors. At D, the line in which the doors meet, a semicircular bead is attached to one door and laps over the other, to hide the line of junction when the doors are closed. The doors are hung to the outer side of each compartment. The panels, if desired, may be filled with silvered glass so as to form a mirror, which will serve as a cheval glass. In this case, a strong _j g , panel must be put in behind the glass. For the cornice a panels, frame is made similar to the plinth, but flush with the sides and projecting only in front. A moulding is nailed on to the edge of the frame, which drops slightly over the top of the compartments. The door is made to work clear of the moulding, the space between the moulding and the frame being filled up, as in the plinth, with a small piece of wood of the necessary thickness. If made of deal the. wardrobe should be stained and varnished or French-polished. 897. Few kitchens will be found without a dresser, which, in point of fact, is a fixture almost as requisite to the house as doors or stairs. Kit hen "^^^ amateur will, in all probability, be dresser, never called upon to make one ; but the requirements of l.is family may render it desirable that a recess in a kitchen, or indeed in a back kitchen or scullery, be fitted up by way of additional accommoda- tion. To this end a brief description of the kitchen dresser, and the way in which it is made may prove desirable to some of our readers. S98. The general construction of the kitchen dresser is shown in section in fig. 459. A solid slab of deal, r-^ about i^^in. thick, is made to form the dresser-board^ Oonstniotion ^^ Principal shelf of the dresser, as shown j^ of dresser, at A. This slab is supported at either side ;, by two solid ends, which, in their turn, are framed into 11 :i Slab for ^ plinth G, which consists of a platform dreaser-board. made of boards nailed on runners. The L. ends of the dresser are mortised into the outer runners ^'°- 439- KITCHEN on each side, and the boards forming the platform are dresser. nailed to these and to two or more cross-pieces, framed into longi- tudinal pieces of the same thickness at front and back. To the broad Construction of Kitchen Dresser. 421 fr.ime thus made it is desirable to form a back with match-boirding or with boards, put on as in the chest of drawers — that ^^ ^ ^^ is to say, thick and thin boards in alternation, the edges dresser, of the thicker boards being rebated so as to fit over the thinner ones. A slip of wood must be nailed in front of the framing of the platform below, to conceal from view the space underneath. Along the front of the dresser a frame is inserted to receive prawersln two or three drawers, as shown at E, and under that front, part of the frame which divides any two of the drawers, whether they be two or three in number, it is desirable to put uprights, as shown by the dotted lines at H, to help support the thick slab at A, and to prevent it from sagging in the middle from its own weight, which is often the case with large and long dressers. The framing on which the drawers run is made in precisely the same way as that which receiver the two small top drawers in a chest of drawers. The space F below the drawers may be enclosed with doors or left open, as Pot-board, may be thought desirable. When left open the plat- form is painted black, and constitutes a " pot-board" on which sauce- pans, kettles, etc., are placed when not in use. S99. On each side of the slab A, and on the inner part, two uprights of the shape shown in the illustration are mortised, and uprights for into these are mortised shelves, the lower shelf in every case being narrower than the one immediately above it, ^^^|^' ^^ as shown at B, c, and D, Ledges are nailed along the upper shelves. surface of these shelves and along the slab A to support plates and dishes, and hooks are screwed into the front edge on Hooks for which jugs and mugs are suspended. These dresser- •i'^s^' ^^• hooks, as they are called, vary from is. to is. 6d. per dozen, according to size. 900. The lowest shelf in the dresser, which is formed in reality by the inner part of the slab A, is reserved for cheese-plates ; the shelf B for pudding-plates, c for dinner-plates, and D for large Appropriation dishes. When soup-plates are frequently used, and the °^ sheiyes. family is a large one, it is as well to have, if possible, an extra shelf for soup-plates between c and D. The dresser is finished with a cornice and moulding above. That it is desirable to make how sides of the sides of the dresser so that the higher a shelf is the Bi^ufd^be further it projects, is manifest from the fact that the jugs made, which are placed on the hooks fixed to the higher shelves hang out clear of those on the shelves below, and can be easily reached and removed without touching any of those beneath them. The spac-a 422 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. behind the shelves may be filled with match-boarding or left open, according to the will of the maker ; it is better, however, Space behind ° , . , , . , shelves, to fill up with match-boarding, which, when painted, can be washed when necessary, while a coloured wall cannot be cleansed in this manner. 901. From drawers, wardrobes, and dressers we must pass on to bookshelves, which the amateur carpenter will be more likely to make Book- for himself than any of the pieces of furniture which have skeiYea. j^^^. ^^^^ enumerated. Bookshelves, in fact, may be made out of almost anything. Out of some boards that had once formed an egg-box the writer has made a small set of bookshelves with plinth and cornice, which is still in use, and which, when it was stained and varnished, betrayed no traces of its origin. ^o7stopie'^° We will begin by giving instructions for making a set materials. ^^ shelves of this kind, and then proceed to others 01 more elaborate construction and superior finish. 902. The method of making a small set of bookshelves out of egg- box boards may be gathered from Book- ^^^ annexed diagrams, sheiTes of ^f which fig. 460 repre- boards of o -r r egg-boxes, sents the elevation, and fig. 461 the section and end of the shelves. First of all, four nice clean pieces of board must be selected for the top, bottom, and sides, and these must be nailed or dovetailed together as may best suit the ama- teur. The boards used in making egg-boxes are as a general rule thin. Fig. 460. elevation. Fig. 461. sectio.v. and it will be better to dovetail the small bookshelves. parts together. Before the tenons and mortises are glued up and otherwise secured, ledges as shown by the lower dotted lines at A, B, and C, must be screwed to the sides on the inner surface to support the ends of the shelves. The frame may then be put together, and the shelves, which must be flush with the edges of the frame before and behind, can be slipped into their places, and secured by brads through the sides just above the ledges. 903. In order to do away with the thin and unsubstan- boards look tial appearance presented by the edges of the sides, and substantial. ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^.^^ ledges, strips of wood about I in. in width, as shown at G H and K L, are nailed to the edges of the Construction of Hanging Bookshelves. 423 sides, which come as far as the dotted line drawn along the middle of the slips. After this is done it will be as well to nail thick ledges of wood to the outer surfaces of the top and bottom, to serve as foun- dations for the cornice M and the plinth N. The cornice p^j^ tj is formed of a piece, shaped as drawn, in front, and two °^ cornice, side-pieces. These parts project beyond the top of the shelves all round. Before the piece M is put on, the strip of leather Leather st • that appears below it should be nailed to its inner surface. °^ shelves. This leather must be exactly as long and no longer than the distance between the inner edges of the strips G H, K L, so as to work in and out freely between them ; and when the shelves are completed strips ot the same length should be nailed to the edges of the shelves at A, B, and C, as shown in fig. 460 in D, E, and F. Finally, round the bottom, and having the upper edges flush with the surface of the bottom of the frame which forms the lowermost shelf, pieces of wood, bevelled above as shown in the drawings at N and O, should be nailed to the ledges attached to the bottom to form the plinth, which may, if the amateur approve of it, have a half-inch bead bradded on round the bottom as at P and Q. If the lower board of the frame which forms the lowest shelf has not been brought out far enough to be flush with the slips G H, K L, these slips being dropped into notches cut in the board to receive them, the opening between the edge of the shelf and the top of the plinth must be filled up neatly and closely with a slip of wood of the proper size. The sides and front of the shelves may then be stained and var- nished. The appearance of under , , . . , . , moulding. the shelves is much improved by the addition of two small brackets ?d G and K, which seem to support the overhanging cornice or crest-board at M. 904. A pretty design for a somewha,* similar set of shelves, without cornice and plinth, and intended to be fixed against the wall, is shown in fig. 462, which is drawn on a scale of 3/ In. to a foot. into the sides and back, and glued up and nailed. The sides may be stop-chamfered. These shelves are suitable for hanging- shelves in a recess, but it is advisable to make them the width of the Fig. 462. H.VNGIXG BOOK- SHELVES. T,, , , J Gooddesigna The shelves are grooved for book- Bhelves. 424 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. Shelves on dwarf cupboards. recess, or if not, to place brackets in the form of quarter circles against the sides in the same plane with each shelf for the reception of jars and pieces of china of a suitable height. Another design for a hanging bookshelf is shown in figs. 463, 464, which represent the front and side elevation. The cornice and base in fretwork, and the carving in relief in a sunken panel on the side, add very much to the appearance of the shelves. Instead of showing the edges of the sides in front as shown in fig. 463, the frames of the doors may be made of narrower stuff, and hung to the sides, hiding them from view alto- gether, and the panels may be of glass instead of wood. 905. Any of the bookshelves already described may be adapted with a little contrivance to form shelves on the top of a dwarf cup- board, which should be made to suit the style of the shelves. In the first kind the plinth should be omitted altogether, and the bottom of the framing that holds the shelves be allowed to rest :\C)-AV-->v on the top of the cupboard, or the sides be extended downwards and mortised into the slab that forms the top of the cupboard. In the second and third ex- amples the sides may be extended downwards, and also mortised into the top of the cupboard, a mode of arrangement which provides for the retention of all the ornamental work that is shown in the illustrations. Fig. 464. SIDE In g^ch of these the most ELEVATION. HANGING BOOKSHELVES. appropriate way of extend- Extensionof ^"^ ^^^ sides is to carry them downwards in the form sides. Qf a. bold bracket sweeping outwards, and wider at the bottom than at the top where the shelves commence. The exten- sion thus made may be pierced with fret-work or carved in low relief, in accordance with the general character of the ornamentation of the shelves. 906. We will now examine a simple but effectual method of making bookcases or bookshelves that will be found particularly useful to the amateur, inasmuch as the shelves thus formed can be added to or Fig. 463. FRONT ELEVATION. Bookshelves in Compartments. 425 diminished at pleasure, and adapted to any kind of room or recess, no matter what its size may be. Being made in deal, . Simple and Stained and varnished or French-polished, the cost is but useful boot- little for shelves that cover a considerable expanse of wall ; and as their construction is but very simple, they are such that any amateur may make for himself, even though he be not able to use his tools as well as he could wish. 907. In the accompanying illustration fig. 465 shows the front eleva- r e tion of a compartment of such a bookcase, and fig. 466 the section and how to con- inner part of each end piece as struct them. ^^.^_^_,^ well. These end pieces, and indeed all the L-™=«3B^I ^^t -1; standards that divide the bookshelves into compartments, should be made of good straight-grained pine, }fm. in thickness after it has been planed down ; and if the shelves be large and cover a considerable area of wall it will be as well to have j^^^^ ^ ^^^, them lin. in thickness. There partments. must be iwo end pieces, but the standards g between these may be as few or as many as necessary. In a long extent of shelving the distances between each pair of standards should not be less than 2ft. or more than 3ft. Fig. 466. First taking the structure of an structure of Ei'c- height, though 6ft. will be found conve- nient, one side must of course be left perfectly plain, but on the other and inner side, A A, as shown in fig. 466, a stout ledge about I in. square should be screwed on at B, and strips along both edges, notched, as at c, C, for the reception of slides on which the ends of the shelves may rest. This is shown on a larger scale in fig. 467, in which c, c are the notched slips, D the slide, and E the superin- cumbcnt shelf, all in section. The stan- L 1 dards and the other end piece are ■"l p standards Fig. 468. PLAN OF SI. ELF made of precisely the same between SHOWING NOTCHES AT CORNERS. ^.^^^ ^^^ j^ CXaCtlythe SamC ^""^ ^'^''^'' manner as the first end piece, only in the second and opposite end piece the ledges and rotched strips must be screwed on to the reverse Fig. 465. FRONT ELEVATION OF COMPARTMENTS, Fig. 467. SUPPORT for shelf END PIECE, ETC. 426 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. side, so that the parts of the ends thus prepared may be inwards and facing each other when the ends and standards are placed in position ; and in the standards the ledges and notched strips are attached on both sides instead of on one side only as in the end pieces. 908. When the standards and end pieces have been placed in position at such distances from each other as may have been pre- viously determined, a board E is laid along the top from How to put ' .... parts end to end, and nailed or screwed — screwmg is better, m together. case of removal and taking the bookcase to pieces at any time— to all the uprights. Additional firmness is obtained by means of a narrow board F, which is screwed to the end pieces op. ^^^ standards all along the front. To this a moulding G is attached above, and the cornice consisting of this moulding and the facia F is apparently supported by little carved brackets H, attached to the end pieces and standards. The moulding G and the brackets H are clearly shown in the side elevation of the bookcase Cornice and represented in fig. 466. Along the bottom a board K, brackets, about I5in. in width, is attached to the end pieces and standards along the entire length ; and for the sake of rendering Bottom of ^^^ bookcase substantial in appearance, another nar- bookcase. rower board L is screwed on in fi-ont ; the two boards, with the moulding or bead i\r which is placed along the top of K, forming a bold and handsome-looking plinth to the whole bookcase. The chief use of M is to mask the outer edge of the board N, which — as, indeed, are all the other shelves— is cut, as shown in fig. Uses of space ,., . , , , ^ , , below bottom 466, to drop in upon the edges as shown at v,, and rorm a shelf or platform to receive the lowest row of books, which will comprise the longest and heaviest among them. As this shelf can be removed at pleasure when all the books upon it are taken out, the open space a below it affords a convenient place for stowing away unbound periodicals, rolls of maps and engravings, and the thousand and one odd matters for which it is desirable to find a hiding-place and which are usually put in the cupboards of the book- rpViA slislvss and how to case when it is made witn cupboards below and shelves above. The shelves are finished in front with scalloped strips of American leather-cloth, or embossed edging, which may be let into the under part of the shelf close to the front edge with a tongue and groove, or nailed along the edge with gilt-headed nails or white studs. 909. It will be obvious to all that the standards and ends will serve in any case, and that when it is necessary to extend the bookcase and Bookcase on Expansive Principle. 427 add to its length, to accommodate an increasing stock of books, all that is necessary is to carry one end further on, to inter- ^^^^^^^^ ^^^ DOse a new standard, and to have new boards for the this principle r . . . .r 1 ^^y ^® ^-" top, the facia, and the plinth. If it is needful to tended or r' ... diminished. curtail the length of the bookcase, it is merely neces- sary to take out a standard and reduce the boards that have just - been named to the required extent. When, as may be the case in moving from one house to another, it is necessary to reduce or extend the length of the bookcase by a few inches only, it may be managed by bringing the standards a little closer together and shortening the shelves ; or by increasing the distance between any pair of standards — the central compartment or compartments being the most suitable — and having new shelves for the space or spaces thus extended. Any- thing may be done with a bookcase of this kind. It is almost needless to remark that it is always prudent to preserve old facias, plinth- boards, and shelves that have been replaced by others, as they may be found useful on another occasion. If it is desired to have glass doors to a bookcase of this kind, the notched strips should be placed farther in, and the doors made so as to be hung to the ends or standards, their outer surface being flush with the outer part or edges j^^^^^ ^^^ of the ends and standards. When the bookcase is a 'recommended, fixture doors are desirable for the purpose of keeping out dust, but when elasticity in the bookcase is desirable it should be made without doors as described. 910. An American writer has suggested a very simple and ingenious method of making a bookcase on the expansive principle, American and doing away with the necessity of packing and un- ^espansivT packing books on removal from one house to another, principle. The plan, which is as follows, is well worth the attention of the amateur. 911. "The cheapest," the inventor says, "is also in some respects the best bookcase. This is a box, or case of boxes, of indeterminate number. The box is about 4ft. long and 2oin. high, pjanof inside measurement. A shelf runs from end to end, construction. dividing it into two sections, each, therefore, being about g^^in. high. Three or four of these boxes, placed one above the other, make a case five to seven feet high. An unostentatious base-board ^j^g^jo^g (plinth) below, and a moulding (cornice) above, will help \'^*^^^4^'J,' to make it ornamental. If the two upper boxes are made change^housea a little narrower, and not quite so high, the bookcase presents a graduated appearance, which is, perhaps, an advantage. 428 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. If you are a tenant, and have occasion to move, you have only ic turn your boxes over on the back, without even taking the books out, stuff paper or cloth about them, screw a board on the upper surface, and they are packed." 912. The amateur carpenter who is fond of his books, and can manage to appropriate a small room to himself as a sanctum or study, „ ., , can now see how easily he may make for himself every Furniture for •' ^ • v 1 book-room ^tom of furniture within it except his chair, which he may be made . . by amateur, .yvill do well to purchase, selecting a library chair with a wooden seat, which will cost from 12s. 6d. to 15s. To the above description we need only add that the plinth should be made in the same manner as that which has been described for the wardrobe, but higher, in order to keep the lowest row of books out of the way of sweeping brooms, etc. The cornice also should be made in a separate piece, and drop over the topmost box. It is also advisable that some method should be adopted of connecting the boxes when piled one above another. This maybe easily effected by a bead/rom top to bottom along the edge of each side which shows in front, ^In'Sfof^ or by slips also running from top to bottom at the back shelves. ^^ ^.^^^^ These, of course, must be unscrewed before the boxes are taken down for removal. As a finish to the shelves, leather edging with scalloped edges, or strips of American leather- cloth, should be attached to the shelves. 913. Here we may bring to a close our remarks on the con- struction of household furniture which partakes of the box form. From what has been said in the foregoing pages the amateur will doubtless find the way to make other useful things which are similar in principles of construction, and which, by reason of this very similarity, need no mention here. CHAPTER IX COMBINED CHAIR AND HOUSE-STEPS : PICTURE- FRAMES : FLOWER- STANDS AND STAGES : GLAZED WINDOW-BOX : FOUNTAIN : SWINGS. Miscellaneous Articles-Combined Chair and House-steps-Principles of Con- stmction-Constructionof lower portion-Mode of making upper P^^^-J^^'^ connected by Hinges-Frames for Pictures - Where to obtam Ma^^^^ls- Mouldings for Frames-Appropriaie styles for different P.ctures-Mounts for Pictures-Prices of Mouldings-Tools requisite for makmg Picture-frames Mitring the Corners-Picture-frame Makers first care-Mitre-box necessary- How Mitre-box is made-How to put Frame together- Contrivance for holding pieces-Suggested improvements-Clamps for board-" Oxford Frames their peculiarity-Materials for making them-Principlesof Construction-Simple way of making Rebate-Flower-stands and Stages-The ordinary Slower - stase- Simple mode of Construction -Width of Shelves '^r^'T-^^%lTlJZ Amateur-Stage with Brackets for Rails-Stages of various forms-Rectangular Stand-Semicfrcular Stand - Flower-stands for Windows -Flower-stand of Wood and Wire-PiUar-Supports for Shelves-Wire Edging : ^ow to make ' -Flower-stand for Bow Window-Mode of Construction-Zinc Cases for Plants -Staining and Varnishing most suitable for Flower-stands-Hangmg-baskets- Modes oF making Hanging-baskets-Glazed Window ^ox-General fo m o Window -box-Bottom and sides-Front and roof-Access to Box . how ob- tained-Fountain in Garden-Principles on which they act-Construction and action exemplified-Inexhaustible Fountain-Swings : danger ansing ^-^J^^'^ use-Swing for little children-How to put up a Swing- Phe Upnghts-Hooks and Ropes. 914. THERE are various articles that require brief notice that cannot be included in any of the groups that have been treated in preceding chapters on account of peculiarities in construction that Misceiianeoua are not found in those which have been described. "ti°i««- Among these are that useful compound piece of furniture which forms a chair for the hall or lobby, or a small set of house-steps, as may be found convenient by the owner ; picture-frames, including those of the ordinary kind and those known as « Oxford " frames ; flower-stands and stages for indoors and out of doors, and the glazed window-box. Each and all of these will find a place in the present chapter, in which we will also take occasion to include some remarks on fountains, 430 COI' STRUCTIONAL CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. suitable for gardens, rock work, conservatories, etc., and swings, which are always acceptable to children. 915. First of all let us take the combined chair and house-steps. The method to be followed in making house-steps with a frame hinged to them behind so as to spread out from the steps, and ckair and help in forming a broad and stable base, has been described elsewhere in " Every Man his own Mechanic," and the amateur has also been shown how to make a ladder. Light ladders are sometimes required for use within doors, and as these are sometimes placed against bookshelves, windows, etc., to guard against any injury from the ends of the side pieces, a piece of wood about I Sin. long, and from 3in. to 4in. wide, should be attached to them at the top of the ladder, as a long shield running from side-rail to side- rail in a horizontal direction, and extending some inches beyond them on either side. 916. The construction of the combined house-steps and chair is clearly shown in fig. 469, and any skilful amateur may make this piece of furniture for himself by the aid of the diagram. It will first be Principles of necessary to note construction, j^^j ^^iQ step-chair is formed in two parts, and that the dimensions of each part must be carefully studied in rela- tion to the other, so that the con- trivance may work properly when made. Let us now look to the construction of the lower por- tion, which forms Construction , , ■, , r of the whole base of lower portion. . ^. • ■> ^ i the chair, but only part of the base of the steps. All the stuff used for this step- chair should be good deal or pine, lin. in thickness, but thin- ner stuff may be used for the rails, whether they are simply screwed into the uprights that form the chair back and long legs of the steps, as shown in the drawing, or mortised into them, which will be found more convenient. Two pieces of wood I5in. long and 4>^in. wide must first be planed up ; thtse will serve, Fig. 469. COMBINED HOUSE-STEPS AND CHAIR. Combined House-steps and Chair. 431 one for the front part of the seat of the chair as shown at A, and the other for the lowest step of the steps as shown at B. Of these pieces b is notched and mortised at the ends, so as to receive and project slightly beyond the side-rail c D, which is i8in. long and 2>^in. wide. The upper end c of each side rail is mortised into A, which also receives the end E of the leg E F, which, with its fellow at the other end of A, supports the front of the chair. The side rails and uprights are connected by horizontal rails as shown at G, and it will add to the strength of the frame if a cross-rail be placed between the uprights at H. The lower part of the structure is now complete, and it remains to make the upper part, which, when finished, is at- tached to the lower part by strong butt-hinges as shown at K. To make this upper part, two pieces of wood, L and M, must ^^ ' ' ^ .... Mode of be planed up. Both of these must be 15m. m length, making uppsr but L must be 9in. and M 6in. wide. L is notched to receive at Q the upright O P, which is mortised into M at O. The pieces L and M are further connected by a side-rail N, which must be cut rather more than gin. long to allow for tenons, and the up- right O P and its fellow are further connected and strengthened by cross-rails R,S,T, which, as it has been said, may be simply screwed to them or mortised into them. The upper part turns on Parts con- and over the lower part by means of the hinges by which nected by hinges. the boards A and L are connected. When the upper part is turned over the lower part so as to form a set of steps, the board L forms the second step, and M the upper step ; when it is turned back so as to form a chair the board L forms the remainder of the seat of the chair, while the board M turns on to and rests on B, giving addi- tional strength and solidity to the chair when the structure is used as such. The position of all parts of the upper part of the steps when turned so as to form the back of the chair is clearly indicated by the dotted lines, which are lettered to correspond with the various parts of the top, as shown by the solid lines to the right of the figure. When finished the step-chair should be stained of a light or dark colour, according to the taste of the maker and varnished. 917. It will be difficult /of the amateur to find any more pleasing or profitable kind of work for internal decoration than picture-frame making ; pleasing, because good results may be speedily obtained at little cost and with a small amount of labour ; and profitable, be- cause pictures, of whatever kind they are, whether en- frames for gravings, chromo-lithographs, oleographs, water-colour pictures, drawings, or oil paintings, as long as they are good, form wall decora- 432 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. tions of which the eye never grows weary, and in which some fresh attraction is always to be found. 918. In writing about picture-frames it will be necessary to mention the materials of which they are made, and the method of making them. The amateur can always purchase mouldings of any kind obtoi'm^ta- ready to his hand, and all that remains for him to do is '^°' to cut them into pieces of suitable length, and put them together. The mouldings can be bought of Mr. George Rees, Picture Frame Maker, Strand, London, PF.C, who has Mouldjnga . r n 1 • j for frames, ^iso a large Stock of good and cheap pictures of all kmds, well worthy the inspection of the amateur. They may also be obtained of most paperhangers and decorators in the suburbs of London and country towns who turn their attention to frame-making as well as to the other branches of their crafts. 919. Before going into the method of cutting out the pieces for picture-frames and putting them together, it may be well to point out Appropriate to the amateur that, for engravings, mouldings of maple, Srenf o^k, etc., with a slight gold bead within the polished pictures, ^vood, are more suitable ; while for coloured pictures, no matter what they are, gilt mouldings should be used. For water- colour drawings, and prints and chromo-lithographs in imitation of " Mounts " water-colour drawings, a slight moulding is sufficient, and for pictures. ^^ picture itself is improved by being placed within a wide " mount," as it is technically called ; that is to say, a large piece of cardboard of some thickness, with a piece cut out of the middle so as to show the picture, and having the edges bevelled and gilt. A gilt line is sometimes run round the mount, about >^in. from the bevelled edge. Oleographs, which are imitations of oil paintings, and oil paintings themselves, should be strained on a frame — if, in the case of oil paintings, they are painted on canvas, and not on a panel or prepared millboard— which fits into the rebate of the gilt frame. The amateur will find it difficult to cut a mount for himself, but these can be procured at various prices according to size from the print- Pieces of seller or the mount-cutter. The glass may be obtained mouioings. ^^.^j^ ^v^^ printseller, painter and glazier, or oil and colour- man. The prices of mouldings, in plain wood for engravings, and gilt in various widths for oil paintings may be obtained from the sources indicated above. The variety of mouldings is so great that it would occupy far more space than can be well spared to give a list of them with the description and price of each. It will suffice to say that they are sold by the foot, and that they range in price from Mitre-box: Mitring Corners of Frame. 433 5d. per foot upwards, according to the width and ornamentation of the moulding. German mouldings are cheaper than English mould- ings, and as handsome in appearance, but the latter have the merit of being more durable and not so liable to tarnish. 920. For making his picture-frames the amateur will require a fine tenon-saw, a mitre-box, and a clamp for keeping the corners of the frame in position whUe he is engaged in nailing them to- Tools requi- gether. If he has not the first-named tool in a small size, ing picture- that is to say from 6in. to Sin. in length, he should pro- lames. vide himself with one. A mitre-box, better fitted for the purpose than the mitre -boxes used by joiners and carpenters for ordinary work, he may eabily make for himself; and a clamp, or contrivance to act as a clamp, for keeping the parts of the frame in position while being glued and bradded together, may be made with as little diffi- culty. 921. To mitre th^ corners of a frame together, the moulding of which the frame is made must of necessity be cut at an angle of 45". For e- ample, suppose that A B jjitrmg the p S.^ ^° i . a piece of moulding : «'°^^""- it is manifest that in order that the F! ■ L piece A c D may meet and fit at right ^ angles to the piece b c e, as shown Fig. 470. MITRING CORNER. , , j^, ji„„„,<^c.t7 fV,^ ^' by the dotted lines at C F E, tne moulding must be cut through in the lines C D and C E, which are at an angle of 45° to a c and B c respectively, or to the dotted line C F, which divides the right angle D c E into two equal angles D C F, E C F, each of 45°. The portion D C E having been cut away along the straight lines c D, C E, and the right-angled triangle D C E having been removed, the piece of moulding A C D will fit truly and accurately against the piece B C E— every line, projection, or depression in one piece meeting and fitting exactly to every similar line, projec- ^^^^^^^^^gj^^^ tion, or depression in the other piece. From this it is make^;8 first evident that the picture-frame maker's first care must be— To cut the pieces of which his frame is to be made and plane the ends up at a bevel which shall insure exactness in mitring when the pieces are brought together at the corners of the frame. 922. To do this with the precision that is necessary, a mitre-box must be provided. The ordinary mitre-box will be suffi- MiUe-box cient for the experienced professional maker, but for the '^*''®^^*^- amateur's use one of a somewhat different structure is desirable, that 28 434 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. Fig. 472. SECTION. will serve as well for planing up the ends as for cutting them. Such How mitre- ^ rnitre-box is shown in fig. 471. This mitre-box is box is made, made of two pieces of sound straight-grained deal, each being about iXin. thick, gin. wide, and 2ft. long. These pieces of board are firmly screwed together, the edge of the upper piece being set back 4|^in. from the edge of the lower piece, as shown in fig. 471, in which the edge A B of the top piece is set back 4^ in. from the edge C D of the under piece, and also in fig. 472, which represents a section of the two boards screwed to- gether. By this ar- MiTRE-Eox. rangement a rebate is formed in which a trying - plane may be pushed backwards and forwards as may be necessary. Next, take two pieces of wood about 2in. in width, iXin- in thickness at the least, and I2in. long; cut them at one end accurately to an angle of 45°, so that they may meet together in the line E H, which is at right angles to the line A B. Now it is clear that if the ends of the two pieces are planed up and brought just so close together in the line E H that a saw blade will pass between them and no more, if a piece of moulding be laid along the edge E F or e G, and cut, the edge of the saw passing through E H as a guide line, the end will be cut at the proper bevel. This may also be done if the square end of a piece of moulding be laid in the angle or corner at H, the moulding resting against the edge H K or H L. But this will only answer when it is necessary to cut a square end ; in all other cases the moulding must be laid against the edge E c or E F accordingly. It should be held in position against E G or E F by one or two small clamps, which will save the amateur the trouble of holding the moulding when cutting it, and insure better, neater, and truer work. So far for the cutting. To plane up the bevelled ends of the pieces of moulding, all that is necessary is to lay each piece against the edge E F or E G, as may be necessary, with the bevel parallel to, and indeed almost coincident with, the edge A B, and then pass the trying-plane along the rebate against the edge A B until the end is sufficiently planed down. The iron of the trying-plane should be ground thin and well sharpened on an oil-stone. How TO PUT A Frame Together. 435 923. The above ingenious mitre-box for frame-making was sug- gested by a contributor to the " Illustrated Carpenter and Builder ;" and Mr. Jones, a contributor to " Design and Work," a ^^^ ^^ ^^^ publication somewhat similar in scope and purpose, and ^*^^g*°; equally valuable to the scientific amateur, has given in the pages of the last-named periodical a simple but effective method of holding the four sides of the frame together while gluing up the corners and securing them with brads. In fig. 473, A A ^,^^^^^..^^^^3 represents a large board of about lin. in thickness, for holding .11 pieces, clamped at the ends to keep it from warpmg. The board should be large enough to take a good-sized frame, say 3ft. by 2ft. In place of a board the top of the bench, if it be clean and perfectly level, or a kitchen table, or any small deal table whose top is in one piece, will do equally well. The advantage of having a board for the pur- pose is that its edges can be planed perfectly square and true. To prepare for putting the frame together, first set off and lay out an area ex- actly the size of the picture- frame, marking its limits on the surface of the board. These lines, if shown in the figure, would coincide with Fig. 473. BOARD FOR FASTENING UP SIDES OF FRAME. the outer edge of the frame, and the outer edge of the frame, as defined by the lines B C, C D, D E, and E B, may be taken to represent them. Now take some small blocks, and screw down the four marked F, G, H, K to the table or board, close to and touch- ing the lines B C, B E. The four blocks lettered L, M, N, O should be screwed to the board about X inch from the edge of the frame, as shown in the drawing. Having glued the ends of the pieces, place P and Q so that their outer edges B C, B E are against the blocks F, G, H, K. Then place the pieces R and S in the position shown in the figure, and lock all the pieces closely and tightly together by driving in wedge-shaped pieces of wood, as shown at T,T, between the blocks L, M, N, o, and the edges of the frame D E and D C. The frame 436 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. must remain locked up until the glue is set, when the wedges may be removed and some thin brads driven in at each corner to strengthen the fn'WTie. 924. To save trouble, instead of the blocks lettered F, G, H, K, it will be better to have two slips of wood permanently screwed to the Suggested Surface of the frame along the edges x, Y, parallel to these improvements, blocks. It will then only be necessary to set off the lines against which the other two sides of the frame will come with the T square, and screw down the blocks lettered L, M, N, o a little to the out- side of them, so as to allow of the insertion of wedges for locking up the frame. Again, the blocks lettered L, M, N, O may be dispensed with altogether, and two clamps shown in plan and section in fig. 474 substituted for them. The action of these clamps and their construction will be readily Clamps for "i^^erstood from an examination boards, of the figure, each part of which is similarly lettered for facility of reference. In each portion A is the board or table, and B the frame. The screw C, one end of which works into and against the block D, through which its pressure is transmitted to the frame, works through a nut or female screw in the block E. This block is notched to receive the edge of the board or table, and is fitted with a thumb-screw F below, by which it is immovably fixed before pressure is applied to the block D by the screw c. The amateur will not find any very considerable diffi- culty in making clamps of this kind for himself, or adapting others to serve the purpose in view. 925. From the ordinary picture- frame we must pass on to the " Oxford " frame, whose peculiarity is that the ends of the frames: their four pieces of which it is made, instead of being mitred pec ari y. ^Qggf^er in rectangular corners, project each beyond the other in the form, of a cross. Lengths of oak, properly rebated, may Materials for ^^ obtained for making these frames, but the amateur making them, m^y make them for himself without the slightest assist- ance of this kind, and of deal, which he can afterwards stain and varnish or French polish, or blacken in imitation of ebony, according to taste. 926. It will be useful to look into the methods of making the Oxford SECTION. Fig. 474. CLAMP FOR FASTENING UP FRAME. The Oxford Frame : Making Rebate. 437 n o Fig. 475- OXFORD FRAME. a 3 D J frame from beginning to end, as this will also furnish the key to making a frame of wood already rebated for the purpose, principles of Fig. 475 shows the frame complete and fastened together. construcUon. It has been drawn on a large scale and somewhat coarsely, the better to exhibit its construction. A B, C D, E F, and G H, are four pieces of wood, say lin. square when planed up. These pieces are all notched at suitable distances from the ends, the perpendiculars A B, C D being notched to half their thickness in the under surface to fit over E F and G H, which are notched to the same extent in the upper surface to receive them. The way in which the piece E F is notched is shown in the elevation of E F in fig. 476, K and L and the dotted lines above and below the notches showing how the upper pieces fit over and on to it. The edges of every piece are stop- chamfered, as shown in fig. 474, and small bosses or studs are fiq. 476. elevation of transveres frequently inserted at the inter- ^'^^^• section of the pieces to give an ornamental appearance to the frame. 927. If the amateur has a rebating plane, and can use it, he will easily form a rebate in the inner edge of the under part of each piece ; or after the frame is put together, before gluing up and ^^^^^^ ^^^ pinning, the rebate may be marked and cut out with a °^j.™|^* chisel, the pieces being taken apart for the purpose. But, instead of doing this, pieces of wood of sufficient thickness to receive glass, picture, and backboard of the form shown at e', f', in fig. 476, may be cut out and glued or nailed to the under part of the frame. The effect of this is shown in elevation at M and N just above, in the same figure. Pieces of wood of this shape may be attached to either the vertical or horizontal pieces from end to end throughout ; but in the others, which- ever they may be, the rebate will be completed by putting on narrow strips between the pieces thus fixed, and pieces of the width of the frame on to the four ends to make the thickness the same throughout the frame and secure uniformity in this respect. 928. Flower-stands and flower-stages will in all probability fre- F' 438 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. quently command the attention of the amateur ; it will be desirable, Flower-stands therefore, to point out how these articles may be made, and stages, and to include in the information given on this point some directions for making hanging-baskets of a simple character for deco- rative purposes, both within doors and in the open air. 929. Let us first take the stage on which pots containing flowers may be placed. Small stages of this kind are very useful in gardens The ordinary °^ limited extent. They may be made square or semi- flower-stage, circular in form ; that is to say, in the shape of simple straight shelves rising one above the other, or in tiers of shelves re- turned, or in tiers of semicircles. In a garden where two straight paths intersect, a circular stage filled with flowers supplies a means of orna- mentation that is both beautiful and appropriate. 930. The simple stage of three, four, or more straight shelves rising one above another is easily made. The general principles of its con- struction are shown in fig. 477. The great object is to Simple mode of keep each shelf clear of the one immediately above it, and construction. ,.,.,- , , , . , to exhibit the flowers to the best advantage, causing them to conceal the stage or frame on which they stand as much as possible. To explain what is meant, let us suppose that the stage is intended for plants that range about I2in. in height, which are contained in pots 6in. high. Now the top of the plants in the lower row should be on a level with the rims of the pots in the row just above it ; and conse- quently, as each plant and pot are together i8in. in height, the dis- tance between the shelves should be I2in. This general rule will be sufficient to guide the amateur in making special stages Width of *= & r & shelves for for special purposes. Thus, for example, for staging auriculas the distance between the rows of shelves need not be so great as for pelargoniums. In a stage for a greenhouse this rule cannot be carried out owing to the variety of plants that are put on the stage. For greenhouse stages, speaking generally, gin. shelves made of rails, and not solid — that is to say, of boards — at a height of about i5in. one above another, will be found suitable and convenient. For large plants more breadth may be given to the shelves. Of course it will be understood that tall-growing plants should be placed behind those of shorter growth, so as not to hide the shorter ones from view. 931. In the accompanying illustrations, in which, for the sake of show- Easy stage for '"» ^^® construction as clearly as possible, the shelves amateur, jj^yg ^ggn drawn of the same width and height, fig. 477 shows a stage of the simplest possible construction, that may be Flower-stands and Flower-stages, 439 put together in the course of a very few hours. All that is necessary is to screw some uprights and transverse pieces together at right angles to each other, so as to form the two ends. If the stage be a long one, intermediate supports of the same construction must be in- troduced. The supports are then connected by rails as at A, B, c, whicli form the shelves on which the pots stand. Horizontal rails should be n B C '-T1 A B C n c c a I A B r— 1 —1 J c o o o n; 1 ■ ■1 __ _ Fig. 478. ORNAMENTAL FLOWER-STAGE, FiG. 477. SIMPLE FLOWER-STAGE. placed along the back of the structure as at D and E-, and additional strength should be given to the frame by diagonal braces at the back, and by braces in front of each step, if the frame be a long one. A neater and lighter appearance will be given to the frame if the sup- ports are made of i^'m. stuff halved into each other; but this will take time, and if the amateur can give time to the construction of his frame, he may as well make it more ornamental in character as shown in fig. 478. 932. To make this, a broad plank, as indicated by the dotted line A B and the solid line D E, must first be taken, and cut so as to present the form of brackets at A, B, and G, on which the rails „, _ .^^ ' ' ' stage with that form the shelves are laid. In the drawing the brackets for ° rails, brackets look disproportionately long, but this appearance will be obviated by making the shelves narrower and the height be- tween them greater, as the amateur will find if he take the trouble to work out a design on paper for himself To support the diagonal bracket-board an upright E H is mortised into it at the back, and the diagonal board and upright are further connected by a transverse rail KL. To keep the supports together and to strengthen the frame, rails may be placed parallel to the shelves, as shown at M, N, o, P, and Q. 440 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. Fig. 479. PLAN FOR RECTANGULAR AND SEMICIRCULAR FLOWER-STAGES. The above illustrations and description will suggest to the amateur other methods of making flower-stages for the greenhouse or for the garden in this simple form. 933. Square, semicircular, and circular stages assume a pyramidal form, and provision must be made for the return of the shelves round stages of the sides. The various forms, supports must be made in the same way, but on consideration it is clear that they must be arranged as radiating from a common central and vertical line as at A in fig. 479. In this figure a combined representation is given of the plan of a semicircular stand and of a rectangular stand whose length is just twice its width or depth. In no case should the relative proportion of a Kectaneuiar rectangular Stand be less than 2 to i for length and depth, stand. When the length C D is more than twice A B, there must be two supports instead of one in the centre — that is to say, the con- struction of the parts abce, ABDF must be as shown in the diagram, and the extra length made up by the rails that intervene between the two uprights or supports that take the place of the single support A B. It will be seen that in the rectangular stand the supports AE, ab, A F are equal and symmetrical, and so are the supports A c, A D, but these latter being diagonals will be longer than the others, and the amateur will find it necessary to obtain their exact shape by means of an elevation, which after all that has been said he can easily make for himself. In the semicircular form all the supports standing on radii of a circle will be equal and symmetrical. The amateur will readily understand that the supports do not meet in a point at A. They may meet, if it be thought requisite, in the vertical line that passes through A, but they are cut off level at the top so as to support in the one case Semicircular *-^^ rectangular shelf K L N o, and in the other the semi- stand. circular shelf K M o, that cap the respective pyramids. Thus in the rectangular stand the slope of the supports in plan, as well as the ground or base on which they stand, is represented by the straight lines K E, L c, M B, N D, and o F, and in the semicircular stand by K E, P G, M B, Q H, and o F. The rails or boards of which the shelves are made are mitred on the brackets proceeding from the sup- ports in the rectangular frame ; but in the semicircular frame, if small. Flower-stand of Wood and Wire. 441 the boards may be cut in quadrants, or if large, extended merely from bracket to bracket as in the rectangular form. 934. Flower-stands admit of an almost endless variety in their con- struction. Speaking generally of flower-stands, it may be said that they consist of a central support or stand, after the man- p-iower-standa ner of the pillar of a round table, which is made to support ^'^^ windows. two or three stages or shelves on which plants are placed. Stands of this description must of course be suited to the circumstances of the position which they are to occupy. For example, to stand before an ordinary window, a long and comparatively narrow form will be most suitable ; but for a bow-window a circular stand will be far more appropriate. It may be serviceable to the amateur to give examples of both of these flower-stands. 935. A suitable stand for an ordinary window is shown in elevation "^^^^^ i" fig- 4S0, and in plan in ^.j^^.^.g^and fig. 481, A central pillar of wood and <=• ^ ^ wire. springs from a bold base supported on feet, and above each ^^[^S(!$???^?^^^^^^^^ <-> in width and thickness, and strengthened by two struts F and G. The base D E and the greater part of the struts F and G are buried below the earth line N O ; the superincumbent weight of earth pressing on base, struts, and up- right keeping the uprights from swaying about when the swing is in motion. The end A of each upright is mortised into a cross-beam shown in section at C in Fig. 492, and in elevation at C in Fig. 493- Two strong hooks are inserted at H and K, to which the ropes of the swing are attached, being worked round an iron eyelet hole which slips over and on to the hook, which is shown on a larger scale at X in Fig. 492^- The „ , , ends of the Hooks and ropes. ropes are passed through holes in the seat of the swing, as shown in Fig. 492^, and secured from slipping through by means of knots. When the ends of the cross- beam C are made to project FIG. 492a. HOOKa AND SEAT OF Fig. 492. SWING (end elevation) some distance beyond the uprights, as shown in Fig. 493- the projecting A nr arms or horns may be made available for two other hooks as at L and M, from one of which a rope may be suspended, and from the other a pole, for in- : . ,. , Fig. 4n. SWING (front elevation). struction and practice in climb- ing ropes and poles, an exercise which may prove useful in after life CHAPTER X. OUT-DOOR STRUCTURES FOR THE GARDEN: CUCUMBER-FRAMs., GREENHOUSE, SUMMER-HOUSE, FOWL-HOUSE, PIG-STY, RUSTIC WORK, AND STEPS. Out-door Structures in Garden — The Cucumber-frame— Its various Uses — Con- struction of Glass-frame — Sides of Frame — Top and Bottom — Frame should take to Pieces — Board suitable for Purpose — General Proportion? — Arrangements for taking Frame to Pieces — Lights for Frame — Ordinary size of Lights — Bearers for Lights — Contrivances to Carry off Water — Lights always Useful in GardeD — Suitable size for Small Lights — Greenhouse — House must be adapted to Situ- ation — Example of adaptation to Circumstances — Circumstances of Situation Described — Mode of Construction adopted — Floor of House : why Lowered — " Lean-to " Greenhouse— Design for " Lean-to " Greenhouse — Roof of the House — Details of Construction of House— Simple Protection for Fruit-trees — The Orchard-house — Useful Structure for Ama>jur — Ouhard-house must not be too Small — Posts for Orchard-house — Wall plate — The Rafters — Provision for Glazing — Placing of the Glass — Ends of the House — Mode of securing Ventila- tion — Arrangem.ents within the House — Cost of Building — Purposes to which it may be Applied — Fruit-shed — Buildings Suitable for Gardens — The Aviary or Bird-house — Levelling and Staking out Area — Construction of Building — Base- boards — Rafters and Roof — Sides of Structure — Swing-flap at Bottom — Perches for Birds — Sides in exposed Situation— Protection in Stormy Weather — Bottom of Aviary — Brackets, etc., for Building — Hutches for Rabbits, etc. — Rabbit-shed — Outer Wall : its Construction — Inner Wall, and Trap-hatches — Roof and Railing — Soil suitable for Rabbits— Fowl-keeping Profitable — Things necessary to Success — Construction of House and Run — Amateur's Suburban Fowl-house — Plan of Structure — General Arrangement of Yard — Poles for Roosts — Interior of Roosting-place, etc. — Posuion of Nests — How to Build the House— Frame for Front — Partitions, Roosting-poles, and N'ests — Roof and Gutter — Ventilation — Padlocks to Doors — Hints on Feeding Poultry — Useful Feeding Trough— Its Construction — The Pigeon-house — Construction of Ordinary House— Floors of Boxes — Roof and Cap— Pigeon-house should be easy of Access — How to Make it so — Pipe in Centre of Tub — Construction of Boxes^Entrances and Ledges — Arrangements for Raising and Lowering Tub — Construction of Roof— Keeping Pigs— Situation of Pig-sty — Plan of Structure— Bed and Drainage — Rafters and Roofing — The Yard, and its Fencing — Feeding Trough — Materials for Building must Depend on Locality— No Structural difficulty in Pig-sty — Pigs should be kept Dry — The Summer-house : its Position — Hexagonal Summer-house — How to Build it —The Posts : how to fix them— Floor of Building— Wall Plate for Rafters — Details of Construction — Closing in Sides of Building — Rustic Work: what It is — Things that may be made in Rustic Work- Its Carpentry and Joinery — Examples of Rustic Work — Halving, and Mortise and Tenon Joint— 2g 450 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. Modification of these Processes — Directions for Notching — Shoulder of Tenon, etc. — Suggestions for Framing Rough Timbers — Garden Furniture — Garden-seat — Method of Construction — Ornamental Work— Arms of Seat — Garden-seat foi one Person — Rustic Table — Rustic Steps and Fences. 947. As the general principles on which sheds and out-buildings in the garden, etc., are constructed will be fully discussed in Ont-door o 7 j Btructures Part III. of "Every Man his own Mechanic," in which is garden. all branches of the building trades are treated, occasion may be taken to dwell here on a few peculiarities in out- door structures in the garden, which cannot be conveniently treated elsewhere. 