IN MEMORIAL
J. Henry Senger
U r m a I C r a i u i 11
THE
PRINCIPLES AND METHODS
OP
HUMAN CULTURE:
A SERIES OF LECTURES ADDRESSED TO YOUNG TEACHERS.
BY WILLIAM RUSSE'LL,'
EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN (BOSTON) JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, 1826 TO 1829, AND PRIN-
CIPAL OF THE NEW ENGLAND NORMAL INSTITUTE, LANCASTER, MASS., ETC., ETC.
PART I. INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.
PART II. MORAL EDUCATION.
SECOND EDITION.
HARTFORD :
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION.
1873.
IN MEMOR1AM
PREFATORY REMARKS
THE series of lectures, of which the following are a part, was addressed, origin-
ally, to students pursuing a course of professional study, under the author's
direction, in the Merrimack (N. H.) Normal Institute, and in the New England
Normal Institute, Lancaster, Massachusetts. The course, as delivered, extended
to the subjects of physical, moral, and ffisthetic culture ; including, under the lat-
ter heads, remarks on principle as the foundation of character, and suggestions on
the cultivation of taste.
In the delivery of the lectures, it was deemed important to avoid the unfavor-
able influence of formal didactic exposition, in a course of professional lectures to
a youthful audience. Equal importance, however, was attached to a strict observ-
ance of the systematic connection of topics, and the theoretic unity of the whole
subject. The method adopted, therefore, in the routine of the lecture-room, was
to treat a given point daily, in a brief oral address on one prominent topic, selected
from the notes embodying the plan of the whole course.
At the suggestion of Dr. Henry Barnard, the notes, in their connected form,
were transcribed for insertion in his Journal; and the lectures on Intellectual
Education were selected for this purpose, rather as an experiment, on the part of
the author, in his uncertainty how far it might be advisable to present the whole
series. But the unexpectedly favorable reception which the course on intellectual
education has met from teachers, both at home and abroad, would have induced
the writer to transcribe the other portions of the series, had health and time per-
mitted. The subjects here referred to, however, will be introduced, from time to
time, as may be practicable, in future numbers of Dr. Barnard's Journal.
The thoughts presented in the following pages, the author hopes, may serve to
attract the attention of teachers who are so situated as to occupy the ground not
merely of instructors but of educators, who have it in their power to control, to
some extent, the plan and progress of education ; and all teachers of the requisite
zeal and thoughtfulness, even in the most limited sphere of responsibility, can do
much in this way, by their personal endeavors in instruction. It is not in one de-
partment only, or in one stage, that the field of education needs resurveying,
PREFATORY REMARKS.
The whole subject, notwithstanding our many valuable recent improvements in
processes and methods, physical and moral, as well as intellectual, needs'a careful
reconsideration as to its true requirements, and a thorough revision of our plan of
procedure and modes of culture.
It is true that, in seminaries of education of every grade, we are ceasing from
a blind following of prescription imposed by the past. Mental discipline, rather
than intellectual acquisition, is now more generally recognized as the .true aim of
education ; and liberal changes and generous allowances, as regards the adapta-
tion of text- books and plans of instruction, have accordingly been made. But, as
yet, the point of view selected by most even of our most considerate and genial
counselors on the great theme of education, has been far from a commanding one.
It has been that of subjects and sciences and departments of knowledge, with
their respective demands upon the mind, instead of that of the mind itself, and its
divine laws of action and progress, as prescribed by its own constitution and wants,
its appetites and instinctive preferences. To attract attention to these, as the true
principles of education, is the chief aim of the suggestions embodied in the fol-
lowing pages.
PART I.
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.
CONTENTS'.
PAGE.
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION 9
The teacher's aim in instruction, 9
Necessity of plan' and method, 10
Preliminary analysis, 11
Outline of intellectual instruction, 12
I. THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES, 12
1. Classification by modes of action, 12
2. Curiosity, 14
3. Observation, 17
4. Knowledge 21
5. Appropriate processes for their cultivation, 26
II. THK EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES, 57
Introductory observations 57
1. Enumeration, 58
2. The actuating principle 70
3. Tendency or habit of action 75
4. Result of the action communication, 7*8
5. Educational processes for their cultivation, 80
6. Means of correcting prevalent errors, 93
III. THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES, 101
Introductory observations, 101
1. Enumeration 102
2. The actuating principle: inquiry, 121
3. Tendency of action 122
4. Result of the action: truth, 125
5. Educational processes for their development, 127
Concluding explanations, 152
INDEX to the principal topics considered, 155
CULTIVATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. The circumstances in which the fol-
lowing lectures were delivered, will, it is thought, account for the prom-
inence given in them to many things merely elementary, as regards
the science of mind and the philosophy of education. An audi-
ence favored with the advantages of high intellectual culture, or of
long experience in instruction, would, doubtless, have required a dif-
'erent treatment of many topics discussed in such a course of lectures
as the present. But a long series of years occupied in the training of
teachers, has proved to the author of the present communication, that
the greater number of candidates for the office of instruction, and of
those to whom its duties are comparatively new, need nothing so
much as an elementary knowledge of intellectual philosophy, and of
logic, in their connection with education, as the science which teaches
the appropriate development and discipline of the mind.
The Teacher's Aim in Instruction. Few teachers, at the present
day, regard knowledge as the great end even of intellectual educa-
tion. Few are now unwilling to admit that the chief aim of their
daily endeavors, as instructors and educators, should be to train, develop,
and discipline the powers by which knowtjectgg'ig acquired, raYHerthan tc
attempt the immediate accumulation^ knowledge itself. In prac-
tice, however, and, more particularly^ jn, \thfe duje of yb^r^g>.ieii<;l>iers,
and of those who follow the occupation as a transient one, and not
as the vocation of a life-time, the eagerness for definite and apparent
results, or even showy acquirements, too often induces the instructor
to confine his attention to the mere mechanism of specific processes,
to the committing to memory, and, the repetition of a set task, with
or without the aid of explanation. This course he knows will nomi-
nally secure a single poinLin practice or effect. He thinks, perhaps,
that, although not fully understood or appreciated now, it will cer-
tainly benefit the mind of his pupil at some future day, when bis
*The series of leclures of which the present forms a part, extended to the departments of
physical and moral training. But those on the progress of intellectual culture, are selected
as more easily presented in the form of a series of articles for an educational Journal.
10 EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
mind is more mature. Hence*, we still have, in our school routine,
too much of mere rule and repetition, detached fact and specific direc-
tion, the lesson of the hour and the business of the day, and too little
of the searching interrogation, close observation, reflective thought,
and penetrating investigation, by which alone the mind can be trained
to the acquisition of useful knowledge, or the attainment of valuable
truth.
Necessity of Plan and Method. The master builder, when he
goes to oversee his workmen, and watch their progress in the work
of raising the edifice, for the construction of which he has entered
into contract, never fails to carry with him his plan of erection, and
with that in his hand, for constant reference, gives directions for even
the minutest details in working. He does nothing but in execution
of his plan, and in strict accordance with it. The master builder
thus reads a lesson to the master instructor, (inward builder,) who,
although he needs not plan in hand, for his peculiar work, needs it
no less, ever present to his mind, if he wishes to become " a work-
man that needeth not to be ashamed ; " if, in a word, he would enjoy
the conscious pleasure of referring every day's labor to its destined
end of building up the mental fabric in strength, and symmetry, and
enduring beauty.
The young teacher, as he reviews the business of the day with his
pupils, and would that this were a daily practice in every school !
should ever refer, in his own mind, at least, to the general effect of
every exercise, as tending to the great results of education, to the
expansion of the mind, to the formation of habits of observation and
inquiry, to control over attention, to the clearing and sharpening of
the percipient fa$uit.ve$, "to the strengthening of the mind's retentive
power,' to" securing, in a worcl v intellectual tendency and character, as
th^.'; basis of -to-oral "development and habit. The teacher, not less
than the builder, should ever have, in his mind's eye, the plan of his
edifice ; aud while, during the whole process of erection, he wastes
no time on fanciful theory or fantastic ornament, every operation
which he conducts should be, to his own consciousness, part of a
great whole, tending to a grand consummation. Text-books, pro-
cesses, exercises, apparatus of every description, are properly, but the
pliant tools, or the subject material, in the hands of the skillful
teacher, by means of which he does his great work of " building up
the being that We are ; " and all these aids he arranges, selects,
modifies, and applies, according to the system suggested by his plan
and purpose.
As the overseer and artificer of the mental fabric of character, the
EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES. l\
teacher who is worthy of the name, must necessarily possess a knowl-
edge of the material on which he works. It would be well, uere
this knowledge always profound and philosophical; and, among tue
happy anticipations suggested by the establishment of normal schools,
none is more cheering than the hope that, ere long, society will be
furnished with a numerous class of teachers, competent to understand
and guide the young mind through all its stages of growth and de-
velopment, and furnished with all the requisite means of secur-
ing the noblest results of human culture.
Meanwhile, the laborers who are already in the field, and who have
not enjoyed, perhaps, extensive opportunities of acquiring a scientific
knowledge of the chemistry of mental culture, must be content with
such aids as their own observation, reading, reflection, or experience,
may furnish.
As a slight contribution to the common stock of professional facili-
ties, the author of the present article would submit the following
outline to the consideration <5f his fellow teachers, as an intended aid
to the systematizing of their efforts for the mental advancement of
their pupils.
