c to 2js n Its §■§ w 5 « ■^ o ?*© "o.i 0.2 OQ - O ° t— M CsJ u O 5^-^ I :d C ej S •? li .gfa o ^ to o ^ c ** ■•^ .s '-'0,0 « •— s — o^ 'is Copyright, IQ04, by J. Martin Aliller. Reproduced by special permission from U. S. War Department photographs. A KOREAN PONY The disembarkation methods of the Japanese excited as much admiration im did their mobilization of troops. At Chemulpo they purchased a great number of native ponies which they used as beasts of burden. The little animal above shown has a carpenter's kit strapped to his back. W. jh Copyright, igof, by J. Martin Milter. Reproduced by special permission from U. S. IVar Department photographs. JAPANESE SOLDIERS OFF DUTY The compulsory service and the strict physical requirements enabled Japan to put a large hoc' ' of trained soldiers into the field at short notice. A report recently received at the U. S Bureau of Military Information, said: " The Japanese army has established its title as an efficient organization. The men are alfirt.. keen and well di-sciplined." I 5 = 2 )>k , I T3 « C; — «. ■a*" !« — _o •0. -^ — i > X -c -fc. 03 '£ •— M U ii. *j ^ ?• m s^ ^ i^ 1.^ I || i § i-f 03 ^ U OD s c w K ^ -C aT 1 » 1 C C-.5 S O^'^ s 1 s « a; », C > i ^' Hi-a Sf = 2 1- ,? c^ s-J ^ Copyright, iqo4, by J. Martin Miller. Reproduced by special permission from U. S. IVar Deparlmetit photographs. A KOREAN PONY The disembarkation methods of the Japanese excited as much admiration as did their mobiHzation of troops. At Chemulpo they purchased a great number of native ponies which they used as beasts of burden. Tlie little animal above shown has a carpenter's kit strapped to his back. Copyright, igo4, by J. Martin Miller. Reproduced by special permission from U. S. War Department photographs. JAPANESE SOLDIERS OFF DUTY The compulsory service and the strict physical requirements enabled Japan to put a large bo<^ ' of trained soldiers into the field at short notice. A report recently received at the U. S Bureau of Military Information, said: " The Japanese armv has established its title aa an efficient organization." The men are alert, keen and well disciplined." Copyngl.t, /Q04, by J. Martin Miller. Reproduced by special permission from U. S. War Department photographs, A RUSSIAN SOUP WAGON The Czar takes good care of his soldiers. A notable feature of the equipment of the Russians is the traveling field kitchen, consisting of a boiler mounted in a special wagon, so arranged that it keeps the army soup hot while being served. Copyright, jgo4. by J. Martin Miller. Reproduced by special permission from U. S. IVar Department photographs. A RUSSIAN MILITARY CART This rather rude conveyance is used by Russian en^neers for hauling lumber and other materials ased in the construction of fortifications, railroads, etc. The sturdy driver, the shaggy pony, with his high-bowed collar, complete a picture, portraying a rather unique phase of military l.fe in the army of the Czar. THRILLING STORIES OF THE Russian-Japanese War A Vivid Panorama of Land and Naval Battles A REALISTIC DESCRIPTION OF TWENTIETH CENTURY WARFARE THB AWFUL STRUGGLE FOR JAPANESE FREEDOM, THE PEACE AND SAFETY OFTHE ORIENT, AND THE PROTECTION OF HELPLESS CHINA FROM THE GREED OF FOREIGN FOES. ALSO A Complete History of Japan, Russia, China, Korea and Manchuria Indtuiing FrogrtUy Natiotud Trtitt and Customs^ Relighn^ P/kiloscfAy, Ptmrna/ Adventure, etc. BV J. MARTIN MILLER THB CELEBRATED HISTORJAV, WAR CORRESPONDENT AND TRAVBLBK Author of ** China' Ancient and Modern: " TTveniieth Crntury Atlas and History of ■ the Wtrld; Etc., Etc. WITH AN INTRODUCTION BT GENERAL NELSON A. MILES TktgrteUest military authority in the country, who recently made a tour of the Par East, •a/here his position as Commander-in-Chief of the U. S. Army brought him in close touch with ihs itaeUrs of the Russian and Japanese forces Graphically Illustrated with Nearly lOO Superb Engravings CONSISTING OF LAND AND NAVAL ; ATTLES. VIEWS OF WAR SHIPS, PORTRAITS OF RUSSIAN AND JAPANESE COMMANDERS, PICT'JRHS OF FAMOUS CITIBS, FCRTS, TBMPLSS AKD SNAP-SHOTS OF EVER Y-DAlt ll-TB. Copyright, 1904, by J. MARTIN MILLER INTRODUCTION BY LIEUTENANT-GENERAL NELSON A. MILES {Copyright, igo4, by /. Martin Miller.) A book that will give a fair description of the territory soon to be occupied by two or more great armies; that shall give, in brief, a history of the country, its inhabitants, their industries, their modes of life, their beliefs or superstitions, their ideals and their ideas of gov- ernment, of the rights of man and the duties and obligations of man to hereditary, delegated, or usurped power; the history of the various political and military questions that have led up to the impending war, as well as a description of the two immediate contending armies, their differences in personnel, in discipline, in equipment and experi- ence; as well as a forecast of the probable results — must be exceed- ingly interesting to the reading public at this time in every part of the world. Mr. J. Martin Miller has been a war correspondent in the Philip- pines and in the allied campaign in China. He made the march to Pekin with the Japanese army. He was also with the Russian army.during a portion of that cam- paign. He has been over the ground where the war is now being waged, in Korea, Manchuria and Siberia, and now presents a description of the country and an account of the war between Russia and Japani It is singular that in this enlightened age, progressive in art and science if not in political virtue, there should be at this time more hundreds of millions of treasure, drawn from the industries of the people, expended in preparations for war, in the most expensive and 4 INTRODUCTION most terribly destructive implements and engines of war, and more millions of men, civilized, semi-civilized and barbarous tribes organ- ized, drilled, disciplined, instructed and equipped for service or sacri- fice in the great armies and navies of the world, than at any former period. The great bulk of this expenditure of the energy and life, as well as the treasure of the nations, is useless, and would be unneces- sary if reason and justice and humanity could prevail in the place of physical force or high explosives. The best men in many countries haye been advocates and cham- pions of peace. A Congress of Nations was the most eloquent theme of one of America's most eminent statesmen fifty years ago. Such a high tribunal has been urged by the first of every land. Even the present autocrat of all the Russias has been the foremost man of his age in urging and calling a congress of nations with a view to relieving the people in some degree from the heavy burdens of great standing armies and formidable navies. Yet, notwithstanding all the better influences and better judgment of many of the best informed and best hearted people of different countries, we find the energies of two great nations being devoted to the bringing together of the physical power of both in a war that must cost tens if not hundreds of thousands of lives and billions of treasure. It cannot but result injuriously to both. Japan, on the one hand, the oldest dynasty in the world, has been making wonderful strides in useful industries and commercial development. Naturally a peaceful, polite people living in a most beautiful country, universally fond of art and skillful to a high degree — the treasure expended in this war, if it could be devoted to the further development of her civil, educational and commercial interests, would place her prominent among the nations of the world Yet the introduction of modern appliances of war, and her experi ence and great success over a powerful neighbor ten times her own INTRODUCTION S numerical strength, have inspired her people with a confidence and martial spirit that will probably be satisfied, whatever may be the result of the struggle, only after a devastating war. Her army and navy are commanded by skillful and experienced officers; both branches of the service are in the main well equipped and under most positive, absolute discipline. Her navy in Asiatic waters is superior to that of Russia, but would not be if the latter were con- centrated. The present and future interests of the great Russian Empire would seem to be best subserved by a long-conf'nued period of peace. Her experience in the last hundred years has demonstrated her military prowess, and the loyalty, fortitude and courage of her people. She has devoted hundreds of millions of dollars in the development of her great civil enterprise, the Siberian Railway, which opens a vast area of sparsely populated country, capable of developing enormous resources and furnishing millions of homes to an industrious, frugal people. She has opened a new avenue of com- munication and commerce "around the old world." And yet, at a time when peaceful enterprises can best be promoted all must be checked or subordinated to the martialing of mighty hosts to settle a disputed question upon the red fields of war. What seems to be the pending battle ground, Manchuria, is prac- tically an open country, undulated by hills and valleys and occupied by millions of Chinamen, but a country well adapted for maneuvering large armies, though poorly supplied with sustenance required by armies of such magnitude. It is not unlikely that within the next twelve months two navies better equipped with all the destructive engines of war, battleships, cruisers, torpedo boats, torpedo destroyers, submarine vessels, high- power, rapid-fire machine guns, will contend for the mastery of the waters, while two great armies composed of hundreds of thousands of brave men and skillful officers, armed with the most destructive i INTRODUCTION rifles, quick-firing artillery, etc., will clash in mortal combat for each other's destruction, and for the possession of the territories of Korea and Manchuria. The daily intelligence of this great tragedy will be flashed around the world by the electric telegraph and cables, while the whole civil- ized world will witness the changing scenes, either with awe or adula- tion. Whether there will be any great question of moral or political significance settled by the result remains to be seen; or whether any result which will compensate for the sacrifice is very problematical. Certainly there has recently been no serious problem in which the great powers have been actively concerned, or so many of the human race affected, as the one now pending. Any book that will enable its readers to intelligently understand the condition of the country and follow the movements of the different armies and navies as the cam- paign develops might well be commended to the reading public. THE JAPANESE POINT OF VIEW BY KOGORO TAKAHIRA Envoy Eztxaordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary from Japan to the United States. [ The author called upon the Mikado's diplomatic representative at IVashingtofi the day after the war broke out, when he dictated the fol" lowing for this work as his view of the situation i\ My advices from Tokio tell me that the war now going on between my