948. First among these the cucumber-frame, or trame and lights, presents itself, a structure which is not only useful for raising, rearing, The cucTLm- and ripening cucumbers and melons, but also for constitut- es ame. ^^^ ^ covering for a cold pit in which half-hardy plants may be protected from the severity of the winter. The description of this kind of frame and light will be sufficient to guide the amateur to the Its various construction of various frames and lights for growing "^^^" grapes, strawberries, and other delicious fruits which thrive and ripen all the earlier and quicker under glass than in the open air. 949. In fig. 494 the details of the construction of the glass-frame Constmc'tion are shown. No. i is an elevation of the side of the frame, ofgiassfL-ame. -^^ ^yhich it is sought to show, among other things, the suitable slope of the light which lies with- in the side-slips, one of which is shown in No. 3 by A A, and in section by A, B in No. 2. A frame may be of 6ft. X 4ft., or 6ft. X 8ft., the latter being double the size the former. The side-pieces form a rebate with the sides of the frame, so that the light works up and down on the edges of the sides of the frame and clears the top and bottom nicely. The side-pieces confine the action of the frame, keeping the frame in its proper place, Top and and preventing it from moving in a lateral direction and bottom. ^gjj^g pushed over the side of the frame. The top, bot- tom, and sides of the frame may be dovetailed together, but a large Fig. 494. FRAME AND LIGHTS. Bides of frame. Cucumber Frame to take to Pieces. 451 frame when put together in this way so that it cannot be taken to pieces forms a heavy and cumbersome article to put away out of sight and under cover when it is not wanted. The amateur will Frame should find hints on glazing the light in Part III. of this work. ^^^^ to pieces. We will now go into the construction of a frame that may be taken to pieces and put together at pleasure. 950. Stout boards that will be full lin. or even i^in- when planed down, should be chosen. The sides must be made of the shape shown in No. i at A B b' a', the hinder part, A r., beingr ' f J ; b Board about thrice the height of the bottom piece. This will suitable for purpose. provide a sufficient slope for the light, which should be at an angle of about 22° 30' with the horizon. Suppose the end a' b' to be I2in. in height, and B b' to be just about 6ft. long, the end A B would be rather more than 3ft. high to obtain this slope. The General amateur, however, may vary the height of the back from P^°P°rti°i3. twice to three times the height of the front, as he may find convenient or suitable to circumstances. In order to take the frame to pieces and put it together again at pleasure, the front, back, and Arrangements sides may be connected by cutting slots in the sides in a ^^^ame^fo^ horizontal direction and attaching eyes to the edges of Pieces, the top and bottom in such positions that they will pass through the slots cut for their reception in the sides. When the eyes or staples,, for either may be used, have been passed through the slots when the frame is put together, the whole structure may be kept together by passing wires through the loops of the eyes, as shown in 2, 3, and 4, or pegs through the loops of the staples, as shown in i and 5. The amateur must remember that slots for eyes, the nature of which is clearly shown in 4, must be horizontal, but those for staples must be vertical. In 2 and 3 the edge of the bottom is shown as simply touching the sides, but in 4 and 5, both of which represent the plan of a corner of the frame, the edge of the top or bottom is shown fitted into a groove ploughed for its reception, about lin. or i^^in. from the edge of the side. The frame is more solid and air-tight when made in this way. 951. The end of the light is shown at c in 2. As instructions for making the frame and glazing it will be given elsewhere, as it has been said, all that is necessary to impress on the amateur Lights for here is that if he is making his lights himself he can make ^'^™*'- his frame first and adapt his lights to it ; but if he procures frames for his lights all ready made, it will be needful to adapt his frame to his lights, making an accurate working drawing to scale, in order 452 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. to determine the dimensions of the parts of the frame with accuracy. No light for a frame of this description should be larger Ordinary '^ r o size of than 6ft. by 4ft. The frame may, if necessary, be 8ft. by lights. 6ft., or even 12ft. by 6ft. ; but to cover these two and three of the ordinary 6ft. and 4ft. frames must be used, supported by bearers running from top to bottom of the frame — one bearer being Bearers for required to take the edges of two lights where they meet in lights. ^YiQ centre of the frame, and itvo bearers for three lights. These bearers should be about 3in. wide, notched into the frame at top and bottom, so that their upper surface may be level with the topmost edge of the top and bottom, and the upper edges of the sides. It is better to screw a bar of wood about lin. square, or lin. wide, and as high as the thickness of the lights, to separate them. Grooves Contrivances o ' •■ to carry off should be cut with the gouge down the edges of the sides water. of the frame, and down the bars on which the edges of lights may rest . These serve to carry off any water that may make its way in between the edge of the light and the rebate in which it moves up and down. Thus in fig. 495 these grooves are shown at x, x, x, A being the section of outer side of frame working in rebate formed by side-slip D, and on edge of side Fig. 495- grooves in frame. ^ . ^^^ ^^ ^^ sections of inner sides of frames working in rebates formed by the piece E screwed down the centre of the wider bar, F. 952. Any number of lights, large and small, can be used in a garden for the protection of plants and the more successful raising and rearing vegetables and flowers, and the production of fruit. The Lights always . useful in amateur can scarcely have too many of them. In sprmg, gar en. ^^^^^ ^ number of small lights placed together edge to edge, salads, potatoes, early carrots, and strawberries may be grown to come to table long in advance of those which are grown in the ordinary way. The only framing that is required may be made of long pieces of board higher behind than in front, joined at the ends and connected and strengthened by bars of wood from back to front, on Suitable size , , ,. , „ „ ,■ , r for small which the edges of the lights rest. For small hghts for use in a side border in long continuous shelter-frames of this description, 4ft. by 3ft. is a convenient size. All frames should be. well painted and receive a fresh coat yearly. 953. As in the case of the garden-frame and light, the general principles involved in the building of a green- house, as far as the carpentry is concerned, have been given elsewhere, Greenhouse Suited to Situation. 453 and it is only on questions of detail that there is any necessity for us to dwell here. In all cases the amateur must suit _ House must the peculiar form which his house will assume to the te adapted to r ^ aituation. ground on which it is to be built, and to the peculiar circumstances of situation. 954. In order to give a practical illustration of what is meant by adapting the form of the structure to circumstances, the writer cannot do better than describe, by the help of the annexed sketch, _ , , ' ■> '■ ' Example of fig. 496, what he has done himself in a position that pre- adaptation to circumstau CSS. sented some difficulty. One or two trifling deviations have been made from what was actually done, in order to render the sketch and description more useful to amateurs generally. A B represents, or must be considered to represent, a glass door in section leading out on to a landing, C, forming the top ofa flight of stone steps D, E, F, lead- ing to the garden, the level of which is represented by the earth - line G H, There were iron railings run with lead into the edges of the steps to prevent any one from falling into the garden, and to act as balusters to the steps ; K L M shows the height of a brick wall, 6ft. high in the lowest part, which divides the garden from an alley or cuoum- , . , , , . , J stances of narrow passage which runs between the writers garden situation de- and that of the next house, and forms a thoroughfare ^°" ® from the street in front to another behind. A greenhouse was very much wished for, but to have raised it above the wall would have ex- posed the roof to damage, and blocked the view from the door ab. The only thing to be done to get sufficient headway within ^^^^ ^^ the house was to put the floor below the earth-line, and °°°^'Jp°g"°° this was done accordingly ; an excavation, O P QR, being made i Sin. below the level of the earth-line shown by c H. A frame P s was made, in which was a swing window T hung to the top rail of GREENHOUSE SUITED TO SITUATION. ^.54 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery the frame by hinges to open outwards. Another frame, Q U, was put up behind, butting against the steps from which the railings were re- moved. On these frames, before and behind, the roof u S was laid with a ventilator at U upwards. A rail O R was mortised at the level of the earth-line into the uprights P s, Q U, and short rails z, z on either side, between these uprights and the uprights V w, x Y, which were mor tised into the rails O R, U S, and formed the frame for the door. A nice little house, 6ft. high in front, 8ft. high behind, and about 5ft. 6in. wide, and 7ft. from back to front, was thus formed, capable of holding a great many plants on the platform and shelves in front, and the stage of three tiers behind, the positions of which are indicated by drawings of flowers in pots in the sketch. The openings between the uprights from R Q to O P and in front were filled in with brickwork to keep the 5oil from falling in ; and the space between O R and the short rails z, z, on either side of the door was boarded up, the boards being placed vertically, and chamfered slips nailed over the junction of the boards to hide their meeting, and to provide against possible shrinkage. To cover in the steps and landing in front of the glass door A B, uprights were mortised into the top rail U of the frame at the back to carry another rail on which the zinc-covered roof « was sustained, the long opening between these two rails being glazed and fitted with a swing window, as shown in sketch. The glass at the top of the wall from L to K was chipped off and a shelf put in its place, which is useful for flowers. The opening at c was match-boarded, and so was the wall at -c/ between the shelf L K and a seat e, which was put up across the inner end of the landing about i6in. above it. The back of the greenhouse, from a little above the level of the seat to the top rail U on which the roof rests, is glazed, which allows a view of the interior of the house to any one who is sitting on the seat e, and from the passage within the glass door at A B. Although everything is on a small scale, the house is convenient and so is the seat. A step is placed within the house midv/ay between the sill of the door and the floor to facilitate ingress and egress. The water from the roof which runs into the gutter below S is carried by the shoot y, which is attached to the side of a small buttress, down to the ground at H, into which it soon soaks away. 955. Unless the floor of the house had been carried to the depth of z8in. below the ground level, it would have been impossible to have got a house of fair height conveniently placed, for reasons that Floor of '^ J r ^ house: why have been already stated : and when sketches were being lowered, ,,,,,. , . . , , made for the plan, elevations, etc., the covenng in 01 the ianding c with the verandah like roof a, and the formation of the shelf Construction of ''Lean-to'' Greenhouses. 455 L K, and the seat e soon suggested themselves. Thus, in whatever building the amaieur may undertake to construct, it is not only ne- cessary for him to adapt the structure to the circumstances of position, but to consider how and in what way the position itself may be modi- fied so as to promote convenience in the building, whatever it may be, that is about to be reared upon it. 956. The greenhouse just described is what is termed a *' lean-to." The method of constructing roofs on this principle, and span and hipped roofs, will be fully described in the concluding por- " Lean-to •• tion of this work. The roofs of glass structures should be made as light as possible, having due regard to strength, and provision should be made for ventilation. That the amateur may not be with- out a suitable design for a pretty " lean-to " greenhouse to be erected against a wall, and having glazed ends in one of which is the door, the preceding remarks on greenhouse building and building out-houses in general may be fairly supplemented with illustrations and brief descrip- tion of such a structure. 957. The greenhouse shown in the accompanying diagrams, of A A which figs. 497, 498 are j j^ '^^^^^y^' '^'"^'"^^'"^^''' ^^ the front and end ele- I I 1 I i vations of the house, may be built either as a lean - to Design for against a "lean-to" ... greeuiiouse. brick wall, or independently of any wall or structure be- hind, in which case it must be furnished with aback. A useful feature in this design is that any greenhouse built on this plan can be easily taken to pieces and re- erected in any other place at small cost. The ends are each framed in one piece to move bodily ; the front and roof may be made each in one piece, or in separate parts. The most feasible way would be to make the woodwork below, shown as panels in the drawing, and the glazing above, in four separate pieces, as tne two pieces ui the centre could then be made to open for ventilation. 958. The roof may be ma-fJe in three pieces, and in this case the : ; 1 — 1 li >) « 1 » yy ^ 1 i Fig. 497. GREENHOUSE (.'RONT ELEVATION). 456 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. two central panels should terminate at a cross rail set across the frame at A and B, to admit of small lights above, k Eoof of the between this rail and the top Fig. 498. GREENHOUSE {SIDE elevation). house. j.^ii of the roof for ventilation. The house stands on a platform or sill piece of oak framed separately, and the sills or lower rails of the framing above are screwed down upon it. It is almost needless to say that the oaken sill should be bedded on con- crete, and that the floor of the house should be formed of the same material, sloped from all sides to one corner, at which an outlet and drainage should be provided for surplus water that may fall on the floor when the plants are watered. For the sake of orna- ment, circular heads may be made to the lights, if preferred to square or rectangular heads. In figs. 499, 500, and 501 the details of the method employed in bolting the front (and back, if the house be furnished with a wooden back) construction to the ends, and the roof to the uprights at front and of house, ^^^j, ^j.g ^jgarly shown. In fig. 499 the plate A is mortised into the post B, and a hole is bored with an auger through post and tenon until a recess notched in the plate below A is reached, in which the nut is held until the end of the bolt has been passed through it. The nut, which is cir- cular, with notches in its edge like the milling on a coin, is then screwed up tight with a screw- FlG. 499. CONNECTION OF PLATE AND POST. N / L_ ) > V J-L ^ — FlG. 500. TRONT. Fig. 501. BACK. CONNECTION OF ROOF AND UPRIGHTS. wrench made in the form of a large pair of bent pliers, until the pest is brought as closely as possible against the tenoned end of the plate. Useful Form of Greenhouse for Amateurs. 4-)y The framing of the roof is secured in precisely the same manner as shown by the bolts, etc., in figs. 500, 501. In these the shaded parts of the top, lettered A, represent in fig. 500 the front rail, and in fig. 501 the back rail of the roof; and in each of these figures the shaded part B represents the top rail of back and front respectively, for even if the back be formed by a brick wall or the wall of a house or any other structure, a wall plate from end to end will be required to help in supporting the framing that forms the roof. A fillet is nailed on the sides Df the roof to give a finish to this part of the structure, and, to prevent the rain from finding its way to the bolts, caps, as shown in the front and end elevations, and in detail in fig. 501, are placed at the four comers of the roof. The difference in the form of the caps in front and the caps behind is perceptible in fig. 498. This mode of build- ing a greenhouse and bolting the parts together was suggested by Mr. F. CoUings in the " Illustrated Carpenter and Builder." 959. It is astonishing what heavy crops of fruit may be secured by a little glass overhead, and the means of breaking the violence of winds and protecting the trees from frost at the sides of the • 1. t_ 1 • 1- J- 1 . IT Simple pro- structure either by glazmg or boardmg, or even by trellis- tection for work, or the slighter netting. Even a projecting coping along the top of a brick wall, to which netting or canvas may be hung in time of frost in April and IMay when the trees are in bloom, or even earlier, will save and secure a crop of fruit which would be very materially reduced, or perhaps entirely swept away, without protection of this kind. 960. Fig. 502 exhibits a section of a useful form of greenhouse for the amateur, which, by the removal of the stage in the centre and the heating apparatus shown at the sides, may be easily The orchard- adapted to serve as an orchard-house ; the main points of i^ousie. difference between a greenhouse and an orchard-house being, that the greenhouse is neatly made and furnished with warming appliances, while the orchard-house is roughly put together without entire ex- clusion of the air at pleasure and without means of heating. In the illustration under consideration, cc represents the ground level. At A, A, A, A, four dwarf brick walls are raised, the outer ones being lower than the inner ones, so that lights may be placed from the latter to the fonner on an incline, covering in the cold pits B 5 on either side of the main structure. The floor of the pits is below ,,,,,., . Useful struo- the ground level, but that of the main structure coin- ture lor - EDisiteur. cides with the ground line. In the case of the orchard- bouse, if it be desired to gain height, the floor may be sunk below the 458 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. ground level, as in the case of the cold pits ; but this will be found inconvenient when it is desired to move the plants, or rather trees, out of the house in summer time, as when the floor of the house is neither higher nor lower than the ground without, the trees can be easily run in and out on a low carriage, whose wheels run on iron plates laid down for the purpose. When the fruit is grown on trees in pots, so • hat the trees can be moved from one place to another more readily, or iffr Fig. 502. GREENHOUSE OR ORCHARD-HOUSE. when the trees are kept in the house always, the floor of the house may be sunk below the ground level as described. 961. Amateurs who intend to build an orchard-house for fruit- growing must remember that trees even when dwarfed will not thrive Orchard- '^^ ^ close, small Structure. In Beeton's " Garden Manage- ^°ot^be^oo* Tierit" the following description is given of a convenient smau. £qj.j^ Qf house, a lean-to structure, 30ft. long and 12ft. 6in. wide, which is made in a very simple manner. No illustration is given, as the amateur can easily ^vork this out for himself from the following description. 962. Six posts of yellow deal, 5in. X 3in., or oak posts 4in, X 3in and 9ft. 6in. in length, are firmly fixed and driven 2ft. into the ground, the lower ends being previously charred and orchard- coated with coal tar. This is the back line of posts. Six other posts exactly similar, but only 4ft. 6in. long, are fixed I Sin. in the ground, forming the front posts of the house, the one rising 3ft. and the other 7ft. 6in. above the ground level. Two posts at one end occupy the centre and form the door-posts. On the six posts, both at back and front, a wall plate is nailed to receive the rafters, one of v/hich springs from each of the front posts resting on the corresponding back posts. 963. The rafters are 14ft. long. A 9in. deal, 3in. thick, will make four of tliem. On the upper side of each rafter is nailed a slip of Wall plate. Construction of Orchard-House. 459 l^in. deal i^in- wide, which will leave }4\n. on each side as rebate to receive the glass. The rafters so prepared are fixed ^^^ rafters. in their place to the wall plates by having a piece cut out at each end to correspond with the angle of the back and front plates. They are then firmly nailed at back and front by strong spike nails, leaving a space between each rafter of 5ft. which is called a bay ; this is filled up by smaller rafters or sash bars, of a size proportioned to their length and the use they are to be putto— vines trained to them requiring stronger bars. A piece of )Cm. deal board, 6in. wide, nailed along the top of each rafter, so as to be even with their Provision for upper edges, forms the ridge board, leaving a groove to receive the upper end of the glass. A similar piece of lin. deal, 6in. wide, let in by sawing out a corresponding piece out of each rafter at its lower end will receive the glass and carry off the water. The placing of the glass is a very simple process. Beginning at piaciKg of the top, a plate of glass 2oin. wide— each bay is divided ® ^ *^^" into three parts by two intervening sash bars— is laid in the groove and fixed in its place by a brad driven into the rafter, a bed of putty being first laid ; and so on till the whole is covered in, open joints in the glass being rather advantageous than otherwise, if not too wide. No putty is used in the laps.' The ends of the houses are fitted up to correspond with the roof, only that above the doorway Ends of the a large sash is fitted in for ventilation. These sashes at each end, and the front or side sashes, are said by Mr. Rivers, the originator of houses of this description, to be quite sufficient, indeed he pronounces the ventilation perfect. Well-seasoned ^^fin, deal, planed and jointed, nailed outside the posts, forms the lower part of the house. 964. In the back wall, sliding shutters, 3ft. by ift, will afford venti- lation to the roof, and about 3ft. from the surface of the ground, two similar sliding shutters will ventilate the lower part of the j^^^^ house behind and on a level with them. Ventilation is °^^^^^^ secured by sashes, 2ft. 6in. wide, and running the whole length of the house under the wall plate ; below these sashes the space is filled in with boarding well painted. In summer it is impossible to give too much air. The house is now complete, except the door, which must open inwards for obvious reasons, and may be half glass or otherwise, at the proprietor's discretion. » In this kind of glazing the pieces of glass are laid continuously end to end or edge to edge in the rebate, there being no lapping of each pane over that which is immediately below it. Very little, if any, rain will make its way in between the joints. 460 Constructional 'Carpentry and Joineky. 965. Within the house a trench i8in. deep is formed, to which two steps from the outside will lead. This leaves a platform or border on each side of the trench, 4ft. gin. wide, supposing the within the trench to be 3ft. wide. The back border requires to be house. ^ raised i8in., and Mr. Rivers suggests that it would be improved by a second terrace behind the first, of I4in., supported by a 4in. brick wall, so that the back row of trees need not be shaded, while they are brought nearer the glass. 966. Such a house as this, when made by the amateur himself, should not cost more than ^15. The borders should have a loose and Cost of open surface, formed of old lime, rubbish, and road sand, mixed with manure. This surface should be laid 4in. deep, and then the whole should be forked over and mixed with the soil to the depth of gin. The structure when complete is admirably suited for the culture of vines, figs, peaches, and nectarines in pots. If a terraced border be made at the back, only two rows of trees could be placed, one in front of the other. In the front border two rows of trees should also be placed 3ft. apart, the trees in the front row Purposes to ,. , . ^ . , , which it may standmg each m front of the space between two trees m the row behind. Between the trees, and on either side of the central path, at the edge of the borders, strawberries in pots may be placed. For the treatment of trees under such conditions the reader is referred to the work already mentioned, which will give him all the information on the subject that he can require. 967. Fruit may be grown very successfully in what may be termed a fruit-shed. This may be made by covering in a portion of ground „ ., , , on each side of a garden walk with a span roof. If the Fruit- shed. *' '^ walk thus treated be in the middle of the garden, with a wide border on each side of it, so much the better. The ends may be left open. The sides, which may be about 4ft. or 5ft. in height, may be enclosed with strong trellis-work, on which roses and other cHmbing plants may be trained. Provision may be made for glazing in the ends or filling them with trellis, if preferred. When this is done it is easier to protect the trees within the house by putting up canvas inside and next to the trellis in inclement weather. 968. As full information will be given in the third part of " Every Man his own Mechanic" with respect to the details of the methods to .,, „.= be followed in building sheds and houses for various pur- suitable for poses out-of-doors, and of large size, we may confine gardens. ^ ' . ^ our attention here to a brief description of one or two varieties of different kinds of buildings which may be found even in How TO Build an Aviary. 461 the smallest gardens, such as the Aviary, the Fowl-house, the Pigeon- house, and the Summer-house. To these another structure may be added, which can only be put up at a good distance from the dwelling- house, namely, the Pig-sty ; and we will conclude the chapter with some remarks on rustic work suitable for certain positions, such as a flight of steps from a lower to a higher level, and rustic seats and fences. 969. An aviary is nothing more than a bird-cage on a very large scale. The elevation of an octagonal aviary is shown in fig. 503, and the plan both of the base The av-iary or bird-house. ^ and of the roof is shown in combination in fig. 504. A level — •■ _::^ piece of ground having been selected, L5 » •J* >^> ^^ 3 ..^.^J/f-sIi] or made if necessary, the area on which >!MfM the aviary is to be built _ ,,. _ . ■' Levelling and must be staked out with staking out area, care. The amateur may make a four, five, six, seven, or eight- sided building as he may prefer ; but he will find a six or eight-sided structure the most convenient and far prettier than the four-sided aviary in appear- ance. Supposing that it is decided to i build an octagonal aviary, as shown in i the annexed diagrams, a construction '. i 1 of biiilding. : Stout post must be reared /'■'in the centre, and eight posts of yellow deal, about 2>^in. square, at the eight corners of the building. The bottoms of the uprights, which should be charred and well tarred, should be bedded in AVIARY. concrete, and the concrete bedding lihould be continued all round the site, as high as the ground level or a little above it. To these posts, at the very bottom, resting on the concrete sill, should be nailed stout inch boards to serve as a baseboard or plinth. These may be from 9in. to iSin. ^^^^^^^^^^^^ wide, according to the height of the house and the fancy of the builder. The baseboards may be recessed into the posts, or nailed on outside and neatly mitred at the corners. Above, round the top of the posts, a wall plate should be attached in a similar manner. i-l^. 504. I'LAS OF BASE AND ROOF. 463 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. 970. The rafters for the support of the roof should rest one end on the uprights and the other end against the post C, which rises, as it Kafters has been said, in the centre of the building. This post ®^ ^°° ' may be dispensed with, if preferred, but in this case a block of wood must be introduced at the apex of the roof, against which all the rafters may abut, after the manner of rafters against the ridge-board or pole of a span roof. The ends of the rafters should project beyond the baseboard, so as to take the drip from the roof, beyond the outer surface of the baseboard. This is shown in the plan of the building in fig. 504, by the line a' b' c' d' e' f', which projects considerably beyond the line A B C D E F, which denotes the outer face of the ba'seboard. The roof may be weather-boarded or covered with boards placed edge to edge, vertically or horizontally, and ccvered in their turn with the ordinary roofing felt, or the Anglo- Danish Patent Asphalte Roofing Felt, which is noticed elsewhere, and is an excellent material for roofing purposes. To the ends ol the rafters, a little within the edge of the roof, an ornamental barge- board should be nailed, as shown in the illustration (fig. 503). The roof should be surmounted at its very apex by a cap, on which a ball and spike is placed, which may be gilt. If considered desirable, drip from the roof may be prevented by running a light gutter of wood or zinc round the edge, and carrying the water to the ground through a pipe fastened against one of the pillars. 971. With regard to the manner in which the sides are filled up, this must depend very much upon the situation of the aviary. If it be in a very sheltered spot, all the apertures may be closed Btructiure. ^vith frames, on which wire netting has been stretched. Of these, one must be made to open and shut, but to guard against accidents it should be secured by a padlock. As it will be dangerous to throw this door open at all times for the admission of water, etc., Swing-flap provision should be made for its easy introduction by at bottom, j^j^ying a swing-flap at the bottom of one of the fixed panels, by means of which the bottom of the aviary can be reached Perches easily. The birds will roost in the roof on perches run- jor birds. ^-^^^ ^^.^^ ^^^ central pole to the rafters, and if there be no central pole, the timber against which the rafters abut should be carried low enough, say as far as the bottom of the ornamental barge- board, so as to carry the inner ends of the perches. If Sides in ' r -i • i. -j exposed the situation be exposed, three out of the eight sides Bituation. , , facing north-west, north, and north-east, or north-north- east, and east, may be permanently boarded up, and painted or coloured Rabbit Pit and Shed. 463 white inside, that the birds may be clearly perceptible against this back- ground, which will show up their plumage. It will also be advisable to have frames covered with painted canvas or straw mat- _ ^ ^. ■^ Protection tinsr, etc., which may be placed against any of the wired ia stormy °' ' weather, sides to keep out driving rain or a boisterous rough wind. 972. The bottom of the aviary should be of concrete, sprinkled with sand, and a little lime taken from an old wall or any old building. Brackets and supports can be placed within, on which the Bottom of birds may build and breed, but if possible these should be ^.viary. in such a position and so contrived that the birds may be out of sight, and in seclusion when sitting. It is scarcely necessary Brackets, etc., to say that the small-wired flap, as well as the principal ^o^^^^^^^^s. means of entrance, should be secured by a padlock, and that one person only should keep the key and attend to the wants of the birds, as any carelessness in leaving the doors unlocked might lead either to the escape of the birds or the entrance of a cat, who would make short work of the rightful occupants of the aviary with its teeth and claws. 973. Anybody can make a rabbit-hutch, or a house for a guinea pig, so it will be sufficient here merely to mention these things, for, after all that has been said, the amateur, if he stands in Hutches for need of them, will be able to contrive something better ^^ ^ ^'^ °' than the ordinary run of such structures for himself. Besides, if a man takes to keeping rabbits, he will do it for profit rather than for pleasure, and should manage his " warren " in such a manner that the rabbits may be kept in a state approximating as closely as possible to that in which they are when at liberty, and in a state of nature. 974. The accompanying diagram, fig. 505, will help the reader to _ ^^.. ^ ^ Rabbit-Ehed. some idea of the way in which rabbits may be kept in semi-liberty. The outer circle, A, repre- sents a large circular wall of concrete, enclosing a space of 40ft. to 50ft. in diameter. To make this wall, a trench Fig. 505. PLAN OF KABBJT-SHED. ^^^^^ .ft. in width should be first taken out, and the wall then built against the inner circle, the 464 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. space between the concrete and the outer circle being filled up with earth as the wall is carried up. It is necessary to excavate the trench of a much greater width than the wall which it is proposed to make, so that the workmen employed may have room to work. The wall should be carried as low as possible — to a depth of 20ft. even, if it can be done— to prevent the rabbits from burrowing under and upwards to the surface of the ground without the wall. 975. When the outer wall has been completed and brought within a foot or two of the surface of the ground, an inner wall should be made in the same manner, enclosing a pit about loft. or Oater wall : ,- , • 1 > r its construe- 12ft. wide, and about 5ft. deep, with a bottom 01 con- crete. In the wall two or more holes should be made, as shown at x and Y, covered with trap-hatches that can be closed or opened from above at pleasure. In the inner wall Inner wall, , . , and trap- uprights are embedded at regular intervals as at B, C, D, E, F, and G, just as in the aviary deseribed above. These uprights support rafters butted against a pendant in the centre, and covered with thatch projecting for a foot or two beyond the inner wall The eaves of the roof may be about 6ft. above the level of the ground. Koofand ^ rustic railing should be carried round the uprights, railing, closing up five out of the six spaces between them to the height of 3ft. ; the sixth opening should be filled with a gate, in keep- ing with the rest of the woodwork. Food may be thrown down to the rabbits when necessary. The rabbits will make their burrows in the earth between the outer and inner walls, entering them and quitting them by the holes in the inner wall. Whenever any are wanted for the table, or for market — for when rabbits are kept in this way they may be made highly remunerative — the opportunity must be seized to close the hatches, when a good many are out in the pit feeding, go down into the pit by the aid of a short ladder, and capture as many as may be required for slaughter. The rabbits should never be killed in the pit, but carried off and knocked on the head elsewhere. 976. It need scarcely be said that a light sandy soil, in which the rabbits can burrow readily, is the best suited for a rabbit-pit or warren Sou suitable of this kind. When it is considered how many tons of for rabbits, rabbits are sent over year after year from Ostend to this country, it is surprising that no attempt has been made to utilise some of the waste lands that may be suitable for the purpose in different parts of England for breeding, rearing, and sending rabbits to market on a large scale. A large expanse of heath-land might be laid out in squares of forty to fifty feet each way, by running walls of concrete FOIVL-HOUSE AND F OWL-RUN. 465 across it at right angles to each other, and in the centre of each square space a rabbit-pit might be sunk, thus confining the rabbits in each pit to their own locality. In these days of joint-stock companies the idea is as well worth trial as most of the schemes for money-making that are brought into the markets. 977. Every one should keep fowls who can find room for them, and find or make time to attend to them properly. It is a moot point as to whether fowl-keeping pays or not. It all depends on Fowl-keeping the amount of care the fowls receive. If they are managed pro^'*''^^. badly and not properly attended to, the fowls will contract disease and die ; but if they are well cared for, the yield of eggs will more than pay for the food consumed, as the amateur fowl-keeper will find if he keep a careful account of his expenditure, and the value of his eggs at the market price. If it pays a small tradesman, such as a milk- man, greengrocer, or even baker, to keep fowls, selling new-laid eggs at ijid. each all the year round, except at Christmas, when he will get 2d. or even 2^d. per egg, it will surely pay the careful amateur, who will find on an average that the eggs he gets from his fowls, provided they be properly cared for, will not cost him more than id. each at the utmost. 978. There are certain things to be observed in fowl-keeping that will go very far to promote and even secure success. If possible, let the fowl-house and run front the south, so that the fowls may „ . ' •' Things have as much sun as possible. To promote laying in the necessary to success, wmter-time, let the house be warmed artificially. Let the run be covered in so that it may be kept as dry as possible ; let there be a plentiful supply of cinder ashes finely sifted, old mortar, and sea sand, if you can get it — if not, coarse road grit or fine gravel — scattered over the run ; and lastly, let the droppings of the fowls be carefully removed from house and run every day, if there be time, bat if not, at least every other day. 979. So much for the keeping as far as everything except food is concerned. For the house and run, it should be covered in. This, however, applies to houses and runs of a small size in „ '■ Construction confined places, for when fowls can have a large run it is of house and run. alike unnecessary and impolitic to put the run under cover. Still, even in this case it is well for fowls to have a covered shed in some part of the run, other than their nightly roosting-place, to which they can resort in wet weather, and under which they can be fed. In the house the main thing is to provide for ventilation, and a place in which hens can lay quietly, for when laying every hen likes 466 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. extreme privacy. This is why fowls when at liberty "steal" theii nests, as it is called. 9S0. The accompanying diagrams illustrate the construction of what may be called the Amateur's Suburban Fowl-house. It answers in every particular the requirements set forth above. In Suburban ficr. co6 the plan of the fowl-house is e.xhibited. No Fowl-house. ° . . . , , , , , dimensions are given, for reasons that have been already stated ; but as suburban gardens and the yards that do duty as gardens ^w-T T=^r%. Fig. 506. PLAN OF amateur's suburban fowl-house. are generally narrow, the fowl-house should be about 6ft. or 7ft. wide, and extend along the whole length of the wall at the bottom of the garden or along so much of either side as can be fairly given up to it. In the tiXK-.'/AM p«Bsr*W5':'' desirable to have a couple of nice pigs in a suitable pig-sty, or " pig's-loose," as it is termed in Devonshire, for more reasons than one. Keeping Firstly, where many are housed together under one roof, p^^^* it follov/s of necessity that there must be much waste in the strippings of vegetables, when in preparation for table, and much that must other- wise be thrown away. Secondly, pork from badly-fed pigs is more or less unwholesome or undesirable as food ; so by keeping a couple of pigs, which may be killed when they have attained the weight of six or eight score, all the waste is saved and turned into wholesome meat, and those who have fed the pigs have the satisfaction of knowing that the pork which is placed before them is as good as it is possible for pork to be. A pig is a capital machine for converting what would otherwise be useless, valueless offal into a substance worth from 6d. to 9d. per pound. Of course barley-meal, sharps, and other things must be given to the pig if it be desired to have good firm meat, but the value of the animal when dead will quite cover the outlay for food of this kind given in conjunction with wash and waste. 474 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. Plan of Btructure. 994. It is desirable that the pig-sty should be at some distance from the house, and that it be kept well drained and as clean as possible. BUuaiion of When the wind blows in the direction of the house, and pigsty. {jTQ^ the quarter in which the pig-sty stands, the odour that the wind brings with it is anything but agreeable if the sty has not been properly kept. By proper drainage and ventilation, however, it is possible to keep a pig-sty as sweet as a stable, or any other house in which animals are kept. In the accompanying diagrams the plan, section, and elevation of a small but very convenient pig-sty are shown. Fig. 514 exhibits the r- plan of the structure, which is supposed to be built in the comer of a garden, the walls that form the angle supplying the back and one side of the struc- ture. Looking at the arrangement of this _ figure, we see that A, ^ ^°- Si4- plan of pig-sty. the innermost part of the space, is set apart as the house or bed of the animal. To make this part of the building, four stout posts are set in the ground at B, C, D, and E, the space between D and E being left open to give the pig access to the yard F. There should be a low or swing-board door at B C, through which the straw and manure that accumulates in the bed may be drawn into the manure pit G, which is just outside this part of the building and the yard as shown in the plan. The yard F and the manure pit G are enclosed by means of posts and rails. Between H and K there is a swing-board at the bottom of the fence as be- tween B and C, or the whole space may be filled with a gate opening into the manure pit, or a piece of fencing re- movable at pleasure. Be- tween K and L is the trough Q, of which more will be said directly, and between M and L a strong gate. There is also a gate between N and o by which access to the manure pit can be obtained from the garden, and the space O P a=2anc3nr3a Fig. 515. sFXTioN of pig-sty and MANURE TANK. Construction of Pig-sty. 475 may be closed up with railings or a boarded fence against which a fruit tree or climbers may be trained. The bed should be raised about 6in above the ground level, and both bed and yard should have ^ed and a good fall towards the manure pic. The bottom of the pit drainage, should be below the level of the yard and house, and should be lined with concrete to prevent anything that drains into it from bed and yard from being lost by soaking into the soil. This will be seen by examining fig. 515, which is a section of the building lengthways. In this A shows the bottom of the bed formed of board battens placed at a sufficient distance apart to allow all moisture to trickle down to the concrete bottom R S, which also rvhows the slope of the yard. At B Is the swing-board through which the straw may be drawn. The moisture escapes into the pit at U, which may be partly closed, leaving a long opening about lin. or 2in. wide for the exit of the water. The bottom of the manure pit is shown at T P. The manure pit should be made to slope from all sides to the corner P, where a small pump may be placed in order to draw up the liquid manure that will accumulate there. Fig. 516 is the front elevation XJJ of the whole structure. As the pig is not a very tall animal its bed or sty does not require to be very high ; it should, however, be high enough to allow any one, who requires to do so, to enter it in a stooping posture. Rafters may be put about 5ft. above the floor of the bed, and the space between the rafters (which may be boarded over or covered with a wattled hurdle) and the Rafters and sloping roof which inclines roo^-ig- from the wall at back towards the yard, may be used as a place of storage for straw, etc. The roof, if not tiled or slated, should be boarded and covered with Willesden Paper or Pasteboard, which must be painted, or with the ordinary roofing felt, which should be coated with tar and lime, applied when hot, and covered with finely- FlG. ^l6. FRONT ELEVATION OF PIG-STY. Fig. 517. PLAN OF pig's trough. 476 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. sifted sand before the tar and lime has had time to cool. If wood be used entirely in building the front of the place where the litter is kept, the front of the bed also should be weather-boarded with stout boards. 995. It is now necessary to describe the feeding-trough Q, which is placed between K and L. This is of a convenient, though peculiar, con- The ard and struction, being made in such a way that the food can be its fencing, emptied into the trough without going into the yard for that purpose. The trough is a fixture consisting of a bottom, two ends, and two sides, arranged as shown in plan in fig. 517, and in section in fig. 518. The wood used for the trough should be elm, about i/^^in. in Feedina- thickness, and the bottom and sides >^ trough, should be grooved into the ends. When finished the whole is firmly fixed between the posts L and K, as in fig. 517, the ends being nailed to these posts. A swing-board x (fig. 518), which is hinged to a rail Y running from the post L ♦;; to the post K, can be lifted up and held by a hook and eye against the boarding above when the food is poured into the trough ; when in its place it can be secured with a staple and bolt. The aperture fig. 518. section of for pouring in the food is not so long as the front feeding trough. part of the trough in the illustration, but the amateur may save himself some trouble if he extends it the entire length from post to post, taking the precaution to put in three or four bars on each side over the top to prevent any attempt on the part of the pig to struggle through the opening when the flap is raised. 996. It may be that most amateurs will find it more convenient to make the pig-sty of wood than of other materials, especially as the Materials for doors must be made of wood, and the trough also. It ^ dep^fd'on^' rnust, however, be remembered that local position will locality, g^ert a considerable influence on the naaterial and manner in which the structure is made. In Devonshire, for example, the sty, and in many cases the yard also, is formed of rough irregularly shaped " pitching stones," obtained from some neighbouring quarry that yields masses of laminated stone, from which rough slabs are split, that are set on end in the ground and well rammed. Lascelles' Patent Concrete Building Slabs also present a useful material for structures of this kind, and, being regular and uniform in shape, present none of the ugly irregularities of outline that are exhibited by the stones. These slabs, and the manner in which they are used, will be described at length in Part III. The Summer-house : its Position. 477 997. In dealing with the pig-sty as above described and figured, there is no structural difficulty whatever ; all is plain sailing. The posts for the bed and yard are set in the ground and „ , , , •^ ■' ° No strnctural rammed tight, a rail having been mortised between D and difficulty in pig-sty. E at the level of the floor, and another to receive the floor of the upper compartment in which the litter is stored. Rails are also mortised between B and c at the floor level, and again be- tween B and c and c and D to receive the rafters of the litter com- partm.ent, and a third rail must be mortised between B and C to which the swing board may be attached. Along the tops of these posts a wall plate is fixed to receive the ends of the rafters in front, those behind being supported on a wall plate nailed to the wall that forms the back of the pig-sty. The floors of the bed and yard may be paved or made of concrete, with a fall to the manure pit, so that all liquid matter may drain into it. In making the yard, rails are mortised into the posts G and F to receive the palings, and G is the hanging-post to which the gate of the yard is hung, and E the falling post. With regard to the aspect of the pig-sty, it should, if possible, front the south, for pigs thrive all the better in a dry and warm situation. A pig likes pjgg should be to be kept high and dry out of the wet ; it is altogether ^^^^ ^^• a mistake to suppose that they prefer to be knee deep in slush and filth, as they are too often allowed to be. The construction of the summer-house depends entirely upon the position in which it is placed and the purposes to which it is put It is generally intended for nothing more than a cool and _^ The summer- pleasant retreat , house: its position. in summer time, and so situated that it may command a good view of, and form a picturesque ob- ject when seen from, the house ; if the garden be small, or if it be placed somewhere in extensive grounds, a spot "^^^^S^r; is chosen with a pleasant Fig. 519. HEXAGONAL SUMMER-HOUSE. aspcct and outlook over the surrounding scenery. In such cases the summer-house is built open on all sides, or at all events on those sides which are turned towards ^jH Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. the best point of the landscape ; but if it be in a garden removed from a house, and is used as a place of security for garden tools, etc., it must be enclosed on all sides, and provided with a door and windows. 999. A pretty summer-house is presented to the reader in fig. 519 ; it is one which he may easily make with the exception of the roof, for which he must call in a professional thatcher, or make Hexagonal Bununer- it of wood. Covered with felt, and guarded at the angles, house. where the ends of the roofing boards meet and rest on the rafters, with rounded caps, surmounted at the point in which they all meet by a conical cap and ornament. Houses such as these are best made hexagonal or octagonal in form : the summer-house shown in fig. 519 is hexagonal, but the plan of a house of a similar kind shown in fig. 520 is octagonal. In How to either case, the method to be buUd It. followed in its construction is the same, the chief point of difference being in the number of the posts that sup- port the roof. First of all, let the amateur builder mark out a regular hexagon or octagon of the size required, The posts: how to fix and at each angle sink a stout them. ° fir pole ; if the bark be left on Fig. S2C. OCTAGONAL SUMMER-HOUSE. the poles it will add to the picturesque appearance of the building. When the posts have been well rammed in, let in blocks of wood, bevelled at top on the outer edge, and about 6in. in width, between the posts, and nail the ends securely to the posts with spike nails. Between the posts that form the entrance a broader piece may be placed, forming a step that projects beyond Floor the face of that side of the building. The floor of the ° ^^' building may now be formed by paving the area left within these pieces with blocks of fir, made of fir poles, cut trans- versely, the interstices between the larger pieces being filled with smaller blocks, the whole being beaten level, and the small spaces that are left being filled with sand and cement, wetted and mixed together until it is of the consistency of thick cream, and worked down with a broom let ween the joints. Such a floor is warmer to the feet than one entirely of concrete. Next cut the poles level at the top, if Wall plate they are not already so, and, to keep all firm, bind them for rafters, toggfj^g^ y^^^y^ ^ ^^.^jj pj^^g ^q receive the rafters, six or eight in number as the case may be, running from the wall plate to the apex of the building. Construction of Summer-house. 479 looo. The construction will be best understood on reference to h^. 521, in which A B is a post of the building; C, a block, or sectica of block, let in between post and post ; E, the wall plate retails of - , , . ., J construction. at top ; F, a rafter ; and G, G, transverse pieces nailed from rafter to rafter to support the thatched roof. The rafters are all butted against and nailed to a hexagonal or octagonal block as the case may be. Notched into the pillars, and resting on the block c, is a cleat H, nailed firmly to both. Another cleat, K, is notched in above in the same way, about I4in. or I5in. above the level of the floor D. This cleat serves to sustain the rails as at L, which rest in front on an upright, and sustain other rails parallel to the sides of the <^ building, which form the seats ; and the building below is closed in with fir poles, sawn dogleg in half, and nailed to the cleats or I5 ^>,^f^ *>' ' building. rails H, K. A similar half-piece is notched into the posts as shown at M, and another as at N. and to these the pieces are nailed which form the rough and open lattice-»vork at the sides above the seat. The rail at N is formed of a whole length of fir pole, not sawn in two, but cut out in such a man- ner as to form a cap to the lattice-work as well as a cleat to which the upper ends of the cross bars are '^ '^ ^^ nailed. The cross bars will present a better appear- ance if they are halved into each other. With the aid of fig. 520 any amateur builder may make a summer-house of this description. In some posi- tions it may be desirable to close in three or more of the sides of the building. This may be done by carrying the fir poles, sawn in half longitudinally, to the wall-plate, which in this case should be put in- coNSTKucnoN OF side instead of outside, as shown in the figure at E. SUMMER-HOUSE, r^^^ ^^^^,^ p^jgg ^^y ^Jsq bg substituted for the lattice-work, and carried up to the rail N, the position of which should be reversed, or a square cleat notched into the posts, and a half-piece of sawn pole nailed as a cap over this rail and the ends of the vertical half-poles. In the plan of the octagonal summer-house shown in fig. 520 the seat is formed of these half-poles resting on a rail as at K in fig. 521, and others in the same position, and rails running on the tops of the legs that sustain the front of the seat placed round the interior of the building. looi. The style of the summei-houie just described is closely akin 480 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. to what is usually called "rustic work," inasmuch as timber in its Rustic work : natural state is introduced into its construction. Properly what It is. speaking, rustic work includes all kinds of articles and appliances in which timber is used in its natural form, and always in the shape and sometimes in the condition in which it lived and grew, namely, with the bark on, and nothing removed from it except the smaller branches and twigs which have sprouted from it. The sum- mer-house was a piece of composite work, being partly made of fir poles, with the bark on, sawn in half, and partly of pieces of wood cut into the required shape by the joiner ; but yet it approaches so closely to rustic work pure and simple that it may be reckoned as such. 1002. Rustic work is chiefly applicable to the making of seats for the garden which are always exposed to the weather, for rough fences Things that and gates where irregular work is more in harmony with maYe^i^ Surrounding objects and scenery, and for approaches and rustic work, ^g^-guts by means of steps from lower ground to higher, both being disposed in the form of terraces. For such kind of work as this the loppings of oak trees are most suitable, as their crooked shape— the parts of oak boughs being bent to each other at angles varying from 90° to 135° or thereabouts— renders them well fitted for working up into garden seats, fences, etc. This, indeed, Its carpentry " ^ ^ ' ^ '. , , ., . and may be termed the carpentry of rustic work, while its Joinery. . - , . joinery consists in the neater work of coating foundations of deal and other kinds of wood, carefully fitted together, with virgin cork, split poles, and sticks of ash, hazel, etc., to form ornamental brackets, flower-boxes, and flower-stands, as already described. 1003. With two or three examples of carpentry in rustic work, we may fitly bring this chapter to a close. After a few remarks on the Exam las of selection of wood suitable for the purpose, and the methods rustic work, jq ^jg followed in putting the pieces together, we will give examples of a garden seat for three or four persons, a chair for one person only, a small garden table, and a low flight of steps or rustic stairs. 