The analysis which follows, extends, it will be perceived, no farther
than to the limits of intellectual education. The physical and the
moral departments of culture, may be discussed at another opportu-
nity, and must be dismissed for the present, with the single remark,
that the natural unity of the human being, demands a ceaseless atten-
tion to these, in strict conjunction with that more immediately under
consideration.
PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS. Contemplating man's intellectual con-
stitution as subjected to the processes of education, we may conven-
iently group his mental powers and faculties under the following
denominations: perceptive, reflective, and expressive. In expression,
as a function of man at the period of his maturity, the order, in the
preceding classification, may be termed the normal or usual one.
Man perceives, reflects, speaks. But in education, whether regarded
as a natural process or an artificial one, the order of classification sug-
gested by the experience and the history of the human being, in his
early and comparatively immature condition, would present the
expressive powers as in exercise long before the reflective, and, subse-
quently, as the appointed means of developing these, through the
medium of language.
OUTLINE OF INTELLECTUAL CULTURE. An outline map, or plan
of intellectual culture, as aided by the processes of education, may be
carried into practical detail, as suggested by the following prominent
points of analysis.
12 EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
> 1. Classification of the intellectual faculties, by the different modes,
or forms of mental action.
2. Statement of the actuating principle, or impelling power of
each class or group of faculties.
3. The tendency, or habit of action in each class.
4. The result, or issue of such action.
5. The educational processes adapted to each class of faculties with
a view to aid its natural tendency, and secure its results.
From the imperfection of our language, in relation to topics strictly
mental, or purely philosophical, the word faculties is unavoidably em-
ployed to represent the diversities in modes of action of the mind,
which, in itself, is, properly speaking, one and indivisible. But if we
keep fully before us the etymological signification of the term facul-
ties, (resources, means, powers,) we shall regard it but as a figurative
expression, suggestive of the indefinitely* diversified states, acts, opera-
tions, processes, powers, or modes of action, attributable to the mind,
itself a unit.
Adopting the general classification before referred to, we may com-
mence the partial filling up of our outline with
1. THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
^' 1. Their modes or forms of action :
a, sensation ; 6, perception ; c, attention : d, observation.
2. Actuating principle, or impelling force, curiosity, or the desire
of knowledge.
3. Tendency, or habit of action, observation.
4. Result, or issue of action, knowledge.
5. Educational process, forms of exercise, or modes of culture, de-
velopment, and discipline suggested by the" four preceding considera-
tions, examination, analysis, inspection, interrogation, direction, in-
formation, comparison, classification, induction. In other words, the
appropriate presentation of objects to the senses, accompanied by mu-
tual question and answer by teacher and pupil ; with a view to
quicken sensation, awaken perception, give power of prompt and sus-
tained attention, confirm the habit of careful observation, stimulate
curiosity, and insure the extensive acquisition of knowledge.
(1.) CLASSIFICATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES, BY THEIR
MODES OF ACTION.
is- (a,) Sensation,-^ the organic action by which objects, facts, and rela-
tions are presented to the mind, through the media of the senses, and
which form the conditions of perception.
,0 6,) Perception, or cognition, the intellectual action by which the
EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES. 13
mind perceives, (takes notice, or cognizance of,) data presented by the
senses.
(c,) Attention, the mental action by which, under the incitation
of desire or volition, the percipient intellect tends, for the purposes
of distinct cognizance, towards the object, fact, or relation presented
to it.
^. (d,) Observation, the voluntary, sustained, or continuous exercise of
attention, with which the mind directs itself toward the object of its
contemplation, for the purpose of complete intuition and perfect rec-
ognition.
All the terms now defined, are but different designations for the
various forms in which the intuitive action of the intellectual princi-
ple is solicited by objects external to itself. The English language,
as the product of mind working chiefly in practical directions, posses-
ses little of the clearness and distinctness in nomenclature which the
topics of intellectual analysis so peculiarly require. But the four
terms used above are sufficient to comprise the prominent forms of
perceptive action, in the various processes of intellection. They all
refer significantly enough, to the first efforts of intelligence, when,
previous to any introversive or reflective act, of comparatively sub-
tile or intricate character, it obeys the instinct of its appetite, and
finds its sustentation by feeding on the aliment tendered to it by its
Author, in the objects which environ it. To watch and guide, and
cooperate with this instructive principle, is the true office of educa-
tion, as a process of nurture and development, working not in arbi-
trary or artificial, but in salutary and successful forms, forms not
devised by the fallible ingenuity of man, but by the unerring wisdom
of Supreme intelligence.
Prevalent error in. the order of cultivation. Contrary, however, to
the obvious suggestions of fact, education is still too generally regard-
ed as consisting, during its earlier stages, in arbitrary exercises of
memory on combinations of printed characters, abstract numbers, or
even the metaphysical relations involved in the science of grammar.
The excuse offered for a blind following of precedent in this direction,
usually is the peculiar susceptibility of memory, during the period
of childhood, and the comparative difficulty experienced in attempts
to cultivate it at a later stage. Were the educational cultivation of
memory directed to the retaining and treasuring up of those stores of
knowledge which are naturally accessible to the fnind of childhood,
within the range of its daily observation, the plea would be justifia-
ble ; man's endeavors would be in harmony with the obvious instincts
and endowments of the mind, and would tend to its natural ex'jan-
14 EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
sion and development. But directed to the mechanical and arbi-
trary results at which these endeavors so generally aim, their influ-
ence is detrimental. Their immediate effect is to quench the natural
thirst for knowledge, to create a distaste for intellectual activity, and
thus to defeat the best purposes of education.
jj<, The law of true culture lies in the primary craving of the young
mind for material on which the understanding may operate ; digest-
ing it, in due season, into the regular form of knowledge which mem-
ory loves to retain, and which judgment ultimately builds up into the
systematic arrangements of science.
(2.') CURIOSITY", THE ACTUATING PRINCIPLE OF THE PERCEPTIVE
FACULTIES.
$. The Teachers proper place. The teacher who enters intelligently
upon his work of cultivating the minds entrusted to his care, knows
that his chief duty is to cherish the spontaneous action of their pow-
ers, and to make them intelligent and voluntary co-workers in their
own development.) He observes, therefore, with careful attention,
the natural tendencies and action of the intellectual system, as the
physiologist does those of the corporeal, so as to become competent
to trace the law of development, and adapt his measures to its re-
quirements. He thus becomes qualified to take his proper place, as
an humble but efficient co-worker with the Author of the mind, rec-
ognizing and following His plan, in modes suggested by a wisdom
higher than human.
The attentive study and observation of the natural workings
of the mind, in the successive stages of its progress, from incipient
intelligence to maturity of reason, imply, however, not merely a care-
ful analysis of the facts and modes of mental action, but a watchful
observation, with a view to detect, in all cases, the moving power or
impelling principle of action, to aid and regulate which is the
educator's chief work. The ceaseless intellectual activity of child-
hood, maintained through the various media of perception, furnished
by the organs of sense, is obviously stimulated by the constitutional
principle of curiosity, an eager desire to know and una*rxtand, and
therefore, to observe and examine. Hence the irrepressible and search-
ing questions with which children, in the instinct of faith, appeal to
whomsoever they think can satisfy their craving for information.
To feed this mental appetite, to select and prepare its proper nutri-
ment, to keep it in healthy and healthful activity, to quicken and
strengthen it, to direct and guide it, as a divine instinct, leading to
the noblest ends, should be the teacher's constant endeavor. To
awaken curiosity is to secure a penetrating and fixed attention, the
EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES. 1 5
prime condition of human knowledge ; and even when it leads no
further than to wonder, it is preparing the advancing mind for the
awe and the reverence with which, in later stages of its progress, it
looks up to the knowledge which is " too high for it."
M. The emotion of wonder analogous to the instinct of curiosity. Cu-
riosity, like the kindred element of wonder, finds its sustenance ip
whatever is new to sensation or perception ; wonder, in turn, leads
the mind to dwell on whatever is strange, intricate, or remote ; aston-
ishment, arrests it by whatever is sudden and powerful; aiue+com-
mands it by whatever is vast ; and amazement overwhelms it by
whatever is incomprehensible or inscrutable.) Yet all of these effects,
even those which, for the moment, act on the perceptive intellect with a
repulsive force that makes it recoil in conscious weakness from the
object of contemplation, are but >-various forms of stimulating, im-
pelling, or attracting force, acting on the irrepressible vitality of the
mind ; and no incitements are ultimately more powerful in maintain-
ing the most resolute and persevering activity of its powers.
Mental effects of novelty and variety. In the great primary school
of nature, as established and furnished by the Author of all, we ob-
serve, accordingly, that in the multiform variety of objects with
which the young human being is surrounded, at the first dawning of
intelligence within him, the novelty of the whole scene around him,
and of every class of objects which it presents, is forever tempting his
susceptible spirit to observe and examine, and explore, by the con-
scious delight which every new step affords him.