country and Russia began with a Russian attack at Che- mulpo, Korea, on Monday last, and not with the Japanese attack at Port Arthur. My government broke off diplomatic relations with Russia on February 5th. Even though my government did begin the war by attacking the Russian fleet at Port Arthur, there is nothing irregular about it; the action would need no explanation or defence. I simply mention the fact in the interest of historical accuracy. The likening of our sinking the Russian ships at Port Arthur to the Spaniards' blowing up the Maine in Havana Harbor, as I see the French papers have done to-day, is amusing. This, probably is the first time the French have ever charged the Spaniards with destroy- ing the Maine. If I remember, at the beginning of the Spanish- American War, the French were indignant at any suggestion made in America that their friends, the Spaniards, committed such an act. I take it for granted that the present crisis in the far East is a matter of grave concern to you and the readers of your book. I hope that I may go further and assume that, in some measure at least, the opinion you have formed is favorable to the cause which my country represents. But whatever your attitude or that of your readers may be, whether in perfect agreement with mine or not, it is not to your 7 8 THE JAPANESE POINT OF VIEW sympathy but to your judgment I would appeal. Let me add, also, that I do not seek to gain from you a larger measure of good will because the interests of our countries in the far East are to some extent identical. No one speaking with knowledge in Japan's behalf has ever made that plea. All who are familiar with the Eastern situation know that a num- ber of the powers have interests in common in China — interests of the greatest value. Your own government has shown in the most marked manner that it was fully cognizant of the importance of these interests, and alive to the undesirable results that might follow if they were not properly safeguarded. Yet this fact, and others equally well known and equally significant, have not prevented the attempt to picture Japan as pretending that she was acting from altruistic motives, presumptuously arrogating to herself the r6le of champion of a common cause. Nothing could be farther from the truth than this cunning device to arouse prejudice and befog the actual situation. Japan took the initiative because the impending peril, while it threatened others in a measure, was to her a matter of far greater moment. There is another matter to which I would ask your attention. It has been frequently said — so frequently that the statement may have gained some credence — that a Chauvinistic and aggressive spirit is so predominant among my countrymen as to render an equitable and honorable accommodation of the questions at issue practicall}' impos- sible. So far as this charge is concerned, I am perfectly willing to let the facts speak for themselves. Undoubtedly the past few months have been a period of public disquiet and excitement in Japan. Equally without doubt, there has been a great deal of irresponsible popular clamor. But in all fairness, was this either unnatural or, reasonably regarded, a just cause for criticism? Supposing that equally vital questions were at issue in this or any other country, and supposing, also, that the negotiations dragged unaccountably or THE JAPANESE POINT OF VIEW 9 seemed to be intentionally delayed for an unfriendly purpose, would there not be similar manifestations of discontent and unrest? The course of the Japanese government itself under these trying circumstances, its manifest determination to neglect no means of peaceful settlement and to essay every avenue of honorable accord, is sufficient to reply to this accusation. Under the wise guidance of His Majesty the Emperor, my august master, the motto of the Empire, the sole rule of action, first and last throughout this contro- versy, has been peace with honor and safety. In the earnest endeavor to secure this desirable end. His Majesty has had the loyal and cor- dial support of the enlightened public opinion of the Empire, and I feel confident the verdict of history will be that no prompting of self- esteem, no yearning for self-glorification was permitted for an instant to interfere with the patient effort to secure an equitable and lasting agreement upon the questions at issue. The position assumed by Japan was the logical result of her environment and of the inexorable necessities of national safety. Considerations not merely of self-interest or self-respect, but of self- protection, have led her to where she now stands. The increase of her military and naval strength has been criticised as an indication of a desire for national aggrandizement at the cost of others. Even if it were not the fact, as it unquestionably is, that her progress along more peaceful lines has been as notable as her military and naval growth, no more convincing evidence than the present crisis is needed to prove that such preparation was the dictate of wise precaution. The burden upon the nation's resources is not a light one, but think of the infinitely heavier burden Japan would have to bear if, instead of her present neighbors, a potential enemy of uncertain pur- pose and overwhelming strength was firmly intrenched upon her vast threshold. It is this contingencj' against which we have to guard, but in attempting to do so we have never sought to impede in any manner the development of the legitimate ambitions of other nations lo THE JAPANESE POINT OF VIEW or the enjoyment by them of vested rights lawfully acquired. From the outset the representations made in Japan's behalf have been con- fined within clearly defined limits. They may be summed up in a word — respect for the territorial integrity and independence of China and Korea; faithful observance of treaty stipulations, and due recognition of the validity of the special interest created by existing conditions. A few days ago I read an editorial in an American newspaper wherein Japan was represented as having interfered without invita- -tion and without warrant in the affairs of China and Korea. Only ignorance of the actual situation could suggest such a criticism. Every impartial observer familiar with the facts must acknowledge, I feel convinced, that Japan's action was in pursuance of clear duty and assured right, and was fully warranted by her conventional rela- tions with both China and Korea. Her sole desire was to terminate a state of affairs clouded with uncertainties which threatened present loss and future danger, and to evolve from indefinite assurances and nebulous promises, regard- ing matters in which she was vitally interested, an understanding clearly defining the rights and the duties of all concerned. It may have been over sanguine to attempt such a task, but the attempt itself was justified by the law of nations and by an even more impera- tive obligation in the duty of self-protection. In i8q5 Japan gained a foothold in Manchuria by right of con- quest. Russia thereupon took the initiative in intervening on the ground that Japan's occupation of the Li Liao-Tung Peninsula was a menace to the peace of the East and the integrity of China. After- ward, first through undertakings nominally peaceful and subservient to Chinese sovereignty, then on pretext based on internal disorders in China, but at no time justified by actual conditions, Russia herself took armed possession of the whole of Manchuria. She bound her- ■self by treaty to withdraw in 1903, but subsequently made withdrawal contingent upon stipulations, an acceptance of which would not have THE JAPANESE POINT OF VIEW n left a vestige of real sovereignty to China. Did not this give Japan as good a right to intervene in 1903 as Russia did in 1895? To the ordinary intelligence it would appear that the peace of the East and the integrity of China were menaced quite as much in one case as in ^e other. But Japan had another and a stronger reason for intervention. Russia, once the absolute mistress of Manchuria, held Korea at her mercy. When she could, with little effort, sweep away the feeble resistance of that kingdom, it did not require extraordinary foresight to perceive that she would not permit even an independent Korea to remain as a possible embarrassment to her future control of the North Asian litoral. Indeed, the immediate past furnishes signifi- cant proofs that Russian agents, official and unofficial, pursuing the line of policy which some term astute diplomacy, but others know by a harsher name, were blazing the pathway to that very goal. Herein lay the real menace to Japan, not alone to her commercial and indus- trial interests, but to her national repose and security. For this reason she has intervened, not from motives of petty jealousy or hopes of territorial conquest, nor, least of all, because of rankling memories of the Liao-Tung recession. While the present crisis is in a sense the offspring of Russia's action in 1895, the Japanese people are content to deal with existing issues and to leave to impartial his- tory the decision of who played the more honest part in that affair. The record of all that has occurred will soon be open to every one, and I feel assured that you will find in it ample justification for what I have said. I am confident also that you will see in it good reason to believe that while this issue was not of my country's seek- ing, she will face it calmly and firmly, not in a spirit of over-confi- dence, as one underestimating a powerful adversary, but with the assured conviction that in the words of your great President, she is following the right, as God gives her to see the right, and in the end justice must prevail. VL^i^/vr^ TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. THE MIKADO. A Man of Advanced Ideas, His Habits and Appearance — Twenty-five Centuries of Un- broken Succession — The Oldest Book in the Japanese Language — Records Carefully Preserved — The Theatre a Mirror of Actual History — Celebrated Classics of Japan — The Creation i> CHAPTER II. THE GROWTH AND CUSTOMS OF FEUDALISM. The Fujiwara — The Rise of the Shoguns — Influence of the Military Classes — ^Feudal Etiquette — Armor and Weapons of War — Suicide, a Principle of Honor — Social Forms — The Swords a Divme Symbol — The Samurai 27 CHAPTER III. LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES. Victories of Peace — The Primal Japanese Type — Religious Institutions — Images, Idols and Bells — Influence of the Priests — Mediaeval Science, Art and Literature — Provincial Barriers — Medicine and Surgery — Court life — Evolution of the Language 43 CHAPTER rV. INVASION OF THE MONGOL TARTARS. Embassies from China — The Chinese Armada — Acts of Personal Bravery — Heroism of Michiari — The Whole Nation Aroused — The Wrath of Heaven — To th^ Victor Belongs llie Spoils — Evil Counsel — The Divinity of Kings — The Temporary Mikadoate 60 CHAPTER V. THE WAR OF THE CHRYSANTHEMUMS. Divine Origin of the Mikado — Violent Hands Never Laid upon the Emperor's Person — Two Mikados — The North Against the