1004. For framing together pieces of wood in their natural state, halving together and the mortise and tenon joint must be resorted to. It must be remembered, however, that the pieces which Halving and , . . , , , , , , mortise and are to be joined together are not square but round, and tenon Joint. , ,._ . ^ , , ^- j that some modification of the process above mentioned must be made in order to ensure accurate fitting together and general neatness in the appearance of the work when it has been turned out of Mortise and Tenon Joints in Rustic work. 481 fe^^^t^iik^^^Xt^ ril=^ hand. What is meant by a modification of the processes of halving timbers together and making the mortise and tenon joint will be seen from an inspection of fig. 522. In ordinary work, when two pieces of wood, each of which is rectangular in section — like the ,, ,.„ Moaincations arms of a cross, for example — are halved together, a notch ot these 1D1'0C6SSGS is cut in each piece to the extent of half the thickness, and the pieces thus prepared are fitted over and into the other ; but when two pieces of round wood are to be joined in this way, a little con- sideration will show that it is not possible to proceed in the usual way, and that a semicircular notch, as at A, must be made in one piece — gene- rally that which assumes a horizontal position in the work — and the other piece dropped or fitted into Directions the rounded notch thus f°^ "^^tciung. made. When it is absolutely necessary to cut a notch in both pieces, it is better to make the width of the notches less than the diameters of the pieces tobe fitted to- gether ; and having done this pare away the sides of each piece that drops into the notch in the other, so as to allow of one piece entering the other without difficulty, and prevent the parts that are left unfilled on each side from showing too conspicuously. The mode of doing this is shown at D ; the object being to make a neater halved joint. When one piece of rounded wood has to be nailed to another or against another, the joint being pretty well out of sight, or when a piece of wood has to rest on a transverse rail whose surface is flat and not rounded, the end may be cut as shown at B ; and when pieces have to be cut to fit into the corners of other pieces joined at right angles to each other, the ends should be cut away to fit with accuracy against the rounded parts of the pieces as at c. In making a mortise and tenon joint, the shoulder of the shoulder of tenon should be rounded or hollowed out as shown at ^^°°> E; and unless it is necessary for the sake of making the structure as strong as possible to have a tenon as wide, or nearly so, as the diameter of the wood, the tenon may be made in the form of a pin, as shown at f ; the mortise for its reception being bored with a stock and bit or auger instead of being taken out with a chisel. Great 31 Fig. 522. JOINING TIMBERS IN RUSTIC WORK. 482 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. nicety is required in making a close and accurate joint, but a little practice will enable the amateur to do this without difficulty. 1005. Pieces of round wood framed together are shown in figs. 523, 524, which will serve as suggestions of the methods to be followed in Suggestions forming rough fences, or the ends of rustic seats, or the °^rou^^^ supports of fixed garden tables. In fig. 523 the transverse timbers, pieces are fitted to the upright on the right by semi- circular notches cut in either one or the other, as may be preferred ; but to the left-hand support the rails have been fitted by taking out a notch in each, just one quarter the diameter to the wood, and fitting them one into the other, or by the mortise and tenon joint, as shown at E in fig. 522. In fig. 524 the crossed timbers forming the supports should be framed together by notching, as shown at D in fig. 522, and the trans- FlG. 524. SUPPORT OF TABLE. FiG. 523. END OF RUSTIC SEAT. FRAMING IN RUSTIC WORK. verse rail halved into the ends of the supports, or very nearly so ; the ends of the supports being cut as at B in fig. 522. The halving together in this case may be done in the ordinary way, as the joint is con- cealed, in the case of a chair or table, by the rails that form the seat of the one, or the slab that forms the surface of the other. 1006. From the consideration of the method in which pieces of timber used in rustic work are framed together, we may pass to the Garden promised examples of the garden seat, chair, and table, iurm ure. j^gj-giy observing that, in making garden furniture of this description, the amateur carpenter must v;ork for the most part without a working drawing, as the work to be done is irregular, and it is necessary to select such pieces as may be suitable for his purpose ; first for the frame, and then for the filling in, taking care that pieces Garden Seats in Rustic Work. 483 which occupy similar positions match as closely as possible without being symmetrical or exactly alike. icoy. In the examples chosen for garden seats the work is as straight as possible, and may be executed with poles of fir or larch, ash, alder, or hazel. For the bench shown in fig. 525, Garden stout pieces must be selected for the uprights at the ^®**- four comers, into which should be framed the rails that form the front, back, and ends of the seat. The leg or support in Method of the centre of the front should be mortised into the rail c<»i«t^<'"°°- that rests on it, and at the back the rail should be halved into the two supports or uprights between those at the ends, and these uprights should extend to and rest on the ground, though not shown as doing so in the illustration. The topmost rail in the back is halved into the uprights ; the central rail consists of pieces mor- tised into the uprights. The ornamental work is formed by ornamental bending '^°^^- pieces into the angles of the framework already formed, and strengthen- ing them and retaining them in their places by cross-pieces issuing from the angles made by the smaller vertical pieces of the back, with the rails at top and bottom. The ornaments in the angles of cross-pieces and elsewhere may consist of large fir cones, or of round pieces of wood, cut transversely from poles, and fixed in their places, as the fir cones must also be fixed, on stout wires. The arms at each end are formed of pieces of poles put on in a slanting direction, and supported in the middle by up- rights from the end rails of the seat. At the sides, the uprights are connected near the bottom by horizontal rails, for which diagonal braces are substituted in the front. The seat is of split poles, nailed at the ends to the front and back rails of the seat, and in the middla to a flat central rail running from one side of the seat to the other. 1008. In fig. 526, which represents a garden chair for one person only, a round piece of wood is selected for the seat, and q^j,^qjj gg^^j into this three legs are inserted, which are connected by diagonal braces. The back is formed of three pieces securely spiked to the seat, into which they may be notched, and f~IG. 525. BE.NCH FOR GARDEN. Arms of seat. for one person. 484 COXSTRUCTIONAL CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. Fig. 526. GARDEN CHAIR. connected at the top by transverse rails. Support is given to the back by braces attached to the side pieces of the back at one end, and to the sides of the chair at the other. The seat is finished by covering the founda- tion with spUt hazel sticks, and nailing a hoop of split hazel round the edge. Amateurs will find wooden hoops that have been used for casks very useful for work of this kind, as by using them they are saved the trouble of splitting the sticks, which is by no means easy work. They can be got at the cooper's sometimes, and almost always of the wholesale provision merchant. 1009. The table shown in fig. 527 is made by selecting a small tree that has been taken up by the roots, and cutting the roots so as to form the tripod, which takes the place of the claws of the ])illar table, and the branches as supports for the top. To make the top, some pieces of , , rough deal may be clamped to- Rustic table. a J c gether, and covered on the upper surface and round the edge with split sticks or hoops, with the bark on, as suggested above. loio. Lastly, as a means of ascent and descent from one level to another, the rustic Rustic steps Steps and fences on either side, exhibited in fig. 528, will and fenoes. , /• , be 10 und picturesque in the ex- treme. The trunks of four small trees are let into the ground to form posts at the top and bottom of the stairs, sup- [jorting pots or orna- mental vases containing plants. These posts are connected by boards placed at the requisite ' fi^. 528. rustic steps. slope to form the sides of the steps, the steps themselves being formed of earth well rammed. Fig. 527. GARDEN TABLE, Rustic Steps and Fences. 48: and held in place in front by boards attached to cleats nailed to the sloping sides. Balusters of gnarled oak are placed between the posts and above the solid part of the sides, and a rustic finish is given to the whole by nailing pieces of fir poles, cut to the requisite length and split in half, to the front of the steps. The sides of the steps are also finished in the same way. It is unnecessary here to enter into minute details of construction, for the amateur who has followed us step by step through these pages, combining actual practice with the theory of the carpenter's art. will find no difficulty whatever in determining these for himself. CHAPTER XI. BUILDERS' AND CARPENTERS' IRONMONGERY SUITABLE FOR AMATEURS. •Builders' and Carpenters' Ironmongery — Prices approximate only— Air-bricks, Air gratings, and Ventilators — Bench Screw — Bolts and Nuts — Bolts for Doors etc. — Blind-roller Ends, Racks, etc. — Brackets — Casement Fas Jeners— Castors for Tables, Couches, etc. — Coal Plates— Cresting— Cupboard Turns— Drawer Handles and Rollers— Felt for Roofing— Furnace Doors and Grates— Glass Paper— Glue— Gutters and Rain-water Pipes— Hinges of all kinds— Hoop Iron- Knobs and Buttons— Hall-door Fittings— Latches— Lock Furniture— Locks of all kinds— Nails of all kinds— Sash Fasteners, Lines. Pulleys, etc.— Screws of :all sizes — Shutter Furniture — Spikes — Umbrella Brackets — Miscellaneous Articles — Where to buy. loii. The various articles comprised under the general term of builders' and carpenters' ironmongery are so numerous that it has BuUdera' been judged more convenient for the purposes of the ^t^rs^il^on^ amateur, instead of giving the prices of different kinds of mongery, ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ same article, whenever one or other of the sort has been mentioned in the foregoing pages, to group them to- gether in one place and in one chapter, classifying them under their respective headings, putting, for example, all kinds of hinges under the sub-heading "Hinges," etc., etc. The list has been made as general as possible, keeping in view those articles which the amateur is most likely to require. It must not, however, be supposed that it comprises everything that is contained in the ironmonger's list, for a complete catalogue would occupy more space than we have at our command. IOI2. The prices given in the following list must be taken as appro-ximate only. In every wholesale ironmonger's list approximate notification is made that the prices quoted are subject to only. alteration without notice. 1013. Air Bricks, Air Grat- ^^^^ ^^^ Air Gratings 6in. x 24m. ... 3/9 — ,, 6in. X 36in. ... 5/- — Ventilators, Round and Square, each— 4in., 1/3 ... sin., i/s ... 6in., 1/9 7in., Vio ... 8in., 2/2 ... gin., a/4 loin., 2/10 ... iiin., 3/3 ... i2in., 3/8 Ditto, Long (Dr. Amott's)— 46m. -V JO.... -, j,o ,-, gain. X7iin. 7/6 each... iiin.xSln. 8/6 eac^ 3iin. X 25in. ... 2/10 32/- i2in. x gin. 9/6 each ... 15U1. x 9m. li.'6 --acb iNGS, AND Ventilators— Air Bricks, 4}in. X 3in. Sliding do. gin. X 3in. gin. X 6in. gin. X 34in. gin. X Bin. Air Gratings 4iin. X, 38in. Per Each. doz. -/3 2/2 -/♦ 3/3 -/7J 6/n -/9 8/4 1/6 15/6 3/6 40/- 2/10 32/- Builders' and Carpenters' Ironmongery. 487 1014. Bench Screws, from 2/- to 2/6 each. 1015. Bolts and Nuts— Bright Round Heads, from -/g per doz. 3in. and shorter, diameter |m. and VVin- -/9 ; ii". -/9 per doz. 3iin. and longer, diameter ^m., i.n., iin., T^in., iin., -jsh per lb. Rough, with Square Heads — dia- meter i'm., from gin. to I2in. long ; jiin., from loin. to 24in. long ; iin., from loin. to 24in. long, -/s per lb. for all sizes. 1016. Bolts for Doors, etc.— Barrel — length 6in., 5/- ; yin-j 7/6 ; 8in., 9/- ; gin., 10/6 ; loin., 12/4; I2in., 15/- per doz. Coach-house Bolts, -/6^ per lb. Tower — Solid End — 4in., 2/6; 5in., 3/- ; 6in., 3/4 ; yi"-, 4/-; 8in., 4/7 per doz. Necked Tower— 4in., 3/- ; 5in., 3/6 ; 6in., 4/- ; 7in-, 4/8 ; Sin., 6/9 per doz. Spring Iron — 3in., 2/6 ; S^in., 3/- ; 4in., 3/6 per doz. _ Ditto — Brass Knob — 3m., 3/-; S^in., 4/- ; 4in-, 5/" per doz. Brass Flush, per doz. — Front-plate |in.— 4in., 4/- ; Si"., 5/-; 6in., 6/-; Sin., 8/-; loin., 10/-; I2in., 12/-. Front-plate fin., at above sizes, 4/8, 5/10, 7/- 9/4' 1 1/8, U/-- . Front-plate fin., at above sizes, 5/4,6/8,8/-, 10/8, 13/4, 16/-. Sizes. 4in. X sin. 1017. Blind Roller Ends, Racks, etc.— I. Blind Roller Ends. Brass— i^in., 4/6 ; 2in., 5/6 per dozen pairs. Ditto, Stamped— 3/- per dozen pairs. Tinned Iron — 2/- per dozen pairs 2. Blind Racks. Br^tss— 4in., 3/8 ; 4^ in., 4/3 per dozen. Patent China Knob, 4/- per doz. Gee's Patent, 3/- per doz. 1018. Brackets, each— Enamelled Iron. Galv. Cast. American. ... -/3 -S^ -l3 -(5 sin. X 6in. ... -/4 S | "3* "7 6in. X 7in. ... -/o _j-'t3 -/44 ~/°l yin. X gin. ... — ^ oA ~l^ ^'~ Sin. X i»in..., — :g ij -h VO loin. X izin.... — < o3 j/» V9 Shelf Brackets, at per lb ) _/, Smaller Sizes, Moulded and Tinned ... ) Cornice Pole Do., from -/8 to 4/- per pair. „ „ Rings from -/lo to s/6 per doz. 1019. Casement Fasteners, each, from -/4 to 5/6 each. 1020. Castors for Tables, Couches, etc. — Plate. Socket. Screw, lin. ... 1/2 ... I 6 ... 2/- ijin. ... 1/6 ... 2/- ... 2,6 ilin. ... i/io ... 26 ... 3/- lAin. ... 2/- ... 2 10 ... 3/0 ijin. ... 2/6 ... ~~ ". 2in. ... 3/- ... ••■ 1021. Coal Plates— i2in. in diameter, i/io each ; I4in., 2/8 each. 1022. Cresting— sin. high, from -/6i per foot ; 6in. high, from -/8'^ per foot. 1023. Cupboard Turns— liin., 3/-; liin., 3/6 per dozen. 1024. Drawer Handles and Rollers — Brass Handles, on Plates, from -jj per pair. Japanned Wrought Do., from 3d. per pair. Japanned Cast Do. — 2.\in., -/3 ; 3in-» -/3l; 32in., -JAh; 4in., -/6 per pair. Japanned Rollers, ^in., i/- ; gin., 1/5; lin., 2/- ; Ilin., 2/3 ; Uin., 3/6 per doz. 1025. Felt for Roofing— Asphalted, 32in. wide, -/6 ana -/8 per yard. Slaters' or Sarking Felt, -/6 per yard. 1026. Furn.ace Doors and Grates Complete— No. i, i/- ; No. 2, 1/4 ; No. 3, i/io. 1027. Glass-paper, Assorted — Numbered, Coarse, Medium, Fine, per sheet, -jk ; per quire, -/lo. 1028. Glue, per lb.. Town, -/6; French, -JTk ; Scotch, -/g. 488 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. 1029. Gutters and Rain- water Pipes — I. Gutters. Sjin. 4in. 4Jin. Half Round... per yd. -/SJ -/g -/ii Angles each i/i 1/2 1/3 Kozzles ,, i/- 1/2 1/3 Stop-ends ... „ -/si -/4 -Ui O.G. Plain Clip, per yd. -/ii i/- 1/2 Angles each 1/3 1/4 1/7 Nozzles „ 1/3 1/4 1/7 Stop-ends ... „ -/3J -/4 -/4i O.G. Lion Clips about -/i in advance on Clips in every item. 2. Rain-water Pipes. zin. ajin. 3in. 3iin. 4in. Pipes, per yd. i/- 1/2 1/4 1/8 i/ii Heads, each 1/6 1/9 2/- 2/3 2/6 Shoes, „ -/ii i/i 1/3 1/7 i/" Bends, „ 1/3 1/7 i/9 2/3 z/7 Oflf sets, from sin. projection to isin. do. 1/3 to 5/S- 1030. Hinges of all kinds — I. Wrought-back flap, i;^in.,-/3; I fin., -Ish ; liin-, -M per pair. 2. Cast Butts, per pair. I* l| 2 2i 2* 3 si 4 Light ...-/ij -/2 -/2i -/2i -/3i -/4, -/5 -/6 Best ... -/3 -/3 -/3J -/4 -/8j 1/3 1/8 Cast Skew -/8 -/g -/loj i/- 1/4 3. Brass Hinges for Cabinet Work, per pair sin. i/i i/S 1/5 -/4i 1/4 i/io i/io -/4j Plain 4jin. 2/8 3/4 2/6 4/- from Light Strong 4. Cross li -/4 -/5 -/44 -/5 -16 -h 2i -/6 -/8 -/ii Nos. Garnets, or per pair. 5- -h T Hinges, 3- -/4 7- -/9 5. Parliament, for shutters outside. 4in. -/7i 4i(in. -/lO Cast ... 1031. Hoop Iron— For Bonding For Tonguing i x 20 ... 1 I X 20 ... ) Sin. -/II Open, per pair. 13/9 per cwt. 13/9 per cwt. 1032. Knobs and Buttons — 1. Knobs — Cupboard. ^in. lin. ijin. ijin. Crass each ... -/ij -/2 -/2J -/3J Japanned ...per doz.... -/s -/6 -/7J i/- 2. Buttons. -/lo per doz., or -/ij each. Brass from -/i to -/8 each. Japanned ,, -/J ,, -/3J , 3. Drawer Knobs. Mahogany, -/2 ; Japanned Wood, -/i per doz. 1033. HALL Door Fittings— Door Chains, Japanned, 8in., i/-; 9in., 1/3 ; loin., 1/6 each. Knobs, japanned iron, from -/6, -/7, and -/8 ; bronzed, from i/6 ; China — white, from i/- ; China — black, from 1/3 each. Knockers — Japanned, from -/8 to i/io; bronzed, from -/lo to 2/6 each. io34« Latches from i/- to 15/- each. Bow Latches — ?woT 1 from -/9 to 1/9 each. Night Latches from i/- to 15/- each. Bramah Latches, 4 guard, 2 keyed, s/6 each. I, „ 5 )i 4 keyed, 9/- each. Lever Night Latches, 2 keyed, from 5/6 each. 6 Lever Night Latches, 2 keyed, from 15/-. Water Closet Latches — sin. sjin. 4in. Brass each ... 3/- 3/6 4/- Norfolk Latches — Wrought — Nos, I. 2. 3. -/4 -/S -/6 each. Suffolk Latches— Wrought— Nos. I. -/lO 3- i/- each. 1035. Lock Furniture— In China, white and black, plain, gold lines, or ornamented, from -/9 to 4/- per set. Finger Plates in China to match, from -/id to 12/- per pair. 1036. Locks of All Kinds— I. Cupboard Locks, from -/3 to 4/- each. 2. Dead Locks. Fine Ward Odd „ Solid „ each... 4in. $ya. 6in. -/lo i/- 1/6 i/- 1/4 i/io 1/8 2/2 3/3 3. Drawback Locks, each. Fine Ward Odd Ward, Slide behind Solid jm. Sin. gin, 2/- 3/- s/6 3/- 5/- 6/6 4/6 5/9 7/6 4. Mortise Locks, English, with- out Furniture, 2/- each ; sin., thin, for i|in. doors, complete, i/6 each. Builders' and Carpenters' Ironmongery. 489 5. Rim Locks, English from 1/4 to 6/6 each, complete with Furniture. 6. Mortise Locks — American, from 3/- to 16/- each, without Fur- niture. 7. Rim Locks — American, 5/- each, without Furniture. 1037. Nails of all kinds— 1. French Wire, j'm., -/6 ; fin., -Is; lin., -/4i; iiin.,-/4; lAin., -/3^ ; 2in., -/3 ; 2iin., -/3 ; 31"., -/3 ; 3iin-j -/2i ; 4in., -/2i per lb. 2. CutClasps,iin.,-/4; iiin.,-/3^ ; liin., -/2i; ifin., -/2|; 2in., -/2 ; 2|in., -/2 ; 2iin., -/2 ; 2f in., -/2 ; and from 3in. to 6in., -/2 per lb. 3. Cut Floor Brads, 2in., 2iin., 2iin., etc., -/2 per lb. 4. Cut Lath Nails, -/2i per lb. 5. Steel Rose Nails, flat points, ii'n-5 -/9; liin., -/8; ifin., -/7i ; 2in.,-/7 ; 2iin., -/6 ; 2^in., -/5 ; and from 3in. to 6in., -J4i per lb. 6. Joiner's Brads, in packets, |in., 1/6 ; iin., 1/6 ; |in., 1/9 ; fin., 2/2 ; lin., 2/11 ; liin., 3/10; i^m., 4/5; 2in., 6/-. 7. Cut Tacks, Tinned and Blue, all sizes, from -/2 to -/6 per 1,000. 1039. Sash Fasteners, Lines, Pulleys, etc.— I. Sash Fasteners from -/3 to 2/- each. Brass— No. i No. 2 „ No. 3 ,, Very Strong Iren — China Knob Brass— China Knob 2^in. 2fin. sin. -73 -Is - -16 -IS - 1/- 1/4 1/9 -Is -16 - 1/- i/4 i/io 2. Sash Lines, per dozen yards — Nos. 3 to 10. Best Flax ... -/? -/8 -/g -/" i/i 1/3 i/S 1/8 Sup. Twisted i/i 1/3 1/6 1/8 i/ii 2/1 2/4 2/6 Steel Ribbon Sash Line ... No. i. up to solbs., -/2 per foot. No. 2. up to 7slbs., -/3 per foot. 3. Sash Pulleys. Diameter. ijin. i^in. 2in. American Frame ... ... -/9 -In 1/4 Iron Frame— best ... ... -/lO 1/2 1/8 Iron Axle ... j/4 1/6 i/io Bra.sA Axle ... 5/10 7i- 8/a 1040. Screws. — Nettlefold's make— per gross. Length in inches. 234 S 6 7 8 9 10 i i i -/5 -/5 -/S ■/5i -/6 •/7 ■hi , S -/e -/6 -/6 ■16 ./6i -/7 ■/8 -/8i 9 } - ./6 -/6 •/6i -/7i -/8 •/9 -/? -/9 -/9 •/9J -/'o -A I -/n 1/- 1 — - ./8 •/8 -/8J -/9 li ■/9i -/Qi -/loi li - - - - -/ii -/" i/- J/i i/i 13 - - - 1/2 /2 1/3 1/3, — — 1/3 1/3J l/4i 2}^ - - — — — — — 1/7 Length in inches. 11 12 14 16 iS 20 J ./lO -/loi i/i 1/6 I I/- I/- ■/3 i/S l/ll 2/6 li 1/2 1/3 1/6 i/io 2/3 2/9 2/6 2/1 1 ij 1/3 1/4 1/3 2/- i| i/S 1/6 i/ii 2/4 2/9 3/2 2 1/6 1/3 2/1 2/6 2/1 1 3/6 2J i/io 2/2 2/6 3/2 3/6 4/- 3 - =/6 3/- 3/8 4/6 s/6 3i - - 3/9 4/5 5/9 6/9 4 — — 5/3 6/6 7/6 S — — — — 8/9 lo/o 6 — — — — - 13/- 1041. Shutter Furniture— Bars, from I2in. to 36in., at -/^ per inch. Bolts, Sin., -/lo ; gin., i/- ; loin., 1/3; I2in., 1/6 each. Knobs i/- to 3/- per doz. Trass China, White Black lin. ijin. ijin. ipin. 1/6 i/io 2/a 2/10 i/- 1/2 1/3 1/6 i/ar 1/4 1/6 1/8 Latches, brass knobs, from -/$ to -/9 each. Rings, brass drop, from -/4 to -jgh each. Lifts, brass, from -/2^ to -/7 each ; japanned, from -/i to -/3i each. Studs and Plates, -js per pair ; brass, from -/6 to 1/3 each ; ja- panned, from -/3 to -/7 each. Shoes, rebated, -/2 each, 1042. Spikes, per pound, -/4 ; fine, -Ish 1043. Umbrella Brackets, with iron pan complete, 3/6 each. 1044. Miscellaneous Arti- cles — Hooks of every description for hat rails, clothes rails, etc., from -/6 to 10/- per doz. Enamelled iron Hat and Coat Hooks, from 2/3 per doz., complete with Screws. Japanned ditto, from -/7 to 3/6 per doz. 490 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. Letter Plates, from i/- to 15/- each. Brass Door Chains, from i/- each. Iron ditto ditto -/7 each. Bright Iron Jack Chain, from -/i>2 to -/9 per yard. Brass ditto ditto -/] to 2/- per yard. Coil Chain, black, from -/6 per Coil Chain, galvanized -/8 ptr yard. Cornice Pole Brackets, from -/8 to 4/- per pair. Ditto ditto Rings, from -/lo to 5/6 per doz. Seat Stands, iron castings, 16510. ti'g^. 3/- to 8/- each. Table Stands, iron castings, 26|in. high, from 14/6 each. yard. 1045. Any and all of the above-named articles, with others that the amateur is not so likely to require, and all kinds of tools used in car- Where to P^^^^ry and joinery, and appliances used in building, can ^^y- be procured, of good quality and at moderate prices, in large and small quantities of Messrs. R. Melhuish and Sons, at their Builders' and Cabineimakers' TronniotJgery and Tool, Saw, and File Warehouse, 84, 85', and 87, Fetter Lane, Holborn Circus^ London, S.E. PART III. 5)ou0eboin iBuiining art ann iptactice. CHAPTER I. THE VARIOUS DIVISIONS OF THE BUIbUlNG TRADE : AMATEUR'S BUILDING : THE PLANT HE WILL REQUIRE. Divisions and Subdivisions of Trades— Exemplification of this Division— Division of Building Trade- Trades combined in Building Trade— Classification, etc., ot thesa Trades— The Excavator and his Work— The Bricklayer and Mason— The Pavior, Slater, and Plasterer— The Sawyer, Carpenter, and Joiner— The Iron- monger, a Middle Man— The Smith and Founder— The Zinc-worker and Wire- worker— The Gas-fitter, Plumber, and Bell-hanger— The Painter, Decorator, Writer, and Gilder— The Paper-hanger— Building Trades brought into Five Groups— What the Amateur can do in these Trades— No Robbery for Amateur to do his own Work— Advantages of Self-help— Practical Knowledge, where useful— Arts best suited to Amateurs— Excavating, etc., for Amateurs— Extent to which he may carry Smith's Work— Casting— Zinc and Wire working- Plumbing and Gas-fitting— Bell-hanging — House-painting and Gilding— Paper-hanging andGlaring- Object ofwhat is said in this Book— Amateur's Plant— House or Shed for Plant— Passage by Side of House— Lean-to Roof, etc., over Passage- Structure against Wall or Fence— Place surmounted by Glass— Space below Glass, how to Shut in— Carpenter's Shop— Useful Building Plant for Amateur— Scaffold-boards, their uses— Putlogs and Scafifold-poles— Cask and Buckets- Iron Pulley— Ladder and Barrow— The Barrow : its Parts— The Sides— The Front-board— The Tail-board— Fitting and Nailing Parts together— The Wheel — How to Make a Wheel- The Disc— The Axle and Gudgeons— Ferrules for Axle— Legs of the Wheelbarrow— Useful Sizes for Ladders— Ordinary Ladder- Staves or Spokes— Iron Bar with Nuts— Ladder with Cleats— Bearing for Cleats —Special Description of Building Plant, why Necessary— The Steps— Con- struction of Steps— Form of the Steps— The Sides of the Steps— Fitting the Parts together— Frame forming Back of Steps— The Hinges— Attachment of Cords to Steps- Trestles always Useful— How to Make Trestles— Trestles that take to Pieces. 1046. When any art or manufacture begins to assume importance, and there is a continually increasing demand for the articles, be they what they may, that are made by those who are engaged ^^^^^^^^ ^^^ in it, it has been invariably found that in due proportion 8ubj'3^v^|iona to its growth the art or manufacture, as the case may be, becomes divided and even subdivided into many and various branches, until it is well-nigh impossible to carry the subdivision of the trade to 493 Household Building Art and Practice. a greater extent; and in no handicraft, perhaps, has this been earned out to a greater extent than in the manufacture of such little, but useful, articles as watches. 1047. It will be useful, as an exemplification of the manner in which a handicraft trade is divided among many workmen, some of whom are skilled in one branch and some in another, to quote cftfoTffmis the following remarks on the clock and watch trade from division. <, Beeton's Dictionary of Universal Information " (Science and Art Division), in the article on "Horology." It is there stated that " In England this branch of manufacture is principally confined to London, Coventry, and Prescot. The district of Clerkenwell is the head-quarters of the trade in London. Watch movements are generally made at Prescot and other places in Lancashire ; the Lon- don workmen make the other parts and put them all together. Thus a Clerkenwell watchmaker buys his movements from Lancashire, and employs tradesmen to finish the making of the watch. These trades- men are not mere workmen, but small master-tradesmen. The motion- work is supplied by one, the spring by another, the escapement by another ; while the case, dial, glass, etc., have each their respective furnisher. The work is again subdivided by these tradesmen in a wonderful manner. Different workmen are specially employed on every kind of escapement, motion-work, hands, dials, etc. An ordi- nary London watch passes through more than a hundred hands even after the movement has been made in Lancashire." 1048. Now when we know that in making a watch the preparation of its various parts and its finishing is distributed among so many different workmen, the partition of the great building ^bSidSg"^ trade into so many branches, with their subdivisions, will trade. ^^jj ^^ excite surprise, but rather be regarded as an abso- lute necessity. The building trade, indeed, differs in some measure from that of watchmaking, to which the reader's attention has just been directed ; for while the latter is a trade whose various branches have been created by actual division and subdivision, the building trade is rather an aggregation of various trades and their separate depart- ments, which have become affiliated, as it were, and grouped together for the better attainment of the end desired. 1049. Taking each a prominent and active part in the building Tra4e3 ^^^^^ ^^'^ ^"'^ ^^^ excavator, bricklayer, mason, pavior, co^i^din slater, plasterer, carpenter and joiner, sawyer, ironmon- trade. ggr, smith and founder, zinc-worker, wire-worker, bell- hanger, gas-fitter, plumber, painter, decorator, writer, gilder, paper- Classification of Building Trades. 493 hanger, and glazier — a goodly array of tradesmen and artisans whose aid and co-operation is absolutely necessary in building and finishing a house. 1050. Let us endeavour to classify and group these trades, and look into the part that each takes in building work, and having done this let us see to what extent in the work of each the ama- Classificatlon teur may go, and of what it will be most useful for hun etc, of these to have some slight knowledge ; for it must ever be remembered that such knowledge is useful and even essential to a man who occasionally has workmen on his premises, even if he never put his hand to anything of the kind as an amateur, for it will enable him to give a general superintendence to what is going on, and to check in some measure the charges that are made for work done. 105 1. The excavator, as his name implies, is engaged primarily in digging — in preparing, by means of pick and spade and barrow, for the foundations of a house, in levelling the spot on which rpj^g excavator it is to be built, in taking out the trenches for its founda- ai^d his work, tions, and in preparing the approaches that lead to it. He is further employed in mixing concrete for filling up foundations and for making concrete floors, and in making paths, roads, etc. 1052. The bricklayer, mason, pavior, slater, and plasterer work in brick and stone and mortar, and with these various materials. The bricklayer puts up walls and arches and chimneys in ...... Thet>ricl£- brick, a prepared material made ready to his hand m a layer and certain size ; the mason, on the other hand, builds with stone of all kinds, and is engaged in cutting and preparing such stone- work as may be requisite in a brick house or house of stone, and fitting its various parts into the places they are destined to occupy. The pavior lays stone flooring composed of flat paving stones t. r r o ^^^ pavior, or materials similar in form, and floormg of bricks and slater, and ^, , . , • , 1 1 • , plasterer- tiles. The slater covers in houses with slates, which are thin plates into which slate or certain kinds of laminated stones can be split with ease, and he is also engaged in forming roofs of tiles of various kinds, made and specially adapted for this purpose. Lastly, the plasterer imparts a smooth coating to the interior walls of houses and their partitions, and covers the exterior, if necessary, with a coat- ing of stucco, cement, plaster, or rough casts— rough or smooth, as the case may be, formed chiefly of lime or cement. 1053. The sawyer cuts beams and saws the trunks of trees into planks, either by hand or by machinery ; the carpenter frames to- gether the timbers that enter into the construction of a house, and lays 494 Household Building Art and Practice. the flooring, etc. ; and the joiner puts up the staircases and all panel- ling and skirting required, makef and hangs the doors, carpenter, ' makes and fixes the window frames and sashes and puts an jomer. ^^ ^^^ ^^^ interior fittings of a house that are made ol A'ood. 1054. Another group of mechanics work in metal The ironmonger supplies all the articles, such as hinges, locks, stoves, ranges, sash- fasteners, etc., etc., that are required in a house, with monger, a knockers, bells, letter-boxes, door knobs, and other such middleman. , . , -i • • -jji necessary furniture ; but the ironmonger is a middle man and not an artisan, acting as a medium of intercommunication between those who manufacture these specialities and those who buy and use The smith them. The smith and founder takes an active part in and founder, building work, forging bars that may be necessary to in- sert under the arches of chimney-breasts and other iron-work, to make and see to the fixing of columns, girders, tanks, iron doors, furnace work, boilers, hot-water pipes and their connections, gratings over areas and holes, iron bars for windows, and a variety of articles that will not admit of enumeration. The zinc-worker makes worker and shoots in zinc for the conveyance of water, and covers wire- worker. ^^^^^^ generally small in size, with sheets of zinc. The wire-worker bends, cuts, and forms wire into wire gratings, and pre- pares trellis wire-work, window blinds, etc. The gas-fitter The gas-fltter, , . - ,, . . j tu« plumber, and sees to the connection of all pipes conveying gas, and the beu-hanger. ^^.^^ ^^ gasaliers, etc. ; and the plumber looks to all work into which enters the fitting of leaden pipes for the conveyance of water, and therefore to the fixing of cisterns, water-closets, ball-taps, sinks, etc. The bell-hanger fixes bells, and looks to the mechanical arrangements by which, by means of cranks, springs, and wires, bells are connected with the handles, by pulling which they are set in motion. 1055. Lastly, we come to the painter, who covers wood-work and metal-work with a coating of colouring matter, mixed with oil and The painter,, turpentine, and generally called paint, in order to pre- decorator, gerve the one from decay and the other from corrosion writer, and ' 11 -i gilder. through the action of the weather, and colours walls, ceil- ings, etc., with oil colours, or more commonly in distemper. Artistic work on walls and ceilings is usually carried out by the decorator, who works out a design with the brush, or quickly imprints a pattern by aid of stencil-plates. The aid of the writer is sought to paint the name of the house or its number on the pillars of the entrance gate Amateur's Work in Buildup g Trades. 495 or on the front door ; and that of the gilder in covering all surfaces that are to be gilt with leaf-gold. The paper-hanger xhe paper- covers the interior surface of walls with paper-hangings, ^^iger. often beautifully and artistically printed in colours ; and the glazier fixes panes or sheets of glass into sash-frames, and in skylights, green- houses, conservatories, etc., with putty, after cutting them to the size required. 1056. Thus, in five great divisions of digging and preparing for building work, putting up walls, etc., and covering in with the roof ; fitting, framing, and finishing in wood ; working in metal BuUding of various kinds ; and painting and glazing and the general ^rougM Lto work of decoration, we have placed before us— broadly, it ^^^ groups. is true, for convenience of consideration, and by no means in minute details— the principal divisions of building work, classified partly according to the materials employed in each, and partly according to the nature of the work that is done. 1057. And what, it may be asked, can the amateur do with regard to these various trades ? He may do a little rough carpentry, and he may manage to rub over a door or any other wood-work what the with some paint, but he can take no part in the other ^.o in these handicrafts that have been named. To this we may rejoin that, although it is not to be supposed that an amateur who has but little time at his disposal for such kind of work can attain pro- ficiency in the practice of any ; yet it is certain that there are various simple processes in each branch of the building trade that he can contrive to do creditably, if not in a thoroughly workman-like manner, and by so doing benefit himself by keeping in his pocket money that would otherwise be paid for labour of one kind or another. 1058. All men must live, and it may be argued that a man by acting as his own mechanic may keep money out of the pocket of some working-man, and bread out of the mouths of the no robbery , , -1 ^ n ■ ^ . for amateiir to mechanic s wife and family. On renection, iiowever, it do his own will be seen that unless a man's time be wholly un- employed he can never hope to spend many hours throughout the year in handicraft work, and that any work he may turn his attention and his hand to would be done by a working-man in as many hours as the amateur will take days and perhaps weeks about it. The amuse- ment, in fact, will be a greater gain than the money Advantarea ,, , ••1-I...U ofselihelp. actually saved, and next to these points is this— that by doing any little pi^ce of repairs for himself the amateur will often save time, inasmuch as he may be able to do a thing directly instead ol 496 Household Building Art and Practice. waiting for it to be done at the convenience of the workman, and in addition to this much inconvenience and extension of damage, which might result from letting things remain as they were till a workman could be got to attend to them. An old proverb says aptly enough, " A stitch in time will save nine," and no one will appreciate its truth better than the amateur who is capable of helping himself. 1059. It is in doing repairs of an ordinary nature that the amateur will find practical knowledge of the arts connected with the building trades of use to him, in the first place. Secondly, he knowledge: will find it of equal value in constructing any small where usefTil. . ,. . r 1 1 rj buildmg for use or ornament, or for both, out 01 doors, or for making any appliance ATithin doors ; and thirdly, as it has been already urged, he will find it of even more value in enabling him to look after men who may be at work on his premises, and in seeing that the work is done in a proper manner. 1060. Carpentry and gardening are the arts to which most amateurs naturally turn their attention. The latter does not come in any way within our scope, but it is fair to suppose that most build- Arta best suited to ings that the amateur artisan will ever carry out will be amateurs. ^ . . - , , ■■ • t. • chiefly m connection with the garden, or m housing animals that he may feel inclined to keep. Of the processes involved in carpentry, and how they may be turned to practical account, mention has been made in the other sections of this work, and there will be no occasion to revert to them. In this part it is our business to consider constructive work or repairs that the amateur may carry out in con- nection with the house indoors, and the garden and all parts pertaining to it out-of-doors. 1 06 1. Excavations of all kinds can easily be compassed by the amateur, and he will find no difficulty whatever in making and using concrete. In connection with this kind of work lies the Excavating, r n 1 • j j etc., for making of garden walls and paths of all kinds, and no one will deny that it is of advantage to the amateur to know how to do these things. In building walls with brick and stone he will probably fail, and more particularly because it is by no means as easily done as other kinds of work that fall more naturally within his compass ; but, at the same time, it is desirable to know how to repair and " point " a piece of garden wall, as it is technically called ; to fix a step that has become loose with cement ; to put a piece of paving t© rights and relay a loose paving-stone ; and to repair a piece of plaster- ing that has been displaced by damp or other causes. 1062. Similarly he may not be able to accomplish much in smiths' WARD AND LOCK'S WORKSHOP SHEETS FOR AMATEUR WORKMEN. No. III. A GUIDE TO LATHES, FRET-SAWS, SAWS, AND TABLES, MORTISING MACHINES, DRILLING MACHINES, SLIDE RESTS, CHUCKS, TOOL-HOLDERS, AND TURNING TOOLS. Presented Gratis with Part IX. of "EVERY MAN HIS OWN MECHANIC"! niAN Hlb UWN MLLHANIL. J [LONDON: WARD. LOCK. BOWDEN AND CO.. WARWICK HOUSE. SALISBURY SQUARE. E.C. Work that may be done by Amateurs. 497 work, but it is certainly of advantage to be able to work in iron so far as to be able, by aid of fire, hammer, and anvil, to beat a Extent to piece of iron into any shape that maybe required, to drill ^arry smiOi^J a hole, and to turn a screw, which operations come under ^°^ ' the category of forging. Casting, which necessitates the melting of metal in a furnace and running it into a mould, is an „ ^. ° ' CaBtmg. operation which may well be left to the iron-founder ; but it is useful to possess an iron ladle, and run in lead round an iron bar or rail that has been loosened in the socket cut for it in a stone coping or step. Zinc-working, as far as making a simple shoot and covering a small flat roof are concerned, and wire-working in the zinc ana construction of a wire trellis, hanging basket, sieve for sifting earth or cinders, or repairing such articles, are far more prac- ticable ; and soldering and simple working in sheet metal are matters with which the amateur may readily make himself ac- quainted. Plumbing and gas-fitting, which if badly and ^i",*?^^*' inefficiently done may involve serious consequences, are best left to professional artisans ; but it is as well to know how to stop a leak in a pipe on an emergency, how to take down a gasalier, clean it, and put it in its place again, and how to substitute new gas-burneis for old ones with safety. Bell-hanging is a difficult and ^g^.j^a^g^^g^ tiresome undertaking, and the amateur will find it better to confine his attention to effecting repairs, and not to attempt to put up a new bell, and arrange the cranks, wires, and pulls by which it is moved. 1063. In the decorative portions of the building trade he will find no very great difficulty. House-painting— that is to say, covering wood or metal with a uniform surface of oil paint — may be Ho^gg. easily managed, and to a person possessed of taste and pajp|i"g ^^^ manual skill the work done by the decorator will present no very great difficulty. Gilding with leaf-gold is an operation that is more tedious than difficult, but much effective work may be done with Bessemer's or Judson's gold paint, in which the amateur will find an excellent and effective substitute for leaf-gold. Paper- p^^pg^. hanging requires nothing more than care and a certain ^*^^^°^ amount of manual dexterity. Glazing is more easily done than most of the work that has been mentioned, but as it involves handling putty it is not, perhaps, very desirable work. Still, it is work that should be taken up and carried out by the amateur, as he can put in a pane of glass for about half the price at which a pro- fessional glazier will do it if the work be such as can be done at the 3' 498 Household Building Art and Practice. shop, as the glazing of a light for a pit-frame, etc., and for from one- sixth to one-fourth the price charged if it be a window. 1064. It will be understood, therefore, that in the following pages it will be sought to show what an amateur can do in each and Object of ° what is B?id every branch of the building trade ; and how he must set to in this book. work to do it, rather than to furnish anything approaching to a full and complete course of instruction in these, which would be comparatively useless. Although work incidental to each trade may be touched on, in no case will a thorough description be given of any process, be it what it may, that the amateur would find it too difficulJ or impossible to carry out. 1065. Every amateur who makes up his mind to go in systematically for work of this kind should take care to be possessed of the " plant " Amateur's necessary for carrying it out. The tools that are absolutely ^^^^^- necessary for the performance of each kind of work will be specially described in the chapter and section devoted to its con- sideration ; but there are a few things that may be mentioned here as being generally necessary for all kinds of work more or less, and with which the amateur should provide himself. 1066. If the amateur is not possessed of an outbuilding suitable for housing his plant, one should be constructed in some out-of-the- way corner of the premises. A coach-house, if it be not Hovise or ' shed for used for its legitimate purpose, afifords a capital place pla,Bti . , , . wherein to stow things of this kind ; and even if it be, a portion of it may be easily devoted to this purpose. Sometimes Passage by there is a long, narrow passage on one side of a house, Bide of house, (jg^ached or semi-detached, which, not being used as a general thoroughfare by any but persons living in the house, may be roofed over at trifling expense, and used as a shed in part : for most of the plant used by the ama- teur, such as ladders, poles, j f^ boards, etc., will admit of stowage against either house- wall or garden-wall — that is to ^ sa}^ the wall op- Iiean-to roof, ■' ' '^ etc., over posite the house- fig. 529. passage by side of house ""'''''■ wall on which the ^'^^ ^^^^■^' "^• lean-to roof rests, and which forms the line of division between the premises occupied by the amateur and the premises adjoining. This iadea is represented in fig. 529, in which, by means of a narrow row of glazed lights of no great height on the low brick partition wall C, and Structures for Housing Plant, Etc. '199 a narrow lean-to roof, B — which may be of glass, or of wood painted or covered with zinc or roofing-felt, as the amateur may feel disposed — a place of shelter may be easily constructed at little cost, in which many useful things may be housed and kept out of sight ; and if the amateur is not able to manage in this way, a convenient hiding-place may be made against a cold north wall, and in such a way as to add to rather than diminish the beauty of the garden. In the design given in fig. 529, it should be said that a light shoot or gutter should ex- tend along the eaves of the roof from one end to the other to catch the rain that may fall on it, and this may be led by a pipe from the shoot into a drain ; or, if it be an object to preserve it for the garden, into a small cask placed behind the wall at c, or a tank sunk below the surface of the ground, and therefore hidden out of sight, whence the water may be raised when required by a small pumping apparatus. 1067. To return, however, to the structure against a north wall or fence. „, . structure This may against waU or fence, be man- aged as shown in fig. 530. Supposing there to be a wall running along the north end of the garden, or the end having a north aspect, a platform may be con- Below this platform will Fig. 530. STRUCTURE AGAINST WALL FOR PLANT, ETC. structed about half-way up the wall, as at C. be a convenient place for placing ladders, barrows, etc., and everything of this kind ; and above it may be erected a glass structure, ^^^^^ ^^^^ partly carried up to the top of the wall and partly above ^°^°^*|g^ ^^ it, with the shorter front lights opening outwards, and the longer ones arranged as sashes to slide to and fro. The low compart- ments are admirably .adapted for auriculas, while the higher and central space will be found useful for wintering larger gp^^^jg ^j^iow half-hardy plants. The lower space may be shut in, if 8|f|^;^j^°J' desired, by a series of doors, hinged on the bottom part of a frame, buttoned at the top and opening outwards, or it may be left open. If it be left open, it will be desirable to have some ever- greens in a narrow border on the other side of the gravel path in front of it, or a raised bank, in order to mask the view entirely or in part. io63. A separate shelter of some kind should be provided for any building apparatus that the amateur may possess, or intend >o possess 500 Household Building Art and Practice. It must not be stowed away in his carpenter's shop, if he have one, Carpenter's ^or it will be in the way, and by hindering him in his car- ^^°P" pentry and joinery will prove a nuisance. "A place for everything, and everything in its place " should be carried practically into effect by the amateur with regard to all his tools and appliances, for every kind of work that he may undertake. 1069. With regard to " building plant," strictly so called, it is desirable for the amateur to possess a ladder or two, one shorter „ , ., and the other longer, a barrow, a set of steps, a couple of Useful bnild- ^ ' ' r j r ing plant for trestles, three or four scaffold-boards, some cords, and amateur, perhaps half a dozen scafitold-poles, and putlogs or cross- timbers, one end of which is inserted in the wall as it is being raised by the builders, and the other end lashed fast to a scaffold-pole by a piece of rope. A half cask, two or three buckets of galvanised iron, and a broad piece of wood, consisting of three or four short boards nailed on to ledges, will also be found useful, and an iron pulley or two. 1070. The scaffold-boards may be purchased at the timber-yard. They should be 11 in. wide and not less than iXin. in thickness, and should have hoop-iron nailed round each end to keep Scaffold- ^ . . '^ boards: their them from splitting. Besides forming a platform when uses. supported on trestles or putlogs, these boards are handy in forming a sort of tram-road on soft earth or a rotten path for wheeling soil, gravel, manure, etc., from one part of the garden to another. Pieces of stout quartering will serve as putlogs, Putlogs and ^ * f b > scaffold- and may be bought ready sawn. Scaffold-poles — under 20ft. in length will be tall enough for the amateur — can also be bought at the timber-yard, and all ropes sufficiently good and strong enough for his purpose may be procured from the marine store- dealer. The prices of these articles may be estimated as follows : — s. d. s. 4 Scaffold-boards, per foot run, 2d. to o 3 Putlogs, per foot run o t Scaffold-poles, i8ft. or 20ft. long, each... 2 6 Old ropes, say per fathom o 6 The half cask may be bought at the marine store shop, of the second- hand dealer or the cooper, and will cost from is. 6d. to 3s. 6d., accord- ing to size and quality. If it is necessary to furnish it with new hoops Cask and the smith Or cooper will do this, charging from 6d. to is. per hoop, according to size. Galvanised iron buckets cost from is. to 2s. 6d., according to size. The broad piece of wood, useful for mixing mortar or cement on, can be made by the amateur out of some spare boards. An iron pulley, such as that which is re- presented in fig. 531, with a grooved edge and a shank cut with a How TO MAKE A WHEELBARROW. 50I screw thread, so as to screw into a cross-beam or putlog, may often ■y be picked up at prices ranging from jj,on pulley. -' 6d. to IS. at a marine store-dealer's, or in less elegant language, a rag-and-bone shop. When new they will cost twice that amount, if not more. 1071. If the amateur is not provided with a ladder, a barrow, a set of steps, and some trestles, he may make these for himself very Ladder an-? tiG. 5ji. IRON ., ~, . •„ ,^^ barrow, PULLEY. easily. The oarrow will prove the most difficult job, but it is to be made, nevertheless, as we will show presently. Of late years a convenient iron barrow has been intro- duced, consisting of a receptacle of sheet iron, resembling a broad, shallow box, supported on an iron frame-work furnished with handles and a wheel. They have the merit of being strong, light, and easy to wheel along, even on comparatively heavy ground. 1072. Let us proceed, first of all, to describe the barrow, which should be made of elm, as this kind of wood will resist the destructive effects of moisture better than any other, and, indeed, will last for many years under water. If the amateur is not inclined to work wood 30 tough and hard as elm, he must content himself with good sound deal. The parts which compose the barrow may be The barrow: enumerated as the two sides, the front, the tail board, the ^-^p^'^ ^• bottom, the wheel, and the legs. The shape of the sides is shown in fig. 532. No dimensions are given, as the size of the barrow must Fig. 532. WHEELBARROW— SIDE ELEVATION. be suited to the power of the person who will mostly use it ; and the best thing the amateur can do is to take the dimensions of a barrow that suits him, and from the figures given make a working drawing to scale. The sides are precisely alike, and the solid line in . ^ fig. 532 shows the exact shape, the line at the bottom being parallel to that at the top. A shallow groove must be made in the iusiife surface of each side, as at a B, c D, and in these grooves 502 Household Building Art and Practice. mortise holes must be cut, as at E and F in A B, and G and H in C D. It will be noticed that the slant given to the groove A B is greater than that given to C D. The reason is that by doing so the front board is kept out of the way of the wheel, whose position is indicated by the dotted circle K, and that any material with which the barrow is loaded can be turned out all the easier when the barrow is canted over. Fig. The front 533 represents the front board : board. .1 • • 1 the projectmg parts at A and A j^ rest on the top of each side, and the mortises c on each side, lettered E and F, fit into the y r tenons so lettered in fig. 532. The tail board F^ j)? The tail is made in the same manner, but V^' P^ """^""/ °^ • it need not be higher than the Fig. 533. wheelbarrow— dotted line a ^ in fig. 533. A mortise, x, front board. should be cut in both front board and tail board, the upper part of the mortise hole being just on a level with the bottom line of the sides. These holes serve to sustain a stout slip of wood, which in its turn helps to give strength to the bottom and hold it up. Its position is shown by the dotted line Y 2 in fig. 532. When the front board and tail board have been put in their places, and the parts brought tightly together by a few blows of a malleftj lines should be drawn with a pencil, or scribed with a bradawl or any sharp-pointed instrument, to show just where the outside surface of each side comes. Fitting and •' nailing parts The parts must then be knocked apart and holes bored together. . , . , , through the tenons with a large gimlet, rather outside than inside these scribe-marks. The sides and front board and tail board must be once more put together, and stout iron pins, or, if the tenons and the holes in them be large enough to admit of it, strong wooden pins of oak or ash driven through the holes bored in the tenons. The bar which is to assist in sustaining the bottom is then to be driven through the mortise holes made in the front board and tail board, and the bottom, made of one piece of elm if possible, cut so as to fit accurately and tightly into the space at the bottom of the framing formed by the front, back, and sides, and rest on the bar below, to which it may be secured by nails or three or four 2in. screws. The sides, front and tail boards, should then be nailed to the bottom with 2in. clasp nails. 1073. The wheel should be put in place before the pins are driven through the tenons of the front and back pieces, so that the projecting irons at each end of the axle may be thrust through the hole N made in each side to receive them. It will be bet- Construction of Wheel for Wheelbarrow. 503 V' ter for the amateur to buy a second-hand wheel of the marine-store dealer, which he can generally do for is. or 2s., and then make the frame of his barrow to suit the wheel. If, however, he has to make one he must proceed in the following manner : — 1074. Cut out a circular piece of board I2in. in diameter, and exactly in the centre cut a square mortise, as shown at A in fig. 534. The wood for the wheel should not be less than lin. in thickness, How to make and elm is as good as any that can be got for the purpose. » w ee . If the amateur cannot get a piece of elm, he must make his wheel '■ ■ iiin. in diameter and use j{'m. stuff, cutting out two c circles and screwing them — ^,7^ j-jY ,' tightly together so that the grain of one piece may run in an opposite direction to the grain of the other. A Fig. 534. SIDE ELEVATION. FiG. 535. FKuNT ELEVATION. ° WHEEL OF WHEELBARROW. piece of hoop iron should be bound round the circumference in either case, fastened ^^^ ^.^^ with nails, in the centre if the wheel be solid, but alternately, first near to one edge and then to the other, if it be composed of two pieces. A square piece of deal— or better, oak or ash — should be cut to key into the square hole in The axle and fig. 534. This forms the axle, as shown in fig. 535 at B C. ^^ geons. Precisely in the centre of each end of the axle should be driven an iron spill or piece of iron, called a gudgeon, square at the end that is driven into the wood and round at the other. These should project just far enough beyond the ends of the axle to go through the sides and extend from %\n. to }i\n. beyond their outer surface. These gudgeons are shown at D and E, and the manner in which they should project beyond the sides at F and G. A small iron plate about yi'\n. thick should be let into the side of the barrow on the inside surface to receive the gudgeons, as shown at H and K in section, and larger in fig. 536 in plan. These prevent the wearing away of the wood which would otherwise be caused by the friction of the gudgeons. The smith will supply the plates ready for use for about 6d. per pair. It will be noticed that as the sides of the barrow approach closer together at the bottom than at the top and are slanting, the holes through which the gudgeons pass must be bored in a slightly slanting direction. e- e (i Fig. 536. GUDGEON. Fig. 537. ferrule for axle. 504 Household Building Art and Practice. This is apparent from the sections of the sides shown at F and G in fig- 535- If it is thought desirable to do so, the axle can be tapered Ferrules for and rounded on either side, as shown in fig. 537, and *^®" ferrules, as at A, fitted over each end before the gudgeons are inserted. The ferrules may be obtained at the smith's, iXin. in diameter inside, at from 6d. to 8d. per pair, and gudgeons at about 3d. or 4d. per pair. The ferrules should be brought to a red heat in the fire before they are put on the ends of the axle. As soon as they are on they should be plunged into cold water, which makes the iron contract and fit closely to the wood. 1075. To finish the wheelbarrow the legs must be added, must be cut so as to be of the shape in section represented Legs of the by A B in fig. 538 ; by cutting them in this man- viTheeibaxrow. ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^g f^ft^^ closely to the slanting sides, as at C D, and yet be upright as far as the outer sur- face is concerned. They should be screwed on to the sides with 2in. or 2>^^in. screws, according to the thickness of the, legs, just in front of the tenons of the tailpiece, against which they may be abutted, or set perfectly upright, if the maker of the barrow consider this to be preferable to the other mode. 1076. We have now to deal with the ladder and steps. It will be as well for the amateur to have two ladders, one from Useful sizes loft. to 12 ft. in height, the other from 15ft. to 18ft. long. for ladders, jj^ggg ^y^ be long enough for all purposes for which he will require them. The longer ladder, if i8ft. long, will be long enough to get at a first-floor window comfortably if it be necessary, and this is all the amateur can possibly require. For repairing roofs, etc., ladders of great length are used ; but this is dangerous work, and had better be left to those that are accustomed to it. A1 Fig. 542. SIDE VIEW. Fic. S4i- front view, LADDER FORMED OF CLEATS. ORDINARY LADDER. 1077. There is no difficulty in making a ladder. There are two metb^ds, both of which are shown in the annexed figures. The ordi- Construction of Ladders. 505 nary way is shown in fig. 539. A fir pole of the requisite length is taken and planed nicely all round. It is then marked ordinary along its length in divisions of about 9 inches, the first ladder, mark being 9 inches from the end, and the last the same distance from the top, and holes are then bored right through the pole with a J4'in. or ^in. bit. The pole is then sawn in half from end to gtaves or end, and some spokes of oak or ash, generally called epoites. staves or rounds, thickest in the middle and tapering towards the ends, are driven into the holes in one half of the pole, the flat side being inwards. The staves are a little longer at the bottom than at the top, so that the ladder may be narrower at the top than at the bottom by an inch, or more if the ladder be a long one. Sometimes an iron bar, as at A, with a shoulder at each end to butt against each ^^.^^^ ^,J^, side, is inserted instead of a wooden stave, or frequently "«^thnuts. just below it, and secured with nuts on the outside ; one of these is put two or three rounds from the top, and another two or three rounds from the bottom of a long ladder. The other half of the pole is then put on to the other ends of the staves and knocked into place. The ends of the staves are sawn close to the pole, if any project beyond the outside surface, and a cut with a chisel is made across each, and a wedge of hard wood driven in. This is shown in fig. 540. 1078. Another way of making a ladder is to take two pieces of good red deal about 2j-^in. or 3in. thick and 2in. wide and nail cleats across, as shown in fig. 541, the cleats being 2in. wide and lin. Ladder with thick. They should be nailed on firmly with clasp nails. cleats. Some notch the uprights slightly and drop the cleats into the notches, but this tends to weaken the ladder. It is far better to secure a bear- ing for the cleats by nailing strips of wood to the uprights Bearing for between the cleats, as shown at A, B, and C in dotted lines deats. in fig. 542. This, however, tends to render the ladder somewhat cum- bersome, and certainly heavier. The method just described is rather a clumsy way of making a ladder, and should only be adopted for ladders of 12ft. in length and under; for if the uprights be longer they are apt to give under the weight of the person who is upon them, and will sometimes snap asunder, especially when the uprights have been notched to receive the cleats. 1079. It may possibly be thought that what is now being brought under the reader's notice belongs rather to Household Carpentry and Joinery than to Household Building Art and Practice. It does so, in so far as some knowledge of carpentry is necessar}', but it must be remembered that all sections of the building trade are closely con- 5o6 Household Building art and Practice. The steps. nected, and scarcely any of them can be completely carried out wit'i- . , out some assistance from one or other of the rest. • It Special description of must be further considered that hints and su£;^in. will be sufficient for the width of the pieces Q, R, and the rail T, but the rail S should be 3in. or 4in. in width. This frame when made must be attached to L by a pair of ^^^ ^^^^^ hinges. A pair of I >^in. or 2in. butts will be found suitable, or what are termed back flap-hinges may be used, but these must be laid on the outside of the piece L, and the rail S, and screwed on to them as shown in fig. 547. The prices of butts andbackflap-hingesofallsizes,andvariouskinds of builders' ironmongery most wanted by the ^'°- 547- flap-hinge. amateur in hiswork.have been given in Chap.xi. of Part II. of thiswork ;o8 Household Building Art and Practice. 1083. Lastly, means must be taken to prevent the frame at the back from extending too far from the front part of the steps when opened out. This is accomplished by boring holes in the sides of Attaclizn6zit ^ , - j of cords to the front and the side pieces of the frame, as at T and u ^ *^^' in fig. 543, and passing a piece of stout cord through them, making a knot at each end to prevent its withdrawal. 1084. When engaged in painting or in putting up a shed in the garden, it will be found inconvenient to be constantly moving step-- or Trestles ladder from point to point. Supports for a temporary always useful. g^^flPolding will therefore be required, and these the trestles will supply. The trestles, indeed, are likely to be all that the amateur will want by way of making scaffolding, but it will be as well, especially if he be at a distance from a town or wood merchant's yard, to keep a few short scaffold-poles and putlogs in stock as suggested. 1085. A good general idea of the trestle suitable for the amateur may be gained from an inspection How to make of fig. 548. It is made trestles, ^^ precisely the -ame principle as the sawing stool or mortising trestles used in car- pentry. A piece of wood about 2ft. Sin. long, or even 3ft., and about 4in. square, must be se- le ed for the top ; and four legs — B, c, D, E — about 8ft. or 9ft. long, and about 4in. deep by 3in. wide, cut at the top so as to receive and hold the piece A. When these have been placed in position and p.„ nailed to A, braces or cross pieces — as shown at F, G, H, K, and L, M, N, o — must be nailed to the legs. A pair of trestles of exactly the same size rrtust be made, and it will be obvious to the reader that when a pair of scaffold-boards are placed on the cross pieces G, K, or M, o, or on the piece A at the top, scaffolding at vaiious heights may be made in a few minutes to suit the conve- nience of the amateur. 1086. As it may be convenient for the sake of stowing the trestles away to make them so that they may be taken to pieces, it is obvious Trestles that ^^^^ ^' '^ practicable to make each side of the trestles taKe to pieces, ggpj^j-^fgjy^ framing the legs B, E, or C, D together, by cross rails tenoned into them instead of the cross pieces L, F, or H, N, 548. TRESTLE FOR AMATEUR. Useful Trestle for Amateurs. 509 a third piece being added to connect them at the top and serve as an additional support to the piece A, which will slip into the rectangular opening thus made as into a deep notch. In this case, however, A should be deeper and narrower, so that a bolt may be passed through the framing and A to keep them well together when in use. The •pieces G, M, and K, o may be movable, and attached to the framing on either side by bolts passing through the legs, and secured with thumb- screws. These pieces may be wider to admit of two bolts being passed through each end for additional security. When made in this way additional holes may be made in the legs B, E, and c, D, so that the cross pieces G, K, and M, O may be shifted higher or lower as may be necessary. CHAPTER 11. EXCAVATING, AND WHAT IT IMPLIES : TOOLS t CONCRETE, ETC Nfeaning of term " Excavating" — Wages Paid to Excavator— Jobbing Gardener — Facts Respecting Excavator's Work — Work in Various Materials — Contents of Barrow, etc.— Cubic Yard of Earth— Slope of Embankment— Amateur's Work in Excavating— Scaffold-boards as Tram-road- Spades and Shovels— The Pick— — The Crowbar — The Rammer — Levelling Ground — Practical Example of Levelling— How to Hold Earth in Place— The A Level, etc.— Trenches for Foundations — Mode of Procedure — Trenches for Concrete, etc. — Trenching in Loose Earth— Supporting Sides with Boards— Description of Method Employed —Ballast : how to make it— Draining Wet Soil— Materials and Implements- Preparation of Trench for Draining— Different Tools for Trenching— Laying out Drains in Ground — Main Drain — Lateral Drain — Drain-pipes — Connection of Pipes by Collars, etc. — Remarks on Draining— Stiff Subsoil— Porous Ground — Fining in Trenches— Practical Example in Draining— Laying Circular Drain-pipe —Semicircular Tile on Flat Stone— Tiles Required to Drain Acre of Land- Hedges and Embankments— How to Make a Hedge or Bank— Plants in Centre of Bank— Foundation for Quickset Hedge— Use of Stones and Stakes— Staked Hedge must be Turfed— Ornamentation of Stone Foundation — Concrete : what it is— Materials for Making Concrete — Various Cements in Use — Hydraulic Cements— Roman Cement— Portland Cement— Strong and Weak Cement- Stucco for Walls— Prices of Cements— Concrete Should be Made on Boards— "Concrete : its Use in Building "—How to Make Concrete— Precautions to be Observed : (i) Where Water is to be Added. (2) When it should be Added. (3) The Amount to be Added. (4) Turning Over the Concrete— Assistance Necessary when Mixing Large Quantities— Mixing Small Quantities — Filling Trench with Concrete— Why Thrown in from Higher Level— Garden Walks, Paths, etc.— Marking out Course — Mode of Making Path — Construction of Garden Walk— Solid Facing to Path— Asphalte Pavement— Tar Pavement- Concrete Pavement— Finishing Coat — Cost of Garden Walks per Square Yard — Well Sinking— Patent Tube Well— Prices of Tube Wells— Appearance of Tube Well— Mode of Sinking Tube— Improvised Driving Machine— Completion of Remarks on Excavating. 1087. The term " excavating " Is applied primarily to all work done in digging out and removing earth, for whatever purpose this may be done. Thus it is applied to the work done in levelling a Meaning of, ... -, l-u- -j-- term "ex- place for the site of a house or any buildmg, m diggmg cavatmg." ^^^ ^^^ trenches required for foundations or for making drains, in taking out the pits, if we may call them so, that are necessary for ceUarage and in sinking wells. It also implies mixing and filling The Excavator and his Work. 511 in concrete, and burning clay into ballast ; and although making concrete walls can scarcely be brought under " excavating," yet it is frequently entrusted to labourers employed in this kind of work. Making banks and hedges, and planting them with quickset or other shrubby trees such as hornbeam, etc., comes within the province of the excavator, as well as the making of embankments, slopes, etc. 1088. With regard to wages charged for the excavator, the builder will ask 8d. per hour for his services, or even more when the. labourer is working in water ; but the amateur, if living in a town, wages paid may, if he does not care to do the work himself, get hold e^<=ava or. of a jobbing gardener, whose charge will be about 4s. per day, 01 say from 3s. 6d. to 4s. 6d., while if he be located in the jobbing country he may without doubt get a man at from 2s. 6d. eardener. to 3s. 6d. per day who will work under his directions. 1089. The following facts with regard to excavators' work, taken from " La.\ton's Builders' Price Book," may be of use to the amateur :— " In loose ground a man can throw up about 10 cubic Facts re- yards per day, but in hard or gravelly soils 5 yards will be ^ cavator's a fair day's work. Three men will remove 30 yards of ^°^ earth a distance of 20 yards in a day. A yard (cubic) of concrete requires about 3 hours' labour to mix and throw in, or if in heavy masses, and the materials handy, about 2 hours. With regard to the weight of materials, 19 cubic feet of sand, 18 ditto clay, 24 ditto earth, is% ditto chalk, 20 ditto gravel, will each weigh one ton. A cubic yard of earth before digging will occupy about i;2 work in cubic yards when dug. Sand and gravel does not increase ^j^*g^\^ more than one-third as much as earth in bulk when dug, but will decrease in height one-fourth more than earth, A wheel- barrow (that is to say the broad, shallow barrow used by navvies) holds tV yard cube. A cubic yard, or 27 cubic feet of earth, is a contents of single load, and contains 20 bushels ; i cubic yard of ^^^°^' ^*°- gravel contains 18 bushels in the pit ; when dug it will increase nearly one-third in bulk, but will subside nearly one-fourth in height, and decrease one-fifth in bulk when formed into embankments. When earth is well drained it will stand in embankment about cuWoyard 1% to I." That is to say, if the o^ earth. height B C of the embankment be i foot, or i * " yard,or 12 yards, as the case may be, the length Fig. 549. ^^jj^g gjppg ^ ^ maybe lyi feet, 1% yards, or 18 yards respectively. Or, what is the same thing, the slope AC should 512 Household Building Art and Practice. form an angle of 40° or 41° with the horizontal base line A B. This will prove a useful rule for the amateur in throwing up embankments, mounds, etc., in his grounds or garden. If revetted, to use an en- gineer's term, or covered over with turf, the inclination may be greater, because the roots of the grass bind the surface Slope of em- o ' bankment. earth together and keep it from being washed down by heavy rains. This will be evident from an inspection of the side of a hedge or bank covered with turf which may be inclined to the horizontal base line at angles ranging from 10° to 20°. 1090. The amateur's work as an excavator will be confined to levelling ground, digging trenches for foundations, sinking pits, per- haps, once in a way. He will also possibly have occasion work in to make trenches for draining ground, and will sometimes throw up an embankment or make a hedge. He should also know how to mix and fill in concrete for foundations, and above all other matters, how to make garden walks. We will say a few words on each of these points seriatim, 1091. In all work of this kind, when earth has to be wheeled from one place to another, the amateur will find his scaffold-boards very handv as a temporary tramroad for his barrow to run over. Bcaffold- •' . , , , r rii- \,- boards aa He will also require a spade or a shovel for hlhng his trauuroEid* , , ^ . barrow ; a pick for loosenmg the earth ; a crowbar or iron bar for sinking holes in earth, or for splitting asunder hard, close rubbly stone, or any other similar material that he may encounter ; and an earth rammer for ramming earth into a hard, solid mass. 1092. Everybody knows what a spade is, or it is presumed that everj^body does. It is a broad blade of plate iron, square in form but ^ , - rather narrower at the bottom than at the top, attached by Spades and shovels. [y^Q long Straps of iron springing from upper and under- side to a handle of tough ash, which is shaped something like a heart, and pierced for the admission of the fingers. Illustrations of spades used in draining will be found further on, and will serve to show approximately the form of the common spade. A good spade costs about 3s. 6d. The spade is a short implement, and although excellent for digging and turning over ground, it is by no means as handy for loading a barrow with earth, or throwing earth from one spot to another, or from a higher to a lower position, or vice versa, as the shovel, which is not so familiar an object as the spade, being more used in the western counties than in and near London. Fig. 550 shows Ihe tools that are chiefly required in excavating. The two shapes ordi- narily gTven to the shovel are shown at A and B. The broad flat blade, Tools used in Excavating. 513 square or pointed as may be preferred, has a socket attached to it, into which is thrust a long, slightly bent handle. The length of the handle enables it to be used as a lever in lifting earth, and throwing it into a cart or barrow. The handle is grasped at the top, or near the top, by the right hand, and at about ^'^- 55°- shovel, pick, crowbar, and rammer. one-third its length from the socket by the left hand. The blade is thrust into the mass of earth, the left hand pressed against the knee as a fulcrum, and the earth, which in this case is the weight to be moved, is raised by a downward pressure of the right hand coming into play as the power. This cannot be done so well with the spade, owing to the shortness of the handle. The price of a spade is about 2S. without, and 2s. 6d. with a handle. 1093. The pick is shown at C. The blade should be of the best wrought-iron, tipped with steel ; the handle of ash. When the point that is downward is driven into the mass that it is desired to loo.sen, the handle is moved in an upward direction ; and the back of the blade pressing against the earth behind it as a fulcrum, the weight in front of the point is detached and loosened. This implement is a good example of a bent lever. Picks are usually sold by the hundredweight, but it is possible to pick up one at the marine- storedealer's for from is. to 2s. The points will be worn out, but any smith will tip them anew with steel for about is. The crowbar, shown at D, is a long iron bar about ^in. or lin. in diameter, „^ ' ° ' The crowbar. pointed at one end, and beaten into a broad point and slightly bent at the other. They are sold by weight for about 3d. per pound, but an old one may be bought, like the pick, of the marine- storedealer for is. The earth rammer maybe got at the „ same place. It is a heavy mass of iron, shaped as shown at E, with a hole through it into which an ashen pole, about 6l"t. long and i^in- or i/^in- in diameter, is inserted. When new it is sold by weight, but when purchased second-hand it may be bought for is. or IS. 6d. It is one of the most useful aids to work that the amateur can have, for it is constantly in request when posts or wooden up- rights of any kind are let into the ground in. order to ram tightly together stones, brickbats, earth, gravel, etc., thrown in to fill up 33 The pick. 514 Household Building Art and Practice. the cavity, so that it is impossible to move post or upright in any direction whatever. 1094. The first operation that we may consider is levelling ground, LeveUing and for the sake of illustration we will imagine that it is ^"'"^ ■ desired to make a level platform on slightly rising ground. This is practically the same as levelling a site for a house. 1095. Suppose that A B in fig. 551 represents the contour of the ground in section, and that C D is the level of the platform that it is Practical 551. EXAMPLE OF LEVELLING GROUND. desired to make. Had it been necessary to level a site example of for a house, the whole mass of earth comprised within levelling. ' '^ the dotted line E F and the lines E B, B F would have to be removed and conveyed elsewhere, or had the contour been that of the dotted line G C H K all that would have been necessary would be to fill the depression c H K with earth taken from K D B ; but in this case it is desired to construct a level platform in place of the sloping ground rising gently from the level A E. The first thing to be done is to take such rough masses or materials as can be got out of K D B and pile them in a line along E L, so as to furnish something in the shape of a containing wall to hold in the earth afterwards thrown into „ , , ,, C L K. If there be no stones or rough earth in K D B that How to hold _ ° earth in can be made available, it is a good plan to drive a few rows of short stakes along E L, as shown bythe dark lines in the diagram, to aid in sustaining the earth, which must be dug out and thrown, if the distance be short enough, or wheeled if it be too far to throw, until the hollow C L K has been filled, and all the earth re- moved from K D B. As the earth is thrown between the stakes it should be rammed with the ram- mer to give consistency to it, and prevent it from falling out on to A E. Of course, as earth KlG. 552. PRINCIPLE OF THE A LEVEL. • i i ^^ " occupies more space when loose than when it is solid, when all the soil has been removed from K D B, it will rise above t^ level as shown by the dotted line c K. It mus^ Digging Trenches for Foundations. 515 however, be left to settle and consolidate. The face of the bank c E must be made up with some of the earth, and covered with turf; and when the protuberance at C K has settled sufficiently, trial must be made that the level is true by means of the A level, which has been described in another part of this work, and whose prin- The A ciple is shown in fig. 552. In fact, the A level, and the ^®^®^' «''°- Dther level for trying uprights, already described in section 293 in Household Carpentry and Joinery, should find a place among the amateur's building plant. 1096. Digging trenches for foundations, and sinking pits for any purpose, whether for a sawpit, or cellarage, or an ice-house, or a mushroom-house, or any other purpose for which it is Trenches for necessary to go below the level of the ground, is com- ^°^'ia"°'»8- paratively simple. The area of the trench or pit must be marked out by stakes driven into the ground at each corner or angle, and the ground within the area thus marked out must be dug out Mode of and removed. Care must be taken to keep the sides of ^^°^^'^'^^- the trench perpendicular and the bottom level. This must be done by the aid of the A level and plumb level. The bottom of a trench or pit should be well rammed with a rammer to consolidate the earth, and thus render it better fitted to bear any stuff, whether concrete or brick, that may be laid in it as foundations for the walls above. 1097. When a trench is dug for concrete it should be exactly the depth and width required for the concrete, but when the foundation is to consist of bricks or stones the trench must be made Trenches for wide enough to allow room for working, and the space left °°°°''®*^' ^*°' on either side of the foundatio.is subsequently filled in again with earth. For draining trenches are made in a different manner, as will be described presently. As trenches are shallow no support is re- quired for the sides, but in sinking a pit in light, loose TrenchinRin earth or gravel it may be found necessary to line it with ^°°°® e*^'^' boards to prevent it from falling in. The amateur will seldom, if ever, have to resort to this ; and as it will be attended with much trouble and incon- venience owing to the necessity of keep- the boards in place by timbers stretching across the pit as shown in fig. 553, it will be almost better for him to open out the pit very widely indeed at the top, and allow the sides to shelve to the bottom as shown in part at A B and i< . Supporting Bidea with boards. B D F;G. 553. BOARDING IN PIT, 5i6 Household Building Art and Practice. C D. The walls forming the side of the pit may then be put up in brick, stone, or concrete as at B E and D F, which in Description . r , t j i j of method the diagram represent the sections of the boards placed emp oye . ^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^ ^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^ ^.^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ great size, the struts, K, L, M, used to support the boards at the side may also be made available for sustaining the boards at the ends, as shown by the dotted lines, as the boards used for this purpose at the sides being thick will not bend under the weight and pressure of the earth behind them. Of course the boards round the top are placed in position first of all, and the remainder in succession as the excavation is carried deeper and deeper. This precaution is generally taken in well-sinking to pre- vent any falling in at the sides, which would be fatal to the man at work. 1098. When the soil is clayey it may be converted into " ballast," as it is called, which affords a useful material for making roads and Ballast: how mixing concrete. A fire is made of culm or small coal, to make it. (-ij^^jg^s, ashes, etc., which is covered in with lumps of clay. More fuel is scattered over the clay, and then clay on the fuel, alternate layers of each being deposited one over the other until a large heap is made. The mass takes some time to bum through, but when the fire has burnt out the clay has assumed the appearance of fragments of brick rubbish. Reckoning coal at from 15s. to i8s. per ton, this material will cost from 2S. to 2S. 6d. per cubic yard. It is useful for paths where no better hardening material can be obtained. 1099. When the subsoil is heavy and retentive of moisture, as clay is, it is desirable to relieve the soil above of superfluity of water by draining. The materials em- Draining ployed in covering wet BoU. J drains are very varied — brushwood, rubble, stones, bricks, and pipes being all in use. The best and cheap- est drains, however, are drain- pipes, which are now obtainable everywhere on moderate terms. The implements Materials _ "^ and used in drainage Implements. are spades, varying in size so as to go to the bottom of a deep drain without taking out more soil than is necessary, sloping to the point and slightly lounded DRAINING TOOLS. Preparation of Trench for Draining. 517 so as to make a circular cut ; a spoon-like implement for lifting the loose soil out of the bottom of the trench, and a level. Illustrations of the spades, etc., are shown in fig. 554. 1 100. We will first consider the method of preparing a trench for drainage, and then the difiercnt kinds of drains that are in general use. The width at the surface of the drain should be laid p^gp^r^^gn out neatly with a line and reel, and the first spit removed of trench for of a width in which a man can work conveniently. From this extreme or greatest width at the top the trench will gradually taper towards the bottom, the sides sloping and approaching nearer and nearer until there is only width enough to lay the drain-pipe. If the ground in which the drain is made slopes along the direction of the drain so that one side is lower than the other, the earth as it is re- moved should be thrown to the lower side ; first, because it is easier for the workman, and, secondly, to prevent any slip of the soil that might occur if heavy rains fall while the work is in progress. Hav- ing dug out the soil to within Sin. or gin. of the bottom, as shown at a a in fig. 555, for wliicL the draining spade a (fig. _.^ ° ^ ^ ^ Different 5 54) is generally used,the bottom tools for trsncliiag. being of a width convenient for the workman, the remaining space is re- quired to be much narrower, and is excavated by means of the bottom tools B and c (fig. 554), the workman supporting himself during the work of excavation on the shoulders or ledges a a (fig. 555), the bottom being made smooth and level by means of the scoop D, of which several sizes are in use. In making a drain care should be taken that, while the bottom is left smooth, it should have a proper fall in its whole length, and that if there is no natural fall in the land, one should be produced by making the head of the drain shallower than the outfall. iioi. There are various ways of laying out the drains in ground, according to the configuration of the surface. If the ground have a uniform slope, as is often the case with garden ground, it ^ ^ o o 7 Laying o\tt will be sufficient to lay parallel lines of ain. pipes at a drains in ground. distance of from 15 ft. to 20ft. apart, provided always that pipes are used in making the drains. When the land slopes slightly on either side to a depression in the middle, a main drain of 3in. pipes should be laid along this depression from the head to the outfall, and Fig. 555. TRKNCH FOR DRAINING. 5i8 Household Building Art and Practice. lateral drains of 2in. pipes entering the main drain and connected with Main drain i^ by junction-sockets and elbow-joints. It is useless to attempt to give more precise directions, as the construction and disposition of drains must in every case depend on the nature of the soil and the contour of the surface. The depth, too, will also depend upon circumstances, but a main drain will vary in depth from 3ft. to 4ft., being shallowest at the head and deepest at the outfall, while Lateral drain ^^^^^^^ drains may range from 2ft. 6in. to 3ft. All lateral drains should enter a main drain obliquely and not at right angles, and the fall should be greater when the lateral approaches the main drain than at any other portion of its course. From 15ft. to 20ft. should be allowed between the feeders to a main drain. In fig. 556 an illustration is given of an elbow-joint A, connecting the feeder B with the main drain c, whose fall is in the direction of the arrow. Drain-pipes vary Drain-pipes. in diameter from 2 mches to 18 inches, and in price from 3id. to 4s. per foot. Channel pipes are somewhat cheaper. ^'^- 556. elbow joint. They can be obtained at any builder's yard in any town, and local prices, etc., will be supplied by the local dealer. 1 102. Sometimes the drain-pipes are laid with collars, as atD — that is, short pieces of piping sufficiently large to receive the ends of two c f fP'P^s, thus keeping them firmly in their place. These pipes by collars are sometimes perforated on the upper surface to collars, etc. '^ admit the water. Sometimes the pipes are joined together by bands of tempered clay, which answers very well, but in this case the upper sides of the pipes should be perforated with holes for the reception of the water, so that the solid junction of the pipes is no detriment. It is not usual, however, to do more than lay the pipes end to end in a straight line, or just fit the end of one pipe into the socket made for its reception at the end of the pipe that comes next to it, if pipes of this construction are used. In this case no clay or cement must be used to bind the pipes together, but at the junction of any feeder wiih a main drain the union should be carefully made by clay or cement where permanent drainage is expected. 1 103. The following general remarks on drainage and the various Remarks on methods of constructing drains may prove useful, and aning. afford Some useful hints and suggestions to the amateur who may be intending to effect the drainage of his garden or any small piece of ground, either by himself or with the aid of a labourer only. Practical Example in Draining. 519 1 104. The depth should vary with the nature of the soil. If the subsoil is a stiff retentive clay, care should be taken to go ° stiff subsoU. no deeper than is necessary to be out of the way of the spade in digging and trenching, or to give the necessary fall ; for water does not readily filter through clay, and draining land is for the pur- pose of drawing water quickly off the surface to prevent stagnation and to admit of going on it immediately after rain ; therefore to lay drains so deep into the clay that water would be weeks in filtering to them would, be the height of folly. If the ground be more porous, let the Porous drains be three, but not more than four, feet deep. Having ground, got the trenches ready, lay the pipes, and cover them for a few inches with rough porous rubbish, or broken crockery, or any such material, and the drains will be effective and permanent. An excellent plan is to lay soles or flat tiles, and on these to set half-pipes or bridge-pipes, which are of a tunnel shape, and on these to lay the rough stuff and fill in with earth, which should not be rammed or trodden very tight,. but merely allowed to settle. If the trenches are merely Piuingin filled with rough stuff, brickbats, etc., to the thickness of *^'s^°^«3. a foot or so, the drainage will be effective but not so permanent ; even- brushwood will do, and sometimes last for many years in clay soils. When drainage is roughly effected in this manner, the cost of drain- pipes is of course saved. 1105. The drain shown in fig. 557 is cut through a stratum of porous f-_». >*^=^ ,„0!m. soil, p s, for about 2ft., and through the rr^s-iP^ ^(s!gr=^ '^^ Practical [^^:-r^3^w' clay subsoil, R S, about 3oin. At the example tn \nC7r\jr^ m , r ■, t , , . draining. VJigL| W bottom of the trench are placed pieces "^^ Vj, tj ^^i^ of flat stone, A A A, one on each side supporting p,Q (-^7 DRAIN FOR ^ horizontal stone laid over them. On the top of POROUS SOIL. this stone, a layer of round stones, brickbats, etc., |^j;;j.<^^??7fiijj)^ c, is placed, over which the soil c is replaced. In - ^S fig. 558 is shown another form of drain suitable for H ' i\ / „ , W retentive soils. The construction is the same, "• , ''^ two stones or tiles, c, C, are placed against the ^'rete.ntive'^soil.°^ ^''^^^' '■esting on a stone, B, laid on the bottom of the trench. Over these another stone, A, is laid horizontally, and on this the soil is replaced, the rougher and looser parts being undermost, and V, ,(;/', „/-/r i" immediate pro.\imity to the stone. In fig. -"■^^////mS/M ceo we have the most perfect of all drainage. Fig. 559. BEST KIND ■'•'^ •^ ° OF DRAINAGE. A circular drain-pipe, C, is laid at the bottom of the trench, which should, however, have been carried down into 520 Household Building Art and Practice. the substratum R c. Over this pipe are laid, first, the roughest , ^ rubble, B, available, on which a slate or tile. A, is placed. Laying ' ' ' ' ' f i circular which will prevent roots penetrating ^ " ^' H S^^umfjr'^ drain-pipe. . *" ° r , "^^j^y^^W downwards to the pipes as well as the . ^ H^^ _A earth from falling in through the stones. If the '^'"^'^ p 1^^ - w4^ pipe rested on the surface of the close tenacious subsoil, as shown in the illustration, the water ^'^^ S^o. ARrcAxcE- MENT FOR POROUS would be diffused over the surface of the sub- soils. stratum and could not enter the drain-pipe. If, however, the drain- pipe is sunk into the subsoil as it should be, the water trickles from the surface of the substratum first into the rubble at B, and then into the pipe. In fig. 560 is shown the most convenient ar- rangement for porous soils. A serviceable flat stone or tile is laid in the bottom of the trench, resting on a solid smooth bed, gently falling from the higher ground or head of the drain to the outfall. On _ . . , this stone is placed a semicircular tile, D, a succession of tue on flat which forms an arched wav extending uninterruptedly stone. ' " t- J along the whole length of the drain. Over this is thrown a layer of rough stones and rubble, B, 6in. or Sin. thick ; over this a tile, slate, or fiat stone, to keep out sand, roots of trees, and other destruc- tive agencies ; and over the whole the surface soil is again filled in. 1 106. The following table, showing the number of tiles or pipes required to drain one acre of land at different widths, is taken from "Laxton's Price Book." I. Level groiind or ground slightly sloping. 1510. Tiles. «904 1452 966 Distance between i2;n. Ti rows in yds. 4 8 3630 i3is la 1210 2. To cuttings and einhankimnis laid »t an ayig'e 45°. Distance between • t-i ■ t-m rows in yds. i^™- Tiles. 15m. Tiles. 4 5704 4356 8 2732 2178 10 181S 1452 In estimating the number of tiles or pipes required for a small garden, „., . , all that the amateur need do is to measure the length of Tiles required '^ to drain acre his drains in feet. He will then require as many pipes as there are feet if he use lain. pipes, or four pipes for every 5ft. if he use i jin. pipes. He should order a few more than the number — -^^^ as a border to a croquet-ground or bowling-green, Fig. 561. NARROW ^^ ^g ^ jj^g Qf demarcation between one portion of a garden and another. A section of such a bank is shown in fig. 56 1 . A substratum of rough stuff should be piled on the ground on either side, as shown at A A, to afford support to the earth B that forms the interior of the mound. Against the exterior earth should be thrown up and beaten flat with a spade, to afford the better lodgment for the turf c C, with which the sides must be Fig. 562. LOW hedge, covered. An angle of 30° will be found con- venient for the slope of the sides of such a bank as this, but it may be less if desired. When placed in position, the turf should be well watered and beaten, and then left alone until the grass has rooted mto the earth beneath. There are many plants, especially ^^^^^^^^ pinks, that will thrive on such a bank or raised border. ^erure Near lar-e towns, turfs may be procured from any land that is -iven up for building purposes, or any gardener will obtain them and deliver them at the rate of 8s. per hundred-that is to say, at id. per turf, which should measure 3ft. in length and ift. in width. 1 109 In making low hedges, or a foundation for a quickset-hedge, it is necessary to proceed on a different plan. If rough stones are plentiful in the neighbourhood, and can be procured at a foundation low rate, the space which the hedge is to cover must be ^<"^Se.«^»- marked out, and a V shaped trench cut out, on which the stones may be heaped together, slopinginwardson either side, as shown at A in fig. 562 ; the interstices being filled with earth, well washed in with water that no space between the stones may remain empty. On this foundation, which may be carried up to the height of 2ft. or even 3ft. if necessary, earth may be piled as at C, faced with turf, D. When the whole has had time to settle and consolidate, quickset or white thorn may be planted along the top of the hedge, as shown in the diagram. If there be no possibility of obtaining stone or any kind of material that will answer the purpose as well, additional support and strength 522 Household Building Art and Practice. may be given to the hedge by driving in rough stakes, as shown at aseofBtonesB, one row within the other, the stakes of one row being and stakes. ^^^^^^ j^ the intervals of the stakes in the row before or behind it. The stakes may be from 1 2in. to i Sin. apart. Earth should be thrown within the stakes and rammed together somewhat tightly, after which the middle may be filled up, and the bank carried to the height required. The entire surface of a hedge made in Staked hedge o t _ must be this way must be covered with turf, D, but when it is con- *" ^ ' structed with stones, as shown at A, small-leaved ivy, primroses, creeping-Jenny, and plants of a similar description may be planted in the interstices, producing a pleasing effect, Ornamenta- "^ r i i i r tion of stone and hiding the greater part of the rough stone-work trom foundation. ^ . _, ^ -n c j view in course of time. The amateur will hnd many means and methods of varying the mode of construction here described. mo. Concrete, now so much used in forming the foundations of buildings of every description, and even the walls themselves, is a Concrete : mixture of cement and sand, gravel, broken stones, brick what it is. j.y|3]jjsy,^ oj. similar materials in the proportion of one part of cement to five or six parts of any of the other ingredients that are used in its manufacture. Good lime is often used instead of cement, but the amateur, if he use lime at all, is advised to use cement with it in equal parts. The cement, being the substance that binds the gravel ballast, etc., together into a solid mass impervious to water, is techni- cally called the matrix, and the substance that is added to the lime is called the aggregate. I III. It may be said that any waste material of a hard nature may be used as aggregate in making concrete, sand and gravel of all kinds, including pea or fine gravel, pit gravel, river gravel, for making Thames ballast and sea beach, burnt clay, broken chalk, ashes, cinders, and coke, lime chippings, flints, old stones and bricks, especially when broken, broken earthenware and stoneware, and rubbish from the brickyard may all be used. Slag, too, the refuse of the iron furnaces, can be made available whenever it can be obtained. Thus, there is no part of Great Britain or Ireland without some kind of material that can be used for concrete. It should not be used in too large sizes. Pieces about the size of stones ordinarily used for metalling and mending roads, or such as will pass through a ring ot lyi'm. in diameter, are best suited for the purpose when the material is broken up on purpose for making concrete. 1 1 12. Any of the various cements in general use may be used in the Hydraulic, Roman, and Portland Cement. 523 manufacture of concrete, but the amateur is recommended in all cases to use Portland cement, Avhicli is three times as strong as ygjiotiB Roman cement. The following information with regard ''^^^[^ to cements is taken from Spon's " Architects' and Builders' Pocket Book of Prices and Memoranda" : 1 1 13. ^'■Hydraulic cetnents contain a larger proportion of silica, alumina, magnesia, etc., than hydraulic limes. They do Hydraulic not slake after calcination, and some of them set under cemen s. water at a temperature of 65° in from three to five minutes ; others require as many hours. Roman cement is made from a Roman lime of a peculiar character found in England and France, 0^™^" • derived from argillo - calcareous kidney - shaped stones, termed 'Septaria,' and when mixed thick, it solidifies in a few minutes, either in air or water." 1 1 14. '■^ Portland cement \=, made in England and France from an argillo-calcareous deposit, which is burned and ground up for cement in its natural state without the addition of lime. Strong Portland Portland cement is heavy, weighing iiolbs. to the bushel. Weak cement is light. Strong cement is of a bluish-grey colour, and sets slowly. Weak cement sets quickly, but has too strong and much clay in it, and is of a brownish colour. The cleaner and sharper the sand, and the less water used in mixing the cement, the stronger it will be." A cask of Portland cement contains 4 bushels, nominally, it holds 5 cubic feet, andj-A-eighs 3^4' cwt. 1 1 15. When made into stucco for covering a wall, the following table will show the extent of surface that a bushel of stucco , , . , forwallB. cement may be made to cover when used pure or with various proportions of sand, and at certain thicknesses : X bushel of cement will cover \ ' ^yds. i in. thick \\i yds. ?i » ^/^ »» » 1116. Portland cement may be bought in small quantities at the oil-shops at the rate of yi^. per pound, yM- being generally charged for 7lbs. done up in a paper bag. As cement will not pi-ices of , , , cements. keep, especially m a moist atmosphere, the amateur, when he requires a small quantity for repairs, is recommended to buy just so much as he wants and no more. The prices of cement per ton and bushel are compiled from Laxton's and Spon's Price Books : the price per ton is the prime cost at the works ; the price per bushel such as the builder charges, the builder's profit being added to the cost price. 524 Household Building Art and Practice. Per Per Ton. Bush. Portland Cement, Best 50/ ... 2/9 Do. Second Qual. 42/6 ... — itoman Cement 42/6 ... 1/6 Lias Cement 30/ ... — Blue Lias Lime, Lump ... 15/ ... — Do. Ground ... iS,'4 ... — Per Per 1 on. Bush. Dorking Lime (36 bush.) ... 11/ ... — Do. Ground ... 12/ ... lod. Selenitic Cement 28/ ... — Atkinson's Cement — ... 4/0 Keene's Cement, Coarse ... — ... 4/3 „ „ Fine — ... 7/ 1 1 17. In making concrete, it is important, in the first place, that the aggregate, be it what it may, should be deposited on a clean place- Concrete if on old boards, as scaflfold boards, so much the better — ^made^o^ SO that no dirt may get mixed up with it. The concrete boards. itself should be made on boards, nailed together on ledges or on three putlogs placed on the ground parallel to one another, forming a rough platform. The aggregate and the cement or lime used as the matrix must then be placed on the boards, the aggre- gate being measured out first, and the proper proportion of concrete to the aggregate being also measured out and thrown upon it. The heap is then wetted with water poured over it from a large water-pot fitted with a fine rose, and the whole is then mixed until the materials are thoroughly amalgamated. 1 1 18. The amateur who desires further information respecting the manufacture and uses of concrete will find everything "Concrete: its use in jhat he can require or desire in Mr. Thomas Potter's building." " Concrete : its use in Building, etc." In speaking of the method of making concrete, Mr. Potter gives the following direc- tions : — 1 1 19. "The aggregate having been placed in the larger measure, the cement by one or other of the ways described deposited on the Howto make aggregate, the measure or measures are removed by a concrete, ^yorkman at each corner lifting them perpendicularly by the handles, leaving the materials on the boards in the form roughly of a cone or pyramid. Two men, one on each side of the heap, then begin to throw the materials to the opposite side of the mixing-board; another, standing by the heap now forming, further incorporates the ingredients by working them backwards and forwards with the hook, until the heap has been reformed. The same process is then repeated, and by this the materials are replaced where at first deposited. Having now been turned over and raked 'twice dry,' the operation is again gone through in the same way, but with the help of a fourth man, who stands behind the heap and adds the water from the water- ing-pot to such portion as the two men who are shovelling are imme- diately about to remove. This makes three times turned and raked. Once more repeated finishes the process, and the concrete is then Method of Mixing Concrete. 525 ready to be deposited where required, after having been turned over and raked twice dry, once during the process of watering and once after. 1 120. "It is essential that certain precautions be ^''^^^1^^°''^ observed in mixing the concrete :— observed. (i) "The water should be added to that portion of the material the two 'shovellers' are working upon, and not to the mass y^h^^^ indiscriminately, as so doing would cause the cement to ^f |^^^|^" have time to sink through the interstices of the aggregate previous to attaining partial solidity. (2) "Water should be added— as much as needed— g^^i^j,*^ during the third turning, not afterwards. added. (3) "The amount of water applied must be regulated according to the purpose for which the concrete is intended. For ^^^ foundations, arches, etc., where infringement can be prac- ^^^^°^"^°^'e*^ tised, only as much as to cause slight cohesion between the materials is necessary ; but for walls, between frames, and similar objects, it must be in a kind of semi-liquid condition. (4) "The 'shovellers' must turn the concrete completely over when in the act of casting it from one heap to another— not Naming take it up in the shovels— and deposit it without changing °^^^^l^l the position of the ingredients." 1 121. From the foregoing description, it is manifest that the amateur will require aid if he desires to mix concrete on Assistance .1. * v-vj necessary a large scale for any purpose, but in making it in small when mixing quantities he can dispense altogether with assistance from quanUties. others. The following instructions taken from Spon's "Workshop Receipts," may be followed whenever the operator fixing smaU requires to mix a small quantity only : quanuties. Recipe.—" Take five parts of gravel and sand to one part of fresh burned stone lime, ground to powder without slaking, and measured dry. Well turn and shovel together, with sufficient water to slack the lime into the state of very thick water. Chips and small pieces of stone may be added with advantage." 1 122. In filling a trench with concrete thus prepared in order to serve as the foundation for brick or stone work, or even piui^g for a concrete wall, it is necessary that the concrete ^^f^^^g^rcT^*^ should be thrown into the place in which it is to be with some degree of force. To ensure this in laying the foundations of houses, the concrete is usually thrown into its resting-place from a stage raised from 6ft, to 8ft. above the level of the ground. This is 526 Household Building Art and Practice. done in order to give solidity to the mass, for it is evident that the ^^ wet conglomeration of cement and gravel will lie closer Why thrown ° ° in from together when thrown from a height some feet above the higher level. . . level of the ground than if it were merely shovelled into the trench from the level of the ground itself 1 123. We must now pass on to garden walks of different kinds, the making of which comes under the province of the excavator. The chief thing to be done in evei-y case is to provide a solid walks, but yet porous substratum, which will afford sufficient paths, etc. ' '^ support to the materials of which the upper part of the walk, or rather its surface, is made, and yet allow of the rapid passing away of the water that may fall on the walk in the form of rain. Of course we are now supposing that the walk is to be made in the ordinary way, and coated — if a road, with broken stones, technically called "metalling," and if a garden path, with gravel. 1 124. The course of the path or road must first be marked out with stakes, and the surface soil removed to the depth of a foot or 18 inches, Marking out if there be no lack of materials to fill it. From one- course. jj^jj.j jg one-half the depth must then be filled up with rough stones, brickbats, clinkers from the brickfields, slag and scorias Mode of from the ironworks, and any coarse, hard nabbish that making path. ^^^ ^^ gathered together ; the greater part of the re- mainder must then be filled up with coarse gravel, shingle, etc., which may be mixed with a little earth to give consistency to the whole, and finally coated with gravel to the depth of two or three inches, which must be constantly rolled with a heavy garden roller until the path is hard and solid. 1125. The section of a garden walk made in this manner is shown in fig. 563, in which A represents the stratum of brickbats, etc., B the layer of gravel or shingle Construction ' " , " ^ P^nrnTiiiHT iuiilililil: ] of garden intermediate m size be- >: ^!!:':!Hil!!j;ii!l!||||f ^' ^^^' tweenthebrickbats below, y ^^^?J^ftS^>?y and the gravel, c, above. The top of the "^^^^^^^'^'^'^^^^^y gravel, and indeed ofevery walk, should fjg. 563. section of garden be gently rounded in order to allow walk. any rain that may fall to trickle off on either side, whence it soaks away into the earth at E, E. Supposing, as is sometimes the case, that the ground is of a loose, porous chaiacter, or wet and marshy, and therefore not calculated to afford a solid basis to the roadway, it is a good plan to make the trench deeper, and lay faggots or brushwood along the bottom before throwing in the rough rubbish. The faggoting AsPHALTE, Tar, and Concrete Pavement. 527 not only furnishes a finn and durable foundation for the pathway or roadway, as the case may be, but it also helps to drain the ground on either side of the walk, carrying it off to the lowest part, if the walk slopes from higher ground to lower. 1 126. In some cases it is desirable to have a solid facing to a garden walk so that it may be impervious to rain, and in this case it is of importance that the surface of the walk should be rounded goud facing , • 1 • J to path. —higher in the centre, and slopmg down on either side. The water will escape into the earth or turf by which the walk is bordered, or, if desired, a gutter can be formed to carry 4;he water to a tank formed for its reception in some part of the garden. The gutter may either be moulded in the material of which the path is made, or it may be constructed below the surface, like a drain, and hidden from view. In this case gratings should be inserted along the edge of the path at intervals to allow of the escape of the water into the gutter. 1127. In making a path with a solid surface, the modes that come best within the compass of the amateur are the two kinds known as tar paving and concrete paving. Asphalte pavement, Asphaite . , .- ,-.11 1.^^ • pavement. which consists of a surface of asphalte brought to a semi- fluid condition by means of heat and spread over a concrete bed, requires plant in the shape of furnaces, etc., for heating the asphalte, and should be laid by men accustomed to the work. It need not, therefore, be further described. 1 128. Tar pavement, although making it is a very dirty and un- pleasant piece of work, and best left to practised hands, may be easily laid by the amateur. The surface of the walk should be Tar removed to the depth of three or four inches and well p^'^®'^®'^ ■ beaten. Some thick coal tar should then be poured over a heap of shingle or coarse gravel, and the whole worked together with a spade, or crooked fork, until the gravel is thoroughly impregnated with the tar. This composition must be spread over the surface of the walk, and rolled down with a heavy roller. Another mixture must now be made of tar and finer gravel, or sifted ashes from the dust-bin, and a thin layer spread over the layer of rougher stuff first put on. Fine sand or gravel must then be sprinkled freely over the top of thiS, and the whole once more rolled with the roller or beaten flat with the back of the blade of a spade if no roller be available. 1 129. Concrete pavement, which is far cleaner to work than tar pavement, is put down in the following mangier : — The earth is first taken off the surface of the path to the depth of Sin. or gin., and the 528 Household Building Art and Practice. shallow trench thus made is filled up to about two-thirds or three- Concrete fourths of its whole depth with stones, bKjken brickbats, pavemen . ^^^ coarse gravel, well rammed together so as to present a level surface. Portland cement must now be mixed in a tub with water until it is of the consistence of thick cream or custard, and poured over the gravel. This must be spread about with a bast- broom to level the surface and send it into the interstices of the first roup^h coat of stones and gravel. On this a coating of Portland cement and gravel, mixed with water, must be spread, bringing the Finishing surface very nearly up to the height of the path ; and when this has hardened, a finishing coat must be put on of clean, sharp sand and Portland cement in equal parts, and brought, when mixed with water, to the consistence of mortar. The surface must be rounded and brought to smoothness by the aid of a float, a piece of wood with a handle at the back, something like a laundress's iron, but longer, with which plasterers finish the surface of walls and ceil- ings. No one should be allowed to tread on the surface thus made until it is perfectly dry and hard. 1130. The cost of garden walks may be estimated as follows, at per square yard : — The ordinary gravel walk, when properly made, at Cost of IS. 8d. ; tar pavement, consisting of gravel mixed with ^ife/square^ tar, rolled and sprinkled with sand, at 2s. gd. ; and con- ^^ Crete pavement, consisting of concrete faced with cement, at 3s. 6d. Of course these prices must be considered as approximate only, as allowance must be made for the differences that will be found in the price of materials in different parts. 1 131. Well-sinking the amateur will never meddle with. It is a dangerous and difficult business. The most useful kind of well for Well- the amateur is the Patent Tube Well, which can be sunk in the earth by mechanical means and withdrawn again whenever it is desired to do so. The tube well is a pipe with a conical point, perforated to admit of the entrance of water. It is inserted into Patent the earth, and then rammed downwards with machinery made for the purpose. When the whole length of the pipe is inserted into the soil another length is screwed on, and the process is repeated as before until water is reached, when the water enters the holes in the nozzle of the pipe and rises to the top. 1 1 32. Considering the benefit that accrues from having a well of Prices of this kind on the premises, the prices charged, even by the u awe B. jjyji^jgj.