Evils of monotony, and advantages of variety. Nor is the obvious
design of the great Instructor less conspicuous in the feeling of satiety
and weariness which is always superinduced by continued sameness of
mental action, whether prolonged in the same mode of exercise, or
on the same class of objects. The observant teacher thus learns his
own lesson of duty, to avoid undue limitation in the objects and
forms of intellectual action, to shun sameness and monotony of rou-
tine, and protracted exertions of attention, as all tending to exhaust
and enfeeble the mental powers. His endeavors, on the contrary, are
all directed to a due diversity in the presentation of objects, and in
the mode of mental activity which they call forth ; and, in whatever
instances frequent repetition is indispensable to exact 'percept ion, he is
particularly careful to exert his ingenuity to the utmost, in devising
new modes of presentation, so as to secure fresh and earnest atten-
tion to the same objects or facts, by the renovating effect of
the new lights and new aspects in which he causes them to be
viewed,
I (J . EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
Faults in former modes of education. It is unnecessary, in our
day, to dwell on the obvious faults of the obsolete practice of con-
fining young children within doors at all seasons, compelling them
to remain long in one attitude or posture without relief, condemning
them to long periods of silence and constraint, and forcing them to
con unmeaning and irksome tasks. These injurious practices are now,
for the most part renounced ; and more genial and rational modes *f
early education are beginning to prevail. As yet, however, we have
only made a beginning. We have reformed, our modes of school
architecture, and have avowed children the unspeakable benefits of
space and air, and more frequent change of place, and posture, and
exercise. Objects and pictures are now employed, to some extent, as
instruments of mental culture ; and the wisdom of all these changes
is proved in the greater happiness and better health of our little pu-
pils, and, more particularly, in their greater docility, and their supe-
rior intellectual progress, as contrasted with the state of things under
the former regime of irksome monotony, restraint, weariness, and stu-
pidity. We. are very far, yet, however, from approaching the boun-
tiful variety and delightful novelty furnished in the great model
school of infancy and childhood, as established by the Divine founder.
Intellectual furniture of school-rooms. Our primary school-rooms
should be so many cabinets of nature and art. Every inch of wall
not indispensably required for blackboard exercises, should be se-
cured for educational purposes, by specimens of plants, minerals,
shells, birds, and whatever else can be appropriately placed before the
eye. The arranging, classifying, and describing of these, should pre-
cede any analysis or study of letters or syllables. Pictures repre-
senting such objects, should form a second stage of exercises in atten-
tion, observation, and description, before any alphabetic drilling what-
ever. J The examination of objects and of pictures, should, in a word,
form the natural preparatory training of the perceptive faculties for
the more arbitrary and more difficult exercise of studying and recog-
nizing the unmeaning, uninteresting forms of alphabetic characters
with their phonetic combinations.
Injurious effects of mere alphabetic drilling. Curiosity, the nat-
ural incitement of intellect, is easily awakened when we obey the law
of the Creator, and direct it to His works, the natural and appro-
priate stimulants of the perceptive powers of infancy ; but when,
leaving our proper sphere, and restricting our educational efforts to
the mechanical training of eye and ear, we use these organs, and the
informing mind, for the limited purpose of recognizing the complica-
ted and irregular geometrical combinations of line and angle, pre-
EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES. j^
seated in alphabetic characters, and repeating the sounds so arbi-
trarily associated with these, \ve take the mind out of its native ele-
ment ; we consequently force and distort its growth, dwarf its stat-
ure, and enfeeble its powers.
Effects of the salutary excitement of the feeling of wonder. But
it is not in the first stages only of mental culture, that the influence
of novelty and variety is required as an incitement to observation, by
the frequent presentation of new and fresh objects of attention, by
the agreeable surprises occasioned by new forms and new stages of
animal and vegetable life, all tending to excite a lively curiosity,
which leads, in turn, to careful attention, close examination, and suc-
cessful study. Curiosity should often be awakened by the yet more
powerful influence of wonder. Objects rare and strange, combina-
tions intricate and even puzzling, should sometimes be called in, to
excite a yet more energetic action" of the perceptive intellect, in its
endeavors to grasp the objects of its contemplation.
Whatever in nature is wonderful, whether we employ the micro-
scope, in revealing the intricate structure of plant or insect, in the
minuter and closer examination of the works of the Creator ; or the
telescope, in the contemplation of the starry heavens, and the study
of the magnitudes and motions of the bodies which people the depths
of space, all should be brought to bear on the young mind, to call
forth that sense of wonder which so delights and inspires it, and pre-
pares it, at the same time, for the influence of those sentiments of
awe and reverence with which the advancing intellect learns /to trace
the signatures of Deity. -fa . J /
(3.) OBSERVATION, AS THE TENDENCY OF MENTAL HABIT, UNDER
THE INCITING INFLUENCE OF CURIOSITY.
The natural effect of intellectual instinct. The motive power, or
impelling force, by which, in the ordinations of the mind's oinnis-
cient Author, its perceptive faculties are incited to activity, and
induced to render their tribute to the resources of intelligence, con-
sists in that restless desire to observe, to examine, and to know, which
constitutes man a progressively intelligent being. Impelled by this
insatiable mental thirst, he is led instinctively to those streams of
knowledge which constitute the waters of intellectual life. His per-
ceptive powers thus stimulated, acquire a tendency to ceaseless activ-
ity, a trait which forms the peculiar characteristic of the early
stages of his mental progress, and which is greatly quickened by the
vividness of sensation in the constitution of childhood. Hence the
promptness and versatility of attention at that period, and its remark-
able susceptibility to the influences of cultivation and discipline.
1 B
18 EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
These aids, it is true, are, as yet, too scantily furnished in the pro-
cesses of education ; and, even without them, the human being, as
he advances under the promptings of instinct, and the guidance of
self-intelligence, attains, as in the case, even of the savage,, to a high
degree of perceptive power. The keen, quick, and penetrating
glance of his eye, the acuteness and certainty of his ear, the readi-
ness and exactness of his observation of every object within the range
of his vision, the searching closeness of inspection with which he ex-
amines everything new or uncertain, often furnish an impressive
lesson on the value of training, to those whose means and opportuni-
ties of intellectual culture are so superior to his own.
Effects of cherishing the habit of observation. The habit of obser-
vation, duly cherished in early years, by the judicious care of the
parent and teacher, becomes the security for ample acquisitions in the
field of knowledge, and for the daily accumulation of mental resources
and of intellectual power. The observant mind, like the close-knit
net of the skillful fisherman, encloses and retains the living treasures
within its sweep, and deposits them, for use, in their appropriate place.
The undisciplined, inattentive, unobservant spectator seizes and re-
tains nothing in his slack and ineffectual grasp.
Suggestive significance of terms in intellectual and educational re-
lations. The etymology of the word apprehension, (seizing, grasping,
laying hold of,) suggests an important lesson regarding the value of
intellectual training, as dependent on the habit of attentive and close
observation. The word attention, (tending, reaching, or stretching
toward,) is not less instructive in its signification, implying the ten-
dency, or the gravitating of the mind's perceptive power toward the
object of notice, for the purpose of cognizance, as the first stage of
intelligence. The term observation, (watching, ^ith a view to obey
or follow,) is yet more monitory to the teacher ; as it intimates that
the true study of external nature demands vigilance, docility, and
fidelity ; in one word, the devotion of the whole mind to the busi
ness of intellectual acquisition. Perception, (taking, through a me-
dium,) refers us back to the humble office of sensation, as indispensa-
ble to the process of taking into the mind the treasures of knowl-
edge offered to the grasp of sense, for the purpose of transmission to
the percipient power, the inner principle of intelligence. All of
these terms, in the nomenclature of mental science, tend to the same
important end, in the uses of practical education : they all point to
the appropriate discipline of the perceptive faculties, by means of
objects addressed to the senses, as the primary stage of intellectual
Culture. ,.
EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES. jg
Educational errors. Former modes of education rendered tbe use
of terms such as the preceding, a nullity, or an absurdity. The child
shut up within the naked walls of a school-room, seated on his un-
comfortable bench, and mechanically conning by rote, the ill-fitting
names of alphabetic elements, or trying to piece them into syllables,
had little use of the precious gift of sense, but a few lines and angles
to perceive, unless a friendly fly should happen to alight upon the
page of his primer, no inducement to attention but the fear of Sol-
omon's prescription for " minds diseased," nothing half so interesting
to observe as the little winged being accidentally crawling on the page
before him, displaying the curiously constructed mechanism of its
form, its gauzy wings, and many-feathered little limbs, or stopping
now and then, to dry-rub instead of washing them, and its tiny head,
and flexible bit of neck, almost too Diminutive to be seen. But woe
to the little student of nature, in the genuine act of observation, if he
should lift his eye from his book, and follow his brisk little visitant
flying off to perform the visible miracle of walking up the perpendic-
ular plane of the window pane, or the yet more puzzling feat of walk-
ing the ceiling with bis head downward.
Rational method. The child, in the case supposed, indicates the
real want of his nature, and mutely, but most eloquently, pleads for
a lesson on insect life, (entomology,) before one on the alphabet.
Furnished with the data which the lesson on inject life and form,
character and motion, would present to his eye, he would be receiving
a rational preparatory discipline of attention and observation, in the
close and careful examination of all the details of shape and connVu-
i O
ration, exhibited in the living and attractive object before him. His
recognition of figure and outline, thus secured, he would, in due sea-
son, transfer, easily and willingly, to the artificial display of them in
the forms of printed characters.