South — National Heroes — Kusunoki, the Brave — Lust for Land and War — The Succession Settled — Complete List of Mikados 71 CHAPTER VI. RISE AS A MODERN POWER. The Oimate and Flora of Japan — The Fuji-San — Origin of the Japanese Race — The "Feathered Men" — Peculiarities of the Japanese Language — Energetic Japanese Era- presses — The Avolition of Christianity — The Ancient Authority of the Mikado Tri- umphs 79 CHAPTER VII. JAPANESE HOME LIFE. Social Customs — Japanese Houses — Marriage Customs — The Family — The Bath — No Mode Modesty — Household Utensils — Very Little Furniture — The Cuisine — Pooriy V«fitflated Bed-Rooms 91 CHAPTER VIIL RELIGIONS OF JAPAN. Buddhism in Its Early Purity — A Popular Religion — Eternal Life Not to Be Desired — Various Sects — Nichirerf — Buddhist Protestants — Shintoism, Its Gods and Symbols — How the Records Were PTe«:erved — Christianity — Its Introduction and Eradication — Early Mart3rr5 — The Jesuits — The Fire Smol<§eri«g 99 13 14 TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER IX. ANCIENT RUSSIA. Her Early Domain — Good and Bad Rulers — When Converted to Christianity — ^Vladimir, a Great Name in Russian History — 'Wholesale Baptism — Translation of Holy Scrip- tures- — Destruction of Kief — The Hanseatic League — Moscow 114. CHAPTER X. MEDIAEVAL RUSSIA. Russian's Historical Development — New Races of Men — The Tartar Invasion — Alexander Nevsky — Value of Diplomacy with Force — Mingling of Tartars with Russians — Blood Tax — The Mongol Yoke — The Rise and Fall of Lithuania — Shares the Fate of Poland 126 CHAPTER XI. THE MUSCOVITE DYNASTY. The Corner-Stone of the Russian Empire — Early History — The Princes of Moscow — A New Dynasty — Wars between the Muscovite and the Tartar — Historic Battle on the Donskoi River — Dimitri Donskoi — Tamerlane — The Vassilli — The Birth of Russia — Ivan the Great — A Notable Reign , 145. CHAPTER XII. THE FIRST CZAR. Ivan the Terrible — Early Dernoralization — Shuiski Thrown to the Dogs — Influence of Ivan's Wife — Awful Atrocities — Proposes Marriage to Queen Elizabeth — Feodor the Imbecile — Boris the Evil Genius — The False Dimitri — Vassilli Shuiski IST" CHAPTER XIIL THE ROMANOFFS. The House of Rurik Becomes Extinct — Election of a New Czar — Michael Romanoff, Founder of Russia, Chosen — His Administration Marked by Great Wisdom — His Son Alexis Succeeds Him — Incorporation of Ukraine and Country of the Cossacks — Wars with Sweden and Poland — Civil Rebellion — Feodor III Ascends the Throne — Old Custom of Choosing a Wife for the Czar Abolished — Ivan and Peter Become Joint Sovereigns — Peter the Great, His Remarkable Character — Wars- with Sweden and Turkey — Founding of St. Petersburg 17a CHAPTER XIV. THE RUSSIAN EMPRESSES. Catherine I Ascends the Throne — Her Humble Origin — Menzikoflf, Her Prime Minister — The Brief Reign of Peter II — Anna of Courland Becomes Czarina — Elizabeth, Daughter of Peter the Great, Crowned Empress — Peter III, Elizabeth's Nephew, Made Czar — His Consort, Catherine, Called "The Great," Succeeds Him — Her Bloodthirsty and Tyrannical Career — Her Immoral Character — The Orloffs — Russian Empire Extended — Catherine's Friendship for America — Her Death I&F CHAPTER XV. RUSSIA DURING THE NAPOLEONIC ERA. The Reign of Paul I — Issues Ukase Limiting Succession to Male Line — His Policy One of Conciliation — His Ignoble End — Alexander I, His Foreign and Domestic Policy — Opposes Napoleon's Despotism — The Battles of Austerlitz and Friedland — French Invasion of Russia — The Retreat from Moscow — Capture of Paris — Overthrow of the Great Corsican — Death of Alexander igS CHAPTER XVI. THE FIGHT FOR THE BOSPHORUS. A Born Soldier — His Marriage — Abdicates the Throne — Nicholas I — His Cathechisms — Champions the Greeks — An Insurrection — The Crimean War — The Result of a Hasty Policy 207 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 15 CHAPTER XVII. THE 3TRUGGLE FOR THE UNFROZEN SEA. The Serfs Liberated — Internal Disturbances — Russia Advances into Asia Minor — ^The First Pacific Port — Relations between Russia and the United States — War with Tur- key — The Emperor Assassinated— The Reign of Alexander III — His Son Ascends the Throne 22a CHAPTER XVIII. NICHOLAS IL A Puny Boy — Falls in Love with a Ballet Dancer — Travels Abroad — ^Attempted Assas- sination — The Meaning of Loyalty — The Mikado Orders the Would-be Murderer to Be Executed — Marriage — Coronation — A Disciple of Peace — Finland — Character of Nicholas II 23a CHAPTER XIX. KOREA, THE HERMIT NATION. The Bone of Contention — History of the Country — Seoul, the Capital — Chemulpo — Fusan, the Gateway to Korea — Classes of People — Slavery — Korean Literature — Industries — Commercial Importance 24J CHAPTER XX. SIBERIA AND MANCHURIA. Relation of Siberia to Russia— How Separated from Manchuria — Inhabitants — How the Country Was Settled — Siberian Prisoners — Manchuria at the Beginning of the War — Harbin, the Moscow of Asia — A Commercial Power — Natural History of Eastern Asia. 259 CHAPTER XXI. THE END OF DIPLOMACY. The First Shot — Port Arthur the Scene — The Russian View — Statement of Japanese Minister at Washington — Hostilities at Chemulpo — Russia's Reply in the Hands of Alexieff — Preparation for War — The Unanimity of the Japanese Nation — The Diverse Elements of Russia — Russia's Presentation of the Diplomatic Negotiations — The Czar's Supreme Manifesto — Secretary Hay's Note 271 CHAPTER XXIL RUSSIAN AND JAPANESE ARMIES. Japanese Armies — Uniform and Accoutrements of the Russian Troops — Transportation Methods — What the Japanese Soldier Wears — His Knapsack — His Pay — Discipline of the Japanese Army — The Drill — Russians and Japanese Equal in Courage and Disci- pline — Number of Troops in Field 279 CHAPTER XXIII. AMERICAN NONCOMBATANTS. American Nurses Offer Their Services to Japan — The First Expedition — What the Offer Meant to Japan — The Japanese Red Cross Society — United States Officers Study the War — Uniforms Required — Absence of Swords — Military Etiquette 291 CHAPTER XXIV. INITIAL STAGES OF THE WAR. Anarchy in China Feared — Secretary Hay's Note — Severance of Diplomatic Relations between Japan and Russia — The Daring Torpedo Attack on Port Arthur — Japanese Success Establishes Chinese Influence — Naval Conflict at Chemulpo — First Prizes of the War — Arrival of Japanese Troops at Seoul — Repulse of Japanese Landing Party — Destruction of the Boyarin 302 i6 TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXV- THE ATTACKS ON PORT ARTHUR. The Fourth Assault — Wireless Telegraphy Used by Jrpanese — Thrilling Torpedo Duel — Bottling up the Russian Reet — ^The Japanese Send in Fire Ships — The Fifth Attack — Hirose, the Hero — Description of the Beleaguered City — Vrvid Account of th« Bom- bardment by a Russian Officer 315 CHAPTER XXVI. DESTRUCTION OF THE PETROPAVLOVSK. The Assassin of the Sea — A Five Million Dollar Boat and Eight Hundred Men Lost — Miraculous Escape of Grand Duke Cyril — Description of the Petropavlovsk — ^Admiral Makarofif — How a Submarine Fights — Enticed into a Trap — An Eye Witness Describes the Disaster — Russian Torpedo Boais Sink a Japanese Transport — Loss of the Yoshino and Hatsuse 325 CHAPTER XXVII. FIRST LAND BATTLES. The Battle of Cbong-ju — The Drama of the YaJu — The First Move — Japanese Guxuiery — The Russians Evacuate Tiger Hill — Masterlj Strategy — Russian Guns Silenced — A Frontal Attack — Planting the Japanese Flag on the Ridge — ^A Desperate Bayoaet Charge — The Moral Effect of the Victory. 342 CHAPTER XXVIII. THE BATTLE OF KINCHOU. Nanshan Hill— The Russian Army Strongly Fortified — Caliber of Russian Guns Ascer- tained — Battlefield Lighted tsy Electricity — A Gap in the Defence — Capture of Kirvchou — Storming the Hei^rts — A Famous Victory — Japanese Valor — Evacuation of Dalny — Story by an Eye Witness — Loss on Both Sides 353 CHAPTER XXIX. THE CAMPAIGN ABOUT MUKDEN. The Commander-in-Chief Arrives — His Journey from St. Petersburg — Ji»anese Move- ment Hidden — The Affair at Vagenfuchu — A Cossack Charge — AJcxieff and Koura- patkin Fail to Agree — ^Mikado's Soldiers Worthy of Praise — Chinese Bandit* ^3 CHAPTER XXX. CHECKING THE RUSSIAN ADVANCE. An Outpost Battle — Capture of Saitnatze— Advance of the Japanese Army — The Fighting Avound Siuyen — The Battle of Vafangow — Thrilling Description by Eye Witness — Mountain Passes Captured 372 CHAPTER XXXL RUSSIAN ARMY NEARLY TRAPPED. Ob^ctive Point of the Japanese Array — ^The Capture of Kaichou — Haicheng the Goal — A Sanguinary Conflict — Motien Pass — OflScial Reports of the Engagement — A Russian Rout — A Decisive Victory— Yangze Pass — Death of General Keller 390 CHAPTER XXXII. NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS. Admiral Skrydloffs Raid — The Vladivostok Squadron Escapes — Togo Encounters the Russian Fleet — Sinking a Russian Guardship — Bombardment of the West Coast of the Liaotung Peninsula — Tightening the Grip— The Doomed Fortress — Every Position Occtipied — The Bet^ning of -Ac End.. ....««•>« .>•• •4U 55 O » .S£ en v s 2 s -3 C 5 u^ V s H ^ S g. ^ ill H'l ■•J a O = 35X O J«- u as V! W Si .2 -a U5H THE EMPEROR OF JAPAN REVIEWING HIS ARMY Mutsvihito, Emperor of Japan, was born Nov. 3, 1852, and succeeded to the throne Feb. 13, 1867. In less than forty years he has brought his country from semi-barbarism to the status of a first-class power in the politics of the world. AN INCIDENT OF THE WAR A thousand stories could be told of the lira very of the Japanese troops. The above illustration depicts the capture of one of the enemy's strongholds during the early days of the war. Twice the Japanese were Ijeaten back, but they again rallied and after nearly an hour of hand-to-hand nghting, swarmed in and took the fort. TAMOCS TYPES OP SOLDIERS OF THE JAPANESE AEMY Which X!^'^" officer, a„d 457,480 „,e„. Left to right: Cavalry Office. Infantry Officer, Bugler, Infantry Private, Cavalry. TTPES OF SOLDIERS OF THE RUSSIAN ABMY Whose war strength is 75,000 officers and 4,500.000 men. Left to right, on foot: Horse Grenadier Guard, Infantry, Circassian Cossack, Hussar, Lancer, Infantry Drummer. GENERAL KODAMA Ciommander Japanese land forces. ADMIRAL SAITO Commander Japanese Navy. ADMIRAL ALEXIEFF Russian Vicrroy in Maneliuria. GENERAL SAHAROFF Commander Russian Army. X 2 5 « -2 r CQ — -v 5 5"? / 3 O *-! ^ t2 o , 2^ CQ EMBARKATION OF RUSSIAN TROOPS The transportation of Russia's troops by land and water to the seat of war was a herculean task. The above shows a party of soldiers boarding a transport bound for the Far East — many of them never to retura. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Portrait of J. Martin Miller. Portrait of Nelson A. Miles. Japanese Military Engineers. A Korean Pony. Japanese Soldiers Off Duty. Russian Infantry. "The Man Behind the Gun." Russian Cossacjejs. A Russian Soup Wagon. A Russian Military Cart. The Russian Soldier. The Emperor of Japan Reviewing His Army. An Incident of the War. Various Types of Soldiers of the Japanese Army. Types of Soldiers of the Russian Army. General Kodama. Admiral Saito. Admiral Alexieff. General Sakharoff. Mr. Kogoro Takahira. Mr. Minhui Cho. Count Cassinl Sir Chen Tung Liang-Cheng. Explosion of a Mine at Port Ar- thur. The Naval Battle at Chemulpo. Exciting Scene on the Deck of a Battleship. Fearless Japanese Sailors Firing a Rifle Cannon. The Submarine Torpedo Boat. A Successful Torpedo Attack by Submarine Boat. The Japanese Army on the March. Destruction of a Railroad Bridge. A Group of Japanese Babies. Arrival of Our War Correspondent at Seoul. The Critical Area Concerned in the Russo-Japanese War. Nicholas II, Czar of Russia. The Czar Reviewing his Troops. The Czar on a Tour of Inspection. "The Little Father of the Russian Fleet." Largest Type of Vessel in Russian Navy. Embarkation of Russian Troops. Conscription in Russia. The First Land Battle.. A Hospital Train. Type of Peasant Woman, Central Russia. 17 i8 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Blind Beggar — ^Type of Northern Russia. Traveling School Teachers. Peasant Woman of Moscow. "The Man who is Waking Up." Monument at Kiev. Peasant Types of Central Russia. Scene in Manchuria Before the War A Japanese Battleship. Customs of Japanese Life. Floating Blacksmith Shop. Hospital Supplies. An Artillery Camp. Waiting for Orders. In the Russian Trenches. The Cossack Lance. Death to the Spy. Russian Prisoners. The Japanese Position on the Yalu. A River of Blood. A Wounded Russian Soldier. Japanese Transportation Methods, Japanese Infantry on the March. The Largest Check Ever Drawn. Countess Cassini. Madame Takahira. Brig. Gen. Henry T. Allen. Col. John B. Kerr. Lieut. Col, Oliver E. Wood. Capt. Carl Reich man. Capt. Andre W. Brewster. Capt. Seaton Schroeder. Capt. J. E. Kuhn Capt. Wm. V. Judson Major W. D. Beach. Red Cross Headquarters at Osaka.. CHAPTER I. THE MIKADO A Man of Advanced Ideas, His Habits and Appearance — Twenty-five Centuries of Xm- broken Succession — The Oldest Book in the Japanese Language — Kecords Carefu&y Preserved — The Theatre a Mirror of Actual History — Celebrated Classics of Jap^n — The Creation. COMPARATIVELY few foreigners have seen the Mikado of Japan closely. In spite of its wonderful advance in Occidental idftaj in recent years, Japan retains enough of its orientalism to insist upt^ai a certain seclusion for its ruler. Mutsuhito breaks away from his purely oriental environment occasionally. He goes among his people incognito. While strolling through the streets of Tokyo as a young man attired as a Japanese sailor, Mutsuhito encountered the first American he had ever seen. Walking boldly up to this son of Uncle Sam, the boy emperor intro- duced himself as a young sailor, and, finding the American could speak a little Japanese, he poured forth a flood of eager questions. The trav- eler from the United States told the supposed sailor a wonderful tale of the results of American civilization. The imperial ambition received new stimulus, and that interview with an American accomplished much for Japan. A D3masty Over Two Thousand Years Old. Mutsuhito, Mikado of Japan, is the present representative of the old- est royal dynasty extant. He was fifteen years old when he ascended the throne in 1867. He is the one hundred and twenty-sixth emperor of his dynasty, which dates back in an unbroken line over 2,500 years. (See list of Mikados at end of Chapter V.) He is the direct descendant of Jimmu, the "Divine Conqueror," who, according to Japanese myth- ology, "descended from heaven on the bird of the clouds." 19 20 - THE MIKADO. Jimmu's first task In his mythological role of divine conqueror m'es the subjugation of the Ainos, a savage, warlike race, whose descendants are still found in the northern extremity of Japan, Having subdued these fierce Ainos, Jimmu proclaimed himself to be *Tenno," the "Son of Heaven," and established the still existing dynasty in 660 B. C. It is no exaggeration, therefore, to say that through the veins of Mutsuhito Tenno flows the very bluest of the blue blood. The Mikado's Personality. Personally, the emperor has a pleasant appearance. He is very tall for a Japanese, almost six feet. He is muscular and well-proportioned. He has a broad, high forehead, and, judged by the most exacting stand- ard of manly beauty, he is a handsome sovereign. The Mikado takes more interest in the government than any of his predecessors. He reads the papers and attends cabinet councils. He takes all the important English and American magazines. He has astonished the upper classes of Japanese by knowing something of the government of his people. The Mikado lives in a palace built in the American way, with steel framework made in Pittsburg, Pa. This was done to avoid accidents by earthquakes, so common in Japan. Haruko, Empress of Japan, was a daughter of a Japanese noble. She is two years older than her hus- band ; her name, Haruko, means "spring time." Emperor By Divine Right. In the Mikado's reign the bands of feudalism that bound Japan to the middle ages were broken ; a constitution w^ais granted by him volun- tarily; the old social order of caste limitations gave way to a more lib- eral order of equality; modern education, literature, arts, science and industry were welcomed; the army and the navy were changed from the bow and arrow stage to modern organizations. It was only the remarkable advancement in the reign of Mutsuhito that made it possible for oriental Japan to be equal to the task of a possibly successful war with Russia. A dynasty of rulers who ostentatiously boast of twenty-five centuries THE MIKADO. 2t of unbroken succession should have solid foundation of fact for their boast. The august representatives of the Mikado Mutsuhito, the one hundred and twenty-sixth of the imperial line of Dai Nippon, who, in the presence of the President and Congress of the United States, and of the sovereigns of Europe, claimed the immemorial antiquity of the Japanese imperial rule, should have credentials to satisfy the foreigner and silence the skeptic. In this enlightened age, when all authority is challenged, and a cen- tury after the moss of oblivion has covered the historic grave of the doctrine of divine right, the Japanese still cling to the divinity of the Mikado, not only making it the dogma of religion and the engine of government, but accrediting their envoys as representatives of, and ask- ing of foreign diplomatists that they address His Imperial Japanese Majesty as the "Son of Heaven," A nation that has passed through the successive stages of aboriginal migration, tribal government, con- quest by invaders, pure monarchy, feudalism, anarchy, and modern con- solidated empire, should have secreted the material for much interest- ing history. Historical Lore of Japan. In the many lulls of peace, scholars would arise, and opportunities would offer, to record the history which previous generations had made. The foreign historian who will bring the necessary qualifications to the task of composing a complete history of Japan, i. e., knowledge of the languages and literature of Japan, China, Korea, and the dialects of the Malay Archipelago, Siberia, and the other islands of the North Pacific, historical insight, sympathy, and judicial acumen, has before him a vir- gin field. The body of native Japanese historical writings is rich and solid. It is the largest and most important division of their voluminous literature. It treats very fully the period between the rise of the noble families from about the ninth century until the present time. The real history of the period prior to the eighth century of the Christian era is very meagre. It is nearly certain that the Japanese possessed no writing until the sixth century A. D. 22 THE MIKADO. The Earliest Known Writings. Their oldest extant composition is the Kojiki, or "Book of Ancient Traditions." It may be called the Bible of the Japanese. It comprises three volumes, composed A. D. 711-712. It is said to have been pre- ceded by tw^o similar v^orks, written respectively in A. D. 620 and A. D. 681 ; but neither of these has been preserved. The first volume treats of the creation of the heavens and earth ; the gods and goddesses, called "kami;" and the events of the holy ages, or mythological period. The second and third give the history of the mikados from the year I (660 B. C.) to the 1288th of the Japanese era. It was first printed during A. D, 1624-1642. The Nihonki, completed A. D. 720, also con- tains the Japanese cosmogony, records of the mythological period, and brings down the annals of the mikado to A. D. 699. These are the oldest books in the language. Numerous and very valuable commen- taries upon them have been written. They contain so much that is fabu- lous, mythical or exaggerated, that their statements, especially in respect of dates, cannot be accepted as true history. According to the Kojiki, Jimmu Tenno was the first emperor; yet it is extremely doubtful whether he was a historical personage. The best foreign scholars and critics regard him as a mythical character. The accounts of the first mikados are very meagre. The accession to the throne, marriage and death of the sovereign, with notices of occasional rebellions put down, tours made, and worship celebrated, are recorded, and interesting glimpses of the progress of civilization obtained. Living Pictures of Ancient History. A number of works, containing what is evidently good history, illus- trate the period between the eighth and eleventh centuries. A still richer collection of both original works and modern compilations treat of the mediaeval period from the eleventh to the sixteenth century — the age of intestine strife and civil war. The light which the stately prose of history casts upon the past is further heightened by the many poems, popular romances, founded on historical fact, and the classic THE MIKADO. 