^ f-Q^ fixing them are by no means high. Ilie charges, according to depth, and inclusive of pumps, pipes, and labour, The Abyssinian Tube Well. 529 are as follows :-ioft., £6 los. ; 15ft., £7 los. ; 20ft., ^9 ; 25ft., £io los. ; 30ft., ;^i2 10s. Trial borings to determine the presence of water are charged for at the rate of ^i is. each trial. All information respecting the tube well may be procured from the proprietors of the patent, Messrs. Le Grand 100, Bimhill Row, E.C. It is generally known as the Abys- sinian Tube Well, because water for the troops engaged in the Abyssinian War of 1868 was provided by this means, by the engineers ac- companying the expedition, '^Si ^^ ^""'^^ halting-place. '^'*- 1 133. The appearance of ilie well itself, when com- plete, and the position of the tube under ground, from the surface to the water, is shown in fig. 564, Appearance and the method ^^'^^eweu. of driving the tubes into the ■ound in fig. Mode of 565. The former ^^'^^S tube. explains itself and requires no comment. In the latter the tube with the steel- pointed end is shown, with the apparatus by which it is supported, on the one hand, and driven into the earth, on the other, a is the tube itself, which passes through the cap F and tiie cylindrical Fig. 564. weight D. To the cap f are ABYSSINIAN TUBE WELL. attached two iron legs B, B, which are secured by the stays E, E, to the carriage by which the ^4 530 Household Building Art and Practice. machinery and pipes are conveyed from place to place. Two grooved wheels are attached to the upper ends of the legs B, B, over which are passed ropes, fastened to the weight D. A movable stop c is clamped to the tube at a little distance above the ground. The weight D is raised by the ropes and allowed to fall on the stop C, and this opera- tion is repeated until the stop is brought close to the surface of the ground by the entrance of the pipe which is forced into it by the re- peated blows of the weight D. The stop is then undamped and re- moved higher up the tube, and the next portion of the tube between the earth and the stop is forced into the ground in the same manner until water is reached. As soon as this is done a disintegrating pump is applied to the tube, in order to clear away the sand and grit that has entered the holes in the steel nozzle, and give free passage to the water ; and when all is clear the permanent pillar pump is attached, as shown in fig. 564. 1 134. If the amateur is so situated that it ^ . ^ is not pos- Improvised '^ driving sible tO maclxiue. procure the proper tubes and apparatus, it is clear that a driving machine may be easily impro- vised to carry out the object in view, and common iron pipes, such as those used for the conveyance of gas from the main pipe into the house, be driven into the earth, a steel conical nozzle perforated with holes having been fitted to the first pipe by any ordinary blacksmith, 1 135. To go further into details respecting the various kinds of Fig. 565. MACHINE FOR DRIVING TUBES OF TUBE WELL. Completion of Remarks on Excavating. 531 work performed by the excavator is manifestly impossible on account of space, and the number and variety of subjects in con- completion nection with the building art yet to be considered. It is, on i • • . . •. excavating, moreover, unnecessary, as our object is not to write an exhaustive work on building processes, which would, if properly treated, assume the form and extent of an encyclopaedia ; but merely to luring under the notice of the amateur-artisan such work as he may be able to accomplish himself without aid from others, or to see carried out under his superintendence. CHAPTER III. BRICKLAYING, ITS VARIOUS BRANCHES : TOOLS, PROCESSES, ETC. Bricklaying requires Practice— A Level Surface Necessary — Brick Wall must he Perpendicular— A Level must be used in Preparing Foundations— Tools requisite in Bricklaying— Mortar mixed on Boards— Large and Small Trowels— Second- hand Trowel— Mortar-board : how to Make it— Improvised Trowel— Iron-work, etc., to be preserved— Ramming Earth for Foundations— Jerry-builders" Founda- tions—Thickness of Walls : how Described— Foundations for Walls of different Thickness— Measurement of Brick-work— Rod of Brick-work— Quantity of Bricks required— Yard of Brick Nogging— Mortar : how Made— Proportions of Materials —Strength of Mortar made by the Old Builders— Cost of Brick-work : how to Calculate— Old Bricks suitable for Amateur— Classification of Bricks— Names applied to Bricks— Colours of Bricks— Cost of iMortar— Prices of Lime, Road- grit, etc. — Cinders or breeze in Mortar — Approximate Prices of Bricks — Funda- mental Rule in Bricklaying— Breaking Bond— Headers and Stretchers— Bonds used by Bricklayers— English Bond— Flemish Bond— Points demanding atten- tion in Bricklaying — Method of Building Wall — How the Bricklayer Builds — Stretching the Line— Spreading Mortar— Adjusting and Fixing Brick— Closers : their use in Bricklaying— Illustrations of Use of Closers— Assistance in Breaking Bond— Formation of Quoin or Angle— How a Corner is Turned— Tie in Brick Wall— Complete Exposition of Bricklaying not possible here — The Reveal : what it is — Construction of the Reveal — Hoop iron in Brick Walls— Opening for Door or Window — The Brestsummer — How Beam is Hidden from View— Stone Lintel— Arches in Building — Definition of Arch— Construction and General Principles— Piers and Springing Stones — Crown and Keystone — Haunches and Voussoirs — Intrados and Extrados— Working drawing of Arch Necessary — Gaug- ing Bricks or Stones of Arch — Result of Faulty Construction— Centering of Arch — Construction of Framing — Application of Centering various — Backing of Flat Arch — Formation of Flat Arch — Segmental Arch — Construction of Flat Arch — Filling up or Backing of Flat Arch— Mortar for Bricklaying— Method of Making Mortar— Sand required— River Water — Effect of Clay on Lime— Stove in Work- shop — Chimney or Flue in Wall — How to construct Longitudinal Flue— Dearn" Wall — Saving of Material in Hollow Wall— Bricks : how to Save — Simple Fire- place and Flue — Mode of Construction — ^Jambs and Hearthstone— Rod iron as Bars at Bottom — Rod iron as Bars in Front — Chimney-bearer — Chimney-breast — Trivet on Top Bar of Grate — Porosity of Bricks — How Bricks become Damp — Prevention of Damp in Wall — How to Stop rising of Damp — Damp Courses of various Kinds— Cure of Dampness in Brick Wall difficult— Insertion of Damp Course — Damp in Upper part of House— Stoppage in Pipes, etc. — Preliminary Process — How to Finish the Work — Solution of Naphtha and Shell Lac — Remedy for Damp Walls — Tar on Exterior of Brick Walls — Portland Cement— Solution for Brick and Stone — Laminated Lead — Pointing Brick Walls- Flat Pointing — Tuck Pointing — Plasterer's Putty — Pointing required by Amateur — Mode of Procedure— Reduction of Surface of Brick-work— Roofing and Paving— Plain Preparations for Building Brick Wall. 533 Tiles and Pantiles— Dimensions, etc., of Bricks — Principle involved in Roofing — Explanation of Principle — How to replace Broken Slates— Roofing with Pantiles — Number of Tiles to Square — Disposition of Laths — Bricks used for Paving — How Paving is done — Paving with Cobble Stones— Coloured Paving Tiles, etc. — Esti- mate of Cost of Paving — Cost of Encaustic Tiles —Builders' Prices for Tiles — Prices of Paving Tiles — Fi.xing Coppers and Ranges — How Coppers are Set — Back of Register Stove — Prices of Fire Tiles — Fire Clay : where to get it — Pre- paration and Use of Fire Clay. 1136. Bricklaying is in itself an apparently simple process, inasmuch as it consists merely in laying or disposing regular and similar rect- angular pieces of baked clay one upon another, layer upon •1 . • 1- • -u. • u J J- Bricklaying layer, until a certam height is reached, spreading a com- requires prao- position of lime and sand called mortar between each layer, which hardens and connects the bricks together in a tolerably solid mass. There is, however, much more skill in bricklaying than is apparent at first sight, and really good bricklaying cannot be done without practice any more than other building processes. 1137. First of all it is necessary to determine that the surface, whether of earth or concrete, on which the superstructure of bricks is to be reared, is perfectly level, as, if this be not the case, it^jg^^jg^^j^j^^g cannot be expected that the courses of bricks will be in necessary, regular lines. Attempts will be made to overcome this by making the layers of mortar thicker in one part than another in order to bring the courses level after a bit ; but such a mode of proceeding as this will be found objectionable and detrimental to the solidity as well as the appearance of the wall, because if the mortar could be preserved in its extra thickness in parts it would present a large breadth to be acted on by the weather, and the actual experience of the builder of the wall would be that, as additional weight was imposed on the soft mass by each additional course of bricks, it would sqiiecze out and cause irregularity in the upper courses. 1138. Thus much for the wall in its length. It is also clear that a want of due level in the surface on whicis the wall is built cannot fail to cause it to incline a little to one side or the must beper- other, while it is absolutely necessary that the inner and outer face of a wall should be perpendicular or at right angles to the plane surface on which it is raised. 1 139. It is almost unnecessary to observe, after what has been said in the preceding chapter about clearing trenches for founda- ^ j^^gj ^.^^^ tions, that the level of the surface on which a wall is be used in ' preparing built must be ascertained by means of the A level, and the fouudatioBs. accuracy of the perpendicular of the wall by the upright level or plumb- bob. 534 Household Building Art and Practice. 1 1 40. The tools requisite in bricklaying are a large strong steel trowel, with which mortar may be spread and bricks chopped asunder or reduced to any extent that may be required in order to quisite in produce a perfect bond. Mortar is carried up the ladder, and on to the part of the scaffolding where the bricklayer IS at work, by his attendant labourer, in a vessel called a hod, which is shaped like a box, open at one end and cut across diagonally and fitted at the bottom angle into a short pole. The amateur will not want an ap- pliance of this kind, as he will not attempt to carry a wall to any height. He will, however, want a small trowel for pointing, and a piece of wood about loin. or I2in. square fixed on a wooden peg which serves as a handle by which to hold it. 1141. With the exception of a piece of boarding, consisting of boards about lin. thick, nailed on to ledges on which to mix mortar Mortar mixed close to the scene of operation, and on which to carry it s. jjjid^gj. from the main mass, the tools required by the amateur are figured in the ac- companying illustration. No allusion is made to the levels, as everything which is necessary to bring under the reader's notice respecting the construc- tion and the use of these has been said already. The large trowel, which must be of steel, and which rings clear and re- sonant as a bell is struck with it, is figured at A, in fig, 566. The small trowel, used for pointing or filling the spaces between the bricks with new mortar or even cement, is shown at B, and at C the mortar-board on which the mortar or cement is placed, and which is held in the left hand by the handle below while pointing. New trowels cost, the larger one 2s. Qd., and the smaller one is. 4d. ; but as workmen in times of need are often SecotT!i-haiia ""h-ippily compelled to part even with their tools to raise trowel. ^ lifjig ready money, trowels may often be bought for 9d. or IS. at the marine-store dealers or unredeemed pledge shops. Mortar- ^^'^ich are to be found in all parts of the suburbs of '^°^make^r *° London, and the back streets of most large towns. The mortar-board the amateur can make for himself. It is simply a square piece of inch board put on a handle, which may be cut Large and small iroweiB. ^hen a brick Fig. 566. TOOLS used in brick- laying, ETC. The Amateur should keep old iron-work, etc. 535 from an old broomstick, though a piece of ash is better. It should be keyed and wedged into the board and r- strengthened by angle irons or small brackets ^'s as at A A, in fig. 567. These irons may be a I procured at any ironmonger's for 2d. or 3d. a ^..^^ piece. (See Section 791.) Fig. 567. angle-irons ...-T-l 1, -li-T 1 J IN MORTAR-BOARDS. 1 142. To show how easily tools may be made which will answer every necessary purpose, the writer has shown at D and E in fig. 566 how he managed to make a small trowel for pointing, which he has used for some years in doing all the work of improvised this kind that he finds it necessary to do, and which is used ""^'' occasionally by workmen who come to do odd jobs in which the use of a little cement is necessary, and who do not happen to have a trowel with them. It happened that he required to do a little pointmg one day, and had been unsuccessful in his search for a small trowel at the rag-and-bone establishments in his neighbourhood. Being thoroughly nonplussed for the moment, he happened to catch sight of the iron blade of a child's toy spade represented at D, Avhich a little son of his had broken and thrown aside. Its adaptation to the purposes of a trowel was clear. All that had to be done was to cut off the corners as shown by the dotted lines so as to alter the blade from a square one to a triangular pointed form. This was effected by the aid of a three- square file ; the tang was then beaten straight and inserted into the handle— one of wood, japanned black— of an old dust-pan, and the result was a handy little trowel as shown at E, which has since done the maker good service. 1 143. And here it may be permitted me to say a few words lo the amateur on the necessity of saving everything of the kind, and all iron-work, brass fittings, such as the roses of handles, etc., , • 1 • , , • , ,. , , , Iron-work, that may come m his way, and which are generally looked etc., to be on as rubbish and only fit for the dust-hole. I keep a ^^®^®'^^® box — a small set of drawers such as are used by grocers, seedsmen, etc., would be better, because articles could then be assorted and stowed away according to their several purposes — into which all iron- work, handles, etc., are thrown, to be used again when occasion re- quires, and my genuine experience is that — Everything comes useful once in seven years, as the old saying runs, or at all events pretty nearly so, for if it comes useful again in the course of one's lifetime the assertion can be said to have received its proof. 1144. Provided that the earth under the proposed foundations has 536 Household Building Art and Practice. been well rammed so as to impart the necessary degree of solidity to it, or that a substratum of concrete has been laid, and that ean™for it has been ascertained that the earth or concrete, as the foundations. ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ j^ perfectly level, the foundations of the wall must be laid. It is unfortunately too often the habit of builders — or rather jerry-builders— to use the worst possible de- buiiders' scription of bricks for the foundations. The amateur, on foundations. .^ . ■, i -i the contrary, must take care to see that he has sound, hard, strong bricks for this purpose. Bricks that are rough and unfit for the upper part of the wall are good enough for the foundation as lono- as they are moderately square and hard, and therefore all the less likely to soak up water. 1 145. It will be clear even to a novice that the foundation of a brick wall must exceed the thickness of the wall itself in all the courses, from the lowest to that from which the wall springs. The ^liicl^iicss of walls : hov/ thickncss of a wall is described by the number of bricks described. , . . , , • , • 1 -r-i »-..• or parts of bricks to which it extends. Thus a partition wall in brick nogging, or of the breadth of a brick, is described as Foundations being half a brick thick, and the extent of thickness ^°differen°^ ranges upwards from this, as one brick thick, one and a thickness. -^^^ bricks thick, two bricks thick, two and a half bricks thick, three bricks thick, etc. Now a brick is accounted to be 9 inches I ±zri FiG. 560. Fig. 569. I'lG. _-70. ONE I.NXH. ONE AXD A HALF INCHES. TWO INCHES, nrwT \ I I 1, i.-ll A 1 ] I- I- I I 'J I"iG. 571. V\G- 572- TWO AND A HALF INCHES. THREE INCHES. SECTIONS OF BRICK WALLS OF VARIOUS THICKNESSES. long, 4;^ inches broad, and zji inches thick, the breadth being half the length, and the thickness rather more than half the breadth, or one- fourth the length ; an arrangement which renders bricks more convenient to use, owing to the correspondence and harmony of proportions in length, breadth, and thickness. The equivalents of the thicknesses of walls above enumerated will therefore be, v/hen ex- Measurement of Brick-work : Mortar. 537 pressed in inches, >2 brick = 4>^in. ; i brick = gin. ; i}i bricks = I3>^in. ; 2 bricks = i8in. ; 2>^ bricks = 22Xin., etc. Diagrams of sections of foundations of these various thicknesses are shown in figs. 568, 569, 570, 571, 572. The arrangements of the bricks in these various diagrams being perfectly clear and apparent, no explanation need be given with regard to them. 1 146. Before proceeding any further it may be desirable to say something about the measurement of brick-work, and Measurement the space that a certain number of bricks will fill when ° "*^ ''^°^ ' built together. The following memoranda on these points are taken from "Laxton's Price Book." 1147. A rod of brick-work is 272 feet superficial, i}i brick or 1^J4 inches thick, called in London the standard thickness, to which all brick-work of whatever thickness is reduced. One rod of Rod of reduced brick- work is equal to 306 cubic feet or n >^ cubic ^"°^-'^°^^^^- yards. To one rod reduced 4,352 stock-bricks are reckoned, and 4 courses of bricks are estimated to make i foot of brick- „ .^ , Quantity of work in height. When laid dry— that is, without mortar — bricks required. it takes 5,371 bricks to one rod, and 4,900 bricks in wells and circular cesspools. These calculations are without allowing any waste, which is more than amply compensate-d in dwelling-houses by not deducting flues and bond timbers ; in such work 4,300 stock-bricks, or 4,500 place-bricks are sufficient for a rod. A rod of brick-work contains 235 feet cube of bricks, and 7 1 feet of mortar (4 courses to i foot), which will weigh on an average calculation 15 tons. It takes 16 bricks to make a foot cube of reduced brick-work, and 7 bricks to yard of brick form a foot super of facing. One yard of brick nogging ^°ssi^s- takes 30 bricks on edge, and 45 bricks flat, but one yard of paving requires 36 stock-bricks laid flat and 52 on edge. If paving bricks are used, which are thinner than the ordinary brick, 36 are required when laid flat, and 82 when laid on edge. 1148. Bricks are cemented together with mortar, which is a mixture of lime and sand brought to a pasty consistence by the addition of water. When it is desired lo make brick-work as strong Mortar: how and durable as possible, the mortar should be made of "^ cement, or a little cement should be added to the lime. The following proportions and memoranda are taken from " Laxton's Price Book." 1 149. Lime and sand, and cement and sand, lose about one-third their bulk when made into mortar, and lime and Portland proportions cement both require one-third their bulk of water to mix. For a rod of brick-work, 71 cubic feet of mortar will be required, as 538 Household Building Art and Practice. it has been said, and to make this quantity are required 1)4 cubic yards of chalk lime and 3 of road drift or sand ; or i cubic yard of stone lime, and 2/^ of sand ; or 36 bushels of cement, and the same quantity of sharp sand. From this it is apparent that the proportion of mortar or cement when made up, to the lime or cement and sand before made up, is 2 to 3. Lime, or cement and sand, to make mortar, require as much water as is equal to one-third of their bulk, or about 5J4 barrels for a rod of brick- work built with mortar. 1 1 50. The mortar used by the old builders was far more durable than the mortar used in the present day. It hardened into a mass, strength of which offered greater resistance to the weather than 'by^^the^ftf^ even the stone itself that it was used to cement together. buUders. ^ remarkable example of this is to be seen in the tower of the church of South Huish, about four or four and a half miles from Kingsbridge, in Devonshire, and close to the coast between Thurle- stone and the Bolt Head. Exposed to the full action of the wind and rain and spray from the sea, the face of the tower fronting seawards is regularly honeycombed from top to bottom, the stones being hollowed out to the depth of i inch or !}< inches, while the mortar between them stands out in ridges as hard and firm as it was when it had first set. 1151. The cost of brick-work may be easily calculated from the above memoranda. There are many different kinds of bricks variously named from their colour or quality, or the place where Cost of brick- ~i j ^ t. work : how they are made ; but it will only be necessary to give the to calculate. • -n t- prices of place-bricks and stock-bricks, which will be most generally used by the amateur in such work as he may do. Place-bricks cost on an average about 45s., and stock-bricks 37s., per 1,000, delivered to the purchaser ; but it must be noted that a variation in these prices will be made according to the greater or less distance that the bricks have to be carted from the place where they are made to the place where they are to be used. When an old Old bricks ^ ■' suitable for brick building has been taken down, the amateur may amateur. buy very good bricks for his purpose at from 15s. to 25s. per 1,000, and in the vicinity of London there are certain places which may be found out by a little inquiry, where these and other component parts of houses that have been pulled down may be bought at a low rate. 1 152. There are many different kinds of bricks which may be divided into three classes, as follows: — i. Bricks used for walling; Classification " Fire-bricks ; and 3. Clinkers or Paving-bricks. There of bricks, ^j-g ^^yg methods of burning bricks for walling, and they are accordingly called "kiln-burnt bricks" and "clamp-burnt bricks ;* Names of Bricks : Cost of Mortar. 539 the former being baked in a kiln, and the latter burnt in a huge stack or clamp, containing from 500,000 to 1,000,000, piled together in a square or rectangular mass, with fuel in the form of cinder ashes or breeze scattered between the layers. About one-tenth of every clamp is lost by the unequal action of the fire and breakage. When the clamp is sufficiently baked, the bricks are sorted into • 1 1 • 1 Names classes known as cuUcrs, fine close-gramed bricks, rather applied to soft and better suited for work in which the bricks require cutting ; picked stocks, or bricks of a uniform red tint ; pavioicrs, or hard bricks fit for paving ; common stocks, or ordinary bricks ; grizzles, or soft bricks J and burrs. The bricks also vary in colour colours of according to the degree of heat to which they have been t>ncks. exposed. The kiln-baked bricks, also called malms, are made of a finer clay, and slowly burnt in kilns. They are of a pretty buff colour and uniform in tint, but they are not so durable as the common bricks. Their colour is due to the quantity of carbonate of lime that they con- tain, and it is this ingredient that renders the Suffolk bricks so pale, indeed, almost white, in colour. The fine red bricks made in the Mid- land counties are chiefly used for the better class of buildings, or for arches over doors and windows, in which the bricks must be gauged or brought down by rubbing so as to fit together at certain angles. Fire-bricks and paving-bricks also are made of clay, which contains a great quantity of silicate of alumina and but a very small pro- portion of lime or iron. The silicate of alumina fuses when the bricks are burnt, and this causes them to become very hard and durable. 1 1 53. It is also necessary in making calculations of the cost of brick-work to know the cost of mortar. This will depend entirely on the prices of the ingredients of which it is made, and cost of these will differ considerably in different localities. The mortar, following prices of lime and cement are taken from Spon's "Archi- tects' and Builders' Pocket Book." They are the prices charged by builders, unless it is noted that the price is the prime cost. Some prices of bricks of various kinds are also quoted from the same authority. 1 1 54. Chalk lime (as supplied in Kent) by the yard or hundred is 13s.; but per bushel, is. Stone lime (as supplied in Devonshire) is i6s. per huudred, and is. 2d. per bushel. In the immediate pj,jgggoj^njg^ neighbourhood of a kiln, in any locality, lime can of course ^°^^ ^^'' ®*°' be procured at a lower rate than those named. Blue lias lime is charged 24s. per yard. Sand or road grit varies very much accord- ing to the locality and the ease with which it can be procured. Road grit may be valued at 4s. per yard, or 4d. per bushel ; and sand at an 540 Household Building Art and Practice. average of 5s. or 6s. per yard, or 6d. per bushel. The prime cost of Portland cement, the best for the amateur's purpose, as it has beerx said, is 2s. per bushel. Mortar when supplied by a builder is charged at yd. per hod, and a hod contains about half a bushel, which brings the cost to about is. or is. 2d. per bushel. The amateur should never use sand from the sea-shore in making mortar ; it is excellent for al farm and garden purposes, but the presence of salt from the sea- water renders mortar made of it liable to attract moisture in damp weather. If good, clean road sand cannot be got, the best thing to use is sand from the nearest gravel-pit ; one or the other can always be obtained. Finely sifted cinder ashes may be mixed Cinders or . , ,. , . ... ^ breeze in With lime, but this Will of course impart a dark colour moiftar. , „, . , ., , ... to the mortar. Ihe jerry builder, who is by no means particular as to the quality of his mortar, will use a great deal of breeze, or siftings of the dust -heap, and even earth, with a very small modicum of lime, but this the amateur will be careful to avoid. 1 1 55. The following are the prices per 100 at which bricks are quoted : place-bricks, 4s. 6d. ; grey stocks, 5s. ; red stocks, 6s. ; malms, 9s. ; cutters, lis. 6d. ; and red rubbers, 8s. The Approximate ,,,... prices of reader must always remember that the prices given in this book for materials of all sorts are to be taken as approximate only, and not as absolutely correct. Prices of building materials, as well as of everything else — gold and silver not excepted — rise and fall, and it by no means follows that what is the price to- day will be the price to-morrow. In all cases, however, the amateur is likely to find that the prices will be less rather than more than those stated. 1 156. To proceed, however, with bricklaying or building with bricks, the amateur must remember that it is a fundamental rule that z'jt no two courses of bricks immediately contigicotis shall Fundamental .... , . , . , ' , rule in the joijtts oetweeH two cricks in each course be con- timious or form a straight, unbroken line. This must be rigidly observed ; the disposition of the bricks caused by the obser- Breakin" vance of this rule is called "breaking bond." A layei of bond. bricks lengthwise throughout a wall is called a " course," and when bricks are so laid that their length is in the direction of the Headers and course, and their sides appear 'n the face of the wall, they stretchers. j^,.g called " Stretchers," and a course thus formed a " stretching course ;" but when they are laid across the line of the course so that their ends or heads appear in the face of the wall, they are called "headers," and a course thus laid is called a "heading course." Bonds Used by Bricklayers. 54^ bricklayera. 1157. There are three kinds of bonds used by EngUsh bricklayers, called respectively, " garden bond," " English bond," and " Flemish bond," and of these the last-named is most commonly ' . Bonds used used. There is another called " herring bond," but this by is only used for the core or interior of walls faced with Flemish bond, and is formed by laying bricks diagonally between the faces and filling the interstices with mortar. It is a very weak mode of building, for the faces of the wall are not connected by bricks run- ning transversely to the length of the wall, having their heads or ends in one face or the other, or in both if the wall be one brick or gin. thick. Garden wall bond is only used for 9in. walls, and consists of courses of three stretchers and one header in regular succession throughout the course. English bond con- sists of alter- Englisb bond. nate courses of stretchers and headers as shown in fig. 573. It is reputed to be the strongest bond used in bricklaying ; but it is not so ornamental, and therefore pleasing to the eye, as the Flemish bond, shown in fig. 574, which consists of courses com- ^_ ^1 ^-^. posed of headers and stretchers in alternation, every successive course Fig. 573. ENGLISH BOND, Flemish bond. Fig. 574. FLEMISH BOND, being so arranged that the header in the course above rests im- mediately on the middle of the stretcher in the course below, while the stretcher in the upper course extends over the header in the course below it, and has its ends resting on the ends of the stretchers on either side of the header in question. The difference in the appearance of English and Flemish bond is clearly shown in the illustrations. 1 1 58. Having seen the general disposition of bricks in the face of a wall, there are yet certain points to be considered, and these may be summarised as the method adopted by the bricklayer in pointa building a wall ; the use and object of the " closer " ; the ^SSi manner in which successive courses of bricks are laid bricklaying. one upon another in building a brick wall ; the construction of the quoin or corner when two walls are built at right angles to one another ; 542 Household Building Art and Practice. and, lastly, the method of forming a reveal where the wall is interrupted in its regular course by openings for doors or windows. 1 159. First let us take the general method adopted in building a Method of brick wall, without any reference whatever to the bonding, building waU, ^^ j^ ^^.jj^ ^^ better for the sake of rendering the process as intelligible as possible to proceed step by step in this manner. 1 1 60. Suppose that two courses of bricks above the level of the ■1 " — f b I 1 1 — — PI II 11 r 1 i II r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . _- Fig. 575. METHOD OF BUILDING A BRICK WALL. ground have been duly laid, as shown in fig. 575, the bricklayer then proceeds to build up four or five courses at each end 0/ bricklayer the wall, seeing by means of his level that the bricks are laid level, and that their outer faces are perpendicular. He then stretches a line A B along the length of the wall from A to B, securing it to the ends of the wall that he has just put up by means of Stretching the two iron pegs furnished with the blades something like ^^®' that of a dinner-knife, the flat part being thrust between the bricks and the peg projecting as at C, D, and furnishing a kind of spindle by which the string is stretched, and on which any surplus length is w< und. It will be necessary for the amateur to have a pair of these. Two purposes are served by stretching the line ; the topmost course of bricks are by its aid brought level with the bricks at A and B at either end, and by looking downwards and bringing the line directly over the edge of the bricks, shown by the line E F, he is assisted in making his wall truly upright or perpendicular. In laying bricks s reading some mortar is first spread on the surface of the last course mortar. Qf bricks laid ; the brick to be placed in position is care- fully brought to the brick last laid, a little mortar having been thrown in with the trowel to cement end to end ; pressure with the left hand is exerted until sufficient mortar has been squeezed out below to bring Adjusting and ^^^^ brick's upper surface on a level with that of its neigh- . fixing bnck. jjour, the operation being completed with one or two slight blows from the butt end of the trowel handle, the trowel itself being held in an upright position. 1 161. It by no means follows that a brick wall is the exact multiple of a brick, that is to say, that it contains an exact number of bricks in its length. It is to remedy any inconvenience resulting from this Closers: Their Use in Bricklaying. 543 Illustrations and of use of _ closers. I n that a portion of a brick called a "closer" is used; the closer also further serves as an aid in breaking bond. As a practical example of the use of the closer, and the way in which use in brick- successive courses of bricks are laid, let us consider two courses of a gin. wall in Flemish bond, which in all probability will be the utmost thickness to which the amateur bricklayer will extend his operations ; these being limited perhaps to a 4> > Construction were ; but the sash-frames of windows are not put in until of the reveal, the wall IS built. In building a 4>iin. wall the frame for the door is set up in position and the bricks built up to it and by it, the inner surface of the brick-work being flush with the inner part of the frame, while the outer surface generally projects a little way beyond it. Thus in a 4^in. brick wall, :- ;--.'---,'•--.•: built round a door-frame 3in. thick, the inner surfaces of brick-work and frame being flush one with another, it is clear that the outer face of the Drick-wo.k would project i^ in. beyond the outer face of the frame. The construction of a reveal, and the manner in which it is made, is shown in fig. 585. 35 IB 1 1 ! f [#' II 1 1 A A 1 1 1 IBIC A II I 1 A / Fig. 585. reveal in brick-wof.k. 546 Household Building Art and Practice. Tn which the angle or recess into which a \\iOoden framing may be fitted, whether it be a door-frame or sash-frame, is clearly shown. After all that has been said about closing in sections 11 62 and 1164, it will be unnecessary to go into any detailed description. The closure at the reveal should be a bond closure. Thus supposing A and A to be whole bricks in the courses to which they belong, the wall being" a gin. wall in Flemish bond, B will be the bond closures, extending in their several courses from the outer to the inner face of the wall, and C, the half-brick completing the impost of the reveal. The face of the reveal is formed by the ends of the whole bricks and half-bricks in succession, and the face of the rebate or retiring portion by the bond closures and half-bricks inserted between each to make fair. Some bricklayers will use a three-quarter brick in place of the half-brick C and bond closer B, but if this were done it is manifest that there would be no bond in the whole of the ogee from top to bottom. 1168. Additional strength is often imparted to brick walls by laying long pieces of hoop-iron between any two contiguous courses of bricks. Hoop-iron in The hoop-iron has the effect of a bond or tie running brick waus. through the length of the wall and holding the bricks well together. The amateur, however, is not likely to require any- thing of this kind in the building that he may undertake. The use of iron laths or hoop-iron as bonding for brick-work is merely mentioned here to explain why pieces of this material are sometimes seen pro- jecting from the wall of a finished house or building to which another is to be attached at some future time, after the manner of adjacent and attached houses in any continuous row. 1 169. Having formed an opening in a brick wall for a door or window, as the case may be, the next thing to be considered is how to bridge over the opening so that, if necessary, the wall for door or may be continued above it throughout its entire length. window. The simplest method that the amateur can adopt is to lay a piece of wood of the thickness of one or two bricks, according to the length to be bridged over, and the extent of walling Fig. 586. , . , . J , TIMBER OVER OPENING IN WALL. that IS to be raised above or from pier to pier, and proceed to enclose it and build over it with bricks, taking care that the timber used is of such a length that the breaking bond throughout the wall may be properly observed. The method of doing this is clearly shown in fig. 586, in which A B is tha Brestsummers and Stone Lintels : Arches. 547 How beam is bidden from view. timber, brick thick, laid on the piers C, D to sustain the weight of ihe bricks above at E. 1 1 70. This mode of procedure is adopted in building in providing a resting-place, at once strong and sufficiently rigid to The brest- prevent any saggmg m the middle, for the supermcum- bent weight of the wall that is piled above it, in the case of shop-fronts and projecting bay windows, when the width of the opening to be bridged over is considerable. The beam, or brestsummer as it is technically called, is hidden from view by the facia of the shop-front, or by the roof or covering of the bay window, and so any unsightliness of appearance is avoided ; but in house-building, if a piece of wood were left showing in the wall, as A B in fig. 586, it would look very ugly. To prevent this stone the space over a door or window is usually bridged over by a lintel in stone or an arch in brick. The stone lintel is merely a repetition of the timber A B in fig. 586 in a different material, but some skill has to be exhibited in forming the arch in brick. 1 1 71. There are many forms of arches used in building, according to the style of the work in progress, but for these and their construc- tion the reader is referred to any standard work on Arches architecture. Only three kinds of arches require mention here, and these are the semicircular arch, the flat arch, and the segmental arch ; but before entering on the method of constructing these forms of the arch, it is necessary to say what an arch is, and draw attention to its various component parts. 1 172. In Beeton's " Dictionary of Universal Information" an arch is defined as " a structure generally of stone or brick in a curved form, over an open space, the pieces of which are ar- ranged in a manner calculated to bind them closely together by the pressure of one against another, rendering them capable of supporting a great weight of masonry above them." 1 173. The construction and general principles ol the arch is shown in fig. 587. In this a, a are the abutments or piers, Definition of arch. Fig. 587. construction of semicircular arch. 548 Household Building Art and Practice. the columns or sides of masonry rising perpendicularly from the gi'ound on which the ends of any arch are supported. The arch Construction ' _ '^'^ and general is said to spring from its piers, and the first stones, d, d, principles. 10 resting on the flat top of the piers on either side, are sometimes called the springing stones. The upper part, c d, of the arch is called the crown, and the stone h in the Piers ' and springing centre, in the form of a wedge which locks or binds atones. together the bricks or stones that compose the arch, is called the key-stone. The sides of the arch, e c, d /, between Crown and the crown and the piers, are called its haunches or key-stone, ^^jjj^g^ -pj^g stones or bricks which compose the arch, all wedge-shaped, smaller at the under end than at the upper, are „ called voussoirs, while the under ends of the stones are Haunoltes and called the intrados or soffits, and the upper ends, the vousBolra. extrados or back. The line ef, joining the extremities of the arch, is called its span ; and g h, drawn perpendicular to the span , , , from its central point g to the centre of the bottom of the Intradoa ^ ^ and key-Stone /i, is called its rise. In practice there is no extradoa. '^ absolute necessity for any extension of the caps of the piers as shown at a, a beyond the face of the wall below, or for the projection of the key-stone above or below the extrados and intrados of the other bricks or stones that form the arch. It is often done for the sake of ornament, and then the caps and key-stone are frequently of stone, the latter being " vermiculated," as it is called, or indented with irregular hollows, or bearing a face, generally grotesque, in relief. 1 1 74. A careful examination of fig. 587 will show that the lines which mark the divisions between the bricks or stones of which the arch is Working made, all converge to the point g, and therefore that in ^t^^h ^^^ construction of any arch the stones must be cut, or necessary, j^e bricks " gauged '' or rubbed down, to the exact shape required. To ascertain this a working drawing must be made in which the stones or bricks, as the case may be, are shown in elevation of the actual size required. By reference to the working drawing G-aaging bricks or the workman can bring his materials to the exact shape stones of arch. • ^ , m , • , , • required, and all that is necessary to be done is to put them in their places and cement them together. It will be readily seen that the greater the pressure above the arch the more firmly the parts of the arch are locked together; so that when the arch is once made, there need be no anxiety with respect to its inability to sustain any load that the amateur-artisan may place on it. His only care must be that his stones or bricks are so cut or gauged that the lines cf Centering of Arch— its Construction. 549 junction all converge accurately to a common centre. Exactness is necessary, for when cut too large, the span and rise of the j,^^^^^ ^^ arch will be larger than they should be, and when cut too faulty con- small, and any attempt is made to brmg the arch to the size desired by too much cement or mortar, the excess will be driven out by the load above as it is piled on, and the parts of the arch will be driven out of shape, and perhaps be displaced altogether, and the arch destroyed. 1175. It is manifest that some support must be provided for the parts of an arch while they are being placed in position. It usually assumes the form of a framework of wood, and is called ceBteiing the centering. A general ^* '"'^^'• idea of the method adopted in forming centering for small arches may be gained from fig. 588, which represents the centering required for a small semicircular arch. A B is a rectangular framework of pieces of wood roughly nailed together and strengthened by I — ■ braces exactly filling the rectangular portion of the opening from the bottom to the level of the piers at the sides from which the arch is to spring. This framing is intended as a support for the actual centering of the arch, which consists of pieces of wood, C, D, E, F, nailed together and cut so as to form a semicircle a //t//e smaller than the intrados of the arch, say with a radius less by I in. than the intrados of the arch. Two pieces of framing of this description are made, and these are connected by cross bars, of v/hich the ends, G, H, K, etc., are shown in the illustration all construction round the frames to which they are nailed. These cross- o^ framing, pieces must be lin. in thickness, this being the difference between the, length of the radius of the frames and that of the intrados of the arch to be built on the centering. The stones or bricks L, M, N, etc., when cut or gauged to size required, are then placed in position on the centering, the whole being wedged tightly together by the kcy-stonc O, When sufficient time has been given to allow the mortar to set, the centering is removed, and the arch being properly loaded above is secure and stable. Fig. 588. centering for arch. Application 1176. The application of centering to arches of all of centering various. kinds, barrel drains, etc., and the method in which it must, be made, will now be sufficiently clear, and we may proceed to ;5o Household Building Art and Practice. the flat and segmental arches, so commonly seen over square openings, for doors or windows, whether wide or narrow, in buildings of all kinds, and in garden walls, etc. 1 177. It will be manifest at once to the reader that there can be no Backing of bonding between the face of a flat arch and the back part, flat arch, ijyj jji^j- [^ must of necessity consist of two series of bricks, which are in no way connected or tied together as a wall is by headers running through its thickness when it is a 9in. wall, one end of the header appearing in the outer face and the other in the inner face. Formation of ^^^ formation of a flat arch will be best seen by examining flat arch, ggg^ jgg ^nd 590, of which the former represents the outer part and the latter the inner part of the arch. The segmental arch is formed in the same way. Practically speaking, there is very little Segmental difference between a flat arch and a segmental arch ; the arch. Qj^jy. absolute distinction is that, while the extrados and intrados of a flat arch are straight lines, those of the segmental arch are slightly curved hnes or segments of circles of great diameter, or, in some cases, the intrados of the segmental arch is curved and the extrados flat. 1 1 78. The mode of constructing the flat arch is shown in fig. 589, which also represents the !f constmction o^^er face of ....■■- \ \ \ TTT'J-v- of flat arch, the arch. The opening being carried up as far as may be necessary, namely, to the line A B, v/hich is the line of the intrados of the arch, the bfick-work is continued / upwards for four, five, or six courses, according to the intended width of the arch, to the line C D, which is the line of the extrados pf the arch, the bricks being '■%\\\V w-tir A \ ,-- G" ^--.^ / / ^ / \ / \ / \ \ V Fig. 589. outer face or front of flat arch. disposed from A to c and from B to D, so as to form a slope against which the sides of the arch may be abutted. An angle of 60° is a con- venient inclination, and if the lines C A and D B be produced towards each other, they will meet and intersect the perpendicular F E, through the middle of the opening, in the point E, the triangles C E D and A E B being equilateral triangles. The point E will be the point to Construction of the Flat Arch. 551 which the lines of junction between the bricks used to form the arch converge ; and a working drawing having been made in this manner, the bricks must be gauged or rubbed down until they are of the shape shown in the figure, and of such forms as will admit of their being placed together as shown in the drawing ; a framework of centering is necessary for the support of the bricks while being placed in position. By drawing arcs through c and D, and through G, where the perpen- dicular F E is cut by the line A B, the intrados of the arch, and con- tinuing the lines of demarcation between the bricks until they touch the arcs above and below, it is manifest that the flat arch is nothing more than a piece cut out of a wide semicircular arch, and that it is strictly from the principles involved in the construction of the semi- circular arch that its stability is involved. It will be noticed that two courses of bricks are required to form the flat arch. It is necessary to have the lines of junction at the ends of the bricks shown in each course, parallel to the extrados and intrados of the arch for effect's sake, and the bricks are gauged accordingly. A brick in a slanting direction, with the ends cut so as to form with the ends of others a straight line, wtien put in position will not extend to more than three courses, and scarcely indeed to so much. Hence the necessity for combining a whole brick and part of a brick in each wedge as shown in the drawing. 1 1 79. The bricks being placed on end and packed face to face do not extend to more than half the thickness of the wall, and it is manifest that the other half of the thickness behind the j,iuingup, flat arch must be filled up. To effect this, a bar of iron, ^°/g^^°J^ slightly curved, as A B in fig. 590, is rested on the piers, bridging the opening, and on this the brick-work at the back of the flat arch is built, as shown in the illustration. As soon as it is raised to the height of the extrados of the ^la. 590. flat arch, the construction of inner face or back of flat arch. the wall with headers in the direction of its thickness is carried on as before. It must be remembered that throughout the foregoing descriptions of arches we have taken the wall to be a gin. wall, as that possibly will be, as we have said, the thickest wall in brick-work that the amateur will attempt. 1 1 80. As it has been said before in the course of this chapter, the substance used for cementing bricks and stones together is called mortar 552 Household Building Art and Practice. and some remarks have been made on the lagredients used in its com Mortar for position. It may be convenient to the reader to give here bricklaying. ^ description of the method followed in making mortar, which is taken from the " Handbook of the Mechanical Arts," by Robert Scott Burn. I i8i. " Lime, as used for building purposes, is obtained from several of the varieties of stone, marble, and chalk, termed limestones. It is prepared by burning or calcining the stone, thus drawing Method of^^ -^ . ,.,., , ,, , making off the carbonic acid m which it abounds. Alter cal- mortar. ... , , , . ■■ • i i • i. cination it is reduced to a white powdery material, which greedily takes up water ; it is then known as quick lime. In making mortar, fresh burned lime is taken from the kiln, and laid in a heap in a convenient place, and, sprinkling a quantity of water on it, the lime begins immediately to crack and fall down, steam issuing from the heap in considerable quantities— a high degree of heat being at the same time induced. On the completion of the process of decom- position, the lime is reduced to an impalpable powder, which goes by the name of 'slacked or slaked lime.' The slacked lime thus obtained is next to be well mixed with mortar, forming a paste, and, afterwards, have the proper proportion of sand diMcd—tivo-ihirds sand Sand to one-third of lijne. The sand used in mortar-making is required, ^j- ^^^^.^^ kinds— pit sand, river, and sea. The first is obtained in pits, the latter from rivers and the sea - shore. River Elver water is the best to use for mortar, but all waters known '^**®'" as mineral are to be avoided. The sea sand should never be used if it can be at all avoided, as walls built with mortar prepared from it are very likely to be damp. Mortar thus prepared sets very soon on being exposed to the atmosphere, but it is by no means calculated to stand under water or in very moist and damp situations. Where mortar is required for such work, hydraulic mortar Effect of or hydraulic cement must be used. . . . Clay burned and clay on lime. ^^^^^^^ ^^.jji^ X\mQ will enable the Hme to withstand to a certain extent the action of water. Where a rich lime is obtainable, a hydraulic lime may be made by mixing twenty parts of dried clay to eighty of the lime. . . . Coal cinders ground to a powder and mixed with lime make a mortar which will be useful in wet or damp situa- tions." 1 1 82. It is possible that the amateur may at one time or another stove in desire to construct a small stove in a workshop, with a workshop, (-i^jj^ney to carry off the smoke, or even to make fmes in walls, for the conveyance of hot air or to allow of the escape o3 How TO Construct Longitudinal Flues. 553 smoke. Of course the thicker the wall the easier it is to make a flue, or longitudinal or upright passage, through it, as the case chimney or , . , ,-rc 1 • flue in -wall. may be ; but this may be done without difficulty even m a 9in. wall. A knowledge of the method may prove useful in the construction of forcing pits, greenhouses, and fowl-houses. 1 183. Suppose, for example, that it is desired to construct one or more longitudinal flues in a brick wall. In such a case it is manifest that Flemish bond will not do, because the headers in ^^^ ^^ ^^^_ each course would prove an obstruction. English bond ^^^^\^°^^^; must therefore be resorted to, which, as the reader will remember, consists of alternate courses of stretchers and headers. The wall must be built up in the ordinary manner, a layer of stretchers and a layer of headers alternately, until the height is reached at which it is proposed to construct the flue. The last course laid— which, it must be observed, forms the bottom of the flue— must be a course of headers. This course is shown at A in fig. 591, which represents the vertical and transverse section of such a wall as that which is being described, and which was introduced by a builder named Dearn, whence it is commonly called " Beam's wall." On either peam-s side of the course of headers A, a line of stretchers B, B, laid on their sides is placed, and as a brick is Qin. long and 2;^in. thick, a longitudinal opening D, 4in. wide and 4>^in. high, is left in the centre of the wall. Fig. 591. ^ ri J DEARN 's WALL. This Opening is covered in by another course of headers, C, on which the wall is continued with a course of stretchers, and so on. 1 184. When a wall is built hollow, as above described, other ends are effected besides the mere making of a flue, for by the ventilation afforded damp is prevented, and there is a great saving ^^^^^ ^^ of materials. It was, indeed, rather for these purposes ^^^^^^^^^^^j. than for making flues that the hollow construction of walls was proposed by Mr. Dearn, and is still followed in many cases. 1185. If bricks were scarce and expensive in the locality in which the amateur lived, a saving of about one-third might be effected bv building the wall from the level of the ground with Bricks: how alternate courses of headers and stretchers laid on their sides, as shown in fig. 591. The wall would not be so strong, it is true. as a solid g'm. wall, but if solidity were a si'/ie gud no)i it might be gained by filling the hollow at D with gravel concrete. 1 186. Let us now proceed to the construction of a simple fireplace.- with a flue or chimney above it for the escape of the smoke. This will I I c [., ,. . B j . D ; E A : 1 554 Household Building Art and Practice. be found useful for warming a workshop or for heating a greenhouse in combination with flues running throughout the length of the Simple , fireplace walls ; butln this latter case the stove must be constructed and flue. i- i outside the greenhouse, but immediately adjacent to it. 1 187. For the purpose now under consideration nothing is better or more simple than the plan given in the " Handbook of the Mechanical Mode of Arts," which we quote here, with a few verbal alterations, construction. ^^^ ^wxng the plan, elevation, and vertical section by which the text is illustrated. Mr. Bum says, after stating that in making this fireplace only bricks and mortar, and a few lengths of round rod-iron, >^in. from the outside face of projections C D. The depth to which the bars should extend is Sin, This will give the thickness of material at ' fig. 593. front the back 4>iin. After the bars are placed e levation of fireplacb. Uj in fig. 594, proceed to build up the projections, taking care to place from time to time the iron rods A, A, figs. 592 and 593, at proper distances, so as to form the front bars of the grate. The depth of place thus made for ^ ^^ d c Fig. 594. the fuel should be 6in. flan of fireplace. Bod-iron as bars at as in fig. 594. bottom. ^ ■'^^ Rod-iron as bars in front. The Porosity of Bricks. 555 1 188. " Continue to build up the projections, rounding the back as in fig. 59^, and sloping it as F M in fig. 592, until it is 26in. or 27in. high, measuring from top side of hearthstone. Across the top chimney of projections place a chimney bearer of iron E, fig. 593, about ;^in. at the bottom, F, to 2in. at M, the size of the chimney flue in the inside will be I2in. by g'm. This grate is constructed in the simplest manner, but will give satisfaction as warm and economical." Jambs may be added at the sides of the fireplace, whereon to rest a kettle, saucepan, glue-pot, etc., but the amateur will readily understand how to do this by decreasing the width of the fireplace, or giving more space between the jambs, if it be desired to keep the fireplace of the same width. For the amateur's workshop, it will be better to finish the front of the grate with a square bar at top, with a spike Trivet on top , . , , /- J . • X. • bar of grate. projecting upwards, on which may be fitted a trivet, as in a kitchen range, which will turn in any direction, and hold a glue-pot over the fire or away from it over the space in front of the bars. 1 1 89. Bricks are very porous, and will absorb a considerable quan- tity of water ; indeed, it is said that an ordinary brick will absorb from one-fourth to one-third of its weight in water. The ab- Porosity of sorbent powers of any bricks may be tried by allowing hem to remain for some time in a bucket or half-cask containing waiter, and noting their weight before and after immersion. It is the porosity of bricks that so frequently renders a house damp on the side most exposed to rain, and which causes a wall to remain damp for so long a time when the bricks have become thoroughly saturated by the overflow of a gutter used to carry water from the roof, or the bursting of a pipe. 1 190. Bricks will also become damp by capillary attraction ; that is to say, when bricks are laid on damp ground, or ground how brioks ... ,. . , , -n • become damp. which is nearly always in this condition, the water will rise through the pores of the bricks, extending upwards from course to 556 Household Building Art and Practice. course until a considerable space of walling is affected by it to the detriment of plastering and paper within. 