Benefits resulting from the early formation of habits of attentive
observation. The early training of the perceptive faculties, by a va-
ried and genial discipline of the power of attention, so as to render s
the habit of observation an unfailing characteristic of the man, be-
comes doubly valuable, as a result of education, when we regard its
effects on the intellectual tastes and pursuits of individuals. A taste
for the study of nature, early formed, leads to the practice of col-
lecting specimens, and thus furnishing the means of successful
study to the person himself, who collects them, and at the same time to
all whom he is disposed to aid in such pursuits. Were even the ele-
ments of botany, geology, mineralogy, and zoology, generally adop-
ted, as they ought to be, as subjects of attention in primary education,
20 EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
a knowledge of natural science, would, ere long, be diffused through-
out our community ; a taste for the study of nature would become
an intellectual trait of our people ; the pursuit of agriculture,' al^ori-
culture, and horticulture, would be more intelligently and more ad-
vantageously followed ; the citizen would doubly relish his season of
respite in the country ; taste and intelligence would extend their
influence over all modes of life ; and science would be unspeakably a
gainer, in its noble purposes and offices, by the multitude of active
minds and busy hands called in to collect, arid contribute materials
for its various forms of investigation. The field of human knowl-
edge might thus be indefinitely enlarged, and its advantages and
enjoyments be more extensively diffused.^/
But it is not merely as a matter of scientific progress, or of taste
and enjoyment, that the proper training of the perceptive faculties,
by means of objects and observation, rather than by the materials
furnished in books, becomes an important consideration in the plan-
ning of modes of education, and methods of instruction. Practical
utility, also, has its claim to urge in this relation. The larger num-
ber of persons, even in the most advanced communities, as regards
civilization and refinement, are occupied in some foim of active exer-
tion, as the daily vocation of individuals ; and while no generous
mind can ever look on education as a benefit or a blessing, if it is to
be used as a mean^of training for the occupation of a given caste, it
is not less true, that every individual, in whatever class of society,
would be vastly benefited by an early course of cultivation on all
subjects akin to those which are to form the staple of his mode of
life. Botany, geology, chemistry, entomology, for instance, all have
their relations to agriculture ; and a few hours devoted weekly to
the elements of these sciences, will, by their inspiring influence on the
young mind, expedite rather than retard the ordinary processes of
school education.
Importance of commencing early the study of Nature. But while
no formal or extensive study of these branches can be rationally
attempted in primary education, it is most emphatically true, that, in
the study of nature, more than in other forms of intellectual action,
nothing can be advantageously done but on condition of an early be-
ginning, and the judicious improvement of the opportunity afforded
during the period of leisure and susceptibility which occurs to all
human beings but once in life. Childhood and youth are, by the
Creator's appointment, the period for forming taste and acquiring
habits. The most resolute struggles in after years, seldom succeed in
effecting a change of mental occupation, or in lending attractive inter-
EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES. 21
estto new pursuits. The "pliant hour" must be taken for all pro-
cesses of mental budding, grafting, or pruning, as well as in those of
the orchard. An early dip into the study of nature, will serve to
saturate the whole soul with a love for it so strong as to insure the
prosecution of such subjects for life. ^The season is auspicious ; the
senses are fresh and susceptible ; the mind is awake ; the heart is
alive ; the memory is retentive ; nature is yet a scene of novelty and
delight ; and application is a pleasure^ The twig may now be bent
in the direction in which the tree is to be inclined.
Universal susceptibility to instruction, drawn from Nature. Tn .
diversified experience of nearly forty years in the h'eld of education,
one teacher, at least, can testify that he has not yet found the mind
so dull, or the heart so callous, as to resist the attractive intellectual
influence of the analysis of even one plant or one mineral. The
mysteries of beauty and awe which hang over such objects, as an
investing celestial glory, entrancing the imagination and the heart,
and all but translating the intellect itself, have a power of attraction
which the dullest, coarsest, and most brutalized boy in a ragged
school, cannot resist. But of the moral influence of early education,
when directed to the aspects of nature, it will be more appropriate to
speak in that special connection.
Effects produced on mental character, by the study of Nature.
The solidity and the Jirmness of mental character, which are acquired
by the study of things, preceding and accompanying that of words
and books, are a natural effect of the early and seasonable cultivation
of the habit of observing, analyzing, comparing, and classifying, which
even the slight examination of any natural object induces. A
clear, decisive, and discriminating judgment, and a retentive memory,
are among the other fruits of that mental training which commences
with definite objects, capable of being analyzed and reconstructed by
the natural and appropriate action of the young mind, in virtue of its
own powers and native tendencies. But these considerations, also be-
long properly to another and more advanced stage of intellectual dis-
cipline, at which the reflective faculties, and maturing reason, are
beginning to put forth their claims for culture and development, in
addition to the preparatory training which they may have received
in the blended exercises of sense and intellect, in the action of the
perceptive faculties.
(4.) KNOWLEDGE, THE INTELLECTUAL RESULT OF THE ACTION OF
THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
Impelled by the instinct of curiosity, and guided by the habit of
observation, the young mind, whether more or less assisted by
22 EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
education, advances to the goal designated by creative Wisdom,
the acquisition of knowledge, the appointed means for erecting the
fabric of character on the scale outlined by the Great Architect, but
left to man's industry and intelligence, for the filling up and the sym-
metry of detail.
The part of education which lies more immediately before us, as
the object of our attention, being the cultivation of the intellect, the
acquisition of knowledge becomes, in this view, a consideration of
primary importance, as, at once, a source of intellectual wealth
and power, and a most effective means of mental development.
Knowledge, as a result of culture, is undoubtedly of inferior value to
discipline. But the efforts put forth in the acquisition of genuine
knowledge, are, in themselves, a disciplinary process, and the indis-
pensable instruments of further cultivation. Yet more, intellectual
acquirements are true and durable riches, valuable for their own
sake, not merely from the resources which the accumulation of them
places at the mind's command, but from their own intrinsic value, as
imperishable because intellectual things, and as the successive steps
of mental elevation in the scale of being. In reference to intellect,
knowledge is, in one most important sense, an end, not less than a
means and a measure of progress. Profound, extensive, and varied
knowledge, is one of the crowning glories of man, as an intellectual
and progressive being, capable of ceaseless development and acquisi-
tion. Most emphatically is this true of him, the soundness, and ex-
actness, and completeness, of whose knowledge, are the assurance
that he shall be a safe and competent guide along the path of edu-
cation.
Actual knowledge. But what is knowledge ? How is it acquired ?
not by the repetition of the words or the processes of others, not
by the transfer from one mind to another of the verbal statements
of fact or of abstract principles, not by the formation of vague and
partial notions, formed on superficial data, and floating loosely in the
mind, not by a half perception or half consciousness of something
indefinite or supposititious, not by an assent to rash assumptions or
confident assertions, not by the recollections of extensive reading, or
perhaps, of attentive listening, retailed in fluent expression, not by
accumulating the amplest furniture of second-hand theories and sys-
tems, whether plausible or absurd, or even logically consistent.
! r \Knowledge is what we have experienced in our own intellect, by means
of our own observation or reflection, the fruit of personal perception,
or of conscious reason, acting on the positive data of sensation^ So
narrowly must the term be limited, when we refer to the action
EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES. 23
of the perceptive faculties, or to their appropriate training and disci-
pline. Knowledge, in these relations, is (the accurate interpretation
of the facts of sense) in matters, usually, of color, form, number,
weight, or sound, and the relations which these bear to one another
in the processes of induction and classification. With the other sense
of the term, in which it refers whether to truth or to theory, and im-
plies the deductions of reflective reason, we have not, at present, to
do. It belongs to a subsequent stage of the analysis of the modes
of mental action, as subjected to the processes of intellectual cultiva-
tion, and occurs in connection with the discipline of the " reflective "
faculties.
Literal accuracy of verbal statement, a false test of knowledge.
The acquisition of knowledge, however, is, notwithstanding all our
advances, of late years, in the philosophy of education, too generally
confounded with the repetition of the verbal statements of definitions*
rules, and systems, as contained in books, even in relations so palpa-
ble as those of form and numbers. The test of knowledge, accord-
ingly, with some teachers, to this day, is, even in the exact sciences,
the fluency with which a definition or a rule is orally repeated, ver-
batim, from a text-book, and the mechanical accuracy or despatch
with which a correspondent problem is solved, or a proposition
demonstrated.
True knowledge experimental and personal. True perceptive
knowledge, on the other hand, or that which is actual and personal,
implies, in all relations of form and number, that the individual who
possesses it, has seen the object in question, or its representative, in
palpable shape, in surface or in outline, that he has subjected it to
actual measurement and comparison, or has an exact image of its
form and configuration before h's mind, that he has .actually counted
or grouped objects in numbers presented to the eye or to the mind,
or that he has compared these with one another, and traced their re-
lations, by strict and exact observation ; and the proper office of the
text- book is but to confirm and embody the result, and classify it in
the exact language and systematic arrangement of formal science, as
the specimens are labelled and shelved in a collector's cabinet. The
use of scientific method, in the statements of text-books, is but to
give logical arrangement to mental acquisitions, not to induce mere
assent, whether silent or oral, and not to facilitate the mere repetition
or verbal enunciation of propositions.
The proper business of the teacher, as a superintendent of mind.
The true office of the teacher is to see that the pupil is led by his
own conscious experience and observation, through the process of
24 EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
perception prescribed in every exercise which he attempts ; that the
operation is intelligently performed at every step, and the result ren-
dered certain, as far as the limitations of human faculties permit.
By frequently repeated performance of the requisite process, the prin-
ciple in question thus becomes an integral part of personal knowledge
with the individual ; and his faculties receive, at the same time, a
discipline which gives them facility and force in all analogous pro-
cedure in -which expertness and skill are desirable attainments. In
due season, also, he is able to sum up his acquirements in knowl-
edge, in the clear and definite and precise language which science
demands, and of which his text-book furnishes a perfect specimen on
which he can rely.