23 -compositions called monogatari, all of which help to make the per- spective of by-gone centuries melt out into living pictures. That portion of the history which treats of the introduction, prog- ress, and expulsion of Christianity in Japan has most interest to our- selves. Concerning it there is much deficiency of material, and that not of a kind to satisfy occidental tastes. The profound peace which fol- lowed the victories of lyeyasu, and which lasted from 1600-1868 — the scholastic era of Japan — gave the peaceful leisure necessary for the study of ancient history, and the creation of a large library of historical literature, of which the magnificent works called the Dai Nihon Shi ("History of Great Japan"), and Nihon Guai Shi ("Japanese Outer, or Military History"), are the best examples. Censorship of the Tokugawa Shoguns. Under the Tokugawa shoguns (1603-1868) liberty to explore, chron- icle, and analyze the past in history was given ; but the seal of silence, the ban of censorship, and the mandate forbidding all publication were put upon the production of contemporary history. Hence, the peace- ful period, 1600 to 1853, is less known than others in earlier times. Sev- eral good native annalists have treated of the post-Perry period (1853- 1872), and the events leading to the Restoration. In the department of unwritten history, such as unearthed relics, coins, weapons, museums, memorial stones, tablets, temple records, etc., •there is much valuable material. Scarcely a year passes but some rich trover is announced to delight the numerous native archaeologists. Records Kept by Local Antiquarians. The Japanese are intensely proud of their history, and take great care in making and preserving records. Memorial-stones, keeping green the memory of some noted scholar, ruler, or benefactor, are among the most striking sights on the highways, or in the towns, villages, or temple-yards, betokening the desire to defy the ravages of oblivion and resist the inevitable tooth of Time. Almost every large city has its published history; towns and villages liave their annals written and preserved by local antiquarians; family 24 THE MIKADO. records are faithfully copied from generation to generation; diaries, notes of journeys or events, dates of the erection of buildings, the names of the officiating priests, and many of the subscribing worshipers, are religiously kept in most of the large Buddhist temples and monasteries. The priests delight to write of the lives of their saintly predecessor? and the mundane affairs of their patrons. Almost every province has its encyclopedic history, and every high-road its itineraries and guide- books, in which famous places and events are noted. Almost every neighborhood boasts its "Old Mortality," or local antiquary, whose de- light and occupation are to know the past. In the large cities profes- sional story-tellers and readers gain a lucrative livelihood by narrating both the classic history and the legendary lore. The theater, which in Japan draws its subjects for representation almost exclusively from the actual life, past or present, of the Japanese people, is often the most faithful mirror of actual history. Few people seem to be more thoroughly informed as to their own history; parents delight to instruct their children in their national lore; and there are hundreds of child's histories of Japan. Beautiful but Unreliable Literature. Besides the sober volumes of history, the number of books purport- ing to contain the truth, but which are worthless for purposes of his- torical investigation, is legion. In addition to the motives, equally operative in other countries for the corruption or distortion of historical narrative, was the perpetual desire of the Buddhist monks, who were in many cases the writers, to glorify their patrons and helpers, and to damn their enemies. Hence their works are of little value. So plenti- ful are these garbled productions, that the buyer of books always asked for "jitsu-roku," or "true records," in order to avoid the "zu-zan," or "editions of Zu," so called from Zu, a noted Chinese forger of history. Models of Elegant Diction. The vividness and pictorial detail of the classic historians fascinate the reader who can analyze the closely massed syntax. Many of the THE MIKADO. 25 pages of the Nihon Guai Shi, especially, are models of compression and elegance, and glow with the chastened eloquence that springs from clear discernment and conviction of truth, gained after patient sifting of facts, and groping through difficulties that lead to discovery. Many of its sentences are epigrams. To the student of Japanese it is a narra- tive of intensest interest. The Japanese Book of Genesis. According to Japanese mythology, at the beginning all things were in chaos. Heaven and earth were not separated. The world floated in the cosmic mass, like a fish in water, or the yolk in an egg. The ethereal matter sublimed and formed the heavens, the residuum became the present earth, from the warm mould of which a germ sprouted and be- came a self-animate being, called "Kuni-toko-tachi no mikoto." Two other beings of like genesis appeared. After them came four pairs of beings ("kami".) These were all single ("hitori-gami," male, sexless, or self-begotten). The First Man and Woman. Proceeding now to the work of creation, the kami separated the pri- mordial substance into the five elements — wood, fire, metal, earth, and water — and ordained to each its properties and combination. As yet, the division into sexes had not taken place. In (Chinese) philosophical language, the male ("y^") and female ("in") principles that pervade all things had not yet appeared. The first manifestation of the male essence was "Izanagi"; of the female, "Izanami." Standing together on the floating bridge of heaven, the male plunged his jeweled falchion, or spear, into the unstable waters beneath them, and withdrawing it the trickling drops formed an island, upon which they descended. The creative pair, or divine man and woman, designing to make this island a pillar for a continent, separated — the male to the left, the female to the right — to make a journey round the island. At their meeting, the female spirit spoke first, "How joyful to meet .26 THE MIKADO. a lovely man !" The male spirit, offended that the first use of the tongue had been by a woman, required the circuit to be repeated. On their second meeting, the man cried out, "How joyful to meet a lovely woman!" They were the first couple; and this was the beginning of the art of love, and of the human race. The island ("Awaji"), with seven other large, and many thousand small ones, became the Everlast- ing Great Japan. The First Child Becomes a Goddess. . At Izanami's first conception, the female essence "in" being more powerful, a female child was born, greatly to the chagrin of the father, who wished for male offspring. The child was named "Ama-terasu o mikami," or, the "Heaven-illuminating Goddess." She shone beauti- fully, and lighted the heavens and the earth. Her father, therefore, transferred her from earth to heaven, and gave her the ethereal realm to rule over. At this time the earth was close to heaven, and the god- dess easily mounted the pillar, on which heaven rested, to her kingdom. CHAPTER II. THE GROWTH AND CUSTOMS OF FEUDALISM The Fujiwara — The Else of the Shoguas — Influence of the Military Classes — Feudal Eti- quette — ^Armor and Weapons of War — Suicide, a Principle of Honor — Social Forms — The Sword a Divine Sjrmbol — The Samurai. JAPAN, of all the Asiatic nations, seems to have brought the feudal system to the highest state of perfection. Originating and de- veloping at the same time as in Europe, it became the constitution of the nation and the condition of society in the seventeenth century. When in Europe the nations were engaged in throwing off the feudal' yoke and inaugurating modern government, Japan was riveting the fet- ters of feudalism, which stood intact until 1871. From the beginning of the thirteenth century, it had come to pass that there were virtually two rulers in Japan, and as foreigners supposed, two emperors. Noble Families Who Furnished the Sho-Guns. The growth of feudalism in Japan took shape and form from the •early division of the officials into civil and military. The Fujiwara, to whom the Emperor Kuwammu (A. D. 782) owed his elevation to the throne, controlled all the civil offices, and at first, in time of emergency, put on armor, led their troops to battle, and bfaved the dangers of war and the discomforts of the camp. In time, however, this great family, yielding to that sloth and luxury which ever seem, like an insidious dis- ease, to ruin greatness in Japan, ceased to take the field themselves, and delegated the uncongenial tasks of war to certain members of par- ticular noble families. Those from which the greatest number of shoguns, or commanding generals, were appointed were the Taira and INIinomoto, that for sev- eral centuries held the chief military appointments. As luxury, corrupt 27 28 GROWTH AND CUSTOMS OF FEUDALISM. tion, intrigue, and effeminacy increased at the capital, the difficulty of keeping the remote parts of the empire in order increased, especially in the North and East. The war department became disorganized, and the generals at Kioto lost their ability to enforce their orders. Acquire Knowledge of Intrigue and Politics. Many of the peasants, on becoming soldiers, had, on account of their personal valor or merit, been promoted to the permanent garrison of household troops. Once in the gay capital, they learned the details of intrigue and politics. Some were made court pages, or attendants on men of high rank, and thus learned the routine of official duty. They caught the tone of life at court, where every man was striving for rank and his own glory, and they were not slow to imitate their august ex- amples. Returning to their homes with the prestige of having been in the capital, they intrigued for power in their native districts, and gradually obtained rule over them, neglecting to go when duty called them to Kioto, and ignoring the orders of their superiors in the war department. The civil engineers of the provinces dared not molest, or attempt to bring these petty tyrants to obedience. Having armor, horses, and weapons, they were able to train and equip their dependents and ser- vants, and thus provide themselves with an armed following. Professional Fighters. Thus was formed a class of men who called themselves "warriors,** and were ever ready to serve a great leader for pay. The natural consequence of such a state of society was the frequent occurrence of village squabbles, border brawls, and the levying of blackmail upon defenseless people, culminating in the insurrection of a whole province. The disorder often rose to such a pitch that it was necessary for the court to interfere, and an expedition was sent from Kioto, under the command of a Taira or Minamoto leader. The shogun, instead of waiting to recruit his army in the regular manner — a process doubt-' ful of results in the disorganized state of the war department and of the GROWTH AND CUSTOMS OF FEUDALISM. 