1 191. There are two things which manifestly require the attention of the amateur. First, how to prevent water from rising in a brick Prevention ^^^^^' especially if the wall in question forms part of a build- of damp in jng erected as a workshop, or for some similar purpose ; and, secondly, how to prevent the further rising of damp in a wall that has been built, and to counteract the bad appearance and ill effects resulting from its presence. 1 192. The rising of damp in brick walls, or any tendency to this, can only be effectually stopped by the insertion of what is technically „ ^ ^ called a "damp course" in the wall, about the thickness How to stop ^ ' rising of of a brick al>ove the ground line, or the line where the damp. earth comes in contact with the brick-work. A damp course bcloxv the earth line is not so effective, because the bricks above it will absorb water, though not to so great a degree, from the earth that may be in contact with them. A simple and courses of effectual damp course is one of slate, laid right through various liinds. ^ > o o the wall as soon as it has been brought about a brick's thickness, or, in other words, 3in. above the ground line. The slates should be laid in Portland cem.ent, and it is as well to lay two or three courses of bricks immediately above the damp course in Portland cement also. Asphalte is sometimes used ; this is cheap and effective, but almost beyond the management of the amateur ; and damp courses are made in glazed earthenware, pierced to allow of ventilation. Water cannot make its way through slate, asphalte, or glazed earthenware, hence the fitness of these materials for a damp course. 1 193. To cure dampness in a brick wall is far more difficult than Cure of to take proper means at the outset to prevent its appear- brick wau ance. There are many methods of doing this, but space diffic t. ^^.jii j^Q^ permit us to dwell on more than three or four of the various modes that have been suggested from time to time. 1 194. If a house shows damp on all sides just where the walls rise from the ground, the only effectual cure is the insertion of a damp Insertion of course just above the ground line. This can be done by amp course, degrees, and although productive of much dirt and dis- comfort while the work is in progress, it can be effected without any danger to the stability of the building as the course of bricks taken out for the insertion of the damp course can be removed by degrees, and replaced immediately by the damp course as the work goes on. How TO Remedy Dampness in Walls. 557 It will be understood that allusion is made to these matters, not with any idea that the amateur artisan can do any work of the kind on his own behalt, but that it is necessary for him to know something about it. 1 195. If damp has been caused in the upper part of a house through the breakage of a water-pipe, or the stoppage of a gutter or waste- pipe, the first thing to be done is to remedy the primary j^^ ^^ cause of the evil. The overflow of water in rain-water ^'pJ'^' i'^* of house. pipes and guttering is often caused by the presence of a sparrow's nest, which acts as a dam to prevent the escape of water through the proper channel, and for this reason it is de- stoppage in sirable to have the guttering and heads of all pipes in- p'^®^' ® °' spected and cleared once a year, say about May or June. When a wall is thoroughly saturated it is well, if possible, to cut away the wet plastering on the inside a little beyond the limit to which preliminary the water has penetrated. If this is done the wall will P^'°°68a. dry out all the quicker, under the influence of the sun and air outside, and heat inside. The plaster must then be renewed, and the wall repointed outside. This is the most effectual way of repairing the damage, but it is not very often that a room can be vacated sufficiently long to admit of this mode of cure, and then other methods must be adopted. 1 196. As soon as the wet plastering has become moderately dry, it is an object to cover it with wall-paper to hide the damp and do away with the ugly appearance, even though the wall be cold ^^^ ^^ &msix and moist to the touch. It is yet sufficiently wet to de- *'^® work, stroy any paper that may be pasted over it. Sometimes an under coating of indiarubber paper so called, or tinfoil paper, is applied to the wet surface, and the wall-paper is pasted on this ; but the water- proof papers do not always answer the end for which they are specially intended, and the writer has found nothing better or more effectual than a solution of shell lac and naphtha, in the proportion , , , r -, r r 1 1 SolutiOn of of about four ounces of the former to a quart of the latter, naphtha and This solution, when applied to the damp surface of the plaster, almosi: immediately hardens into a varnish impervious to water, and as soon as it is hard and dry, the wall-paper may be pasted to it. It gives a reddish colour to the wall, but this matters little as it is covered over and hidden from view by the paper. The smell of the naphtha is most unpleasant, but, fortunately, this soon passes off, and the inconvenience falls chiefly to the share of the workman who applies the varnish. This kind of work any amateur artisan ought to be able to do. 558 Household Building Art and Practice. 1 197. In Spon's useful volume of " Workshop Receipts, ' the follow- ing remedy — which is doubtless a good and effectual one — for damp Remedy for ^^"^^^^ is given. "RECIPE. — Re?iiedy for DampWalls. ^Ib. asflnp waUs. Qf mottled soap to i gallon of water. This composition to be laid over the brick-work steadily and carefully, with a large flat brush, so ae not to form a froth or lather on the surface. The wash to remain 24 hours to become dry. IMix /alb. of alum with 4 gallons of water ; leave it to stand for 24 hours, and then apply it in the same manner over the coating of soap. Let this be done in dry weather." 119S. A good coating of tar laid on to the exterior of a brick wall will prevent the entrance of damp ; but this, although well enough for brick-work that is below the level of the ground, and exterior of hidden from view, is unsightly when above ground. Coal- tar should be used, and this should be heated in a tar-pot and applied hot. A small quantity of naphtha is sometimes added in the proportion of half a gallon of the naphtha to a gallon of tar ; but the tar, plain and simple, will do quite as well. Another plan for walls Portland above the ground-level is to mix one part of Portland cement, cement with two parts of fine sand, and add water enough to bring the ingredients to the consistency of thick cream. Cover the brick-work with a couple of coats of this mixture, and when it is quite dry finish with a coat of paint. When the brick-work is below the ground-level, the earth must, of course, be removed, and the brick-work exposed to the air to allow it to dry a little before the tar, or any other coating that may be used, is applied. In such cases it is useful to dash fine sand against the tar, until the surface is thickly covered with it, and in a few days to apply another coating of tar, which should be sprinkled with sand as before. When the tar has hardened, the earth may be filled in. 1 1 99. The methods of preventing damp, above described, are such as come within the compass of any one of comparatively slender means; but for those who do not mind going to a little brick and expense, the solution prepared for rendering brick and stone impervious to the weather by The Indestructible Paint Co. (Limited), 27, Cannon Si.^ London, E.C.,\s recommended as being thoroughly effectual for the preservation of the material with which it is coated and the exclusion of damp. It is supplied by the Laminated company in quantities from one gallon upwards, at 6s. 6d. lead. pg^ gallon. This solution is, of course, best adapted for external application, though it may be used internally if desired. As a damp-proof coating for the walls of rooms, the "laminated" lead is Flat Pointing and Tuck Pointing. 559 said to be as effectual as the silicate solution is for preventing damp without. It is sold at the rate of 4d. per square foot, and is easily attached by small nails, supplied with the lead, to the surface which is to be covered. As soon as the lead is fixed in its place, the wall-paper can be applied to it in the ordinary way. Sometimes damp walls are covered with sheets of zinc, which are afterwards papered. If pos- sible, however, the exclusion of damp should be effected by appli- cations to the outside of the wall, 1200. When a brick wall has settled, and the mortar has hardened, the outer surface is usually finished by an operation technically called " pointing," which consists in raking out the joints pointing brick between the courses and the bricks that compose each waus. course, with the point of a trowel, and filling them up again with mortar specially prepared for the purpose. 1201. In building there are two kinds of pointing, distinguished as flat pointing and tuck pointing, the latter being more ornamental than the former. As soon as the joints have been raked out, Flat pointing. it is usual to colour the brick-work with a wash prepared for the purpose, in order to produce a uniformity of appearance throughout the wall ; but this, of course, need not fee done when the bricks are good and of the same colour throughout. A mortar is then made consisting of lime, fine river sand, in the proportion of one part of lime to two of sand, and enough ashes from a blacksmith's forge — which are used on account of their fineness — to impart a blue colour to the mortar. The joints are then filled with this, and if left in this way, the pointing is styled flat pointing. If, however, /«f>4 pointing is desired a thin white line is laid over the blue mortar, in the centre of the blue line, so as to Fig. 595. tuck pointino. g^Qw a narrow blue line on either side of the white line. The effect of this is shown in fig. 595. The mortar used for the white lines is what is plasterer's technically called *' putty," that is to say, plasterer's putty, p^"^- and not glazier's putty, which is a different thing altogether. Plasterer's putty is fine white lime exceedingly well slaked with water, and, indeed, having so much water added to it that the lime is fairly held in solu- tion. The water is then allowed to evaporate until the pasty settle- ment that is left behind is of sufficient consistence for working. The mcWe by which an even edge and regularity of width is given to the 560 Household Building Art and Practice. white line is this. It is first laid over the blue mortar so as almost ta cover it, and when it has nearly set, a straight-edge is applied, first to the top and then to the bottom of the white line, and the redundant putty cut away with a knife or any thin and tolerably sharp steel blade. When this has been done to all the joints, horizontal and vertical, the effect is produced of a white line on a blue ground. 1202. The amateur artisan may occasionally require to point brick- work on his premises. It may be that he has built a shed against a brick wall, or in an angle formed by two walls, in which required by case one piece of walling will form the back and the other amateur. ^^^ ^.^^ ^^ ^^^ structure. Or he may have put up a small greenhouse in the same way, against either a part of one wall or portions of two. In either case, it is most likely that the old brick- work will want cleaning down and pointing. 1203. The first thing to be done is to give the brick-work a good brushing with a birch-broom or bast-brush, which will have the Mode cf effect of clearing away all the dirt and dust that is ad- procedure, hering to it. After this the joints must be raked out and a second brushing given to the wall. The best kind of mortar for pointing work of this kind is Portland cement and fine sand in equal parts, mixed to the consistency of very thick paste. This com- position must be made up in small quantities at a time, so that it may not grow hard before it is used up. When mixed it must be placed on the mortar-board, which the amateur artisan will hold in his left hand, while he applies the mortar or cement with a small trowel held in the right hand. As he proceeds with the work, before each piece, or course, if done in single courses, has had time to harden, the surface should be worked over with a paint-brush dipoed in water. This will impart a smooth surface to the cement, and fill up any little holes or depressions that there may be in the face of the brick-work, efi^ectuallv disposing of any insect life that may lie lurking in the crevices. 1204. If the brick-work be very roughly laid, so that the ends and sides of some of the headers and stretchers extend beyond the proper plane of the wall's surface, it will be Reduction of . , • 1 surface of as well to reduce the promment bricks to the ordinary level by chipping away the projecting parts with a cold chisel or a slater's hammer, which has one side shaped like a small hatchet, with a nick in it for breaking off Fig. 596. projecting points of slate, as shown in fig. 596, and slater s hammer. a hammer-head on the other side. The reduction of all projections Roofing and Paving, 561 which may be easily effected with one or the other of these tools, adds much to the appearance of the wall. This kind of hammer ranges in price from 2S. to 4s. After the wall has been pointed, and the face is dry, it may be lime-washed or coloured, according to taste or pre- ference. 1205. Although roofing is the peculiar province of the tiler and slater, and paving is usually executed by the pavior, yet the brick- layer is often called on to roof in a building with tiles, or Eoofing and to cover a floor with paving bricks, paving tiles, or even p^^^Jis. ordinary stock or place bricks. It may be as well, instead of giving a separate chapter to a description of paving, to speak of the mode to be adopted when bricks and tiles are used here, and of that of laying stone paving, etc., in the account of the mason's work. Covering in a roof with tiles may also be treated here. 1206. Let us begin with the roofing, which may be done with plain tiles or pantiles, e' something after the manner piain tiles of the letter S. Tiles are hung by means of pegs to laths, ^^ ^^^ '' called pantile laths, nailed on to the rafters of the house in a horizontal direction. The following are the length, breadth, thickness, and weight of bricks and tiles, taken from " Laxton's Price Book": L?h. Bdh. Thk. WVht. Lgth. Bdh. Thk. Wht. ft. in. ft. in. ft, in. lbs. oz. 10-in. tiles ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. lbs.02 Stock or place bricks 8? 04} 2I 6 12 gi 9i I 3 9 Paving bricks og 4i* li 5 Pantile laths— loft. Dutch clinkers 6: 3 i^ I 8 bundle contains Pantiles 1 1. 9i o| S 4 12 laths or 120 I* I 4 6 Plain tiles loi 6i ii|!o iij og 2 8 Pantile laths— 12 ft. 144 ^ I S Foot tiles 1JI13 Plain laths 500 I i 3 It will be noticed that the dimensions of the place and stock bricks are placed somewhat less in length and breadth, and Dimensions, somewhat more in thickness, than previously stated ; in ^ °" ° calculating quantities of bricks, etc., it is as well to take the dimensions previously given. 1207. The great principle involved in roofing is that there shall always be two thicknesses of the material used, whether in tiles or slate, except in the case of pantiles, where it is unne- . . . cessary. The object of this is that the line of junction involved in ■' ■' roofimg. between any two slates or tiles shall come half over the tile below and half under the tile above. By this arrangement any water that finds its way through the joint is stopped from entering the roof on the 3ne hand, and, coming in contact with the slate or tile ^6 A • ■— • A • A • . C B Fig. 597. ARRANGEMENT OF SLATES OR FLAT TILES. 562 Household Building Art and Practice, lying underneath, is compelled to trickle down it, and so from slate to slate or tile to tile in succession until it falls into the gutter below. 1208. This principle, on which all roofs consisting of overiapping pieces of material of small size must of necessity be constructed in order to be water-tight, is shown in fig. Explanation 597- I" t^is A, A, etc, re- of principle, present the laths or strips of wood that are nailed horizontally to the rafters, in order to afford a hold for the pegs or pins in the slates or tiles. A piece of boarding is usually nailed along the edge of the rafters just above the gutter in such a manner that the front of the tile that rests on it may be raised slightly above the back. Along this board a row of half-tiles is nailed, as at B, so arranged as to break joint with the tiles immediately above in the row marked c. Holes are made on either side of the tiles in the row c, just above the middle, and pegs are thrust through these holes by which the tile is hung or hitched on to the pantile lath ; and this process is repeated until the top is reached, which is finished with a row of half-tiles or slates, and surmounted with a row of ridge tiles. It will be seen that all roofing made in this manner must be commenced at the bottom with the lowest course, and carried upwards until the ridge is reached. Not a peg is to be seen when the work is finished, and it can easily be imagined from this and the general arrangement, that when a tile or slate is broken it is no easy matter to remove it and insert a How to re- place bBoken sound one in its place. It is often done by hanging a strip of thick zinc over the pantile lath, as at A, when the slate or tile is pushed up under those that overlap it, and its lower edge inserted into the hook formed by p^^. ^^g ^j^^^g Hg^D turning up the lower end of the strip of zinc, as ^^ s'^'^"' °^ ^■^'^• shown at B, when the tile or slate presents the appearance shown at c. 1209. No finishing with cement is necessary for tiles or slates, as the courses are held down and in place by the weight of those above them^ BoofiDc with and their peculiar overlapping arrangement, as just de- pantUcB. scribed, prevents the entrance of rain. Ridge tiles, how- ever, are always set in good mortar or cement. With pantiles the —E:^ c -a_i Pantiles: How Paving is Done. 563 case is altogether different. These are hung to the pantile laths with pegs, but from the peculiarity of their construction it is sufficient ii the lower end of one course just rests on the upper edge of the course immediately below it. Pantiles, as shown in fig. 599, form a ridge and furrow surface, and the rain falls off on either side from the ridge ~-^i^ C and D into the furrows at A and B, by which it descends to Fig- 599- pantiles. the gutter below. To keep all snug and fairly air-ti£rht , ° r o / Number of it is desirable to cement the edge of each tile where it tues to sqaaxe. laps over the one at its side, and where it rests on the tile beneath it. The number of tiles required to a square — that is, loft. each way, or 100 square feet — is as follows : ¥or-plain tiles, if each tile shows on the face 4 inches, 600 ; if 3>4 inches, 700 ; and if 3 inches, 800. In flat roofing 210 tiles will be required to a square. Y or pantiles, 180 to a loin. gauge, 164 to an iiin. gauge, and 150 to a i2in. gauge. The lap of the tile over the one below it will be just the difference between its length and the length of the gauge. 1 2 10. All laths whether for tiles or slates must be disposed along the rafters at such distances from each other as may suit Disposition the gauge at which it has been determined to lay the o'^*'^^' tiles, 121 r. Stock and place bricks are often used for paving instead of paving-bricks, Dutch clinkers, or foot-tiles ; but being not so hard as these descriptions of bricks and tiles, they are more apt to Bricks used break, and will wear away the quicker. Indeed, unless ^'^^ paving, the passing and repassing over them be but small, the amateur is advised never to use ordinary bricks for paving, as the friction of the feet of the passers to and fro soon wears a channel, which serves as a catch-pit for any water that may find its way into it. 1212. In paving it is obvious that the first thing to be done is to prepare a firm and solid bed on which the material to be used may be laid and bedded ; the second thing is to see that the bed how paving is perfectly level, if a level flooring is required, or if it is ^^ ^°^^- desired to slope in any particular direction, or be rounded so as to throw off the water on either side, as in the case of a paved path, to see that the bed is sloped or rounded in the manner required. Paving is generally bedded in sand, mortar, or cement, the last-named mate- rial being preferable, if durability and solidity is required. All that is now necessary is to lay the bricks or tiles in regular order, spreading 564 Household Building Art and Practice. a little fine cement along the edges of adjacent bricks, and of each course, that they may adhere closely together, and that no gaps ot chinks be left between them. If any brick or tile happens to be a little thinner than those next to it, a little additional bedding must be laid below it to raise it to the proper level. 1213. When round stones, usually called "cobble stones," can be procured, a durable and frequently an ornamental pavement can be Pavins with composed of them. They are more suitable for narrow cobble Btones. pathways than for wide spaces. For these a well-rammed bed of earth is sufficient. They must be stood on end, being packed gradually and closely together, a piece of wood being placed across the pathway to aid in retaining them together, and moved forward when necessary. A white path may be edged with a black border or a mixed border of black and red, or lines in black or red can be pro- duced in any direction on a white ground, as in diamonds, Vandykes, etc., and other patterns which will readily suggest themselves to the ingenious amateur. When finished they should be lightly rammed or beaten to produce an equality of surface, and the interstices should be filled with sand well washed in, or with grout composed of lime, sand, and water, or a little cement instead of lime. 1214. Ornamental pavements for short walks from the roadway to the front door, or a square space before the front door and similar ColoTU'ed rav- positions, may be laid in coloured paving tiles or encaus- ing tues, etc. i\q i[\qs. The coloured Staffordshire paving tiles can be had square in various sizes, and in diamonds, hexagons, and octagons. Encaustic tiles can also be had in different combinations of colour, the price varying according to combination of colour and size. The method adopted in laying them is precisely the same as that followed in laying common bricks and tiles ; but greater care, of course, is neces- sary in doing the work, in order to arrive at a satisfactory result. A true and solid bed must first be prepared, and on this the tiles must be laid with care, fitting them closely and accurately together. 121 5. For the prices charged by the builder, or such as are likely to be charged by the builder, the reader is referred to Laxton's or Bevis's „ ,. , . " Price Book." If the amateur attempts to do the work Estimate of '^ coEtofpaving. hjj^self it ^vill cost him no more than the value of the materials used ; and if he requires assistance he must add to this the amount paid for labour. As the cost of cement has been already given, all that is necessary here is to name the prices of ornamental tiles, following this with the prices of some other materials in the form of bricks, tiles, etc., which it will be useful for the amateur to know. Prices of Tiles : Fixing Coppers & Ranges. 565 1216. First, the prices of encaustic tiles at the works are as below, each size being made in the combinations or single colours here given. The numbers set at the head of each column refer to these ^^^^ ^j en. colours or combinations which are :— I. Chocolate, red, '=*'^^*^° *"^^- black, buff, and red. ll. Red, black, buff, combinations of red, choco- late, and buff. III. White, red, buff, combinations of these colours. IV. Combinations of blue, red, buff, and white. Sizes. I. s. d. II. III. s. d. s. d. IV. s. d. Sizes. 1. s. d. 11. s. d. III. s. d. IV. s. d. ajin. X 2jin. ... X 2J 3J 2JI 3 4 6in. X 311. ... 4 5 6 8 3 !• X 3 1, ... 2 4 6„ X 4 „ .. 5 7 9 II 4 t< X 4 „ ... 4 5 ! 5 7 6>. X 6„ ... 6 9 10 I 2 4i,. X 4i 4 05106 7 1 2 17. The prices of the following articles are named as charged by builders when delivered on the job. It is, perhaps, preferable for the amateur to calculate the cost of his work at these prices, Builaers* for it is most likely that he will be obliged to go to a local prices for ... tilfis. builder in order to procure them, and then, again, he will mostly require them in small quantities only, and be obliged to have them brought to him, having no means of getting them from the yard to his own place. Ti/cs. Single. Per loo. s. d. s. d. Tiles. Single. Per loo. s. d. s. d. Plain loj X 6i X 1 ... ... I ... 4 3 Blue roofing . — ... 6 6 Pan I3i X 9J X i ... I ... 6 6 IJIue roofing ornamental . . -...70 Pan Glass ... I 6 ... — R\dge, ^er/aai • ° 7i ... - Paving gin ... 3^ ... 20 6 Ridge, capped joints ... . ..10 ... — Paving loin ... 4 ... 26 Valley and hip .05... — Paving I2in ... s - 32 Channel ..09 ... — paving tiles. Sittt. Blue. ^"^■ s. d. s. d. Sizes. Red or jj jr Clue. ^"S^- s. d. s. d. 6;n X 3in. .. 6083 6in. hexagons 10 9 13 fii, X 6 ,, .. 10 14 „ diamonds 80 90 4.. he.vagons 63 70 ,, octagons 13 13 1218. Paving tiles, other than the encaustic tiles, the prices and sizes of which have been given above, are sold per hundred -^x^^^ of at the following prices •^"«- ""biZ. ^"ff- s. d. s. d. 2!n. X 2in. ... 46 6 6 3 .. X 3 5 o 70 4 ,, X 4 „ ... 60 80 1219. Fi.xing coppers and ranges should be left to the professional bricklayer, as it is altogether beyond the power of the amateur to ac- complish such work in a satisfactory manner. It may Fixing coppers happen that cement or mortar may get loosened and fall ^^ ranges. away about a range or copper, and this the amateur can easily repair with a little cement and sand. He may even reset a copper if it gets loose, as it is nothing more than a circular vessel with a rounded bottom, and a flange about an inch in width at the top set in a casing of brick-work, so that the fire in the stove below mny j-.cnetrate between the brick-work and the sides of the copper. 565 Household Building Art and Practice. m^m, -..^^ Fig. 600. ARRANGEMENT OF COPPER. 1220. A general idea of the arrangement of a copper, and the mannet in which it is set, may be gained from fig. 600, which exhibits a section How coppers of this useful adjunct to the are Bet, ^j^ck kitchen and even kitchen. The casing of brick-work in which the copper B is set is shown at A, A. The flange C C at the top of the copper rests on the brick-work, and the top is cemented over and sloped inwards so that any water that may escape from clothes when taken dripping out of it may run back into the copper. Below the copper is the fire-grate D from which the ashes fall into the open space E below, while the flame and heat ascend into the space F, F between the brick-work and the sides of the copper. A circular wooden cover G is generally kept over the copper, which, in nine cases out of ten, is built in an angle either in a corner of the kitchen or in one of the recesses by the kitchen or back kitchen fireplace. 1221. It will have been noticed that the back of the register stove is sometimes made of fire-clay instead of iron. In course of time this Back of part of the grate, of whatever material it may be made, register Btoire. ^^jjj gj^g ^^^ under the fierce and continuous heat to which it is subjected, and must be renewed. A new cast-iron back, or a fire tile of Welsh or Stourbridge fire-clay, may be procured from the ironmonger's, who will send a smith to fit it in. 1222. Fire tiles vary in size from 9in. to 24in., and in price from gd, to 6s. 6d. in Welsh clay, and from is. to 8s. 3d. in Stourbridge clay. Prices of fir© " Lumps," which are thicker than tiles, range in size from *^®°' I2in. to 36in., and in price from is. to 6s. 9d. in Welsh clay, and from 2s. to 9s. 6d. in Stourbridge clay. Stourbridge fire-bricks, which are the best that are made, and which will resist the action of fire, cost about 14s. or iss. per 100. Welsh and other descriptions of fire-bricks are cheaper. For security's sake, if the amateur is building a small fireplace in a workshop or elsewhere, he is recommended to use fire-bricks instead of ordinary stock-bricks. 1223. It may happen, however, that the amateur may wish to mend any hole that has been burnt away at the back of his grate without having recourse to the ironmonger or the smith. In this where to get case he must procure some fire-clay from the builder's yard, or from the timber merchant, who generally keeps this material in stock, and sells it at the rate of 4s. or 5s. per cwt. Preparation and Use of Fire Clay. 567 1224. Some little trouble is involved in the preparation of the clay, 4hich must be softened and kneaded with water until it is sufficiently plastic for use. The cavity into which it is to be intro- _ ^ ■' Preparation duced must then be moistened with water and the clay and "se of fire clay, pressed into it, especially if the bricks at the back have begun to wear away, as will sometimes happen. The front must then be finished off at the proper slope, which will be indicated by the sides or " cheeks " of the grate. The ability of fire-clay to bear a great heat without melting or vitrifying arises from the absence of any alkaline earth to act as a flux. The famous Stourbridge fire-clay contains about 64 per cent, of silica and 24 of alumina, the remaining twelve parts consisting of oxide of iron, water, and traces of carbonaceous matter. CHAPTER IV. BUILDING WITHIN THE SCOPE OF AMATEURS. Building that can be done by Amateurs— Building in Wood — Preparation of Working Drawings— Supposed Case in Brick-work — Tying New Wall to Old Wall— Knocking out Half-bricks — Plan and Elevation — Dimensions of Proposed Building — Building in Monolithic Concrete— Excavation of Trenches — Height, etc., of Building— Window in Building— Front Elevation— End Elevations- Building Walls in Concrete — Arrangement of Scaffold-boards — Formation of Doorway — Throwing in Concrete — How to save Concrete— Raising the Boards — Special Apparatus for Concrete Walls— Completion of the Walls — Window- sill— Window-frame and Wood-blocks— End of Shed on Wall — Wall-plates on top of Walls — Plan and Construction of Roof— Pis6 Wall or Wall of Rammed Earth — Directions for Building Pise Walls — Meaning of Term — Suitable kinds of Earth — Indications of suitable Earths— Preparation of Earth for Building — Soil should be Prepared Gradually — Moistening the Earth — Making the Moulds— Substructure of Earth Walls— Mode of Building Wall— Joists : their Formation — Posts : their Dimensions, etc. — The Mould-boards — Dimensions of Mould-boards — Formation of end of Wall — Way in which Wall is Built — Description of Process— Ramming the Earth — Withdrawal of Mould- boards— Filling up at End — Preparations for next layer of Earth — How to fill Joist-holes— Making Gables of House — Construction of Roof — The Rammer : its Weight, etc.— Bond Timbers in Pis6 Walls— Another easy Method of Building — Lascelles' Concrete Slabs — Size, etc., of Slabs— Prices of Slabs — Gooi Qualities of this Material— Fish-scale Slabs— The Plain Slabs, and what may be done with them — Water-tanks — Dwarf Walls for Gardens — Concrete Studs for Copings, etc. — Steps, Pavement, etc. — The Lining Slabs — Ventilation easily Secured — The Studs : their Dimensions, etc. — Process employed in Building — Dimensions of Slabs to be taken in Account when Planning Buildings —Plan of Concrete Slab Building— The Foundation and Sills— The Uprights— Where to fix them— Uprights in Elevation— Frame-work of Building— Working Drawings must be Accurate — Front and End Elevations— Frame-work for Right End of Building— Frame-work for Left End of Building— Fitting Frame- work together — Plugging Brick Walls — Putting Frame-work in Place- Cutting and Boring Slabs — Positions occupied by Slabs — Estimate of Number Required — How Slabs are Attached to Frame-work — Fi.xing lowest course of Slabs — Putting remainder in Place— Fixing Rafters of Roof — Preparation of Rafters for Slabs— Laying on the Slabs— Preparation of Putty Joint— Finishing Roof with Cap— Completion of the Front — Casing for Casements -Completion of End with Doorway— Overlapping of Slabs— Other Uses for Slabs— Paving with Concrete Slabs— Construction of Tank with Slabs— Slabs as Shelves in Greenhouses, etc.— All Roofs should be Provided with Gutters- Building a Shed in Wood— Methods of Covering Wooden Frame— Weather Boarding— Distance between Uprights— Strengthening by Diagonal Braces- Vertical Boarding— How to Hide the Joints— Suitable for Roofing— Boarding Preparation of Working Drawings. 569 Buildings Within— Filling up between the Boards -Willesden Paper for Roofing- Battens on Vertical Boarding— Chamfering Edges— Box and Cap— Dash-boards —Dash-board on Door— Wooden Gutters for Wood Building- How to Make the Gutter— Board for Bottom of Gutter— Finishing Gutter Within— Front of Gutter —Ornamentation of Front— Iroa Stays— Crest-boards : how to fix them. 1225. Bricklaying, unless it be of the very simplest kind, involving no very great nicety in the operation, is a matter which, as it has been already said, the amateur artisan either will not care to Building that meddle with or will most likely mismanage. Masonry, can be done by amateurs. which will be noticed briefly in a future chapter, is equally difficult and dirty, although the man who aspires to be an amateur mechanic must not shrink from a little dirt. There are, however, methods of building which are more within his compass, and these may be briefly enumerated as : (i) Building ■wilh wood. (2) Building with concrete. (3) Building with concrete slabs. 1226. The method of building a shed in wood, and wood only, will be found at the end of this chapter ; we will commence Building our remarks on this part of our subject with suggestions ^ wood. for, and instructions on, building with concrete, made by the amateur in the manner described in a previous chapter, and building with concrete slabs. 1227. The first thing to be done when any kind of building work is about to be commenced, or any constructive operation whatever involving recourse to any of the building arts or trades, is ° •^ Preparation to put the work accurately on paper; that is to say, to oiv/orkicg clrawings. prepare working drawings in plan, elevation, and section, according to a certain scale. By doing this, the amateur will be the better able to calculate what quantity of materials he will require ; and by getting the plans that he has conceived in his mind definitely worked out on paper, he will be able to proceed all the more rapidly in the execution of the work from the commencement to the finish. 1228. The only way in which any building operation can be clearly explained is to take a supposed case and to go through it ^ ... Supposed in detail, and at present we will imagme that the amateur case m , . , , , • 1 brick-work. has a convenient corner m his garden, where two bnck walls meet at right angles, one of which is high enough for the back of the building. 1229. Supposing that the building is to be in brick, the mode of operation can be readily gathered from what has been said Tying new in the last chapter and what will be said here about concrete wau to , ., ,. . . , ,.,..,, old wall. buildings. A caution, however, must be given that it will be useless to build up the new brick walls without tying or bonding 570 Household Building Art and Practick \ i 1: h 1 11^^ M \ |: 1 \ m \\ . : 1; M : 1 1;:^ 1 1 \ Ii M 1 1 ^L_ 1 1 them to those that are already standing. Suppose fig. 6oi to repre- sent a portion of a wall in Flemish bond, to which it a p c is desirable to attach another at right angles, and \^ that the dotted lines A B, c D, represent the faces, outward and inward, of a gin. wall to be joined to it, or A B, E F, the faces of a d,}i\n. wall, it is manifest that, in either case, the portions of the stretchers shaded Knocking out ^" '^^ diagram must be knocked out to half-bricks, admit of the insertion of stretchers at right angles to the depth of half the length of the brick, Fig. 6oi. tying new which will tie the new wall to the old one. It looks easier on paper to knock out the apparent half-bricks in the alternate courses and throw back the wall about 2in., but this is not practicable, as these bricks are headers, going right through the wall and ap- pearing in either face both on the outside and on the inside. 1230. Let us now proceed to the plan and elevation. In a one- storey building, as there is no staircase to show, a section is unneces- pian and ^^^ > ^"^ "^'^ must have the elevation of the end that is to elevation, y^^ \iv\\\, entirely, and part of the end that is to be built on the wall at right angles to the back. If we were planning a greenhouse instead of a simple shed, it would be desirable to have a section for the sake of showing shelves and staging for plants, etc., etc. 1231. To proceed in due order, we will suppose our building to be precisely 1 2 ft. long ^ ^ s /, 5 g , ^ m f, r:^ and r -^ ■ ^ . . . -' ^ Dimensions of proposed 9 ' t . building. Wide. exclusive of the brick walls against which it is to be built, and the scale on which our work- ing drawing is made to be -j^in. to I ft. The walls are to begin, walls, and the opening for the doorway which is to be at SCALE— THREE-SIXTEENTHS OF AN INCH TO ONE FOOT. Fig. 602. PLAN OF SHED. the end that we have to build, is to be 2ft. gin. wide. The brick walls are also gin. walls. Space obliges us to take so small a scale for cur Building in Monolithic Concrete. 571 working drawings, but in practice the amateur will find it desirable to take from yiin. to lin. to a foot for his scale. From the data already given we have enough to proceed to the construction of our plan, and here it is in fig. 602, constructed on the scale appended, namely, that of ■j^in. to ift. The walls A B and A C are the old walls, and C D and B E the new ones, or those which have yet to be built. The opening for the doorway D E is 2ft. gin. wide, and the walls are Qin. thick. 1232. We will consider, first of all, that it is intended to build the walls in " monolithic " concrete, that is to say, a wall com- posed of concrete built up piece-meal which hardens into monouthio a solid unbroken mass. Now A B and A c are brick walls, but it is no less desirable that the new concrete walls should be bonded or tied to these even though the materials are different, so we proceed to knock out the stretchers or half-stretchers at B and C, as rnay be most practicable and convenient. Meanwhile trenches Excavation have been excavated from C to D, and from D to B, of the °f trenches. necessary width ; that is to say, gin., for the trench need not be larger for concrete foundations, and the earth at the bottom of the trenches has been rendered solid by ramming the mould well together. It will be useful now to have the firont elevation and the end elevations, and in order to draw these with accuracy, we must determine the height of the building in front and rear. The wall that forms the Height, etc back of the building is loft. high, and that of the side «>f biii^^in. broad, and 2;^ in. thick, that is to say, of the breadth and thickness of a brick. They should taper a little, that is to say, be about >^in. less in breadth at one end than they are at the other, so that they may be easily knocked out of the wall when it is necessary to remove them. Grooves about lin. wide, and the same in depth, should be cut across the joists at J and H, in Apparatus for Building Earth Wall. 579 order to receive the boards which form the " mould," and mortises must be made at K and L, as shown by the dotted Hnes, to Posts : their receive the tenons cut at the ends K, L, of the posts K M, dimensions, L N. These posts should be of the same dimensions as the joists, as regards breadth and thickness, and from i8in. to 2ft. in length. It is necessary to provide some contrivance for keeping the posts the same distance apart at the top as they are at the bottom, and this is done by means of cross-pieces, as shown at Q. 1251. As the breadth of the wall is I4in., and the thickness of the mould -boards shown at W, x, Y, Z, is lin., a cleat R, i6in. long, must be nailed to the lower face of the cap Q, into ^^^^ mouid- which short pieces of the same breadth and thickness, boards. shown at S and T, have been attached at right angles by means of the dovetail joints, O and P. Betv/een these pieces and the heads M and N of the posts K M, L N, wedges U, v, are driven, in order to press these ends tightly against the ends of the cleat R. Frames of this kind, precisely similar to each other, must be placed at distances varying from i8in. to 2ft. along the wall, and within them the mould-boards are placed, between which the earth will be thrown and rammed. These mould-boards should be of good pine , , . ..... - , , , . Dimensions wood, not less than im. m thickness; they should be ofmouid- dowelled or pegged together, and otherwise secured by battens screwed on to them at short intervals along their length trans- versely to the grain. From 6ft. to 12ft. will be found a convenient length for the mould-boards, and it is as well to have three or four pairs of mould boards of difierent lengths. 1252. To form the end of a pisd wall battens a, a, about 2in. or 3in. wide and lin. thick, must be nailed to the inside of the mould- boards W, X, and Y, Z, at one end, Formation of which must of course be the end ^^^ °^ ^*^^- where the wall is to terminate or be turned at an angle, and a piece of wood l>, fitted against the battens. The method by which this is done is shown in fig. 610, which repre- sents the arrangement of mould-boards, end- boards, and battens in elevation; and fig. 611, -^ ' I 'X which represents the same in section. When _ , an angle has to be made, a special moulding Fig. 611. SECTIOM APrAKATUS ° ' i *» FOR E.\D OF WALL. may bc made for the purpose, or the ordinary mould-boards may be arranged by means of battens as shown in fig. 610 and fig. 611. The amateur who thoroughly comprehends the 580 Household Building Art and Practice. description that has been given as far as it goes will have no difficulty in turning it to account in making an angle, or, in other words^ the corner of a building. 1253. The frames and mould-boards being in position and the earth Way in which ^^"^ rs^dy, the next thing to be done is to make the wall by waiiisbuut. fiujng in the earth and ramming it well together, and for a description of the manner in which this is to be done, we cannot do better than quote Mr. Burn's clear and ample directions. 1254. " Before commencing to ram the earth in the mould, it will be necessary to try it by means of the plumb-line and square, to ascer- Desoription ^^^"^ ^^^^ '*• ^^ Properly levelled. The operation must be of process, commenced at one angle of the wall, the head of the mould being at the outer extremity of the wall, within I4in. of it, the joints being at that distance from the outer extremity, in consequence of the thickness of the return wall. The labourers appointed to Rammin" Prepare the mould hand it up to those engaged in the earth, ramming it ; these take the earth and lay it out at the bottom of the mould to the depth of 3in. or 4in., more than this depth should not be put in at one time. The first strokes of the rammer should be made close to the edges of the mould, thereafter going over the whole surface in regular succession, from the head of the mould downwards, thereafter crossing these first blows or indents by another succession. Care should be taken to give to each layer as ec[ual a compactness as possible, which is easily attainable; the parts under the caps must be carefully looked to, as from their position the rammer must be used obliquely." 1255. The mould being thus filled by successive layers, each epually well rammed, the wedges holding the caps must be withdrawn, the Withdrawal of caps taken off, the sides thus released, taken out, and the mou - oar s. JQJgj.g finally drawn out of their holes in the wall, vvhich should be filled up by proper means. In filling up the mould, the Filling up inner end should not be filled up to the same height as the other parts, but should be made to slope down gradually. This is shown in fig. 612, at A A. Supposing B B to represent the founda- tion walling, and A A the first course of earth laid and rammed upon it ; if the wall be longer than the longest set B Fig. 612. METHOD of filling mould, of moulds, the joists at c, c must be removed and inserted in the Construction of Gables and Roof. 581 foundation again further on as at D, and as soon as the entire framing has been removed from A A, and again erected, the second length of earth wall as at E must be erected. " The foundation wall being, by a succession of moulds, covered with a wall of rammed _ ' Preparations earth, the height being equal to the depth of the mould, iox next layer ' ° -0-1 r ^ of earth. holes or slits are cut in the upper surface in which to lay the joists (as at H, h). These being prepared, the mould is to be set up as before at an angle of the wall, the sides having the battens at one end, against which to fix the end ; but the operation is to be begun at the opposite end of the wall to that originally started with. By this means, as each end of the mould is left sloping off as before, the sloped surfaces in the second course will lie the contrary way to those in the first : the bond between the several courses will thus be increased in efficiency. It should be borne in mind that the holes for the joists cut in the upper surfaces of the successive layers should be so placed as not to be exactly above one another in all the courses, but each succeeding series between those of the series below." These recommendations will be seen exemplified in fig. 612, How to fin The holes left by the joists may be filled up with a cement ^°^^ formed of one part cement, two parts sand, one part earth, after the completion of the wall. 1256. "The gables of a house can easily be made, by making the successive layers each shorter than the one immediately below it, the requisite slope v/ill thus be obtained. When a day's work Making gabies is finished the wall should be covered with boarding, so that it may be protected in event of rain, and the roof should be put on as soon after the walls are completed as possible. The construction roof should overhang at least I2in., to protect the vertical of -oof- walls from the eftect of rain. Where the building consists of two stories, the walls of the upper story may be made thinner than the lower, by setting at the level of the first floor a depth of two or more inches from the inside, the outside being flush with the outside of the lower wall. The rammer may be made of hard wood or The rammer: cast iron; if of the latter material its weight may be ^ ^'^^^^ '^ °' I4lbs., or thereabouts. 1257. ■•' Bond timbers may be used with advantage in pisd walls ; they should be of the length of the mould, and in breadth equal to one-third the thickness of the wall. As they are com- Bond timbers pletely imbedded in the earth, they last for a great length ^ ^'^^ ^"'^^ of time. If considered necessary or more economical, the inside faces of the bond timbers may be made to lie flush with the inside 582 Household Building Art and Practice. wall of the house. In this case they will serve as battens in which to drive nails or holdfasts, for many convenient purposes. The open- ings for doors and wmdows should be left a little less than required. They may be dressed after the building is finished to the proper dimensions. Wood bricks should be built in here and there, to which to fasten the dressings and frames. The openings are made by plac- ing heads, or a head, in the mould at the place where the wall is to terminate and t4ie opening begin." 1258. Two simple and comparatively easy methods of building have now been described, but there is a third way, which is even easier and simpler, and which is earnestly recommended to the Another easy . _.,,.,, method of attention of the amateur. Buildmg by the means about building. , . , , . , , .. , , . to be noticed does not involve the dirt and mess that is inseparable from building in concrete and pise, where the material must be used wet in one case, and damp, to say the least of it, in the other. It does not involve the delay tliat must necessarily occur in building concrete and cob walls, by waiting to let one course settle and solidify before the next course is put on, and therefore can be done much more rapidly ; and lastly, it furnishes a strong and durable wall, completely impervious to water, that does not occupy a fourth of the space taken up by an ordinary 9in. wall. 1259. The new building material to which reference is made is the Patent Concrete Slab, introduced about the year 1875 by Mr. W. H. Lasceiiea' Lascelles, Biiilder, 121, Bicuhill Row, London, E.C., concreesa s. ^,Jjq ^^jjj answer any inquiries that amateurs may wish to make respecting the slabs themselves, and the easiest mode of obtaining them. Fig. 613 will show the general character of the Fish-scale Tile Slab, which is the best and most ornamental kind that Lascelles supplies. All the slabs, whether fish-scale, plain, Size, etc., of Or lining, are of uniform size, namely, 3ft. by 2ft.; they are i>^in. thick, Fig. 613. lascelles' with the exception of the lining slab, which is fisii-scale tile , . , . , ' SLAB. only iin. thick. 1260. The prices of Lascelles' patent concrete slabs are as follows : — Fish-scale tile slabs, ;/^i2 ids. per 100, or 2s. 6d. each, being Prices of equal to 5d. per foot super. These slabs are faced on slabs. one side and coloured red, and furnished with a rabbet or rebate at the bottom of the slab, which fits over the thinner upper edge of the slab next below it. The plain slabs, of a uniform thick- ness throughout, are also faced on one side, but they are grey in Lascelles' Patent Concrete Slabs. 583 colour ; these are ;^io per loo, or 2s. each, being equal to 4d. per foot super. The lining slabs used for the interior of buildings are faced with cement on one side like the others, and cost ^8 15s. per 100, or IS. 9d. each, equal to 3>^d. per foot super. 1 261. The patent material, being cast, is perfectly true on the sur- face, and will make perfectly level and good work ; it sets as hard as stone, and will wear equal to any tilincr. The extreme ^ , ' I J '=> Good qnabtiee hardness enables the patentee to send it securely packed of this material. any distance by rail without fear ot damage. It is quite fire-proof and water-proof, and can be cut with a cold chisel. The slabs, indeed, may be cut with an axe or old saw, and they can be bored through easily with a brace and bit if the surface is first broken with a punch. The fish-scale slabs, as it has been said, rish-scaie are notched or rebated on the lower edge, so as to form a weather-proof joint, and are intended for outside work, such a3 outer walls and roofs ; they can be used for covering dilapidations or unsightly work in old houses, on new walls for appearance' sake, and to keep out the weather. 1262. The plain slabs have one face smooth, and the other slightly rough ; they are used for party-walls, ground-floors, etc., and they can be secured to the lower edge of joists to form fire-proof . ceilings, or on the upper edge of joists to form floors, in slabs, and ° ' rr o J J what may be which case no ceiling is required. If the rough face is done with ° ^ ^ them. put upwards, it can be set in cement and sand, or lime and sand, and a good even face produced. They can be finished out- side to represent red or buff brick-work when used for outer walls, and they can also be rough-cast or harled to form a representation of half- timbered work. 1263. Tanks that will hold water can be formed by screwing them together as if they were wood ; but if the tanks are sunk in the ground, the edges can be cemented instead, the inside to be finished in net cement. Good garden paths are formed by laying them on the ground as paving stones. Dwarf garden or other walls can be formed by building them with cement^ Dwarf waUa edge to edge, with a coping on the top formed by a stud °^^'^^'- ^^^' of the same material. These studs are faced on three sides ; they are 8ft. long, 4in. wide, and 4in. thick, and cost ^il 15s. per 100, or 2s. 4d. each, a price equivalent to 3>^d. per studnjfc foot run. A similar stud should be bedded in the ground to form a sill for the wall ; and for walls more than one slab in height, an upright stud for screwing to will be required. The wall 584 Household Building Art and Practice. can be finished in cement and sand to match red brick-vvoik, or merely Avhitened or coloured. The slabs make excellent steps for garden or ste s ave- warehouse purposes ; and they are useful for Other purposes, ment, etc. such as shelves for wine-cellars, larders, conservatories, greenhouses, etc. Not the least merit attached to them is that they can be taken down and used again for any purpose that may be required, 1264. The lining slabs, which are only lin. thick, can be used for any of the purposes enumerated above, but are mostly intended for the „, ,. . better class of buildings, where the appearance of an in- The lining ^ / ' *^ Blabs. side stud would be objected to, as by screwing them on in the room so as to form, as it were, an inner skin, the effect of an ordinary wall is produced, which can be painted, coloured, or papered. Ventilation By the use of lining slabs for the purpose for which they eas y secure -^^gj-g originally intended, a better wall is formed, by which the penetration of wind and wet into the house is entirely prevented, and an excellent opportunity is obtained for ventilating the house by utilizing the hollow spaces as air-shafts. 1265. The studs are blocks of cement of the dimensions given, having an iron rod through the centre : they have three smooth faces, and one rough face, as it has been said, with a small their dimen- moulding on two cdgcs. They are used for ground floor- joists, to v.-hich the floor-slabs can be screwed ; sill pieces or foundation blocks, which can be put two or three deep if required ; upright studs to stand on foundation blocks ; head pieces to connect them together ; window frames and door frames. These are the ordi- nary purposes to which these studs can be applied ; but for general building purposes, wood will be found much handier and cheaper and very durable. It is in extremely damp situations and where a fire- proof structure is necessary that the studs will be found most useful. 1266. Let us now examine the process employed in building a house of these concrete slabs ; and for convenience' sake, let us take the same kind of house represented in plan, elevation, etc., employed in in fig. 6o2, and subsequent figures, and see how this structure may be built up with concrete slabs, instead of concrete used on the monolithic system as then described. 1267. It is important to remember that the slabs measure 3ft. by Dimensions of 2ft. It is necessary, therefore, that any building that is taken in ac- niade of them should have its length and breadth mul- "planiUnl" tiples of 3, and its height a multiple of 2 ; or in other buildings, •^vords, that its length and breadth shall be of such dimen- sions as may be divided by 3 without a rem.ainder, and its height such Foundation, Sills, and Uprights of Building. 