At first, however, the young operator may need even the palpable
aid of actual objects ; and the judicious teacher knows well when to
give, and when to withhold such help, when to appeal to the black-
board, and when to have his pupil rely on the mind's eye, during the
successive stages of intellectual training. He is careful, however, not
to slight or hurry over the business of the rudimental course, in
which the reference to actual objects is the main reliance for a sure
personal knowledge of the facts of form and number. The collateral
discipline, also, arising from the attentive observation and careful
study of plants, minerals, leaves, insects, and other natural objects,
the intelligent teacher values highly, from the power of attention, and
the habit of exact observation, which it tends to secure, by the dcfi-
niteness which it gives to the action of the mind, and the certainty
which k stamps on knowledge.
Contrasted examples of neglect and culture. True education has
no more striking proof of its good effect than may be observed, when
the apathy and ignorance of young persons who have been allowed
to neglect the observation and study of nature in childhood, and
afterwards to go through a class-drill on a given branch, by means
of a text-book, are contrasted with the intelligent personal interest
and intimate knowledge of those who have been wisely induced to
turn an early attention on the productions of nature, and thus to
acquire an early love for such studies, and a life-long enjoyment of
the pleasures which they afford. Adults of the former class take
little interest in the f' floral apostles" of the poet, who are ceaselessly
preaching the perfection of their Source, or in the pebble at their feet,
which, to the intelligent eye, is the medallion struck by the Creator's
hand, in commemoration of one of the epochs in His reign. These
eloquent monitions of a perpetual Divine presence, are, to such minds,
the dead letter of a handwriting which they have not been accustom-
EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES. 25
ed to trace, and on which their listless eye falls, as does that of
the sceptic, on the page of written revelation. The mirui, on trie
other hand, which has been early trained to an intelligent personal
interest in the productions of Creative wisdom and power, enjoys a
personal property, and a personal reference, in every object in nature,
finds, in ^the meanest flower that blows, thoughts that do often lie
too deep for tearsV* and ultimately to it,
" The delicate forest flower.
With fragrant breath, and look BO like a smile,
Seems, as it issues from the shapeless mould,
An emanation of the indwelling Life,
A visible token of the upholding Love,
"Which are the soul of this wide universe."
The definiten ess and the certainty, however, which give conscious
life and power to all such knowledge, depend, to a great extent, on
the faithful training which the perceptive power has undergone in the
nurturing stage of education. The poet whose words of truth and
love convince us that he has attained to the rank of an inspired seer,
set out on his career from the common starting place of infancy, in
blank ignorance of .every object and of every fact around him ; and
his brother bard whose office it is to announce, in the language of
astronomy, the harmony of the spheres, and read to mankind the
legislation of the heavens, had no vantage ground at his outset on
those excursions which ultimately extend beyond Orion and the Pleiades.
Nor was there any special dispensation antecedent to the slow but sure
processes of culture, in favor of the electrician who, in the maturity
of his acquirements, became competent to transmit and diffuse intel-
ligence with the literal rapidity of lightning ; and wnat shall we say
of the barefooted mason's boy, who commences his career of " glory
and of joy," plodding over the stone which he has broken with his
unpracticed apprentice hammer, and, at length, reads, from that
same fragment, to the delight and astonishment of mankind, the facts
of an antediluvian world ? All the treasures which such minds have
brought from their various explorations, as tributes to the treasury of
science, and to man's dominion in the sphere of knowledge, are but
the varied fruits of unwearied, progressive observation, accumulating
fact upon fact by the patient process of attentive examination of
objects, and by the skillful exercise of well disciplined perceptive fac-
ulties. Such noble efforts of mental power we contemplate with a
delight mingled with reverence and gratitude to their authors, as
benefactors of the race. The worship which human ignorance, in its
wondering admiration, extended, of old, to the mythic demi-god and
hero, might, we think, have been pardoned had it been offered to
26 EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
our venerated contemporary Humboldt, who, at an age rarely attained
by modern man, withdraws, at intervals, from the onerous duties of a
councilor of state, to record the acquisitions of a mind which, from
early years, has been exploring the wonders of nature, and now, year
after year, pours forth another and another book of the great epic of
creation, to which he has so appropriately given the sublime title,
" Cosmos."
The written life of this truly great man, however, only enables us
to trace the progress of another watchful observer of nature, as, step
by step, he observes, examines, compares, classifies, aggregates, and
accumulates, till he stands before us an intellectual Atlas, upholding
the sphere of human knowledge. Liberal education, favorable oppor-
tunities faithfully improved, an insatiable thirst for knowledge, and
devoted application to the acquisition of it, explain the wonder. Let
us inquire then, for a moment, into the processes by which human
culture achieves the miracle of such results* -^ . ff
(5.) THE APPROPRIATE EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES FOR THE EXERCISE,
DEVELOPMENT, AND DISCIPLINE, OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
The law of progressive intellection. Watching the successive steps
of man's intellectual development, as he advances, consciously or un-
consciously, in pliancy and power of mind, we see him first incited
by an irrepressible principle of curiosity, stimulating him to watchful
attention, close observation, and minute inspection, for the purpose of
acquiring a satisfactory knowledge of things around him ; that he
may, in due season, be prepared to enter upon a new and higher
cycle of his ceaseless progress, and from the materials of perception,
feed the reflective faculties of judgment and reason, which lead to the
higher goal of truth, where alone the cravings of intellect can find
rest and satisfaction.
Provision of educational apparatus. The first care of the watch-
ful and intelligent teacher, as the guide and director of the intellect,
is obviously, in compliance with the law of intellectual progress, as
traced above, to make liberal provision of the palpable material of
perception, by which the instinctive appetite of curiosity is at once
fed and stimulated, attention awakened, observation secured, and
knowledge attained. Objects abundant in number, and varied in
character, form and aspect, but chiefly those furnished by nature, and,
more particularly, those which occur most frequently within the
range of the child's actual observation, are the true and appropriate
apparatus of his education. To the examination and inspection of
these his mind naturally tends ; to the process of extracting knowl-
edge from these, his perceptive powers are expressly adapted ; in such
EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES. 27
occupation he takes delight ; working on such material, he is inspired
by the consciousness of progress and of perpetually augmenting vigor ;
and thus he becomes a willing and efficient, because an intelligent
agent in his own development.
DISCIPLINE OF THE SENSES. Sight ; color. Sensation, though the
humblest form of mental action, being the first in the natural order
of intellectual development, suggests to the parent and teacher the
great importance of a due attention to the early cultivation of the
senses, especially of those whose action is so distinctly intellectual in
character and result as is that of sight and hearing. The proper or-
ganic training of the eye implies, what is too often overlooked, an
attentive regard to color , as well as form; the former of these being
very early developed, and evidently, in all normal cases, a source of
peculiar delight in infancy, not less, than of high aesthetic gratification
in subsequent appreciation of beauty, both in nature and art. Long
before the infant shows any distinctive recognition or appreciation of
form, it manifests a keen perception and intense pleasure in the obser-
vation of all objects of brilliant color.
Under the management of the judicious mother, balls of the three
grand primary colors of the painter, blue, red, and yellow, form
an inexhaustible source of pleasure to the infant eye ; while they give
an unconscious exercise and discipline to the perceptive faculty, and
prepare the way for the subsequent, definite, and intelligent recogni-
tion of the great lines of distinction drawn on the field of vision by
the Hand which has blended color with light. Field or garden flow-
ers, or even wayside weeds, placed within the range of the eye, serve
a similar purpose. Subsequently, the principal intermediate grada-
tions of color, as they occur in objects of nature or of art, in varied
tints and hues, may be presented to the sight, in due succession, as a
pleasing exercise for the faculties of childhood, in its progress. For this
purpose, flowers, the prism, the tints and half tints of the clouds, the
glow, or the hue of evening and morning skies, throughout the year;
the ever-varying colors of autumn, from their fullest flush to their
gradual waning and decay ; all are admirable materials for the intel-
lectual and esthetic cultivation of the human being, along the suc-
cessive stages of his development. The mind early trained to a sense
of the beauty of color, can hardly be withheld, in after years, from
the profoundest application to the study of light, as " a feast of nee-
tared sweets, where no crude surfeit reigns." Purity and perfection
of taste in art, are another sure result of early cultivation, in this res-
pect. How much intelligence, and how much intensity of pure and
even sacred gratification, may thus be superadded to the sentiment
28 EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
of reverential delight .in the works of the Creator, it would be diffi-
cult for even the most skillful master of expression to say.
Form. The early cultivation of a discriminating perception of
the distinctive characters of form, through a carefully conducted, pro-
gressive discipline on objects submitted to the eye, is one of the most
purely intellectual processes to which the mind of childhood can be
subjected. The cube, the sphere, the cylinder, the cone, the pyra-
mid, when judiciously introduced among the playthings of early
childhood, as was strikingly exemplified in the schools of Pestalozzi,
become unconsciously, but most surely, a basis and standard in all
the relations of form ; and, under the guiding suggestions of the
teacher, they tend to give the mind definiteness and certainty in its
action, on whatever relates to geometrical details of figure in nature,
art, or mechanism. The primary truths of solid, superficial, and lin-
ear geometry, are thus imbedded in the mind, identified with its ac-
tion on all visible objects, and help to constitute the observer an
intelligent spectator, through life, of the grand elemental forms of
the universe.
Measure. Convenience and utility, too, have their claims to urge
in favor of an early discipline of the eye on all details of measure-
ment. An exact appreciation of measure, for in-door purposes, should
be laid in permanent inch, and half and quarter inch marks, on the
school-room wall ; and to these should be added those of the foot
and the yard. A mile, with its subdivision into halves, and quarters,
should be measured off, as a permanent standard for the young eye,
as it approaches or leaves the threshold of the school-room. The
acVe and the rod, and all other details of land measure, should be
made familiar to the eye of boyhood, by express measurement, in the
nearest accessible field or square.