29 country in general, had immediate recourse to. others of these veteran warriors, who were already equipped, and eager for a fray. The Distribution of Military Patronage. Frequent repetition of the experience of the relation of brothers in arms, of commander and commanded, of rewarder and rewarded, grad- ually grew into that of lord and retainers. Each general had his special favorites and followers, and the professional soldier looked upon his commander as the one to whom his allegiance was directly due. The distant court at Kioto, being utterly unable to enforce its authority, put the whole power of quieting the disturbed districts, whenever the disorder increased beyond the ability of the civil magistrate to repress it, into the hands of the Minamoto and Taira, These families thus be- came military clans and acquired enormous influence, enjoyed the monopoly of military patronage, and finally became the virtual rulers of the land. The Power of the Sword. The power of the sword was, as early as the twelfth c«ntury, lost to the court, which then attempted, by every means in its power, to check the rising influence of the military families and classes. They began by denying them high rank, thus putting them under social ban. They next attempted to lay an interdict upon the warriors by forbidding them to ally themselves with either the Taira or the Minamoto. This availed nothing, for the warriors knew who rewarded them. They then endeavored, with poor success, to use one family as a check upon the other. FinMly when the Minamoto, Yoriyoshi, and Yoshiiye conquered all the north of Hondo, and kept in tranquillity the whole of the Kuanto for fifteen years, even paying governmental expenses from \heir private funds, the court ignored their achievements. When they petitioned for rewards to be bestowed on their soldiers, the dilatory and reluctant, perhaps jealous, nobles composing the court not only neglected to do so, but left them without the imperial com- mission, and dishonored their achievements by speaking of them as ^'private feuds." Hence they took the responsibility, and conferred 30 GROWTH AND CUSTOMS OF FEUDALISM. upon their soldiers grants of. the conquered land in their own name. The Taira followed the same policy in the south and west. The Court Loses Control of the Provinces. When Yoritomo became Sei-i Tai Shogun at Kamakura, erected the dual system, and appointed a military with a civil governor of each province in the interest of good order, feudalism assumed national pro- portions. Such a distribution soon ceased to be a balance, the military pan in the scale gained weight and the civil lost until it kicked the beam. At the end of the Hojo domination, the court had lost the gov- ernment of ^the provinces, and the "kuge" (court nobles) had been de- spoiled and impoverished by the "buke" (military). So thoroughly had feudalism become the national policy that in the temporary mikadoate,. 1 534-1 536, the Emperor Go-Daigo rewarded those who had restored him by grants of land for them to rule in their own names as his vassals. The Law of Might. Under the Ashikagas (fourteenth century) the hold of even the cen- tral military authority was lost, and the empire split up into fragments. Historians have in vain attempted to construct a series of historical maps of this period. The pastime was war — a game of patchwork in which land continually changed possessors. There was no one great leader of sufficient power to overawe all; hence might made right; and whoever had the ability, valor, or daring to make himself pre-eminent above his fellows, and seized more land, his power would last until he was overcome by a stronger, or his family decayed through the effem- inacy of his descendants. During this period, the great clans with whose names the readers of the works of the Jesuits and Dutch writers are familiar, or which have been most prominent since the opening of the empire, took their rise. They were those of Hosokawa Uyesugi, Satake, Takeda, the "later Hojo of Odawara;" Mori, Otomo, Shimadzu, Riuzoji, Ota, and Tokugawa. Lords and Vassals. As the authority of the court grew weaker and weaker, the allegiance GROWTH AND CUSTOMS OF FEUDALISM. 3t which all men owed the mikado, and which they theoretically- acknowledged, was changed into loyalty to the military chief. Every^ man who bore arms was thus attached to some "daimio" (great name) or territorial noble, and became a vassal ("kerai"). The agricultural, and gradually the other classes, also put themselves, or were forcibly included, under the protection of some castle lord or nobleman having an armed following. The taxes, instead of being collected for the central government, flowed into the treasury of the local rulers. This left the mikado and court without revenue. The "kuge," or Kioto nobles, were thus stripped of wealth, until their poverty became the theme for the caricaturist. Nevertheless, the eye of their pride never dimmed. In their veins, they^ knew, ran the blood of the gods, while the daimios were only "earth- thieves," and the parvenus of feudalism. They all cherished their empty titles; and to all students of history their poverty was more honorable than all the glitter of the shogun's train, or the splendors of the richest daimio's mansion. The daimios spent their revenues on their retainers, their personal pleasures, and in building castles. In almost every feudal city, or place of strategic importance, the towers, walls, and moats of these character- istic specimens of Japanes'e architecture could be seen. The strictest vigilance was maintained at the castle-gates, and a retainer of another daimio, however hospitably entertained elsewhere, was never allowed entrance into the citadel. A minute code of honor, a rude sort of chi- valry, and an exalted sense of royalty were the growth of the feudal sys- tem. The Custom of Shaving the Head. Many of the mediaeval military customs were very interesting. Dur- ing this period the habit originated of the men shaving the hair off their temples and from the middle of the scalp, and binding the long cue into a top-knot, which was thus turned forward and laid on the scalp. The object*vof this was to keep the hair out of the eyes during battle, and also to mark the wearer as a warrior. Gradually it became a universal custom, extending to all classes. 32 GROWTH AND CUSTOMS OF FEUDALISM. When, in 1873, the reformers persuaded the people to cut off their knots and let their hair grow, the latter refused to "imitate the foreign- ers," and supposed they were true conservatives, when, in reality, the ancient Japanese knew nothing of shaven faces and scalps, or of top- knots. The ancient warriors wore mustaches, and eve» beards. The practice of keeping the face scrupulously bare, until recently so univer- sally observed except by botanists and doctors, is comparatively modern. Military Tactics Copied from the Chinese. The military tactics and strategic arts of the Japanese were anciently copied from the Chinese, but were afterward modified as the nature of the physical features of their country and the institutions of feudalism required. No less than seven distinct systems were at different times in vogue; but that perfected by Takeda and Uyesugi, in the Ashikaga period, finally bore off the palm. These tactics continued to command the esteem and practice of the Japanese until the revolution wrought by the adoption of the European systems in the present century. The surface of the country being so largely mountainous, uneven, and cov- ered with rice-swamps, cavalry were but little employed. A volley of arrows usually opened the battle, followed by a general engagement along the' whole line. Foot to Foot and Knee to Knee. Single combats between commanders of hostile armies were of fre- quent occurrence. When they met on the field, their retainers, accord- ing to the strict etiquette of war, gave no aid to either, but encouraged them by shouts, as they called out each other's names and rushed to the combat. The battle slackened, while the leaders strove, the armies becoming spectators. The victor cut off the head of his antagonist, and, holding it up, shouted his name and claimed the victory. The triumph or defeat of their leaders often decided the fate of the army. Vengeance against the victor was not permitted to be taken at the time, but must be sought GROWTH AND CUSTOMS OF FEUDALISM, 33 again, the two armies again joining battle. The fighting over, those who had slain distinguished personages, must exhibit their heads before their chiefs, who bestowed rewards upon them. This practice still continues; and during the expedition in Formosa m 1874, the chief trophies were the heads of the Boutan cannibals, though the commander. General Saigo, attempted to abolish the custom. Whoever saved his chieftain's life on the field was honored with the place of highest rank in the clan. These customs had a tremendous in- fluence in cultivating valor and a spirit of loyalty in the retainer toward the prince. The meanest soldier, if brave and faithful, might rise to the highest place of honor, rank, emolument, and influence. The be- stowal of a reward, the investiture of a command, in military promotion, was ever an occasion of impressive ceremony. The Samurai in Times of Peace. Even in time of peace the "samurai," ar military nobles, never ap- peared out of doors unarmed, invariably wearing their two swords in their girdle. The offensive weapons — spears long and short, the bows, arrows, and quiver, and battle-axes — were set on their butts on the porch or restibule in front of the house. Within doors, in the "tokonoma," or recess, were ranged in glitteririg state the cuirass, helmet, greaves, gauntlets, and chain-mail. Over the sliding partitions, on racks, were the long halberds, which the women of the house were trained to use in case of attack during the absence of the men. The gate of the house was permanently guarded by armed retainers, who occupied the porter's lodge beside it. Standing upright and ready were three long instrumeats, designed to entangle, throw down, and pin to the earth a quarrelsome applicant. Familiar faces passed un- challenged, but armed strangers were held at bay till their business was known. A grappling-iron, with barbed tongues turned in every direction, making a ball of hooks like an irom hedgehog, mounted on a pike-staff ten feet long, thrust into the Japanese loose clothing, sufficed to keep at a v^holescKmie length any swash-buckler whose sword left its sheath too easilv. 34 GROWTH AND CUSTOMS OF FEUDALISM. Peculiar Weapons of Offense and Defense. Another spiked weapon, like a double rake, could be thrust between his legs and bring him to the earth. A third, shaped like a pitchfork, could hold him helpless under its wicket arch. Three heavy quarter staves were also ready to belabor the struggling wight who would not yield, while swords on the racks hung ready for the last resort, or when intruders came in numbers. On rows of pegs hung wooden tickets about three inches square, branded or inscribed with the names of the retainers and servants of the lord's house, which were handed to the keeper of the gate as they passed in or out. The soldiers wore armor made of thin scales of iron, steel, hardened hide, lacquered paper, brass, or shark-skin, chain-mail, and shields. The helmet was of iron, very strong, and lined within by buckskin. Its flap of articulated iron rings drooped well around the shoulders. The visor was of thin lacquered iron, the nose and mouth pieces being removable. The eyes were partially protected by the projecting front-piece. A false mustache was supposed to make the upper lip of the warrior -dread- ful to behold. Armor Worn by a Noble. On the frontlet were the distinguishing symbols of the man, a pair of horns, a iish, an eagle, dragon, buckhorns, or flashing brass plates of various designs. Some of the helmets were very tall. Kato Kiyo- masa's was three feet high. On the top was a hole, in which a pennant was thrust, or an ornament shaped like a pear inserted. The "pear- splitter'-' was the fatal stroke in combat and the prize-cut in fencing. Behind the corselet on the back was another socket, in which the clan- flag was inserted. The breastplate was heavy and tough ; the arms, legs, abdomen, and thighs were protected by plates joined by woven chains. Shields were often used; and for forlorn hopes or assaults, cavalry- men made use of a stuffed bag resembling a bolster, to receive a volley of arrows. Besides being missile-proof, it held the arrows as spoils. On the shoulders, hanging loosely, were unusually wide and heavy GROWTH AND CUSTOMS OF FEUDALISM. 