585 that it may be divided by 2 without a remainder. There will then be no necessity either to cut any slabs, or to put up any studs at closer intervals to which the slabs thus cut may be screwed. 1268. The structure now under consideration is to be built in a corner formed by two brick walls at right angles to each •' ^ v^ i'lan 01 con- other : it is to be 12ft. long, oft. wide, and 8ft. high in oretesiab °' ^ ' ^ building. front and loft. high behind, v/ith a roof sloping to the front. First of all, the trenches B D and C D must be excavated and filled „ ., in with cement, p=n-^ ' L F G "H '^ ^ Fig. 614. PLAN OF CONCKETE SLAB BUILDING. instead of making the foun- dation gin. wide, as in the former case, it may be as well to let it be I2in. wide, as shown by the dotted lines in the figure. This con- crete foundation must be smoothed and duly levelled to form a bed for the wooden sills B D, C D, which are laid on it. These sills should not be less than 4in. Avide and sin. thick. The sill C D must be 12ft. long. The foundation and the sill B D 8ft. Sin. long, which, with the breadth of the sill C D, which is 4in., makes the distance from the wall at B, to the outer face of the sill CD, exactly 9ft. Now as 12 and 9 are multiples of 3, or divisible by 3 without a remainder, the length and breadth of - the proposed structure will exactly suit the dimensions of the studs. 1269. Now in the sills B D and C D mortises must be cut to receive the tenons of uprights which are intended as supports for the slabs, and these studs may be, for the sake of strength and ^^^ ypj.jgj^jg_ solidity, 4in. wide and 3in. thick. To determine e.\actly where these studs are to be fixed in the sills, divide B E into three equal parts, and C D into four equal parts. Five studs will be -w-hereto fix wanted in c D and three in B E ; and these studs are to be ^i^^'"- placed at F, G, n, K, E, and L, M, B, as indicated by the black marks. The entire plan of the building is exhibited in fig. 614. It will be necessary to explain that the sills should be cut about 2in. longer than 586 Household Building Art and Practice. the lengths named, that is, 12ft. 2in. and 8ft. loin., instead of 12ft. and 8ft. 8in., in order that holes may be cut in the brick-work, and the extra length introduced into the holes in order to give the sills a holding in the walls A B, A c. The opening for the door may be as before, between D and L, and for the window between G and K. 1270. As far as we have gone we have dealt with the uprights and Uprights in siU in which the uprights are mortised in the plan only ; elevation, j^ ^^jjj ^^^^ ^^ neccssary to explain how they will appear in the elevation, and to show what further must be done to form a strong and substantial skeleton of wood, as it were, to which the Framework slabs may be fixed. The skeleton or framework of the of biuiding. -byiujug jjjust of necessity be put together in a workman- like manner before a single slab is attached to it. Every point must be looked at and considered, so that nothing that is necessary may be over- looked ; for it is no easy matter to, nUn any timber that has been omitted after the work has been fitted together and fastened by nails and pins. 1 27 1. And in this lies the value of making working drawings , . accurately and to scale of any building and its various Working draw- -' jo ings must be parts before the work is actually commenced. " Well accurate. begun is half done," is in no case more true than in work of this kind ; for when the working drawing has been completed, and the amateur has every part of the building he is about to erect carefully worked out on paper, he will find it will not take him half so long to get through it as it would if he had entered on his task in a desultory, undetermined manner. 1272. We will first deal with the front and end elevation to the right Front and end hand, in which is the doorway. The sills c D, B d, it will elevations. ^^ remembered, are 3in. thick, the former being i2fti A ^ H LB long from end to end and the latter 8ft. 8in., making with the breadth of the sill CD just 9ft. from the wall to the front of the timbers. To make the frame-work of the front, another piece similar to C D will be necessary, of the same o length and 3in. square. Fig. 615. FRONT OF CONCRETE SLAB BUILDING, jj^j^ ^^-jj f^^^ ^^it tOp of the frame-work, as A B in fig. 615. Five uprights must now be cut, M N Frame-work for Ends of Building. 587 measuring 8ft. long, and these must be let into the horizontal pieces A B, c D with 3in. tenons, which will bring the dimensions of the frame-work for the front to 1 2ft. X 8ft. exactly. These uprights, when placed in the position they are to occupy, are shown in fig. 6i 5, by C A, E F, G II, K L, and D B. They are, as before stated, 4in. wide and 3in. thick ; the breadth facing outwards and inwards. Into the uprights E F, G H, and G H, K L must be mortised two cross-pieces of wood 3ft. long and 3in. square, in such a manner that the distance between the fop of M N and O P and the l>of(o;» of the sill is exactly 4ft-, and the space between the top of A B and the bottom of Q R and S T either gin. or I2in. — as may be thought best. 1273. For the frame-work at the end of the building to the right hand, shown in fig. 616, a piece, XY, must be cut a trifle over 9ft. in length and 3in. square, to receive the upper ends of the uprights B Y, V z, U W. Fig. 616. RIGHT END OF CONCRETE SLAB IJUILDING. Frame-work The sideoi the upright B D for right end _ _ of builaing. in fig. 615 forms the upright D x in fig. 616. Between the uprights D X and u w a cross-piece, G H, must be framed in ; this piece may be 4in. wide and 3in. thick, and should be put in so that the length between the fop of the cross-piece and the bottom of the sill shall be precisely 7ft. This is done in order to give good headway for the door, and to admit of the opening above being filled up by a single slab. The end D of the sill B D, and the end x of the slanting piece Y X, should be dovetailed into the pieces CD and A B respectively in fig. 615, so as to tie the front and end together at top anrl bottom. 1274. We must now turn our attention to the frame-work required for the end to the left hand. This end is partly made up of the 6ft. brick wall, and the opening between this and the roof of y^^^^,^^^^ the shed must be filled up witli slabs. To do this a frame- f„°/b^'<^ng. work, such as is shown in fig. 617, will be required. A piece, A B, will be wanted for the sill, to support which some concrete should be laid at the foot of the brick wall on the side that faces inwards 588 Household Building Art and Practice. to the shed. Uprights A c, B D must be fitted into the sill and into a slanting piece C D, as in the opposite end, and a long timber E F between the up- rights. This timber may be 4in. wide and 3in. thick, and inserted into the uprights at such a height that its face may be 2in. below and 2in. above the top of the wall shown by the dotted line GH. Between this horizontal timber and the slanting piece C D,short uprightsK L,MN must befitted. 1275. It must be borne in mind that none of the parts of Fig. 617. LEFT END OF CONCRETE SLAB BUILDING. the frame- work must be fastened together until the whole is ready, ■pittina ^^'^^^" ^'I's has been effected the first step will be to get the fifT^e-woi^ sills laid in position on the concrete, and secured at the cor- together. ' ners. Then the uprights against the wall at the back should be fitted into their places in the sills and nailed to the wall, due provision Plugging having been made for this by " plugging " the wall, that is to say, driving pieces of wood between the bricks at cer- tain intervals to afford holding for the nails which are driven through the uprights, and thence into the plugs. And here it may be con- venient to say a few words about the proper manner of making or cutting a plug to drive betv.een bricks. Suppose fig. 618 to represent a rectangular piece of wood about 4in. long, 3in. wide, and from %'in. to lia thick ; cut away with a chisel the opposite corners A and B so that in their place two triangular faces, CDE, FGll, may be obtained. In driving into the brick-work the corners E and n are so tightly locked or dovetailed into the bricks that it is well-nigh impossible to get the plug out without splitting it to pieces, and, of course, the more it is driven the tighter it will be fixed. As soon as the top of the plug gets bruised by the blows it should be driven no further, lest it be split and so rendered less useful ; the projecting end must then be cut off with a saw. 1276. The wall having been duly plugged, and the uprights adjusted Fig. 618. v/ooDEN plug for BKICK WALL. Putting Together Frame-work of Building. 589 by means of the plumb-level, these must be fastened to the wall. Next the horizontal piece E F, the slanting piece CD, and the up- p^,.. rights K L, M N, shown in fig. 617, may be placed in position, frame-work and the upright D B (or A C in fig. 615) driven home to the cross-piece E F, and then nailed to the wall at the side which has also been plugged for this purpose. The pieces which compose the end to the right as shown in fig. 616 must now be put together up to and including the post D x (b D in fig. 615). As soon as this is done the three uprights E F, G H, K L in fig. 615 must be put in place, and then the cross-piece A B must be driven down on to the tops of the uprights, and the slanting pieces c D and x Y dropped at the ends D and x into the dovetails made to receive them at the ends A, B of the cross-piece A B, and the whole securely locked together. Every mortise and tenon joint should now be fastened with nails or pins, rendering the frame-work, if it has been carefully fitted together, solid and immovable. It will have taken the amateur a longtime to prepare his frame-work, and his progress will appear but slow ; but the pieces of which it is composed, when once cut out and adapted to each other, will be put together with a rapidity that will afi'ord a marvellous contrast to the apparently slow rate at which he has hitherto been proceeding. 1277. The frame-work or skeleton of the building being complete, it is now ready to receive the slabs which form the outer skin of the structure, as it were. The slabs, as it has been said, are cutting and very accommodating, especially for the requirements of °^"^2 b a s. the amateur. They can be cut with an old saw, but the saw should at least be of good steel, and bored with brace-and-bit; so there will be no dif^culty in screwing them to the uprights, and in cutting them at the sides so as to suit the slant of the roof. 1278. The dotted lines in figs. 615, 616, 617 show the positions occupied by the slabs when they are put in place, and by counting the rectangles it will soon be seen how many slabs are required. For the front 13 will be wanted, or 12 only if the space occupied by F Q T L is filled in with wood ; wc will, however, reckon i 3. For the end to the right hand 1 1 are necessary, and for the end to the left hand 5, making in all 29. Say, then, that 30 „ ,. ■" " ^ J) } J Estimate of slabs are purchased, to make sure of enough in case of number . , . . required. an accident happening to any one of them, in which case it will be convenient to have a substitute. As lining slabs, lin. thick, will be good enough and strong enough for a building of this kind, and as a lining slab costs no more than is. gd., the total cost of 30 slabs for the walls will be £2 12s. 6d., by no means a large sum considering the 590 Household Building Art and Practice. size of the building, and the fact that you have a wall durable, imperishable, and impervious to water, which brick-work is not. Of course carriage must be added to the prime cost of the slabs, but this will depend entirely on the distance that the purchaser lives from London, and the mode of conveyance. 1279. As all the slabs are fixed in precisely the same manner, it will be sufficient to describe the method of attaching one of them to the _ , , frame-work, and this shall How slabs are ' attached to be the lowest slab in the left- frame-work. hand corner of fig. 615, for this slab will naturally be the first to be fixed. In fig. 619 let A represent the sill CD in fig. 615, and B, c the uprights CA, E F, which are 4in. wide. Draw with a pencil and large wooden square the line , , r , , , Fig. 619. MODE OF fixing slab. D F E 2in. from the left-hand edge of the slab, and the line G H K lin. from the right-hand edge of the slab ; the reason why these distances are taken will be obvious when the width of the uprights and the position of the slab is taken into consideration. Then at the points D, F, E and G, H, K gently break the surface of the slab with a punch, and with a ^in- bit bore holes through the slab at these points, using a counter-sinker afterwards, so that the heads of the screws may be sunk a little below the surface of the slab. This done, the slab must be lifted into its position and fixed in its place by six Xin. screws, 2in. long, having a deeply-cut thread. Four screws are generally considered sufficient to hold a slab, but it is better to be on the safe side and put in too many rather than too few. 1280. The lowest course of slabs must now be fixed all along the front ; and before putting the second slab in its place the edge of the pj^jjjg iQ^ggj slab just fixed should besmeared with a little fine cement '^ B^abs °^ ^^ plasterers' putty, so as to form what is termed a putty joint. This should be done in every case where the ends or sides of slabs meet and touch. When the first and lowest course has been fixed, the second must be put on in the same manner, and it Putting ^^^^^ ^^ found that the top of this course will come just remainaer level with the top of the cross-pieces M N, o P in fig. 615. m place. *^ ^ } a j The two slabs one above another on either side must then be fixed to the frame-work, and the space F qt L filled in with portions sawn from a whole slab of the proper size to fit in, or left to be filled in with wood. It is preferable to use the concrete slab, so that the whole surface of the front mav be uniform in appearance. Fixing Rafters of Roof. 591 1281. The slabs at either end of the building must now be put in their places ; but before this is done it will be desirable to fix the rafters of the roof, which indeed may be done before the slabs pixing rafters are fastened to the front. If the roof also is formed of slabs five will be required, and these must belong enough to project at least 2in. beyond the face of the front of the structure, and the same distance over the outer face of the wall which forms the back. As a suitable lodgment for the rafters, the upper course of bricks may be removed and a solid wall-plate substituted, as shown in section at Y in fig. 616 and C in fig. 617— these letters are used to avoid the addition ot fresh letters— planed at the top to a slope coincident with the slant ot the rafters, so that they may be bedded on it without being notched so as to fit over it. To sustain the lower ends, and to prevent notching them, thin wedge-shaped pieces of wood may be put under them be- tween their under surface and the upper surface of the rail that forms the top of the frame-work in front. It will be well to make these rafters 4in. in width, so as to admit of means being taken to arrange the slabs at the top in such a manner that they may project for a short distance over each side of the building, instead ot being flush with it, as would be the case if the slabs were put edge to edge along the length of the roof. 1282. When the rafters are fixed in position and securely nailed dow:*, nail or screw a fillet lin. square down the centre of the three rafters pj,gpa,i.ation that lie of rafters for slabs. between the outer rafters on either side of the roof, from top to bottom. This will leave a pro- jection i>^in. in width 1 \ J 1 u U -U Fig. 620. PLAN OF HOOF OF CONCRETE SLAB BUILDING. =gF 1 B I C I Q Fig. 621. END OR BOTTOM OF ROOF, Fig. 622. CAP OVER fillet on rafter. on each side of this central rib, on which the slabs may be laid and 592 Household Building Art and Practice. to which they may be screwed. The roof is shown in plan in fig. 620, Laying on and the end or bottom of the roof in front exhibiting the tiie slabs. JQJg^g^ t^g fjiigtg . ^^^ ti^g slabs are shown in fig. 621. The slabs are laid on between the fillets, and screwed down to the rafters below. The breadth of the roof from top to bottom will be just about lift. _ ,. 3in., and to cover this space exactly one course of slabs must Preparation ^ ^ '^ ■ of putty be cut to a width of I5in. It is better to make this either joint. the topmost course or the second course from the top, as shown in fig. 620. To prevent ingress of rain there must be a putty joint between each slab in the direction of its length. 1283. To make all secure the roof must be finished by a cap about 3in. wide and lin. or i^^in. thick, rounded at the edges and screwed down to the fillet as shown in fig. 622, in which A repre- Finishing ° roof witii sents the rafter in section, B the fillet, and C the rounded cap, cap, D and E being the slabs on either side of the fillet. The open spaces A, B, c, D in fig. 621 must be blocked with pieces of wood, let in between the rafters before the slabs are put on ; and to hide the ends of the rafters a slip of wood, 4in. wide and from ^in. to ^in. thick, should be nailed along under the eaves formed by the projecting slabs from end to end of the front of the building. A moulding may be used if preferred, but a plain slip will afford better means of fixing a gutter to carry off the water. 1284. Returning now to the front, as shown in fig. 615. The spaces between Q J^l and T P which the slabs have not covered must be filled Completion in with wood, after a sill has been htted between the of the front, ^pj-jgi^tg ^nd bedded on M N and O P, being notched into the uprights so as to be flush with the inner side of the cross-pieces and projecting at least 3in. over the slabs. A piece of wood of the width of the upright must be nailed to the upright between the sill and Casing for R,S, making the front all flush with the exception of the sill. casements, (^^gjj^g j^^y jj-jg^ ^e put round the openings Q M N R and S O P T, to which casements may be hung and suitable stops attached inside, against which the windows may fall when shut. 1285. Turning to fig. 616, the same thing must be done at the open- ing for the doorway : a piece of wood must be put on from D to G sufficiently wide to be flush with the inner face of the Completion of end with upright D X on one side, and the outer face of the slabs, doorway. shown by the dotted line to the left, on the other side. The exposed parts of the cross-piece G H and the upright U H must also be covered in, after which the opening G H D u may be cased in, a strong oaken door-sill from i^in. to 2in. thick having been first Paving with Concrete Slabs. 593 nailed to the sill D u, and then the door-stops may be nailed to the casing and the door hung. Between the outer edge of the top slab in the right-hand upper corner of the front and the outer edge of the top slab in the left-hand upper corner of the end above the door, there will be ar. angle lin. square and about I4in. long, that may be neatly filled with cement : this must also be done in fig. 617, to fill the angle that will be left between the slabs at the end and in front. By making the sides an inch shorter, or by making the front 2in. overlapping shorter, ihe front slabs might have been caused to lap °^ slabs. over the ends of the side slabs and hide them from view ; but if this had been done, it would have been necessary to have cut a groove in the brick wall at the left-hand side of the front, in order to make room for the projecting ends of the slabs. When the slabs have been fixed the groove can be made good by filling it with cement. The patent concrete slabs manufactured by Mr. W. H. Lascelles are in every sense of the word a boon to the amateur builder, for they save him all the trouble and dirt involved in building with brick or stone and mortar, and, in addition to this, they have the commendable qualities of being cheap, durable, and easily worked. Provided that the amateur has a fair knowledge of carpentry, and can put up his frame-work true and square, there is no building necessary for home purposes out-of-doors that he cannot put up. The slabs also furnish a good roof which is easily and quickly made, and may be walked on at pleasure without fear of doing it any injury. 1286. As it has been pointed out before, there are many other uses to which these slabs may be applied ; and chief among these uses is that they may be substituted for paving-stones and tiles other uses and for slate in the manufacture of tanks. In addition to ^°^ ^^^^^' these they may be cut into strips and used as shelving when supported on brackets. 1287. When used as paving it is desirable that a bed of concrete should be first laid, on which the slabs arc bedded in cement. It is not absolutely necessary that this should be done, but by pavingwith proceeding on this plan a better, and perhaps more dur-'^""""®''®''^*''^- able, pavement may be secured. If preferred, they may be laid on the bare earth, which, however, should be properly bevelled and beaten to receive them on a solid substratum ; or, if ventilation below is desired, they may be bedded on or screwed down to sleepers of wood in the same manner that the roof was made ; but, unlike the roof, there must be no fillets of wood between the slabs, but they must form an even surface, broken only by the lines in which they meet. When 3« -<1C A 4— n- 594 Household Building Art and Practice. used as pavement it may, perhaps, be desirable that they should break bond. 1288. In making a tank five slabs will be required, and it will be better to use for this purpose the plain slabs, which are i>^in. in thickness. They require no grooving and holding Construction , of tank together with bars of iron passed through the ends of •witii slabs. . , , , . , .1^1 the sides, and screwed up with nuts so as to make the sides fit closely to the end pieces, which is done in all tanks or cisterns made of slate. All that is necessary is to take a slab for the bottom, and on it, close to the edge on either side, to place two other slabs on end, fastening the bottom slab to them with screws. This is shown in fig. 623, in which A is the bottom slab and B and C the side slabs represented in section. As the plain slabs are 3ft. long, 2ft. wide, and i>^in. thick, the width of the ends between the inner faces of the sides will be 2ft. minus 3in., or just ift. Qin. To get the ends, there- fore, two slabs must be sawn to the required '^' SLAB tank!^ width, and inserted between the sides as D, and then holes must be bored with the brace-and-bit, and the bottom and sides closely screwed up to the ends. The joints on the inside and the outside may be finished and rendered perfectly water-tight with cement or red lead. 1289. For shelves they may be used of the full width if supported Slabs as on a suitable bed, or if narrow ones are needed the slabs shelves in ^ ^ ^ j ^^^ pieces of the desired width. They form greenhouses, ''"•'■^'- '-•^ ^ •■ x- ®*°- imperishable shelves for greenhouses, and are cool and easily kept clean when used in the wine cellar, pantry, or dairy. 1290. It is necessary to finish all buildings, of whatever kind they are, with a gutter, so as to carry off the water when it rains and prevent All roofs a continual drip from the eaves on to the ground below, ^pr "^ded which splashes the lower part of the front of the building with gutters. ^^^ keeps it in a chronic state of dirtiness. Owing to he ease with which the concrete slabs may be bored with a biace-and- bit, and the readiness with which screws can be inserted into them, brackets can be easily attached to the front of the building that has been described in this chapter, to carry a light zinc gutter, from which ihe water must be allowed to escape into a drain or on to the ground below by means of a vertical pipe attached to the gutter. jnyi. We may fairly conclude this chapter with a short account of the ni-'.tljod to be followed in building a shed in wood, merely pre- Building a Shed in Wood. 595 Fig. 624. FEATHER- EDGED BOARDS. e mising that the same plan and style of building is to be followed as \l the structures already described, and that the frame-work Building a is very nearly the same. We shall, therefore, deal with Biied in , . wood, the external covenng of the frame-work with wood, giving two methods of doing this, and describe a useful mode of providing a v/ooden building with an ornamental gutter. 1292. With reference to the methods of covering a wooden framo with a coating or skin of wood, one may be described as Methods of the Jwrizontal method, usually called " weather-boarding," ^lod^n and the other as the vertical method. frame. 1293. For weather - boarding, boards thinner at o-ne edge than at the other, usually called feather-edged weather- boards, are used. These are *"'^'^g- made by sawing a board in two pieces by a diagonal cut, as shown in fig. 624. To give a finish to weather-boarding a fillet should be nailed to the outer edge of the upright at either end of the space to be boarded over, as shown in fig. 625 at A A. This forms a rebate within which the ends of the boards are dropped and hidden from view. The appearance pre- wEATiiER-uoARDiNG. scntcd by weathcr-boardlng in section is shown in fig. 626. 1294. For weather-boarding the uprights should not be more than iSin., or at the utmost 2ft. apart, but then they need not be more than 2in. square, or 2>^in. by 2>^in. to lin. in thickness being the jomtB. j^^jjg^ j^ ^jjg boards, so as to hide the joints as shown in the diagrams. This branch of building in wood need not be pursued any further, as from all that has been said the amateur will be able to finish a building in this style without more in- structions in detail. The method saves a , , , ... . , Fig. 627. VERTICAL great deal of trouble m tonguing and groov- boarding (elevation). tng, and when the boards shrink, as they g ^^. . ^ -v i' v'^;-, „,... x ' ,.„ ^.i,..;^^^;^ R'ill under the drying influence of the sun in p,,^ "^^g vertical summer, the batten will prevent any un- boarding (section). Buitabie for sightly chink from showing itself. For roofs, and, indeed, ng. ^^^ ^j^^ front and sides of wooden buildings, this mode of toveringthe frame-work with vertical boarding is preferable to weather- boarding, for the water has a clear uninterrupted run from top to oottom in the direction of the grain of the wood. In weather-boarding die water has to trickle as it were from step to step in its downward course, and as the grain of the wood is horizontal in position there will be a tendency on the part of the water to spread to the right and to the left. Of course much of this is obviated when the boarding is painted. I2q6. In some cases it may be desirable to make the walls of a building of this kind as air-tight and impervious to damp as possible. ^ ,, To do this an inner skin of horizonlal boards should be Boarding -^ buildings nailed to the frame-work and the vertical boards nailed •within. over these. The inside of the frame-work should also be boarded over, and the space enclosed between the uprights and other parts of the frame-work and the boarding nailed to them on either side, be filled with some nonconducting material. 1297. Ashes, or even sawdust, with shavings will do for the packing to be placed between the boards, but some difficulty will FUline UD between be found in filling the interstices completely with this the boai'ds. material. A better way is to dispense with the inner skin of boards on the outside, and to cover the frame-work outside and in with the Willesden Paper, or Pasteboard for Roofing, WiUesclen „ ^ ^ Paper sold by the Willesden Paper and Canv.\s Company, ng. ^^^ Cannott Street, London, E.C., and 52, South Castle Street, Liverpool, at various rates, according to quality. A fuller account of this cheap and excellent material will be found in a subsequent chapter. Chamfering : Box and Cap : Dash-boards. 597 1298. Referring once more to the battens with which it is usual to cover the joints of vertical boarding, a lighter and more elegant appearance will be given to the wood-work if the sharp edges of the batten on the outside are bevelled away, or, vertical'^ as it is technically called, "chamfered." It is always ^°^'^^S- desirable, too, to finish a building of this kind at the bottom with a box and cap, or with a piece of wood attached to the face of the wall at an angle, and called a dash-board. It prevents much of the splashing during heavy rain, which tends to make the bottom ol a wooden building dirty, and therefore unsightly until the eyesore can be removed. 1299. What is meant by chamfering the edges of a piece of wood is shown in fig. 629, from which it will appear that it is simply planing away the sharp angles at A and Chamfering D, so as to present in their stead a flat edges. ^^^^ -■^ , i.f^ce on either side. The mode of finishing a build- FiG. 629. ing with a box and cap is shown in fig. Box and CHAMFERING. g.Q in scction. In this A A is the ver- "'op- tical boarding, B a block of wood, some of which should be set at intervals along the bottom of the boarding of I2in. or i8in. to afford support to the box-board C, which is nailed to them. Above the blocks and box-beard is nailed the cap D, bevelled from back to front so that no water may lodge on it, and fitting over the cap is the batten E. The dash-board is put on in much Daah- the same way, and for this an inclination °^ ^' of about 45" will be found convenient, as shown in fig. 631. In this illustration A A is the vertical boarding, B one of a series of triangular blocks nailed to it to afford a support for the dash-board C, on the top of which the batten D is bedded. For a door, a dash-board may be attached Dash-board without supports as at B, or it may be °° made out of a solid piece sloped at the top as at C, and "throated" or channelled on the under surface •^"^jZS-^. with a deep groove to prevent any possibility of water trickling from the dash-board under the door. In such a case the bottom of the dash-board would be at right angles to the face of the vertical boarding, as shown by the dotted line E F, and the throating would be made at E. 1300. We may fairly conclude this chapter on building within tlie Fig. 630. BOX AND CAP. Fig. 631. dash-board. 598 Household Building Art and Practice. scope of the amateur by describing a useful mode of forming a Wooden gutter to a V ooden building, by which all recourse to the ^wood°' plumber, zinc worker, or smith is avoided. This kind of tmiding. gutter forms a substantial part of the building, and has the merit of being capable of ornamentation with very little trouble, thus forming a suitable and pretty finish to any wooden building of no great size. 1301. We will suppose the roof to be rectangular in form, sloping in a single piece from back to front. The frame-work in the front has How to make ^^^^ ^cen fixed, and A B in fig. 632 is the rail which the gutter, foj-j^jg the uppermost member of the frame. A piece of quartering must now be taken, say 2_^in. square, and this must be sawn lengthwise in a slanting direction from end to end, so as to be separated into two pieces of the shape shown at C D and E F. If the wood has been properly sawn these two pieces will be equal and similar in every respect. Let us suppose that the water is desired to run from B in the direction of A, where a shoot or pipe will be attached to the gutter through which the water may escape. To effect this the part C D must be nailed on to A B, so that the thin end C may be at ':he end A, and the thick end D over B. On C D we must now nail a board, shown in section in G H in figs. 632 Board for _ . . bottom of and 633, lengthwise in the former, crosswise in the latter, gutter. This board may be from 6in. to Sin. wide, and should be "I: I'm" cl :M Fig. 632. LLEVATION OF GUTTER AT THE BACK. Fig. 634. CREST board in FRONT OF GUTTER. Fig. 633 section of gutiek, etc. at least i in. in thickness. It will project from 4in. to 6in. beyond the face of A c E K M, 9fc. ; and, if necessary, after the vertical boarding Wooden Gutter for Roof: Crest Boards. 599 X has been nailed to the frame, extra support may be given to it by- three or four brackets, as shown by the dotted line at Y. On to the upper surface of this board, and just above A B and C D, so that their faces outward and inward may coincide, must be nailed the piece E F, the thick end being over A, and the thin end over B. By this the upper surface of E F is, or ought to be, level, and to give sufficient depth to the gutter another piece of quartering, K L, may be nailed on E F, and this last piece will carry the rafters shown in section at M, N, o. 1302. To finish the gutter within, a piece of wood z, as shown in section in fig. 633, should be nailed from end to end, so as to cover E F, K L, and the ends of the rafters reaching up to the Finishing dotted line at the top of fig. 632. The ends of the ver- g'-^^^r within, tical boards, or rather boards placed in a dii-ection from top to bottom of the roof, will hang over Z, as shown at P in fig. 633, and carry the water into the gutter. 1303. The front of the gutter will be formed by nailing to G H a piece of wood from end to end, put on in such a manner that the bottom of the board may be level with the lower part of Front of C D, or even lower than this, taking care always that the ^^^ bottom of this board is horizontal and has to G H the relative position shown by S T to G H in fig. 634. A row of holes may be bored with a brace-and-bit, as shown in this figure a little below the upper edge of the board, and pieces taken out with the saw between the holes, so as to give the board an ornamental appearance. Many dif- ornamenta- ferent forms of ornamentation will readily suggest them- tioB^ of front. selves to the ingenious amateur. The crest-board thus formed may be carried as high, within reason, as the maker chooses, so as to aff'ord more scope for ornamental cutting ; in any case, whatever may be the length or height, it will be well to support it and j^^^ attach it to the roof by iron stays, as shown between stays. R and P in fig. 633. Any blacksmith will make three or four of these at the necessary angle to fit the upright crest-board and the sloping board of the roof for a few pence. 1304. Fig. 634 will suggest to the amateur many other uses for boards ornamented in a similar manner, or crest-boards as they are generally called. When a building, for tow to fix . . them, example, has been made with a span-roof, sloping on both sides, a board of this description may be placed in a grooved cap over the ridge-board and the lines in which the rafters are butted against the ridge-board, affording an appearance very much like that exhibited by ornamental ridge-tiles. CHAPTER V. MASONRY AND THE WORK IT INVOLVES. Masonry that can be done by Amateurs— Mason's Work neither Attractive nor Easy — Knowledge of Masonry necessary for the Amateur —Modes of Building in Stone— Rubble Work — Coursed V\''ork — Ashlar — Building Materials peculiar to every District— Bath Freestone— Limestone and Slate — Granite — Sawing and Dressing Stone — Reducing surface of Stone — Designations of various kinds of Mason's Work— Plain and Sunk — Circular and Moulded— Rusticated— Fixing Mason's Work — Construction of Chimney-piece — The Slabs— Plinth and Neck- ing—Frieze and Shelf — Variations in Form — Plaster of Paris — Fastening down loose Flag-stone — Substitutes for Paving-stones — Mode of making Substitute — The Mould — Filling the Mould — Floor of Greenhouse — Making or Repairing Step — Clearing ground for Foundation — Bed of Cement for Slab — Size of Slab — Brick-work below Slab— Step formed of Concrete only — Instructions given apply to other Operations. 1305. If the amateur does but little to bricklaying, he will do still less with masonry, which involves the culting of different kinds of stones Masonry that in order to fix them into certain places. If a house or can be done , , -, . , ^ by amateurs, wall IS to be built entn-ely of stone, then the mason is called into requisition instead of the bricklayer. His chief work, in addition to building with stones, is cutting and fixing stone lintels and sills to windows, lintels to doors, and all the stone-work that may be required in a house built of brick, such as keystones to arches, wher cut. in stone, sinks, doorsteps, and stone paving of all kinds. In ad- dition to this he has to cut the slabs of which stone or marble mantel- pieces are made, and fix them in their respective places. 1306. Now it is evident that an amateur will do little, if anything, of this kind ; he will rather leave such work to the regular artisan, for -, . , it is neither attractive nor pleasant, involving the ''.hance Mason s work ^ ' '^ neither attrac- of getting splinters of stone into the eyes while dressing tive nor easy. . . them into shape with the mason's mallet and cold chisel, and the lifting of heavy weights, and, perchance, bruising, or even crushing, his fingers or toes, if, by some maladroitness on his part, a heavy stone fall on them. 1307. AH that will be necessary for the amateur to know with regard Rubble Work, Coursed Work, and Ashlar. Goi to masonry will be the dififerent forms in which walls of stone are built, and the names assigned to the various styles ; the terms Knowledge of technically applied to various kinds of mason's work ; and necessary^or the nature of some of the stones employed for walls, '•^e amateiix. dressings, and pavement. Beyond this, it will be certainly useful to know how a mantel-piece is put together, though he may never attempt to do it. His utmost efforts in masonry will, in all probability, be limited to fixing a garden step that has been dislodged from its posi- tion, or cementing a flag-stone that has been loosened. In fact, his work will chiefly be with cement, and in dealing with this, he may make blocks of artificial stone and paving-stone to serve his purpose, and the modus opera7idi to be followed in doing this shall be fully described. 1308. Let us first consider the different ways in which walls are built of stone, and the names that are applied to these various modes of building. The way in which stones are built together by the aid r^==7 — TT — 7^ of mortar to form walls ,, , J.o,X,_Av^L_-~, Modes of '^" are shown in fitrs. 63?, bmidiugin ° -'^' stone. 636, and 637. The mode of building represented in fig. 635, is termed " rubble work." In this the pieces used i-iG. 0J5. KuiiULii uuKiv. ^j.g of all shapes and sizes, the stones are not squared or even dressed so as to be fitted together, but are put together as they may best suit. As in brick-work, a proper bond is obtained by laying the stones in such a manner that the line of division between any two stones comes over the middle, or as near the middle as may be, of the stone below, on which the ends of the contiguous and superincumbent stones jointly rest. In "coursed work," shown in fig. 636, some attempt is coursed made to preserve regularity work, as regards height in the stones that form any single course, stones similar in depth being selected for each individual course. In "ashlar" the stones are squared according to dimensions duly laid down, and put together very much after the manner of brick- work. In this kind of work, pointing is seldom, if ever, required, but in coursed work and rubble work, when the wall is set, the joints between the stones are raked out and finished with flat-pointing. Rubble work. Fig. 636. couKSED work. Ashlar. 3: LUL^ 602 Household Building Art and Practice, 1309. Every part of the country has some building material under- lying the surface of the earth, either in the form of brick-earth or ston^, but these widely different substances are rarely found in juxtaposition. In Kent Building there is abundance of brick- ^cuUar^?o earth, with chalk and flints, every district. ^^ ^,j^j^^ ^j^^j^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^, Fig. 637. ASHLAR WORK. verted into lime for making mortar, and flints can be worked up into durable and ornamental walls, the quoins or corners of the walls being made of brick. In this country occurs also the famous Kentish rag-stone, so much used in bold rubble work for churches, houses, walls, etc. 1310. In Bath and its neighbourhood is found the soft cream- coloured oolite called "freestone," easily worked and used with Caen Bath free- Stone, a similar material, for dressings, sills, lintels, ahd ^ °^^' sometimes for the entire fagade of buildings of impor- tance. In Devonshire, on the bleak heights of Dartmoor, granite is quarried, while along the coast is found limestone of excellent quality u-sed for making lime when calcined or roasted under intense heat, and affording a beautiful and variegated marble when polished, and the Indian-red conglomerate known as "old red sandstone." Devonshire Limestone ^'^"^ the southern part of Wales also abound in fine slate an s a e. ^j- ^ purple and green tint, and in the former there exist, in parts, large quarries of a laminated slaty stone, which readily splits in thin pieces of great size, which are set up on end one after another to form rough fences, or the walls of pig-styes and similar buildings. 131 1. Granite is found of excellent quality in Cornwall and the northern parts of Scotland. Dorsetshire is noted for its Portland stone, and a fine limestone known as Purbeck stone, which was Granite. much more used in olden times than now. Space, how- ever, would fail to mention the various kinds of stone which are quar- ried in the different counties of Great Britain, and we must be content with just calling attention to the close-grained light-brown sandstone of Yorkshire, of which steps and landings are made, and which fur- nishes so much of the stone pavement used in our streets. 1 312. Stone that will not cleave with any degree of certainty is cut into pieces of the necessary size and shape by means of Sawing and "^ dressing a saw, generally worked backward and forward by two stone. . . . , . , . , ^ , men sittmg opposite one another, one on either side of the block that is being sawn. The face of building stone, and stone for Reducing Surface of Stone. 6o3 pavement, is usually dressed with a broad cold chisel, held in one hand and struck by a mallet of the shape shown in fig. 638, round in form and sloping gradually from a broad top to a narrower bottom. Cliisels of differ- ent widths are used by the mason in dressing stone for building purposes, and sometimes the axe, or mason's hammer, already figured in a former chap- ter, is used in dressing stones for walls. The other tools are a trowel, about yin. long in the blade and p,Q g^s. stone- 5in. in the handle, the upper surface of the blade mason's mallet. being about i>^in. below the centre of the handle or the tang which enters the handle, and the A level, plumb-level, and spirit-level, and squares of wood and iron. 1313. In Burn's " Handbook of the Mechanical Arts" the following practical description is given of the mode followed by the mason in bringing a stone, as one intended for a hearthstone or the tread of a step, to a flat surface with a chisel. First, " two chisel draughts are made at one side and the end of the stone surface of something like what in joinery is termed a rebate. These rebates are made perfectly flat, which is tested by means of a straight- edge. Every part of the stone (in the rebates) should coincide with the unier side of straight-edge. A diagonal chisel-draught is theri made, connecting the ends of the side and end draughts previously made. Another diagonal draught is made crossing the first diagonal, and meeting the angle of the end and side draughts. All these being made as near as possible of the same depth, on the spaces between the draughts being blocked out, a comparatively flat surface is obtained. This is brought as flat as required by the use of the square ; or the level of the surface may be tested by using two straight-edges of equal depth, thus : place one along an edge or arris of the stone, and on the opposite one the other straight-edge ; by looking over the upper edge of the one straight-edge, if the upper edge of the other coincides, the surface is level." Tlie foregoing description may prove useful, in case the amateur should atumpt to re-dres5 the surface of a stone from which some thin layers have been split in any part, and which makes a depression that disfigures the stone. 1314. Mason's work is differently described by the Desipnr.tons architect and builder, according to the form that it as- °kind"of^ sumes. Thus it is "plain" when the rough surface of ^''^""'^ ^"''^ the stone is removed to produce a flat and level face. When any 6o4 Household Building Art and Practice, part of the stone is sunk below the surface, as in a rebate, panel, or Plain and cornice, the work is said to be " sunk." When work is ^^'^ ' rounded or hollowed out, so as to form convex or concave surfaces, it is said to be '' circular." All cornices, heads of columns, Circular and ^tc, are said to be " moulded," and moulded work is "*° ® ■ distinguished as straight or circular, according as it runs along in a straight line like a cornice, or is round in form like the capital or head of a column. When irregular holes are sunk below the surface of any stone, the work is spoken of as being Kustlcated. ,, . , „ _ . , , „ 'rusticated" or ' vermiculated. 1315. In fixing all mason's work, it is first of all necessary that the pieces of which it is composed, whether it be for steps or a chimney- Pixing picce, a door or window-sill, Or a lintel, be truly cut. The mason's wor foundation on which it is to rest, if it be a dooi'-ste-p or a «;ink, must be properly prepared, so as to give a slight inclination to the stone, that the rain may run outwards from the door, or trickle to the corner of the sink in which the escape pipe is fixed. Chimney- pieces are disli'nguished as flat or box, according as they consist of jambs and frieze, formed of single pieces, with a mantel-shelf above them, or in many pieces, so as to project ^ 'J , _ J boldly from the wall, and give the appear- ance of solidity. 1316. It will sometim.es happen that a chimney-piece may, through damp or other means, be dislodged from its Construction _ of chrmuey- position, the niischief being piece. completed v.'hen the fasten- ""* ings are loosened by some one hanging on ^'^- ^39- , 1 1 If ^ ■ 1 JAMB OF to the mantel-shelf, as servant girls are chimnev- accustomed to do, when rising from before i'iece. the fireplace after cleaning the grate. A little plaster of Paris and cement is all that is required to put everything to rights again. To make the construction as clear as possible, ki us take the case of a -= chimney-piece of simple form, as shown in *■ figs. 639, 640; it will be enough to show and describe one jamb only, as both jambs are made in the same way, and it will help us a little to suppose that the material used is glass instead of marble, so that we may see through the outer slabs to the pieces within which I ° M n '1 Fig. 640. .SECTION of JAMB. Construction of a Chimney Piece. 605 sic partly covered, and therefore hidden by them. First, two pieces of marble, polished on the face and one edtre, are reared ' „ , , , , The slabs, agamst the wall at the back— a longer piece A b on the outside, and a shorter piece C D on the inside — and these pieces are secured in their place by iron cramps set into holes cut to receive them, and set in place by cement or plaster of Paris, with which the lines of junction between the marble slabs and the wall in rear are liberally plastered. The rough, irregular lines, E F, G ir, show the inner surface of these slabs, which arc also shown in section, along the dotted line K L, at M and N, in fig. 640. Against these slabs, at the very bottom, and resting partly on the hearthstone, is set a square piece o, which extends from face to face of the slabs, generally speaking, and is called a plinth. On the plinth is placed a necking P, rounded or cut like a moulding. Both plinth rijnthana and necking are set to the slabs at the back by plaster Ji<^cking. of Paris. On the necking is reared a slab Q, less in width than the plinth by i>^in. or 2in. ; which, when it is fixed in the place, has the effect of making a rebate of ^/in. or lin. on either side. On lop of this another necking R is placed, and then all is ready to receive the frieze of the chimney-piece T, which rests on the short slabs on the inside of each jamb, and is secured in its place by cramps, and plaster of Paris as well. To hide the gap that is now left at the top of each jamb, and at each end of the frieze, a square block Frieze and S is placed on top of the necking. The shelf U is last of ^^^i^- all put in its place on top of jambs and frieze, and the chimney-piece is complete. Sometimes a projecting piece of carved marble, called a truss, is attached to the slab Q below the necking R, variations in or in some cases the necking is dispensed with, and the °^^' slab Q carried up till it reaches the mantel-shelf, or very nearly so, leaving just room for a necking, below which projects a bold truss. 13 1 7. By following the preceding description, the amateur will find little difficulty in putting up a chimney-piece that has come away from the wall behind. He must remember, however, that plaster of Paris hardens very rapidly, and that no more must be piaster of mixed at one time than is just sufficient to use with the *"^' piece to be fixed. Plaster of Paris can be bought of the oilman in paper bags, ready for use, at 3d. per bag of ylbs. Like cement, if kept on the amateur's premises, it should be stored in a perfectly dry place. 1318. In fastening down a flag-stone that has been loosened, the stone must first be taken up in order to see what has led to the loosen- 6o6 Household Building Art and Practice. ing, which may have been caused by excavations made by rats, and _ , . many other causes. The substratum havintr been made Fastening ° down loose good, and a bed of cement laid to receive the stone, flag-stone. the Stone must be put in its place and worked about until it is exactly on a level with the stones around it. The joints may then be filled with cement. 1319. It has been said that the amateur himself may make excel- Substitutes for^^"'^ Substitutes for paving-stones and building-stones — paving-stones, Qj.^ jj^ Q^j^gj. ^ords, artificial stone for any purpose that he may require. This is simply another way of making and using concrete, and it will often be found very useful. 1320. Let us imagine that in a paved way, consisting of a number of single stones of the same width laid end to end along the centre of a path, as is often the case, so as to afford means of access from one point to another without treading on the damp earth, that a stone has by some mischance become cracked or worn away in the centre. If cracked, the pieces will soon become loose and dangerous, especially to children ; and if worn into a depression in the middle, water will collect and stand there, if the path be exposed to the weather. The amateur desires to mend this without having recourse ,, ^ , to the builder for a new stone, or to pay for putting the Mode of ' r- J r a making sub- new stone in its place. The first thing to be done is stitute. ^ ° to measure accurately the length and breadth of the stone to be replaced, and to make a shallow wooden mould of the m,. ■,, same length and breadth between the oibosite and in- The mould. ° ^^ terior faces of the sides of the mould. Thus, if the stone to be replaced measures 2ft. by ift. 6in., make the sides of the mould so that the distance within from A to B, and from c to D, be 2ft., and from A to C, and from C to D, i8in. The figure represents the plan of the sides of the mould, and to complete it iiu. 041. some boards must be nailed over the frame, as MOULD FOK I'AV- iNG-STONE. shown by the dotted lines, to form the bottom of the mould. The boards that are used for the bottom of the mould should be planed smooth within, so that the face of the block Filling the formed within the mould may also be smooth. In filling mould. jj^g mould the first thing to be done is to provide for the face of the stone, which may be done by putting in a layer of cement of the thickness of yi'va.., and on this some cement and sand, the two layers forming the thickness of Yzm. The remaining space should be filled up with concrete of cement, sand, and gravel. The Floor of a Greenhouse : Steps of Stone. 607 work should be done as quickly as possible, that one layer may not get too dry before the next is put on. When the mould is fJIed, it must be put on one side, and left for two or three days to allow the contents to harden and dry out completely. When this is effected, it will be found that the conglomerate of cement, sand, and gravel has shrunk, and that the stone will easily slip out of the .110 uld. If the stone required be large, it is better to make the length and breadth of the mould a trifle more than the actual length and breadth required for the stone, to allow for the shrinkage of the cement. With patience and two or three moulds, the amateur may soon make stone enough to cover a considerable space. This will be useful for a long pathway ; but for a greenhouse, pioor of workshop, or any similar building, it is better to make ereenhouse. the floor all of one piece, with concrete thrown in, levelled and faced with cement. 1321. If a garden step or any other step with a treader of stone is required to be made, or if the treader of any such step has become dislodged, the first thing to be done in the one case is to Making or re- make, and in the other to see to, the base on which the p*^"*s s ep. treader is laid, and which acts as the riser of a wooden stair in giving the necessary support and height to the treader. In this case, let us suppose that a step has to be made to afford access to a roadway that is elevated about isin. or i8in. above the level of the garden within. The example will serve for any other kind of step or steps constructed in a similar manner. 1322. The general method to be adopted in making steps of stone, and the necessary foundations for them, may be gathered from an in- 1.:% B spection of fig. 642, „, ^ o t > Cleaning which represents ground for foundation. the end elevation of such an ascent from the P — j — i — [ ground-level A, to a higher level B, iJfiiiiFW'friiiniTiiii'iiiiii.'vy.i \ ~ as suggested above. The ground ! — i — ! — i — — • must be cleared out to the depth ~l ^~] i — ( — " of two bricks' thickness below the ' ' — -^ — \ . ,^;^| surface, and on this, after it has ' TT , ~^ been well rammed, brick-work or I' IG. 642. ' STEPS OF BRICK AND STONE IN SF.cTioN. stonc-work iiiust be madc until ^he level C D is reached on which the stone E is to be placed. Rough but sound bricks should be used for the outside of this work ; for the inside, which does not meet the view, any bricks or brickbats will do, 6o8 Household Building Art and Practice. provided that they are well set in strong mortar. When the level Bed of cement C D is reached, a good bed of cement should be laid on the surface, and the stone set in its place, care being taken to give it a slight inclination outwards, so that no water may settle on it. An inclination of Xin. in ift. will be quite suffi- cient. 1323. The stone should be wide enough to admit of its extending 2in. or 3in. under the superincumbent brick-work at F, which serves as the riser for the next step and landing G, which is only its own Size of slab. ■' thickness above the level of the roadway without. Sup- posing that ingress and egress is effected through a doorway, the jambs of the door may be dowelled into the stone, as shown in the case of the upriglit H, at K. No step that is properly made, that is to say, in the way that has been described, ought to become dislodged, but it frequently happens that through the carelessness or ignorance of the Brick-work workman employed, the brick-work has not been brought sufficiently forward at C to afford a solid foundation for the step, and the back x has not been let in under the brick-work at F, but is merely butted against it. In this case, too, mortar will be used in all probability instead of cement, and the stone may perchance have an inclination or slight slope inwards towards the brick-work instead of outwards. Water will then settle on the stone, and soak down behind it, and when a severe frost sets in the stone will be loosened by the frost's action, and the weight of a man or woman resting on the outer edge at Y will lift it if it does not tip the stone up and wrench it right out of its place. In such a case the only thing to be done is to extend the founda- tion, and with a cold chisel cut away a groove in the brick-work behind sufficiently deep to let x at least lin. under the brick- work above at F. 1324. It will, of course, be readily understood that the amateur maj', by the aid of a mould made of a few boards, form a foundation of con- Step formed ^^^^^ which will answer all the purpose of brick-work, and of concrete be less troublesome to make ; or he may, if he like to do so, make blocks of concrete which he may build together instead of bricks. The projections of the stone treaders beyond the brick-work below them produce a pleasing effect ; but if the amateur chooses to dispense with these, he can finish his work by facing the upper surface of the steps thus formed in concrete with cement. 