Number. Veritable ideas of number belong, also, to the early dis-
cipline of the eye, and are greatly dependent on the actual presentation
of objects, for this special purpose. We read, in the accounts of one
English exploring voyage, that the inhabitants of one group of islands
in the Pacific, had do definite ideas of any number over five ; and ex-
perienced teachers are well aware that, in the case of pupils accus-
tomed to depend on the mere verbal memory of the words which
represent numbers, and unprovided with a firm basis of actual obser-
vation of palpable objects, and the personal knowledge which such
experience gives, there is an obstinate difficulty in forming definite
and distinct conceptions of numbers, which resembles, too nearly, the
confusion and helplessness of mind felt by those unfortunate island-
EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES. 29
ers, in their attempts to transcend the limits of their terminal num-
ber, five.
Most of the early arithmetical operations of very young pupils,
should consist in handling and counting visible objects, in enumera-
ting marks, in grouping objects and marks, in numbers gradually pro-
gressive, from the smallest to the largest in amount ; so as to secure
expertness and promptness in the process of addition, in varied forms.
Successive exercises should follow in multiplication, in subtraction,
and division, all performed, day after day, on visible objects handled,
and on marks expressly made for such purposes of training, before
the purely mental processes of arithmetic are attempted on abstract
numbers, even of the smallest groups. A prevalent error with teach-
ers still continues to be that of merely exemplifying true teaching in
such forms as have been mentioned, for a limited period, too limited
to tell upon the habits of the mind. Long continued training alone,
is adequate to the proper purposes of discipline, certainty and skill,
namely, in forming combinations which must sometimes be both ex-
tensive and complicated. It is unreasonable to expect rapidity and
expertness in the processes of mental arithmetic, without the prepar-
atory discipline which results from the actual observation of the facts
of number and combination, in objects presented to the senses. Such
discipline alone, can yield that personal knowledge, and that con-
scious grasp of mind, which give clearness and certainty to the action
of the intellect in arithmetical operations.
Natural objects : animated forms. But it is not merely the con-
templation of inanimate objects which the mind, in childhood,
requires as a foundation for true perception and exact observation, or
as a means of securing prompt and sustained attention. The liberal
training of the senses, as a primary step in intellectual cultivation,
extends the study of color, form, number, and sound, to the rich do-
main, of animated nature, in the animal as well as the vegetable king-
dom, and thus brings the vivid sympathy of the young heart with
kindred life and motion to the aid of the opening intellect. From
the pebble, the shell, the flower, and the leaf, the judicious mother
and teacher will pass to the insect, the bird, the quadruped, and the
fish ; and as their individualities and diversities are successively enu-
merated and dwelt upon, the details of color, form, and number,
arrest and fix the volatile attention of the child, and win him to
habits of close, minute, and exact observation.
^/.Analysis and classification, the two great master powers for the
acquisition of knowledge, in whatever direction, are also thus called
in to aid the progress of the young observer in his study of nature.
SO EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
The tendency of the mind to observe, compare, examine, and classify
whatever is submitted to its action, thus early encouraged and stimu-
lated, becomes an habitual trait of the mental character, and tells,
with powerful effect, on the intellectual progress of the individual, in
the more abstract relations of language and of mathematics. It is a
great error to suppose that, because of the intense pleasure which
attends the study of natural objects, there is not a profound and rig-
orous discipline of mind attending the equally intense intellectual
action which accompanies the pleasure. Analytic examination is one
and the same process, whether it is directed to the component parts
of a plant or of a word. Keen and penetrating attention, close,
minute, and thoughtful observation, exhaustive analysis, systematic
arrangement, and methodical classification, are equally indispensable
in the one case as in the other. But in giving precedence to the
study of the object, and postponing that of the word, we are obeying
the ordination of the Creator, who has furnished the apparatus of
the first stages of human development, in the natural objects which
first solicit the attention of the child, by the attractions of beauty
and pleasure.
Pictorial art. Nor is it only by means of natural objects that the
sense of sight contributes to the exercise and discipline of the per-
ceptive intellect. Art, too, renders here a rich tribute to the re-
sources of education. Models and pictures, and the humblest attempts
to produce these, as repetitions of the mental impressions received from
nature, give inexpressible delight to the susceptible and imitative spirit
of childhood. Their effect is invaluable, in training the perceptive
faculties to the keenest, closest, long-sustained action, without the
sense of weariness or fatigue; and their inspiring and refreshing
influence gives vivacity and force to the whole mind. The clear per-
ception, fixed attention, watchful observation, and active exertion,
which they both require and cherish, particularly when the child is
permitted to attempt to produce imitative efforts of his own, in draw-
ing or modelling, meet so successfully the craving of the young
spirit for action and endeavor, that they become powerful aids to
mental development. The working hand is thus brought to the aid
of the active eye, as a test, at the same time, of its correctness of
vision, which is proved by the degree of truthfulness in the delinea-
tion. ' This productive method of exercising the perceptive and exec-
utive faculties, yields to the child the peculiar delight of having
achieved something palpable, as a proof of power, and is, meanwhile,
working in his mind the silent effect which is to appear, in due season,
in the symmetry and gracefulness of his handwriting^ and the neat-
ness of whatever he attempts, whether in plan or execution.
EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES. gj
The ear : music. The varied world of sound, comprising music
and speech, is another wide field of culture to the intelligent mother
and the elementary teacher. The extent to which the sense of sight
may be cultivated, as regards precision and certainty and truth of
action, is indicated in the perfection which is attained by the sculptor
and the painter, whose copies of nature are, in some instances, so
faithful, and so beautifully perfect, as to confer an immortality of
fame upon their authors. But little notice, comparatively, is taken of
the delicate susceptibility of the ear, in relation to the offices of cul-
ture. Yet no sense, not even that of sight itself, is capable of attain-
ing to so high perfection by the aids of training and discipline. The
innumerable minute distinctions of sound, which the performance of
even a single piece of music, by a single performer, often requires ;
but, still more, the multitude which the composer of one of the mas-
ter-pieces of harmony must be capable of recognizing, discriminating,
and combining, with a measured v exactness transcending all other
efforts of perceptive intellect: these remind us, most impressively, of
the extent and value of cultivation, when we recall the fact, that
the performer and the composer commenced their artistic training on
the common footing of all human beings, a percipient mind, and an
organ capable of telegraphing to it the notes of the singing bird, the
song of the mother or the nurse, or the artless strains of some juve-
nile performer on pipe or flute.
Speech. We have yet another proof of the susceptibility of the
ear to the influences of cultivation, when " the well trod stage," in
the exhibition of a play of the ' myriad-minded' Shakspeare, displays
in the voice of the skillful actor, th'e whole world of human passion,
with its ever-varying tones, uttered in the language of poetic inspira-
tion, now moulded by the serene influence of heavenly contempla-
tion, as when Lorenzo speaks to Jessica, while they sit on the moon-
lit bank, of the " smallest orb which she beholds, still quiring to the
young-eyed cherubim ; " now breathing the deep tones of Hamlet,
solemnly musing on the mysteries of life, and death, and destiny ;
now the hollow mutterings of conscious guilt from Macbeth, while
meditating the murder from which he yet recoils ; now the hoarse
accents of remorse wrung from the bosom of him whose " offence is
rank" with the blood of "a brother's murder;" now the scarce articu-
late horror of " false, fleeting, purjured Clarence ; " the maddened
scream of mingling grief and rage from the injured mother, Con-
stance ; the love raptures of the empassioned Romeo ; the ringing
laughter of Mercutio ; or the torture of Othello, as he fluctuates from
32 EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
the ecstacies of overflowing love and joy, to the curses of hatred, the
outbursts of grief, and the agonies of despair.
In all these forms the well trained actor, by the mastery of his
artistic skill, exerts a power over the sympathies of his audience
which far transcends the highest achievements of representative art
in any other form. The arduous training to which the histrionic
artist subjects his voice, in order to produce such effects, shows to
what extent the cultivation of the ear may be carried. It is by the
indications of this faithful, prompting monitor, that he guides every
step of his vocal efforts, till he attains to those consummate effects of
genius which, in some instances, have conferred on the individual a
fame coextensive with the civilized world. Yet he who is, perhaps,
thus renowned, commenced his early efforts, with the usual stumb-
ling utterance of a school-boy.
Enunciation. Passing from the higher sphere of music and poe-
try, in their influence on the cultivation of the intellect, through the
medium of sense, we come to one of the most important stages of
education, in the discipline of the voice for the useful purposes of
speech, as dependent on accuracy of ear, the only reliable guide to
correct results. The unconscious freedom with which we utter
thoughts in our native tongue, leaves all persons who are not advan-
tageously trained by precept or example, exposed to the evils of incor-
rect habit, in utterance. The extensive prevalence, also, of corrupted
usage, in the negligent practice of general society, increases the liabil-
ity to error in the style of the individual. There was wisdom in the
Roman maxim, that the nurses of children ought to be persons of
correct habit, in enunciation. The influence of early example, is the
most binding rule of speech, as the baffled and disappointed teacher,
after all his endeavors, is often made to feel.