35 brassarts, designed to deaden the force of the two-handed sword-stroke. Greaves and sandals completed the suit, which was laced and bound with iron clamps, and cords of buckskin and silk, and decorated with crests, gilt tassels, and glittering insignia. Suits of armor were black, white, purple, crimson, violet, green, golden or silver. Details of Army Life. The rations of the soldiers were rice, fish and vegetables. Instead of tents, huts of straw or boughs were easily erected to form a camp. The general's headquarters were enclosed by canvas, stretched on posts six feet high, on which his armorial bearings were wrought. The weapons were bows and arrows, spear, sword, and, rarely, battle-axes and bow-guns ; for sieges, fire-arrows. The general's scabbard was of tiger-skin. Supplies of this material were obtained from Korea, where the animal abounds. His baton was a small lacquered wand, with a cluster of strips of thick white paper dependent from the point. Flags, banners, and streamers were freely used ; and a camp, castle, or moving army, in time of war, with its hun- dreds and thousands of flags, presented a gay and lively appearance. Drums, hard-wood clappers, and conch-shells sounded the reveille, the alarm, the onset, or the retreat. How a Battle Was Fought. Owing to the nature of the ground, consisting chiefly of mountains and valleys, or plains covered with rice-swamps intersected by narrow paths, infantry were usually depended upon. In besieging a castle, the intrenchments of the investing army consisted chiefly of a line of pali- sades or heavy planks, propped up from within h-^ hinged supports, at an angle of forty-five degrees, behind which the besiegers fought or liveVl in camp life, while sentinels paced at the gates. Lookouts were posted on overlooking hills, in trees, or in towers erected for the pur- pose. Sometimes huge kites able to sustain a man were flown, and a birdV eye view of the interior of the enemy's castle thus obtained. Fire; 36 GROWTH AND CUSTOMS OF FEUDALISM. treachery, strategem, starvation, or shooting at long range having failed to compel surrender, an assault took place, in which the gates were smashed in or the walls scaled. Usually great loss resulted before the besiegers were driven off, or were victorious. Rough surgery awaited the wounded. An arrow-barb was usually pulled out by a jerk of the pincers. A sabre-cut was sewed or bound together with tough paper, of which every soldier carried a supply. The wonderfully adhesive, absorptive, and healing power of the soft, tough, «[uickly wet, easily hardening, or easily kept pliable, Japanese paper made excellent plasters, bandages, tourniquets, cords, and towels. In the dressing of wounds, the native doctors to this day excel. Origin of Hara-Kiri. "Seppuku" (belly-cut) or "hara-kiri" also came into vogue about the time of the beginning of the domination of the military classes. At first, after a battle, the wounded fell on their swords, drove them through their mouthi or breast, or cut their throats. - Often a famous soldier, before dying, would flay and score his own face beyond recog- nition so that his enemies might not glory over him. This grew into a principle of honor; and frequently the unscathed survivors, defeated, and feeling the cause hopeless, or retainers whose master was slain, committed suicide. Hence arose, in the Ashikaga period, the fashion of wearing two swords ; one of which, the longer, was for enemies; the other, shorter, for the wearer's own body. The practice of hara-kiri as a judicial sentence and punishment did not come into vogue until in tiie time of the Tokugawas. The Use of the Ko-Katana. Thrust into a tiny scabbard at the side of the dirk, or small sword, was a pair of chopsticks to eat with in camp. Anciently these were skewers, to thrust through the top-knot of a decapitated enemy, that the head might be easily carried. Besides, or in lieu of them, was a small miniature sword, "ko-katana** (little sword), or long, narrow knife. Although this was put to various trivial uses, such as those for which we employ a penknife, yet its primary purpose was that of the GROWTH AND CUSTOMS OF FEUDALISM, 3j^ card of the owner. Each sword was adorned with some symbol or cfest^ which served to mark the clan, family, or person of the owner. The Satsiima men wore swords with red-lacquered scabbards. Later, the Tokugawa vassals, who fought in the battle of Sekigahara, were called "white hilts," because they wore swords of extraordinary length, with white hilts. The bat, the falcon, the dragon, lion, tiger, owl, and hawk were among the most common designs wrought in gold, lacquer, carving, or alloy on the hilts, handles, or scabbard; and on the ko-katana was engraved the name of the owner. The Vendetta. Feudalism was the m.other of brawls innumerable, and feuds between families and clans continually existed. The wife whose husband was slain by the grudge-bearer brought up her sons religiously to avenge their father's death. The vendetta was unhindered by law and applauded by society. The moment of revenge selected was usually that of the victim's proudest triumph. After promotion to ofiflce, succession to patrimony, or at his marriage ceremony, the sword of the avenger did its bloody work. Many a bride found herself a widow on her wedding-night. Many a child became an orphan in the hour of the father's acme of honor. When the murder was secret, at night, or on the wayside, the head was cut off, and the avenger, plucking out his ko-katana, thrust it in the ear of the victim, and let it lie on the public highway, or sent it to be de- posited before the gate of the house. The ko-katana, with the name en- graved on it, told the whole story. Whenever the lord of a clan wished his rival or enemy out of the way, he gave the order of Herodias to her daughter to his faithful re- tainers, and usually the head in due time was brought before him, as was John's, on a charger or ceremonial stand- Etiquette of the Sword. The most minutely detailed etiquette presided over the sword, the badge of the gentleman. The visitor whose means allowed him to be accompanied by a servant always left his long sword in his charge when 38 GROWTH AND CUSTOMS OF FEUDALISM. entering a friend's house; the salutation being repeated bowing of the forehead to the floor while on the hands and knees, the breath being sucked in at the same time with an impressive sound. The degree of obeisance was accurately graded according to rank. If alone, the visitor laid his sword on the floor of the vestibule. The host's servants, if so instructed by their master, then, with a silk napkin in hand, removed it inside and placed it, with all honor, on the sword-rack. At meetings betv/een those less familiar, the sheathed weapon was withdrawn from the girdle and laid on the floor to the right, an indica- tion of friendship, since it could not be drawn easily. Under suspicious circumstances, it was laid to the left, so as to be at hand. On short visits, the dirk was retained in the girdle; on festal occasions, or pro- longed visits, it was withdrawn. To clash the sheath of one's sword against that of another was a breach of etiquette that often resulted in instantaneous and bloody reprisal. To turn the sheath in the belt as if about to draw was tantamount to a challenge. To lay one's weapon on the floor of a room, and kick the guard toward a person, was an insult that generally resulted in a combat to the death. Even to touch another's weapon in any way was a grave offense. No weapon was ever exhibited naked for any purpose, unless the wearer first profusely begged pardon of those present. A wish to see a sword was seldom made, unless the blade was a rare one. The owner then held the back of the sword to the spectator, with the edge toward himself, and the hilt, wrapped in the little silk napkin> which gentlemen always carry in their pocketbooks, or a piece of white paper, to the left. The blade was then withdrawn from the scabbard, and admired inch by inch, but never entirely withdrawn unless the owner pressed his guest to do so, when, with much apology, the sword was entirely with- drawn and held away from those present. Many a gentleman took a pride in making collections of swords, and the men of every samurai family wore weapons that were heirlooms, often centuries old^ Women wore short swords when traveling, and the palace ladies in time of fires. armed themselves. GROWTH AND CUSTOMS OF FEUDALISM. 39 The Land of Many Blades. In no country has the sword been made an object of such honor as in Japan. It is at once a divine symbol, a knightly weapon, and a certifi- cate of noble birth. "The girded sword is the soul of the samurai." It is **the precious possession of lord and vassal from times older than the divine period." Japan is "the land of many blades." The gods wore and wielded two-edged swords. From the tail of the dragon was born the sword which the Sun-goddess gave to the first emperor of Japan. By the sword of the clustering clouds of heaven Yamato-Dake subdued the East. By the sword the mortal heroes of Japan won their fame. "There's naught 'twixt heaven and earth that man need fear, who carries at his belt this single blade." "One's fate is in the hands of Heaven, but a skillful fighter does not meet with death." "In the last days, one's sword becomes the wealth of one's posterity." These are, the mottoes graven on Japanese swords. Forging a Sword. Names of famous swords belonging to the Taira, Minamoto, and other families are, "Little Crow," "Beard-cutter," "Knee-divider." The two latter, when tried on sentenced criminals, after severing the heads from the body, cut the beard, and divided the knee respectively. The forging of a sword occupied the smith sixty days, and was often a re- ligious ceremony. No artisans were held in greater honor than the sword-makers, and some of them even rose to honorary rank. The names of Munechicka, Masamune, Yoshimitsu, and Muramasa, a few out of many noted smiths, are familiar words in the mouths of even Japanese children. The names, or marks and dates, of famous makers were always attached to their blades, and from the ninth to the fifteenth century were sure to be genuine. In later times, the practice of counterfeiting the marks of well-known makers came into vogue. Certain swords considered of good omen in one family were deemed unlucky in others. The ordinary length of a sword was a fraction over two feet for the long and one foot for the short sword. All lengths 40 GROWTH AND CUSTOMS OF FEUDALISM. were, however, made use of, and some of tli« (Ad warriors on horseback wore swords over six feet long. Elaborate Workmanship. The Japanese sword-blade averages about an inch in width, about seven-eighths of which is a backing of