1325. It is unlikely, as it has been advanced before, that the ama- teur will do anything in masonry beyond those things which have been described in this chapter. If he does, that which has been already said will afford the keynote and clue to the contrivance and Nature of Instructions in this Work. 609 execution of many a piece of work of greater magnitude. It must, however, be remembered that it is sought to do no more instructions in this book than to sugtrest work that is within the giyen apply o'^ to other compass of the amateur, and to explain the methods to operations. be adopted in doing it. Indeed, the remarks that have just been mads may be taken to apply to the general principle on which this book has been written, namely, that of putting the amateur artisan in the way of carrying out any piece of work according to the method that is usually followed in such cases as may be brought under his notice, leaving him to apply the information that is given, and the general instruction that he has gathered from it, to the special requirement! of the particular piece of work that he may happen to have in hand. F Ft^ ^S^^^z. CHAPTER VI. THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS : ROOFING WITH SLATE AND OTHEB MATERIALS. Roofs should be Weather-tight— Different kinds of Roofs— The Lean-to Roof- How Composed— Beams for Principal Rafters— Common Rafters— Adjustment cf length of Rafters— Struts to Principal Rafters— Simple Roof sufficient for Amateur — Horizontal and Vertical Boarding— Lean-to Roof : when available — The Span-roof— Inclination of Roofs— Convenient Angle for ordinary Purposes —Construction of Span-roof— Proportions of Roof— Rafters— Purlins and Common Rafters— Horizontal Boarding— Cap and Crest-board— The Hipped- roof— General form of Hipped-roof— How to Construct Hipped-roof— Ridge pole and Hip-rafters— Jack-rafters— Reduction of edges of Hip-rafters— Capping to finish Roof— Extension of general Principle— Method of Construction oi Gable-roof— Wall-plates and Hip-rafters— Ridge-pole and Rafters— Guttering— Covering Materials for Roof— Thatching with Straw or Reed— How Thatching is done— Mats of Wheat-straw— Materials for Roofing not yet considered — Roofing with Slates and Tiles— Laths for Slates and Tiles— Dimensions, etc., of Tiles— Gauge for Tiling— Measurement of Slating— Calculation of Number of Slates for Roof— Names and Sizes of Slates— Larger Kinds of Slates— Prepar- ing Roof for Slates— Setting out Roof for Laths— Gauging and preparing Slates —Slater's Saxe or Chopper— Pegging Slates— Process of Setting out Roof- Facia along ends of Rafters— Inclination of First Course of Slates— Example of Wrong Method of Slating— Example of Right Method— Facia must be raised above ends of Rafters— Roofing-felt— Anglo-Danish Patent Asphalte Roofing Pasteboard— Good qualities of this Material— Buildings Covered with this Material Insured at low Premiums— Price of Material— Erichsen's Patent India Mastic— Method adopted in preparing Roof— Distance between Rafters— Ventila- tor in Roof— Construction of Gutters— Disposition of Rolls of Pasteboard — Driving in Nails— Covering of Span-roof— Nail in Crevice— Application of Asphalte Mastic— Sanding the Roof— Roof should be Finished in Dry Weather —To render Roof Durable and Water-tight. 1326. The man who can make a good sound weather-tight roof can do a good and serviceable piece of work, for it is by the soundness of the roof that all things that are under it are preserved Eoofs should !• ■■ ••11 be weather- from wet, and consequent injury. In this chapter it will be useful to consider the different kinds of roofs that the amateur may be called on to make for himself, the various materials with which such roofs are covered in, and the manner in which these materials are used and put together. 13C7. And, first, with regard to the different kinds of roofs that an Different Kinds of Roofs: Lean-to Roof. 6ii amateur may construct ; these may be defined as the lean-to roof, the :f^rt«-roof, and the /«)5/^^-roof. Of these, the lean-to roof is Different the most simple and therefore the most frequently made, while the hipped-roof is the most difficult of construction, and will only be resorted to when it is desired to put up a structure with gables, or of a more ornamental and diversified character than the simple rectangular buildings that are covered in with lean-to or span roofs. 1328. The lean-to roof, which is so called because it is composed of a single sloping piece, extending from the wall in the rear of the building to the wall in front, has been sufficiently indi- The lean-to cated, both in general character and construction, in "° " Chapter IV. It will be enough to remind the reader that it is com- posed of parallel rafters, set to the same level throughout, supported and nailed at one end to the wall-plates on the wall behind, and at the other to the wall-plate on the wall in p^sed!^" front. It depends entirely on the material with which the roof is to be covered in, whether any cross-pieces of timber should be nailed on to and above the rafters at right angles to them. It sometimes happens that a lean-to roof is so large that it is necessary to support the rafters, then called principal rafters, on horizontal beams, extending from the wall at back to the principal ' ° rafters, wall in front, uprights being mortised to the beams where they rest on the wall-plate let into the wall behind, in order to give support to the ends of the rafters that butt against the back wall. Larger rafters are then used, and these are placed at a greater distance from one another ; to compensate for this, however, and to afford sufficient support for the roofing material, be it what it may, long horizontal pieces, called purlins, are let into the rafters, their number being determined by the width of the roof from back wall to front wall, and the rafters being slightly notched to receive them, and on these smaller rafters are laid at less intervals. These are termed common rafters, and are notched slightly on the under side to fit over the purlins. This construc- FiG. 643. RAFTERS IN LEAN-TO ROOF, ^j^^^ ^^^jjj ^^ sufficiently explained by reference to fig. 643, in which A, B, are wall-plates in the walls in rear and in front, supporting the ends of the beam c. Along the ends Common rafters. 6i2 Household Building Art and Practice. of the beams thus placed, a timber shown in section at D is nailed, against which one end of the principil rafter E E is butted, the top- most end being notched into the upright F, which is mortised into the beam c, and built into the wall. This upright is continued a little above the principal rafter, and affords support for the common rafter Adjustment ^ ^ ^^ ^^^ topmost end, this rafter being notched at the o°/raftfrl °'^^^ ^^^ °^^'' ^^^ timber D and supported in the middle on the purlin H, which is shown in section. Sometimes, if the length of the principal rafter is from 15ft. to 20ft., it is advisable to give additional support to the weight of the roof by putting in a strut struts to prin- ^> °"^ ^""^ °^ which is mortised into the principal rafter, cipai rafters, ^^^ (j^g other butted against the lower end of the upright F, which is properly sloped and mortised to receive a tenon which is cut at this end of the strut as well as at the other end where it is con- nected with the rafter. 1329. It will be seldom, if ever, that the amateur will find occasion to construct a roof of this kind, the simple lean-to roof of single , rafters being sufficient for his purpose. In cutting his Simple roof ° f f o sufficient for rafters he must remember that it is more important to amateur. have them deep than thick, as the strength of a rafter is in proportion to its depth, and not to its thickness. When a roof of this description is covered with boarding, if the boards are put on horizontally either as weather-boards or to be covered with Horizontal and vertical roofing-felt or with slates, the boards may be nailed boarding. , . . , . ... at once to the rafters without any intervening timbers. If, however, the boards are put on vertically, two or three horizontal pieces after the manner of purlins should be nailed across the rafters to which the vertical boards may be nailed, or, to give additional substance and security to the roof, one set of boards may be laid on horizontally as a lining, planed up on the inside, and the vertical boards screwed down to these. 1330. The lean-to roof is for the most part only used when the structure over which it is placed is built against or forms an offset ^ ^ from another building. When the structure itself is wholly roof, when detached from any other, having four sides of walls of its own at right angles to each other, or when the purpose to which it is to be put is such as to render a lean-to roof undesirable and a s;able-end preferable, even though the structure be reared against another building, a span-roof should be made. 1 33 1. The span-roof consists of two rectangular pieces of roofing forming a certain angle with each other, and with the horizontal line Construction of Span-roof. 613 from top to top of the opposite walls on which the lower members of the roof rest. It is, in fact, two lean-to roofs put to- Theepan- gether and connected at the top where the slopes meet. '°° ' The chief difference in point of structure between the lean-to roof and the span-roof is, that the rafters are placed in pairs instead of singly, and that they are butted against one another at the top, a ridge-board or ridge-pole intervening, instead of resting, as in the case of the lean-to roof, on the higher wall-plate on the wall to the rear. With regard to the slope of any roof, it must be remembered that the greater its inclination the more quickly will the rain that inclination falls on it run off. No roof need slope at an angle °^'^°°^^- greater than 45°, which is the inclination of the slanting line B C to the horizontal line A B in fig. 644, and none should be less than 22° 30', as shown by the angle ABE. The latter slope is sufficient for all lean-to sheds ; the former is usually adopted for green- houses, where it is an object to allow the sun's rays to strike on the glass as directly as possible for the greater part of the time that the sun is above the horizon. An angle of 30°, shown by the angle A B D, will be found a convenient and, at the convenient same time, sufficient inclination for the o"||^;^y roofs of most buildings that an amateur P"^P°ses. may put up ; but in determining the slope or pitch of the roof it is manifest that he must, in most cases, be guided by circumstances of position and the purpose for which the building is intended 1332. The general principles of construction of span-roofs will be readily understood from fig. 645, which shows the kind of roof that the amateur will most generally build on this plan. In construction this diagram the height of the roof is taken at one-third °^ ^pa'^-'°°f- Fig. 644. INCLI- NATION OF ROOFS. fW-oJl Fig. 647. CKi:sT BOARD. Fig. 645. CONSTRUCTION OF SPAN-ROOF. the span, that is to say, the height A B of the ridge B above the horizontal line c D drawn from the top of one wall to the top of the 6i4 Household Building Art and Practice. other is exactly one-third of C D, which makes the inchnation of iha sloping sides of the roof to this horizontal line as nearly 30° as possible. Proportions Thus, if CD be 15ft., A B should be 5ft., and if the height of roof. ^ i^g gfj^^ ^.jjgj^ ^i^g gpjjn CD should be i8ft. If the material of which the roof is to be formed is heavy, then the beams or rafters should be pretty stiff, that is to say, they should not be less than 6in. deep by sin. thick ; but if the roofing stuff be light, rafters oi less substance, as far as depth is concerned, will do. The rafters E, F, are notched on to the wall-plates G and H respectively at Rafters. ^^^^.^ lower end, while the upper end of each is rested against the ridge-pole K. In order to give stability to the structure, the rafters are connected by a tie L, which renders the whole frame- work rigid. The same methods of adding purlins and common rafters if necessary, and of completing the roof, are used as in Piirlina and .,,.., , common the lean-to roof, and if vertical boaramg is to be used as roofing material it will be desirable to nail some horizontal pieces across the rafters from end to end, to which the boarding may, in its turn, be nailed. 1333. Horizontal boarding may be nailed on to the rafters at once, and this may be covered with ordinary roofing-felt. This is shown in Horizontal fig- 646, which also exhibits a neat method of covering boarding. ^^^ ^.j^gg ^^^j^ ^ ^.^p^ q^ piece of wood grooved below so as to fit over the ridge and rounded above. This may be made more ornamental by making another groove along the top of the rounded surface into which must be inserted a thin crest-board, as shown in fig. 647, which may be cut along the topmost edge into any shape Civp and that fancy may dictate. In the crest-board the grain will crefc^toard. ^^^ ^^^^^ j^^ length from end to end, and whatever may be the style of ornamentation adopted, it will be desirable not to leave too narrow a neck of wood between the lowest parts of the indentations, lest by some mischance any of the projections should be broken off, and the appearance of the crest-board spoiled. 1334. The formation of a hipped-roof is far more difficult than that of the roofs which have been described, but it maybe that the amateur The hipped- may require to make one. We will, therefore, endeavour '°°^' to describe as briefly as may be consistent with clearness two forms of hipped-roofs, and these descriptions, it is to be hoped, will serve as a sufficient guide for anything else that the amateur may desire to do in this way. 1335. Let us suppose, first of all, that, instead of a roof sloping on iwo sides for a lean-to house, the amateur desires to make his roof Construction of Hipped-roof. 615 in i^ree parts, so as to slope down to a gutter surrounding the three walls of the building, of which two are brought out at right °' o o General angles to the original wall that forms the back of the struc- form of " ° .... hIpped-roof. ture, while the third forms the front. On consideration it will be clear that when a lean-to roof was used to such a structure as this, the front wall was level along the top, and the end walls, so to speak, were half-gabled or sloped upwards from the front wall. When a span-roof was adopted the side walls were level at the top, and the front wall assumed the form of a gable end, but now a hipped-roof is to be constructed, the three walls must be level and of the same height. 1336. To form such a roof as this it is manifest that the first thing to be done is to fix a ridge-pole a b, as in figs. 648 and 649, projecting Fig. 649. HippED-RooF. Fig. 648. hipped-roof— plan. SIDE ELEVATION. from the wall at the back. In fig. 648 the plan of the „ ° ^ '^ How to roof is shown, and the appearance presented by either construct hipped-roof, side when viewed from the side is exhibited in fig. 649, although strictly speaking this is the elevation of the side of the build- ing to the left hand. The ridge-pole being fixed and levelled hip- rafters c B and D Bare placed in position, one end resting on the corners of the wall-plates where they join, and the and hip- other butting against the end B of the ridge-pole. These rafters may be about 4in. by 3in., if the roof is not very large and heavy. This being done, straight rafters of the same scantling as the hip- rafters must be placed along the wall-plates E C and F D and fastened, the first four on either side to the ridge-pole, and the remainder to the hip-rafters, the lower end of each being notched over the wall-plate. It will be noticed that these rafters, which are called jack- jj^^j^.^aftera. rafters, decrease gradually in length, until the last that is required is vei7 short indeed, perhaps no more than iSin. or 2ft. in length. Rafters must be laid on in the same manner in front, the upper end of the central rafter butting against the ridge-pole and the rest against the hip-rafters, decreasing on either side until the whole 5i6 Household Building Art and Practice. are put in position. It will be manifest on consideration that the edges Bednction of °^ *^^ hip-rafters will have to be reduced with the plane edges ofhip- a little on both sides so as to bring each side on a level with the upper surface of the upper rafters. A roof of this kind may be covered over in the same manner as lean-to and span-roofs, but if boarding is used care should be taken to cut the boards in such a manner that they may join accurately. The slanting lines of junction between the faces of the roof directly over the hip- Capping to rafters ma^y be finished with rounded capping to conceal fiTiish rcof J .... and protect the jomt ; but cappmg m this position should be left plain at the top, and not finished with a crest-board, as in the case of a cap surmounting the ridge-pole. 1337. The formation of the hipped-roof which we have been con- sidering may be extended in the opposite direction, so as to form a roof Extension ^^^^^ ^°^^ sloping faces over four walls of the same height. of general We have now to look at another kind of formation, such principle, ' as that presented by the roof of a gable end or attic window, projecting from the main roof. In this case the top of the walls will no longer be level, but will each be sloped upwards into gables or half-gables according to circumstance.^. We will, as before, imagine our roof to be placed over a building that forms a projection or offset from another, the wall of the old building forming the back wall of the new structure. As in the previous case, the principle involved can be extended to an independent building with gables at every face, if it be so desired, as will easily appear from the description about to be given. 1338. Fig. 650 represents the plan, and fig. 651 the elevation when Fig. 651. GABLE ROOF— SIDE ELEVATION, c e Fig. 650. GABLE ROOF— PLAN viewed from the left-hand side, of such a roof as is now under con- M th d f sideration. a, b, and C indicate the highest points of the construction walls to be Covered in, A and B being the summits of of gable roof. ' ° the half-gables, and C that of the entire gable in the front. Wall-plates are laid down the slopes of the walls from A and C to D, and Covering Materials for Roofs. 617 from B and c to E. A long horizontal timber is fixed against the wall form- ing the back of the new structure from A to B, and from its .„ „ , ^ ° _ ' Wall -plates central point F a ridge-pole is laid to C. This being done ^^^ ^p- hip-rafters are laid from F to D and ti-om F to E. In the elevation, fig. 651, the points B, F, A, become merged, as it were, into one, and the middle point F has therefore been denoted by the same letter as in fig. 650, in order to distinguish the ridge-pole in each figure more clearly and to afford better means of identifying it in each. The next step in the process of construction is to add the Riage-poie rafters, sloping from the horizontal timber A F B to the hip-rafters F D and F E, and then the rafters from the ridge-pole F C to the other side of the hip-rafters. Thus th^re are four faces, similar in shape and size in fig. 650, but not necessarily so in practice, two of which slope from the highest parts of the whole roof to the hip-rafter F D, and two to the hip-rafter F E. The water, therefore, that falls on the roof will trickle downwards to the lines of the Jiip-rafters on either side and leave the roof at the corners D and E, where suitable provision must be made to carry it off. A roof of this kind, like the others already described, may be finished with a variety of materials, but the best and safest mode is to lay a piece of flat board down the line of the hip-rafters to form the bottom of a gutter, and ^ ^, . ■^ " Guttering. then to cover the rest of the rafters with horizontal board- ing. Sheet lead should then be laid in the valley thus formed, to receive the water, and the rest of the boarding covered with slates. The ridge F c must be capped with ridge-tiles, and the line A F B, with a flushing of lead or zinc let into the face of the wall behind and properly secured. 1339. Having considered the various forms which the roof assumes and the mode in which the necessary frame-work of wood Is constructed in each case to afford a support for the covering material, covering we must now turn our attention to the covering material ^^^^^^^f^^ ^°' itself. This may be either natural or manufactured. Chief among the natural products with which a roof may be covered in are straw and reed, slate and wood, while among the manufactured articles the most important are tiles, cement slabs, roofing-felt and pasteboard, and sheets of zinc and corrugated iron. 1340. With straw and reed the amateur will do nothing : the art of the thatcher is one that is very difficult to acquire, and ^j^^t^j^g while, especially in the western counties, many a farm ^'■^^^f^l^ labourer is to be found who can turn his hand to work of almost any kind, it will be found that he cannot, and will not, meddle 6i8 Household Building Art and Practice. with the thatcher's work. Thatching is a special trade requiring mucs manual skill that is only to be acquired by practice, and in harvest- time in the West country a good thatcher is constantly in request on one farm or another, and earns good wages. 1 34 1. In Devonshire the straw of wheat, when the leaves have been taken off by a rough comb, is bound in small bundles called niches^ How thatch- and termed " reed." The word straw is confined to barley and oat straw. In thatching, the lower end of the wheat straw is brought outwards and the head laid inwards, and when finished— that is to say, for bams and cottages, but not for ricks of hay or corn — the surface is shaved over with a sharp sickle. The long strong reeds growing in the marshes, and especially in Slapton Lea — hence called lea-reeds, or, as a Devonshire man would say, "lay- reeds • — are cut at a certain time of the year and stacked in bundles for thatching houses. 1342. It is useful for the amateur to prepare wheat straw in this way for the purpose of making mats to protect cold pits and frames Mats of and glass structures in winter. The wheat straw. , /■ j • , • mi 1 mode of domg this will be seen from fig. 652. Two or three pieces of strong string, of some length, having been doubled so „„ .„ c „ i 1 J . Q^ • , . Fig. 652. MAT OF wheat as to form two long ends, straw sufficient to straw. make a layer from lin. to lyi'xn. in diameter is thrust against the pieces of string where they are doubled, and the ends are pulled one in one direction and the other in another, so as to bind the straw tightly together. Another small bundle of straw is placed between the ends of string close to the first bundle and the strings are again crossed. The operation is continued until a mat of sufficient length is formed. When used the straw should be in the direction of the slope of the frame or pit, and as the mats will be comparatively narrow, and one will not be sufficient, in all probability, to cover the frame, two or three must be used, the one that is above the bottom mat and next to it lapping over it just as slates lap one over the other. 1343. To return, however, to materials used for roofing, enough has been said about boarding over roofs with weather boarding or vertical Materials for boards to render necessary any further allusion to this yet con-° material and the mode of using it. Cement slabs have also been spoken of in building with this patent material, and the mode of dealing with them has been fully explained. We have therefore only to consider the modes adopted for covering roofs with slates, tiles, roofing-felt and pasteboard and sheet metals, flat and Roofing with Slates and Tiles. 619 furrowed, or "corrugated," as it is technically called ; but as the making of zinc and metal roofs belongs to the smith and zinc-worker, it will be better to leave the notice of them for that part of the book in which these trades are brought briefly under the consideration of the amateur-artisan. 1344. The methods adopted in covering roofs with slates and tiles are very nearly identical. The tile is hung by a peg, or two pegs, on a lath nailed horizontally to the rafters and called a pan- ., , , , '^ Eooflng with tile lath : the slate may be hung on a lath in the same Biates and •1 J 1 • tiles. manner, cjr naued on to horizontal boarding previously nailed down to the rafters to receive them. In all roofing operations, whether the material used be tiles, slates, pieces of wood cut in the form of slates or tiles, and in ornamental figures, such as triangles, semicircles, etc., the chief points to be regarded are that in all places all over the roof there shall be a double thickness of the material used, and that bond shall be properly broken, that is to say, that the line of junction between any two slates or tiles shall meet on and over the centre of a solid slate or tile in the course immediately below, so that no water shall make its way through the roof and into the building below during a fall of rain, however long or continuous it may be. It will be understood that the foregoing remarks apply to plain tiles or flat tiles, and not to pantiles, which form a ridge and furrow roof and overlap each other in a far less degree. 1345. The following memoranda with regard to slating and tiling will be useful, and first, with regard to the laths on which tiles are hung, let it be noted that a plain tile lath is i J/in. wide ^ ^, , °' '^ '^ Laths for and M'w).. thick, while a pantile lath is i^in. wide and slates and ' ^ tiles. lin. thick. A bundle of pantile laths consists of lo laths 12ft. long, or I20ft. of lathing. A bundle of plain tile laths contains 100 when the laths are 5ft. long, 125 when they are 4ft. long, and 166 when they are 3ft. long ; in fact, 500ft. of lathing in this form consti- tutes a bundle, whatever may be the length of the laths. One bundle of laths is used for tiling a square of looft. superficial. 1346. With regard to tiles, a plain tile is about 11 in. long, yin. wide, and ji\xi. thick, and weighs about 2lbs. 50Z., or 2>^lbs. ; a pantile is ly/zvci. long, 9>^in. wide, and ^zin. thick, and weighs Dimensions. SXlbs. The number of tiles required for looft. super, of ^ °''° tiling varies according to the gauge used ; tlius, 600 plain tiles will be required for 4in. gauge, 700 for 3^2 in. gauge, and 800 for aauge for 3in. gauge. The wider the gauge, therefore, the fewer the ' tiles required, and the more economical the roof. For a square 620 Household Building Art and Practice. covered with pantiles, i8o are required for loin. gauge, 164 for iiin., and 150 for I2in. 1347. Slating is also measured by the square, an allowance of ift. being generally made for the eaves. An allowance of 6in. is made on Measurement each side for cutting to hips and valleys, and when the o s a ing. gi^jgg jjj.g trimmed or cut at the bottom to present orna- mental courses on a roof, at least one-third extra must be allowed. The most durable slates are those from the Welsh quarries. Ordinary slating, if not done with wooden pegs, is put on with iron or zinc nails, but iron nails will rust, and the heads of zinc nails often fly off when struck with the hammer, zinc being a very brittle metal. Copper nails are better than either zinc or iron, being far more durable, but, at the same time, more expensive. 1348. To find how many slates are wanted for a piece of rooEng, Calculation ^^^''P'y the length by the breadth, allowing for the of number of row of slates below at the bottom and how much the Blates for roof. rows of slates (or tiles) are laid one over the other. Of roofing slates, 120 are reckoned to the hundred. 1349. Slates are known in the building trade by different names, according to their sizes, as shown in the following table, which exhibits Names and the size of each kind, the gauge that is most commonly ize c .at . ^g^j ^^^^^ jj^^ number required for a square according to the gauge specified, and the weight per thousand (that is to say, 1,200) in the first and second qualities. No. . ofSqrs. No. re- Weight pi ?>- Thousand Name of Slate. Size. Cnu^e. coz'eredby quired to ( 1 , 200). 1,200. Square. \si Quality. 2>ui Qiiality Doubles No. I. .. . I2in. X Sin. ... 4^in. 2.8 ... 430 ., ,. I7icwt. ... 2ICWt. ,, No. ». .. . 13 „ X 6 ,, , •■■ 5 M 2-5 — 480 ., •• 35 » ... 18 „ Ladies No. i. .. . 14 „ X 32 » ... ^1„ 5 240 • 33 „ ... 42 „ „ No. 2. .. • 35 ., X 8„ . ... 6 „ 4 3^-*o . •• 25 II — 33 11 Viscountesses .. . 18 „ X lo „ . •• 7h„ 6 200 •• 34 II ... 44i „ Countesses . 20 ,, X 10 „ . ... 8i„ 7 171 •• 40 1, ... 50 „ Marchionesses .. . 22 ,, X 12 „ , ... qI „ 9.3 ... 130 •• 52 11 ... t>6 „ Duchesses . 24 „ X 12 ,, ... loj „ lo.s ... 125 . .. 60 „ - 77 .1 1350. Other sizes of slates are known as Queens, Imperials, and Rags, but of these there are no absolutely determined sizes, and there- Larger kinds fore no accurate data can be given as with the sizes above. Queens and Imperials are usually cut from 27in. to 36in. in length, but of irregular widths. Rags are of various lengths and widths. Of these kinds of slates a ton will cover from two to two and a half squares. For fixing slates, as many nails are allowed per square as there are slates, for all sizes from Doubles No. i to Viscountesses inclusive, but for the larger sizes two nails per slate are allowed. 1351. The framing of the roof being ready, and the slates delivered Preparing Roof for Slates and Lathes. C21 on the ground, the next thing to be done is to nail the laths across the rafters on which to hang the slates, unless the ^ ° Prepanng framing has been boarded over to receive them, and to roof for ° ' slates, pierce and peg the slates ready fov hanging. In order that the laths may be laid at a proper distance apart, it is necessary first of all to decide on the gauge, that is to say, the width, from the bottom of the slate to the line across the slate in which the holes for pegs are to be made, or through which the nails that pin the slates to the boards are to be driven. 1352. Let us see, then, how to determine where this line shall be drawn across the slate, and how to set out the roof for the laths. Suppose that the amateur is going to use Ladies No. 2, a slate which measures isin. in length by Sin. in width. roof for ■^ . laths. It is necessarj' for half ttie slate in the course above to lap over half two adjoining slates in the course below, to preserve all the ret[uisitesfor a sound weather-tight, and to allow of proper breaking of bond. He will remember that the width of a plain tile lath, or a lath used for slating, is iXi^., and ashalf the length of his slate is 7/2 in. the width of his gauge must be 7/4'in. + i^in., or S^Yin., as shown in fig. 653, which '^ ' o JJ7 Gauging L^ I " .lepresents a slate Kin. X Sin. drawn andpre- i-^.».— ,--,— u paring slates. to scale. To make the gauge by which the dotted line C D may be scratched across each slate, a piece of lath must be taken :i " 5 ' and two nails inserted in it at the distance A B Fig. 653. I'KE- = S^4 in. apart. This being done, if one nail be PARING SLATE , , , , FOR ROOF. Grawn along the bottom of the slate, the other Fig. 654. slater's will trace the line C D. To prepare the slates for SAXE. hanging on the laths a tool is used, called a slater's saxe or chopper, evidently derived from the seaxe slater's saxa or short sword of the Saxons, having a sharp point pro- °' ° opp^r. jecting from the back, as shown in the illustration. The cutting part of the blade is used for dividing slates, and the point for piercing a single hole at A in fig. 653, or two holes, about 3^in. from each side, as those shown near c and D. One or two pegs are used, Pegging according to the number of holes, the pegs being from ^^'^s. ij^in. to 2in. long, and driven in home to the top so that there may be no projecting piece left, which would have the eficct of lifting tlie slate that might lay next above and upon it. 1353. To set out the roof for the laths the operator must place his rule on the end rafters, so that the end may be 2in. or 3in. over the S.J u 522 Household Building Art and Practice. ends of rafters. eaves, as may be required to give the necessary drip, and make a Process of ^^^^ o" the rafter u^in. from the end, and then 6Xin. setting below and 6Xin. above, continuing the marks upwards until the ridge of the roof is reached. This must be done, as it has been said, on each of the end rafters, and the marks must then be struck on the rafters intervening by means of a chalk line stretched across from end rafter to end rafter. Laths must then be nailed along the lines thus made, the top of the lath in every case being brought against the Hne ; thus, in other words, the lath will be brought against the line, touching it, but will lie below it. This description will be better understood by referring to fig. 597 in page 562. In putting on the slates it will be found that the slates at each end of every other course will be of half width, as shown in the illustration, and the first row of slates along the eaves will have to be cut off along the line of the gauge. The same method must be adopted for plain tiles. 1354. All this must be done of necessity, but before the slates ar* put on there are other things that must be seen to as well. The Facia along ^^^^^^^ ^v^^^> O"" oug^t to, hang Over the wall, and to the ends of the rafters a facia should be nailed, to which the guttering may be attached. This facia-board should be made of substantial stuff, varying from lin. to l}i\n. in thickness, according to the size of the building. The depth of the facia will depend upon the size of the rafters, but it will seldom, if ever, be less than 6in. in width. Provision must also be made to give the first course of slates the proper inclination. 1355. What is meant by giving the ^^ proper inclination to the first course Inclination of slates will appear of first , , - - coui-se of more clearly from figs. '^''*''- 65 5 and 656, which show, the first, the wrong way, and the second, the right way, of commencing to cover a roof with slates or tiles. In both these figures A is the wall- plate on the top of the wall B, c the ^ . ' Fig. 636. RIGHT WAY OF PUTTING rafter, D the facia destined to carry on slates, btc. the guttering, and E, E', laths nailed lengthwise across the rafters to Right and Wrong Methods of Slating. 623 sustain the roofing material. Now, if the first half course of slates were put on below the lath E, and in such a manner that Example of the upper surface of the slate F i were parallel to the m^tho^d of upper surface of the rafter, and the next course of ^^a'^s- whole slates F 2 were put upon it, it is plain that the upper part of the slate in question would be also parallel to the slope of the rafter, and that a space would intervene between the upper part of the rafter and the lower surface of the slate. This would have the effect of raising every course of slates further above the line of the rafters than that below it, and before many courses of slates had been put in position the pegs would fail to catch and be sustained by the laths ; or, supposing that the upper end of the slate were pressed down so that the peg might catch on the lath, the lower portion of F 3 would be raised above the surface of the slate below it, and project in the manner indicated by the dotted line F 4. In a roof covered in this way there would be neither stability nor capability of resistance to the weather. It is necessary, therefore, to seek means by which the inconvenience and error already described may be avoided, and a proper inclination given to the first course of slates or tiles. 1356. To do this effectually and in a proper manner a piece of wood, such as is shown in section in fig. 656 at G, must be nailed to the rafters, of such a shape as to throw the outer edge or bottom of the slate or tile upwards ; or, what is all the same, the rafters must be blocked at the ends with pieces shaped like G, or having, Exan.pie of in other words, a wedge-Uke form and a strip of board ^'^ "^^ nailed on these from end rafter to end rafter to carry the first half course of slates. The first half course will then take the proper posi- tion indicated by F i in fig. 656, and the first whole course, hooked on with pegs to the lath E, will lay flat on the half course as shown by F 2, while F 3 will indicate the position of the slates in the second whole course, and the manner in which every course of slate in a slate roof, and every course of tile in a tile roof, rests on the slate or tile immediately below it, as the case may be. Of course the relative position of the slates, and the space between them, has been some- what exaggerated in the illustration, but this has been done purposely, the better to explain the proper way of going to work as clearly and definitely as possible. The facia D will have to be raised pacia must sufficiently high to cover the ends of the rafters and the abo/^ends ends of the pieces nailed on them. °^ '^ '"^' 1357. We will pass on now to the last kind of material that will reauire mention here, and this includes the roofing-felt and the 624 Household Building Art and Practice. Willesden roofing pasteboard. The roofing-felt is a strong, coarse felted material made of hair, and apparently all kinds ot Roofing-felt. , . ,., ^ , ... , , hair-like refuse that will mat together under pressure, rendered waterproof by being saturated with tar. It is dirty to handle, and not very easy to cut, but when nailed over boarding and tarred and sanded it affords a durable roof impervious to weather. Of course all roofing-felt of this kind requires dressing with tar and sand once a year to preserve it. When left exposed to the sun and rain for some time without dressing, the tar with which it was saturated at making loses its power, and the felt gets broken up. This kind of roofing material, which is generally known as " Croggon's Patent Roofing-felt," is sold by most ironmongers and oilmen. It is sold in rolls 2ft. Sin. wide at the rate of id. per foot super. ; thus the cost of every yard of the material per lineal measure is 8d. It is laid over the boarding of the roof in horizontal slips from side to side of the roof, and secured in its position by flat-headed nails ; the lowest strip must be laid first, and then.the one immediately above it, which must lap over the lowest slip to the extent of 2in. or 3in. Zinc or copper nails are better for nailing felt to wood than iron nails. 1358. A better material, however, than the foregoing, more cleanly and comfortable to handle, and more easily cut, e.xists in the Willesden Paper, which is manufactured at the WiLLESDEN PAPER AND Canvas Works, Willesden function, London, Willesden Paper for N.iV., and sold at the Company's dep6ts, 34, Cannon Street, E.G., and 52, South Castle Street, Liverpool. This material has now been in use for some years, and has obtained gold and silver medals and highest awards at exhibitions held in various parts of the world in and since 1878. 1359. The Willesden Roofing used for sheds, farm buildings, cot- tages, etc., is supplied in rolls of any length, igin. and 27in. wide, at IS, and IS. 2d. per yard, and from which it is to be gathered that its price is no more than iW. and 2d. per square foot. For Willesden . r -1 4-piy partitions, small leantos, domestic offices, etc., the roofing can be had 54in. wide when desired at 2s. and 2s. 3d. per yard run, which is about the same per square foot. The quality used for roofing, verandahs, etc., is known as 4-ply paper. It is claimed that it is the best and cheapest roof-covering extant, no boards being required, as the material itself is battened directly upon the rafters. Its durability is proved by the fact that structures covered with material of this quality have been standing exposed to all weathers for the last eleven years without injury. Its cheapness, moreover, is considerably Vs^lLLESDEN ROOFING PaPER. 625 increased by its lightness, as the subtructure necessary to support a roof composed of Willesden Paper need not be in any way so sub- stantially made as one intended to support a roof of tiles, slate, or iron. Compared with galvanised iron for weight and capacity, 100 square feet of Willesden Paper weighs 16 J lbs., and the same area of galvanised iron, B.W.G. 24, weighs 145 lbs. ; and i ton of the former covers 13,500 square feet, and l ton of the latter 1,540 square feet. 1360. 1 will now mention other qualities of Willesden Paper and the various purposes for which they are used. These . other cxualltiea qualities are known as 2-plyand i-ply, m reference to the of wuiesiea substance of the material. The former is used for under- lining slates or tiles, for fixing against damp walls, for an interior lining to leaky roofs, for making stencil plates and waterproof labels and for roofing idef otv^t^Ti^is and set\<)n brick, or 70 yards on lath. The same quantity will cover 65 yards plaster or render, two coats and set, on brick, or 60 yards on lath. Floated work will require about the same as two coats and set. 1375- The thickness of the coating of compo or stucco with which Influence of ^ ^^all is covered will of course influence the quantity of coating^on Cement that is used in the operation. According to the °®'^®'^* ^^®*' thicknesses given, i bushel of cement used by itself or mixed with I, 2, or 3 bushels of sand will cover superficial space as follows : — Thickness Jin. fin. lin. Yards. Yards. Yards. 1 bushel of Cement... sj ij i^ I ditto and i of Sand 4J 3 2^ Thickness Jin. fin. lin. Yards. Yards. Yards. I ditto and 2 of Sand 6J 4J 3^ I ditto and 3 of Sand 9 6 4. J It must be remembered that the cement is weakened by the addition of sand, and that if a strong and durable coating of stucco is required, it will be better to use equal proportions of sand and cement. A useful and sufficient thickness will be found in J^in. 1376. A Jiod of plaster is reckoned to be about yi bushel ; 2 bushels Hod of of g^'^y 1'"^^ or 3 of blue lias are equal to i bag ; 20 plaster, bushels of sand go to i yard ; 3 bushels of cement make I sack; and a cask of Portland cement contains 4 bushels; 14 pounds of plaster of Paris constitutes i bag, and 7 bags make I bushel. 1377. In addition to the above memoranda, which may prove useful in calculating quantities required and in buying, it may be desirable to remind the reader that a bundle of laths measures 500 feet per foot Bundle of ^""> whatever may be the length of the laths, whether laths. iQj^g Qj. short. It is reckoned that i bundle of laths and 500 nails will cover about 4>^ superficial yards. The single fir laths are about yi'm. thick, and often less than this ; the stouter or double I.iths are about ^in. tliick. Whitewashing : Plasterer's Tools. 631 1378. With regard to whitewashing to cover 100 square yards super- ficial once over, lalbs. of whiting— to be bought of any white- oilman and at some grocers' — will be wanted, with X^b. of ^a^^^^^^g- blue-black and i }{ gallons ot size. To go twice over the same super- ficial extent : 21 lbs. of whiting, 34; lbs. of blue-black, and Prepared , , . . ■whitening for 2}4 gallons of size will be required. A prepared whitening whitewash. for whitewashing is now sold, the chief merit of which appears to be — and a great merit it certainly is — that in mixing it for use, no size need be added, to it. All that is necessary is to add water to the whitening, and the whitewash is ready. It is made by MESSRS. Groves and Co., Zz'ilie Road, Fulham, S. W. 1379. The tools required by the plasterer are hammers, trowels, floats, and moulds, with brushes. Other tools than these are used by the regular plasterer, but these will be all that the ^j^^ amateur-artisan will want, as it is unlikely that he will try ^^^.^'^Jg^''^ his hand at anything else than mere repairs, and this is by no means clean and pleasant work. The hammer used by the plasterer has a face for striking nails on one side, and an axe- „ ^ ° Hammer. shaped blade on the other, with a nick in it on the bottom of the blade. This blade is used for chopping and breaking laths to the proper length when necessary. The nails used for attaching laths to quartering of partitions, or joists of ceilings, are furnished with a head, and resemble, in some degree, small clasp-nails. For putting on coarse stuff the ordinary bricklayer's trowel may be used ; but for laying on fine stuff, and smoothing the finishing sur- face of a wall, a trowel of peculiar form and make, with the handle springing from and parallel to the blade, like that shown in plan at A and in section at B in fig. 658, is required. It will be readily seen that plaster can be spread far more easily and smoothly with a trowel of this construction than with an ordi- nary trowel. This trowel is technically called a Fig 658 PLAs- "darby," a corruption presumedly of Trowel or TERER's DARBY, daubcr, an old English word applied to •ia'^'y- those who built walls of mud or clay mixed with straw, and to plas- terers as well as to the tool with which the daubing or plastering was done. Primarily the word is derived from dabble, which means to work in wet materials.^ The little square mortar-board on which « The word "daub" kas changed somewhat in iu signification since the trans- lation of our English Bible rfow in use was made. We do not speak of daubtns » waU with mortar now. It is in the sense of co.ering with an external coating Hwi 532 Household Building Art and Practice. the plaster is held for the plasterer's use, and which has been de Mortar-board scribed in the chapter on bricklaying, is technically called or haw. .^^ "hawk," though why it should be so no satisfactory reason appears. The float is a long straight-edge, higher in the _ „ middle than at the ends, which is dipped in water and The float. ' *^^ worked over the surface of the plaster in order to render the surface perfectly level. This name is also given to a wooden tool similar in shape to the darby, which is also dipped in water and worked over the plastering to produce a smooth and even surface. 1380. Lastly, the kind of brush chiefly used by the plasterer, whether for applying water to the surface of his work or for washing ^^^ the dirt off walls that are to be re-coloured, or ceilings plasterer's that are to be whitened anew, is one of the shape indi- brush. ' ^ cated in fig. 659, being from 4in. to 6in. in width across the broad part of the handle, to which three tufts of long hair are fastened, as shown in the illustration, the whole spreading out into a broad, fiat brush capable of holding a good deal of water or colouring matter, and of being worked over the surface of plaster without doing more than remove the external coating of dirt and colouring matter when the wall or ceiling is being cleaned. The price of such brushes as these varies from 2s. to 3s. No amateur artisan should be without one. 1 38 1. Enough has now been said about the materials used by the plasterer and the tools that he employs ; but further on some additional remarks Cements, ^^7 be made on cements in connection templates, eto. uu ^ ^ • j 1 , ^'^- ^59- PLAS- ^ • with plastermg, and the templates or terers brush. moulds with which cornices are fashioned. We must now go back to the order in which it was proposed to treat plasterer's work in section 1368, and consider it as relating to the inside of a house in coating walls and ceilings, afterwards touching briefly on the subsidiary work of putting up cornices and enrichments of ornamental work, such as roses, in the centre of a ceiling. 1382. First of all there must of necessity be some surface to which to apply the plaster. This exists, of course, in all brick and stone Jochebed, the mother of Moses, is said, in Exodus ii. 3, to have " daubed " the ark of bulrushes, in when she exposed her infant, with slime and pitch ; and, again, in Ezekiel xiii. 10-15 and xxii. 28, the prophets of Israel are likened to men daubing a wall witli untempercd mortar. Preparation of Lathing to Receive Plaster. 633 walls and brick nogging partitions in the rough surface that brick- work or stone-work presents, and to which plaster will readily cling ; but in ceilings and ordinary partitions of framed timbers or quartering there is nothing of this kmd, and an artificial surface must be created on which the plaster may be laid. This is efifected by means of □ laths, which icxLwo, Lathing to I . I -. are nailed, as receivs ■ ■ ^"i— * . plaster, represented m fig. 660, to the timbers A, __ . — ;b, C, which may represent 'LJ ^[j ^'i_J either the outer faces of Fig. 660. LATHS NAILED 10 QUARTERING OR JOISTS, quartering or the lower faces of the joists of a ceiUng. It is unnecessary here to enter on the various modes of making a ceiling, or rather framing together the timbers of which it consists, as that is a process which belongs strictly to carpentry, and has been dealt with elsewhere. 1383. Whether it be for the formation of a ceiling or a partition, laths must be nailed all over the exposed t-mbers at distances which will vary from X^n- to >^in., according to the configura- ^.^^^^^^ tion of the laths, as in the accompanying illustration, t^^tw^^^ The interstices between the laths are highly useful, and render the surface far better for coating over with plaster than a smooth surface ; for when the mortar is put over the laths part of it penetrates between them, and when hard keys, as it were, the plaster to the laths, and renders it difficult of removal. A lath and plaster partition between two rooms, or between a room and a passage with- out it, must be covered with laths, and plastered on both sides. As the first coat of plaster is p^jgi ^oat of 1 r »u~ plaster, etc. spread it is scored over by means of the trowel with rough diagonal lines about ^in. deep, as F,o.-£6r-™G shown in fig. 661, and these rough and deep lines, FIRST COAT OF PLASTER. vvhich are made at a distance of about 2in. apart, serve to holTthTsecond coat of plaster to the first in the same manner as the interstices between the laths gave material assistance in holdmg the first coat. 1384. Great care must be taken in reducing with the float the finishing coat, whether there be two or three, to a surface smooth and level in every part, as there are few things more unsatis- The fi^^hing factory to the eye than an uneven wall, receding in some parts from, and projecting in others beyond, the true surface. Equal care, too, must be taken in finishing the arrises or edges of projeclmg 634 Household Building Art and Practice. chimney-breasts, or of any recess in the wall where the two surfaces of the wall and the reveal meet at right angles. These — to borrow a term from fortification — are salient angles : the converse of these, namely, re-entering angles formed by the meeting of two sides of a room, or the reveal of a recess and the wall at the back, must be fin- ished in the same careful, painstaking manner, otherwise the room will not look well when it is papered. Sometimes, to assist the plasterer in covering his walls with plaster, a strip of wood is nailed to the chimney-breast on either side, and occasionally in the angles of the rooms, and the plasterer is bound to govern his work by these strips of wood. 1385. In plastering it is desirable that the work, from the first coat to the last, should harden as soon as possible; firstly, that the plasterer Hardening may proceed from one coat to another with as little delay of coats, ^g j^^y ^g . ^^^^ secondly, that the plaster may be covered with paint or otherwise treated as soon as it is in a fit state to receive it. For this end various cements have been introduced in which some foreign ingredient is mingled with the usual materials, with the view of making the plaster set slowly enough to be manipu- lated with ease, and render it fit to be painted on at once as soon as it is set. For all practical purposes there is nothing better than Port- land cement, but the cements known as Parian cement and Martin's cement have long been popular, the latter being said to have the ad- vantage from its chemical composition of covering more surface in proportion to its bulk than any other similar material. 1386. It is well remarked in " Laxton's Price Book" that " the test of these materials is, of course, the way in which they work." Some years Test of ago, before these cements were so largely used as they cemen s. ^^^ ^^ present, all making good, as it is technically called — i.e., patching up holes in old plastering — used to be done \\\\.h. J>laster. Then Keene's was introduced, but the men did not like it ; it was troublesome and uncertain, and, as they said, worked harsh. When Parian, however, came into play, they preferred it to the plaster, and always used it when they could, as it was sufficiently mild to be worked to advantage, and demanded no excess of labour. Most of these internal cements attain a very great degree of hardness, and they are capable of receiving a pohsh almost equal to marble ; they are rubbed down with " grit-stones " of various qualities, a stopping being added — that is, plaster in a semi-fluid state— which fills up the pores ; this is followed by the same process with " snake stone," and finally finished with putty powder. The chief advantage of Parian cement is that, frora Parian Cement and Martin's Cement. 635 the character of the niaterial with which its base — plaster — is quaUfied, it will take paint almost immediately ; indeed, the soonei it is painted the better. In workmen's phrase, the brush cement: its , advantages, should follow the trowel, and this enables rooms of first-rate character to be finished ready for occupation at once, instead of having to wait a whole season for the plastering to dry. In addi- tions and alterations, where expense ifi not of the first importance, this renders its use of great advantage. 1387. Martin's cement, when used for internal work, can be painted upon in a few hours, a great desideratum where rapidity of progress is absolutely necessaiy. It is to be mixed with clean Martin's water, and, when it has been well beaten up, it must be cement. applied to walls like plaster or cement of an ordinary kind. 1388. The following directions for using Martin's cement, and for other operations inconnection with it, are given in "Spon's Directions for Pocket-book of Prices " :— "^^^ "• (i) '^ For Walls. — Use the coarse cement in the proportion of one measure of cement to one measure and a half of clean, „ For walla. dry, sharp sand for the under coat of half an inch thick, and finish one-eighth of an inch thick with pure cement. (2) " For Paintmg. — Once within twenty-four hours after comple- tion ; care should be taken that oil alone be employed for the first coat, adding a more than ordinaiy quantity of dryers for the second coat ; two parts of oil to one of turps for the third coat ; one part of oil to two of turps for the fourth and following coats at the discretion of the painter ; but much will depend on the description of the work, the more the suction the more oil in propor- tion. Body colour should be avoided in the first coat. Three coats are generally sufficient. (3) " For Paberine;. — One coat of size is sufficient, and „ "-Ji f ^ > For papering. paint is not requisite. (4) *^ For Floorings. — Use an equal proportion of sand and cement, mixed stiff and well beaten down with a shovel to the thick- „ ^ _. For flooringB, ness of three-fourths of an inch, on a solid foundation. Allow it to remain ten or twelve hours, and then float with half an inch of pure cement. (5) " /^^r Za//k^ triangle as in fig. 662, or cut irto projecting angles and recesses as in fig 663 ; but, how- ever this may be, the Fig. 663. BRACKET CUT AC j IN ANGLES. '"o