One early begun and long continued daily practice, in primary
training, should consist in the careful, correct, and distinct articula-
tion of the component elements of speech, as accomplished in our
own language. These should, at first, be practiced with reference to
the exact sound of every letter of the alphabet, singly and separately ;
afterwards they should be enunciated in the groups which constitute
syllables, on a graduated progressive scale of difficulty, till every vari-
ety of combination can be uttered with perfect distinctness and per-
fect fluency ; finally, the pronunciation of words should be practiced
in a similar manner, till the style of the young learner is freed from
all corrupt and local mannerism, and he is prepared to take his place
among the cultivated in speech as well as thought, and, by his per-
sonal manner of expression, to evince the style of educated habit as
preferable to that of vulgar negligence.
EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES 33
Elocution, In the secondary and in the more advanced stages of
education, the discipline of* the ear should be extended, so as to em-
brace all the refining and highly intellectual influences of music and
poetry, as combined in elocution.
Intellect, feeling, and imagination, are all inseparably united in the
appropriate expression of sentiment, as embodied in the language of
oratory and poetry and their finest effects in utterance depend on a
nice susceptibility of ear, which culture only can secure to full extent.
Music and elocution, the most humanizing of all arts, prescribe the
apparatus and the forms of training to which the ear should be sub-
jected, through the whole course of education. In the analysis and
the discrimination which vocal discipline demands, in the recognition
which it secures of the almost infinitely diversified and ever varying
character of tones, in their expression of intelligence or of emotion, there
is an admirable discipline of intellect implied, which, though less for-
mally displayed than in other modes of exercise, is not, on that
account, the less effectual. Of the high moral value of the suscepti-
bility which such training tends to cherish, it is not now the appro-
priate time to speak. We may advert to it under a subsequent head.
The subject of healthful physical training is not now under con-
sideration ; yet sensation, and consequent perception, are dependent
on the condition of the organs of sense, and therefore of the whole
corporeal frame, which must be in a healthy condition to secure the
natural and true action of nerve and brain, the apparatus of percep-
tive action in the intellect. The attentive and efficient cultivation of
health should be regarded, not merely as a condition of intellectual
life, but as the first step in the formation of intellectual character.
The clear eye and the quick ear of health are highly intellectual in
their tendencies, and are for ever detecting and offering material for
the intellect to examine or explore. The dull organs of a morbid
frame, on the contrary, are too torpid to respond to the awakening
touch or beckoning invitation of nature, and leave the clouded intel-
lect to sleep or to dream.
PROGRESSIVE CHARACTER OF THE PROPER DISCIPLINE OF THE PER-
CEPTIVE FACULTIES.
The varied exercises of eye and ear, as organs of sentient
mind, should always, under the guiding management of the teacher,
advance in intellectual character from stage to stage, so as to secure
the benefits of a progressive discipline, commencing, indeed, at the
threshold of sense, but ever tending more and more inward, till they
become nearly inseparable from the action and character of pure
intellect. They thus render the keen eye and the quick ear prompters to
1 C
34 EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
clear perception, fixed attention, penetrating observation, careful com-
parison, and discriminating judgment, and so conduct to consummate
intelligence.
The teacher who works in intelligent cooperation with the consti-
tution of the beings whose character it is his office to mould, is con-
tent to labor patiently in the field of sensation, as, at first, forming the
sole ground on which he can rationally meet the dawning mind, with
the hope to exert a genial and effectual influence on its development.
He dwells long, accordingly, on the prominent outward characteris-
tics of objects, as most accessible to the unpracticed faculties of infancy,
as best adapted to elicit their activity, and tempt them forth to more
and more energetic effort. He furnishes, with no sparing hand, the
opportunities of intuition, in the abundance and variety of the objects
which he presents to the senses. He selects these, however, with
such judgment and skill that the young mind shall be incapable
of regarding them with a mere vacant aspection or listless intuition,
but, on the contrary, shall be made to feel that there is within them
a soliciting power, a magnetic attraction, to which its own nature
responds, and by which it is led on, from stage to stage, till it finds
itself in possession of the mental treasures of clear perception and
definite knowledge.
VOLUNTARY EXERCISE OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES, A CONDITION
OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT.
Attention as a voluntary act. The teacher who recognizes the
law of intellectual growth, is aware that, in adopting measures to
aid the progressive unfolding of the perceptive faculties, he may trust
largely to the mind's own instinctive and spontaneous tendencies to
action, if only due provision is made for mental activity, by supplying
the objects of sense which naturally invite and stimulate perception.
But regarding the mind as a voluntary and self-directing agent, ho,
knows that unless its own efficient cooperation is secured in the pro-
cesses on which its energies are exerted, its activity will be ever tending
to subside, or to degenerate into mechanical and unmeaning routine.
The result, he is aware, must, in such circumstances, be a morbid
intellectual inertness of habit, or a deceptive show of forced organic
action, instead of the movements of mental life. His great endeavor,
therefore, will be to succeed in evoking ATTENTION, that power of
the mind which brings into vigorous and efficient activity the percipi-
ent intellect, that power which, by its own innate force, impels and
sustains perception, in whatever direction it is called to act, or in what-
ever process it is employed.
The customary definition of this power, or faculty, as voluntary per-
EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES. 35
eeption, suggests to the educator his true office in cultivating and
developing it. It implies that he no longer restricts his efforts to
presenting such objects as solicit and secure the mind's notice, by the
law of natural instinct, but that, addressing himself to the principle
of volition, he calls it forth, as a moving force, impelling the mental
machinery from within, and enabling it to arrive at knowledge, by its
own action. The true teacher never commits the error of resorting
to the exercise of his own will, instead of that of his pupil, as the pro-
pelling power. He is aware that his success, as an educator, is to be
measured, not by the force with which he can bring his own power
of compulsion to bear on the faculties of his pupils, but by the intens-
ity with which he can bring their mental energies into voluntary play,
in processes which leave a residuum of living force, as a result on
mental character. He knows well that no degree of exertion can
command attention, by a mere act of will, at the moment ; that, by
the law of the mental constitution, a train of circumstances must be
laid before the desired result can be ensured ; that an exercise of will
is not, in the natural analogies of mental action, a merely arbitrary
act of self-determination ; but that, on the contrary, will is solicited
by desire ; a feeling or affection of the mind being the natural and
necessary preliminary to volition ; and that the intelligent guide of
the intellectual powers must, therefore, appeal to feeling, as the natu-
ral and reliable prompter of the will. In other words, the educa-
tional process, rightly conducted, is so contrived as to create a desire
to arrive at the given result, and proceeds upon that security for the
action of will in determining the direction of the mind, and sustain-
ing the exertion of its powers.
Trained under such influences, a disciplined attention is the sure
fruit of culture ; and power of attention is not unjustly termed the
key which unlocks all the gates of knowledge, and secures an entrance
to its innermost secrets of intelligence.
Attention, as a power or mode of intellectual action, regarded in
connection with the cultivation of the perceptive faculties, requires
the application of the various expedients by which it may be rendered
prompt, earnest, close, and continuous, as the exigencies of subjects
and of the mind may demand.
Promptness of attention. Such results imply that the educator,
as a skillful gymnasiarch in the arena of mind, trains it through every
variety of evolution by which it may be rendered quick in move-
ment, ever ready for instantaneous action, so as to secure that
pliancy and versatility by which it can at once direct itself to its
object, or relinquish one object or train of thought for another, when
36 EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
the moment for change has arrived, and pursue the object of its aim
with whatever velocity of motion may be requisite to reach it, in due
season.
Speed and despatch, however, not haste and hurry, should be the
ends at which the teacher aims in all drilling processes. A wakeful
and lively attention, ever on the alert for action, implies sound and
healthful and invigorating training. A harassed and exhausted mind,
dragged or driven along the path of exercise too arduous, or too long
continued, can never yield the results of genuine discipline.
With very young pupils, especially, the obvious indication of nature
is, make free use of striking and attractive objects, illustrations, and
remarks. One object at a time ; words few and well chosen ; no lag-
ging or drawling on the part of either pupil or teacher, yet no hurry,
no impatience, no impetuosity ; proceeding smoothly and swiftly, but
quietly and gently in all movements ; yet sometimes, for the purpose
of arresting attention, adopting the grateful surprise of a sudden
change, briskly executed : these are the characteristics of skillful and
genial training, such as quickens the life power of intellect.
Earnestness of attention. The power of earnest attention is an-
other trait of mental habit to which the successful teacher directs his
endeavors, as an invaluable attainment to be secured, through his
agency, by his pupils. To this end, he avoids carefully all exercises
not interesting or inviting to the young mind. Objects, pictures, pen-
etrating questions, vigorous exertion, in varied forms, for mind and
body, strenuous endeavor called forth, at intervals, to cope with
difficulties, interesting facts stated, or stories told, the wonders of
nature and of art exhibited, interesting conversation maintained, in
which the pupils interchange thoughts with the teacher, ivord-pic-
t^ires of peculiar power and beauty, selected from the poets, early
attempts at drawing, exercises in planning and building, tangible illus-
trations in architecture, masonry,- carpentry, or joiner- work, in juve-
nile style, for hours of recreation, the analysis of plants, the tracing
of the anatomy of animal forms, in specimens of insect organization,
in the osseous construction of birds, fishes, reptiles, <fec. ; all lessons
made, as far as practicable, matter of active work, rather than merely
passive attention ; the ceaseless use of the slate, the pencil, and the
blackboard, in recording, repeating, and illustrating every thing which
admits of such forms of expression ; these, and every other resort
which ingenuity can invent, are all required in the exigencies of actual
teaching.