iron, to which a face of steel is forged along its entire length. The back, about one-fourth of an incli thick, bevels out very slightly to near th« center of the blade, which then narrows to a razor edge. The steel and the forging line are easily- distinguished by a cloudiness on the mirror-like polish of the metal. An inch and a quarter from the point, the width of the blade having been decreased one-fourth, the edge is ground ofl to a semi-parabola, meet- ing the back, » which is prolonged, untouched; the curve of the whole blade, from a straight line, being less than a quarter of an inch. The guard is often a piece of elaborate workmanship in metal, repre- senting a landscape, water-scene, or various emblems. The hilt is formed by covering the prolonged iron handle by shark-skin and wrapping this with twisted silk. The ferrule, washers, and cleats are usually inlaid, embossed, or chased in gold, silver, or alloy. The rivets in the center of the handle are concealed by designs, often of solid gold, such as the lion, dragon, cock, etc. The Emblem of Social Rank. In full dress, the color of the scabbard was black, with a tinge of green or red in it, and the bindings of the hilt of blue silk. The taste of the wearer was often displayed in the color, size or method of wear- ing his sword, gay or proud fellows affecting startling colors or extrava- gant length. Riven through ornamental ferrules at the side of the scab- bards were long, flat cords of woven silk of various tints, which were used to tie up the flowing sleeves, preparatory to fighting. Every part of a sword was richly inlaid, or expensively finished. Daimios often spent extravagant sums on a single blade, and small fortunes on a col- lection. A samurai, however poor, would have a blade of sure temper and rich mountings, deeming it honorable to suffer for food, that he might GROWTH AND CUSTOMS OF FEUDALISM. 41 have a worthy eniblctn of his social rank. A description of the various styles of blade and scabbard, lacquer, ornaments, and the rich vocabulary of terms minutely detailing each piece entering into the construction of a Japanese sword, the etiquette to be observed, the names, mottoes and legends relating to them, would fill a large volume closely printed. A considerable portion of native literature is devoted to this one subject. Japanese Bow and Arrows. The bow and arrows were the chief weapons for siege and long- range operations. A Japanese bow has a peculiar shape. It was made of well-selected oak ("kashi"), incased on both sides with a semi-cylin- der of split bamboo toughened by fire. The three pieces composing the bow were then bound firmly into one piece by thin withes of rattan, making an excellent combination of lightness, strength, and elasticity. The- string was of hemp. Arrows were of various kinds and lengths, according to the arms of the arches. The average length of the war- arrow was three feet. The "turnip-head," "frog-crotch," "willow-leaf," "armor-piercer," "bowel-raker," were a few of the various names for arrows. The "tur- nip-top," so named from its shape, made a singing noise as it flew. The "frog-crotch," shaped like a pitchfork, or the hind legs of a leaping frog, with edged blades, was used to cut down flags or helmet lacings. The "willow-leaf" was a two-edged, unbarbed head, shaped like the leaf of a willow. The "bowel-raker" was of a frightful shape, well worthy of the name; and the victim whose diaphragm it penetrated was not likely to stir about afterward. The "armor-piercer" was a plain bolt- head, with nearly blunt point, well calculated to punch ihrough a breast- plate. Barbs of steel were of various shape; sometimes very heavy, and often handsomely open-worked. The shaft was of cane bamboo, with string-piece of bone or horn, whipped on with silk. Quivers were of leather, water-proof paper, or thin lacquered wood, and often splendidly adorned. Gold-inlaid weapons were common among the rich soldiers, and the outfit of an officer often cost many hundreds of dollars. 42 GROWTH AND CUSTOMS OF FEUDALISM. Old Tools of War as S5niibols of Peace. Not a few of these old tools of war have lost their significance, and have become household adornments, objects of art, or symbols of peace. Such especially are the emblems of the carpenters' guild, which consist of the half-feathered "turnip-head" arrow, wreathed with leaves of the same succulent, and the "frog-crotch," inserted in the mouth of a dragon, crossed upon the ancient mallet of the craft. These adorn temples or houses, or are carried in the local parades or festivals. As Buddhism had become the professed religion of the entire nation, the vast majority of the military men were Buddhists. Each had his patron or deity. The soldier went into battle with an image of Buddha sewed in his helmet, and after victory ascribed glory to his divine de- liverer. Many temples in Japan are the standing monuments of triumph in battle, or vows performed. Many of the noted captains, notably Kato, inscribed their banners with texts from the classics or the prayers, "Namu Amida Butsu," or "Namu mio ho," etc., according to their sect. Amulets and Charms. Amulets and charms were worn almost without exception, and many a tale is told of arrows turned aside, or swords broken, that struck on a sacred image, picture, or text. Before entering a battle, or perform- ing a special feat of skill or valor, the hero uttered the warrior's prayer, "Namu Hachiman Dai-bosatsu" ("Glory to Hachiman, the incarnation of Great Buddha"). Though brave heroes must, like ordinary men, pass through purgatory, yet death on the batle-field was reckoned highly meritorious, and the happiness of the warrior's soul in the next world was secured by the prayers of his wife and children. CHAPTER III. LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES irictories of Peace — The Primal Japanese Type — Religious Institutions — Images, Idols and Bells — Influence of the Priests — Mediaeval Science, Art and Literature — ^Pro- vincial Barriers — Medicine and Surgery — Court Life — Evolution of the Language. HISTORY, as usually written, gives the impression that the normal condition of mankind is that of war. Japanese students who take up the history of England to read, lay it down convinced that the English people are a blood-loving race that are perpetually fighting. They contrast their own peaceful country with the countries of Europe, to the detriment of the latter. They turn most gladly from the monoto- nous story of battle, murder, and sieges, to Buckle, Guizot, or Lecky, that they may learn of the victories no less renowned than those of war which mark as mile-stones the progress of the race. A Period of Peace. Permanent, universal peace was unknown in Japan until, by the genius of lyeyasu in the sixteenth century, two centuries and a half of this blessing were secured. Nevertheless, in the eight centuries in- cluded between the eighth and the sixteenth of our era were many, and often lengthened, intervals of peace. In many sequestered places the sandal of the warrior and the hoof of the war-horse never printed the soil. Peace in the palace, in the city, in the village, allowed the development of manners, arts, manufactures, and agriculture. In this period were developed the characteristic growths of the Japanese intellect, imagination, social economy, and manual skill that have made the hermit nation unique in the earth and Japanese art productions the wonder of the world. 43 44 LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES. The Chinese Infkience. The introduction of continental or Chinese civilization into Japan was not a simple act of adoption. It was rather a work of selection and assimilation. As in this twentieth century, the Japanese is no blind copyist, he improves on what he borrows. Although the traveler from China entering Japan can see in a moment whence the Japanese have borrowed their civilization, and though he may believe the Japanese to be an inferior -type to the Chinese, he will acknowledge that the Japanese have improved upon their borrowed elements fully as much as the French have improved upon those of Roman civilization. Many reflecting foreigners in Japan have asked the question why the Japanese are so unlike the Chinese, and why their art, literature,. laws, customs, dress, workmanship, all bear a stamp peculiar to them- selves, though they received so much from them. The reason is to be found in the strength and persistence of the primal Japanese type of character, as influenced by nature, enabling it to resist serious altera- tion and radical change. The greatest conquests made by any of the imparted elements of continental civilization was that of Buddhisain, which became within ten centuries the universally popular religion. Japanese Buddhism. Yet even its conquests were but partial. Its triumph was secured only by its. adulteration. Japanese Buddhism is a distinct product among the many forms of that Asiatic religion. Buddhism secured life and growth on Japanese soil only by being Japanized, by being grafted on the original stock of ideas in the Japanese mind. Thus, in order to popularize the Indian religion,^ the ancient native heroes and the local gods were all included within the Buddhist pantheon, and declared to be the incarnations of Buddha in his various forms. A class of deities exists in Japan who are worshiped by the Buddhists under the general name of "gongen." They are all deified Japanese heroes, warriors, or famous men. Furthermore, many of the old rites and ceremonies of Shinto were altered and made use of by the "bonzes," or priests. LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 45 It may be doubted whether Buddhism could have ever been popular in Japan, had it not become thoroughly Japanized. Some of the first fruits of the success of the new religion was the erection of temples, pagodas, idols, wayside shrines, monasteries, and nunneries; the adop- tion of the practice of cremation, until then unknown ; and the cessation of the slaughter of animals for food. The largest and richest of the ecclesiastical structures were in or near Kioto. The priests acted as teachers, advisers, counselors, and scribes, besides officiating at the al- tars, shriving the sick and attending the sepulture of the dead. Mediaeval Monasteries. Among the orders and sects which grew and multipHed were many similar to those in papal Europe — mendicants, sellers of indulgences, builders of shrines and images, and openers of mountain paths. The monasteries became asylums for the distressed, afflicted and persecuted. In them tlie defeated soldier, the penniless and dissatisfied, the refugee from the vendetta, could find inviolate shelter. To them the warrior after war, the prince and the minister leaving the palace, the honors and pomp of the world, could retire to spend the remnant of their days in prayer, worship, and the offices of piety. Often the murderer, struck with remorse, or the soldier before his bloody victim, would resolve to turn monk. Not rarely did men crossed in love, or the offspring of the concubine