Earnest attention and strenuous application, on the part of pupils,
are; the natural result and unfailing reward of the teacher's own facil-
ity and skill in devising and executing inspiring models of whatever
EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES. 37
he would have his pupils execute. The efficacy of his own ear, eye,
and hand, secured by his own self culture, is the only guaranty of
his success, as a faithful trainer of the perceptive faculties. The gen-
eral introduction of music and drawing, now in progress in all well-
taught schools, together with the increasing attention given to ele-
mentary lessons in botany and mineralogy, is opening a highly ben-
eficial course of discipline for the young mind, in whatever concerns
the power of earnest and effective attention, as an attribute of intel-
lectual character.
Closeness of attention. The thorough discipline of attention, how-
ever, as the directing force of the perceptive faculties, implies that it
is not only rendered prompt and earnest in action, but close and minute
in its ^application. A faithful analysis is conditioned, in all depart-
ments of study, on a clear and distinct perception of every particular.
Nothing must be suffered to escape notice. No analysis can be com-
plete that is not exhaustive, to the extent of its object. Close and
minute inspection is indispensable for the exact observation of many
of the most instructive and the most beautiful of the details of nature,
in the forms of animal and vegetable life, for the successful watching
of the processes of chemistry, for forming exact estimations of quan-
tity and number, for tracing the diversities of even inanimate form,
the delicate gradations of color, the minutest difference of sound and
form, in the details of language, together with all the nicer distinctions,
and discriminations of thought, when embodied in words, for the pur-
poses of communication.
To secure these results, we are again directed to the early and effec-
tual training of the perceptive faculties on the objects of nature, as the
first step in the true education of the mind. The minutest point of
form in the structure of leaf or blossom, the child traces with relight ;
and this native tendency of mental action, extended in its range of
objects, and confirmed by the law of habit, becomes not only a source
of intellectual enjoyment, but of conscious power and ultimate success,
in all investigations, not merely of nature and external objects, but, by
the inevitable law of analogy, in every department of research on
which the intellect is competent to enter. The power of close atten-
tion, sharpened by judicious early training of the perceptive faculties,
attains in due season, to consummate certainty and success in those
processes of minute analysis which are, in many instances, the crown-
ing glories of science.
No contrast can be more striking than that exhibited in the two
cases of neglect and culture, in this relation of mental action. On the
one hand, we have the loose, superficial, imperfect attention, which
38 EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
glides listlessly over the surface of tilings, without note, and conse-
quently without knowledge ; on the other we see an acute, keen, pene-
trating, searching inspection, which nothing escapes, a mind whose
knowledge is exact and complete, whose information is the result of
narrowly examined and well ascertained particulars.
The intelligent teacher, knowing that the keenest exercises of dis-
criminating judgment are, by the law of mental constitution and habit,
not unfrequently dependent on the close examination of details, on the
power of tracing and detecting the minutest shades of difference in
objects and their component parts, leads his pupils, by the closeness
of his questioning, to follow the minutest ramifications of diversity, amrd
apparent similarity, in the objects which he uses as instruments for
sharpening their perceptions to the keenest inspection of every feature
which is accessible to the discernment of sense. Beyond this point
he passes to the use of the microscope, one of the most valuable imple-
ments ever devised as an aid to the processes of human culture. A
cheap instrument of this description, in the hands of an attentive teacher,
has a power which no degree of mental inertia can resist. It has been
known to convert, in a few days, a whole school of uncultivated,
thoughtless, turbulent children into an attentive, thoughtful, inquiring,
docile, and orderly company of little students of nature.
A few minutes occupied daily in observing and tracing the forms
of objects, in detail, is, in addition to its ultimate effects on mental
habit, of the greatest service in the humble relations of alphabetic
teaching. A ground work is thus laid for the accurate recognition of
the elements of form combined in the visible shapes of printed and
written characters, and a surer and more rapid, because a more intel-
ligent, progress secured, as regards the accuracy of the eye in recog-
nizing, or of the hand in repeating the lines, angles, and curves, which
constitute the complex forms of letters. Accustomed to the close and
minute analysis of form on visible objects of different sorts, the child,
if permitted to treat his alphabetic characters in a similar way, takes
delight in detecting and naming their constituent parts ; and, particu-
larly, when he is permitted to try to delineate them for himself, and
thus, as it were, bring them under a kind of ideal subjection to his
power.
The discipline of particular observation and searching attention,
early secured, becomes, in due season, a complete guaranty for the
correct and successful performance of the various gradations of math-
ematical problems in which a well trained and exact attention is
required, whether for the relations of form or those of numbers ; and
T hroughout the successive stages of education, in all its departments.
EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES. 39
The well trained mind becomes ultimately like the thoroughly mag-
netized instrument, which leaves no stray particles of the steel-filings
scattered abroad, but agglomerates them every one to itself; with a
certainty which renders the act no unfitting analogy for illustrating
the universal law of gravitation.
Tenacity of attention. Having used his best endeavors to render
the faculty of attention prompt, earnest, and close, in its action, as the
guide of the perceptive faculties, the teacher has yet another character to
stamp upon it. He would have it not only quick and vivid, and
searching, but tenacious and persistent. From an element volatile,
fluctuating, and superficial, in its first manifestations, he would have
it become, at length, a power fixed, and steadfast, and unfailing.
Patiently training it through its incipient stage of short, feeble flights,
he inures it to lengthened excursions and sustained exertions, such as
all valuable mental attainments demand. Here, again, Nature comes
to his aid, furnishing him liberally not only with numerous instru-
ments of discipline in her manifold forms, as objects, individually,
attractive and interesting, but with those complexities of shape, and
color, arid number, those organic relations, and organic contrivances,
those compound bodies, those intricate combinations of elements and
processes, which all require not only an earnest and close, but a long-
sustained, unflagging attention, as the only condition of faithful and
exact observation and accurate knowledge.
The intelligent teacher watches carefully the progressive develop-
ment of his pupil's power of attention, and exercises it according to
the increasing force and firmness of its grasp, so as to secure a per-
petually growing power of retention, through all the successive exer-
cises which he contrives for its discipline, on natural and artificial
forms, their various combinations, numbers, powers, and characteristics,
of whatever denomination in the vocabularies of science and art.
Regarding attention as the master power in the grasp of the percep-
tive faculties, he values, most of all, its strength and retentiveness, its
ability to maintain an unbroken sequence of activity, such as not un-
frequently demands the incitement of the most earnest desire to arrive
at the wished for result, and produce, in turn, the most resolute deter-
mination of the will to persevere in action till the result is mastered.
Here, again, the teacher finds his best resort in the objects and pro-
cesses of nature ; unwearied attention is in no way so effectually
secured, without undue or fatiguing exertion, as in analyzing and in-
specting the various parts of plants, or the anatomical mechanism of
animal forms, and, more particularly, of insects. While no humane
or enlightened teacher would ever propose even one half hour of
40 EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
unbroken attention, on the part of very young pupils, twice that time
may safely and advantageously pass in the suggestive questions of the
teacher, and the ready answers of the pupils, during the examination
of a single specimen of the productions of nature. In such circum-
stances, instruction takes its best form,- that of interesting conversa-
tion ; and time flies only too fast for both parties in the exercise.
Another sustained effort of attention may, by a judicious change in
the form of mental action, be as easily secured by permitting the
pupil to make such attempt as he can at delineating, in detail, the
parts of the object which he has been contemplating; still another
may be obtained by permitting him to describe, in ufords, and at full
length, what he has observed ; and even the giant Despair of " com-
position" may be Conquered by allowing the pupil to write his descrip-
tion.
Such processes prepare the young student in due season, for those
arduous and unflagging exertions of attention by which he ultimately
succeeds in solving lengthened and complicated problems in mathe-
matics, disentangling long and inverted sentences by tracing the gram-
matical relations of their parts, and following, with patient assiduity,
every step in extended and abstruse processes of reasoning on subjects
more purely mental in their character.
The teacher who would merit the rank of an educator, and who
would render all his processes of instruction not merely didactic but
disciplinary, can never be too careful to accustom himself tp survey the
whole field of human culture in its completeness; to keep ever before
his own mind the strict unity of the principle of intelligence, the
analogy and cotendency of its various modes of action, and the identity
of their results in the enlarging and quickening of its powers, and the
strengthening of its grasp, on whatever subject it may be called to
fasten. Philosophical writers, of high repute, have, sometimes, in
their zealous advocacy of the value of their special studies, as instru-
ments of mental discipline, been led greatly to underrate the disci-
plinary influence of all intellectual training connected with the observ-
ation and study of nature. They seem to have overlooked the fact
that quick, acute, penetrating, close, persevering attention is one and
the same priceless attainment, whether exhibited in the examination
of an external object or in the investigation of the most abstruse of
subjects that can be submitted to the action of human intellect.
The experienced and observing teacher knows well that his students
who excel in the exercises prescribed in the departments of logic and
metaphysics are those whose faculties have been most thoroughly
disciplined in the processes of analysis, comparison, and classification,
EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES. 4^
of induction and deduction, applied to the study of natural objects,
under the guidance of mathematical and physical science. The
materials on which the mind works in each of these great groups of
subjects are undoubtedly wholly different; but its action is virtually
the same in both attention leading to discernment, discernment to
fact or to truth.
The student who is thus trained in the true unity of his intellect-
ual being, issues from the preparatory sphere of education well pre-
pared to meet the exigences of actual life, whether these present
themselves in the form of intelligent and prompt activity, or in that
of rigid investigation and profound research.
ATURAL CONNECTION OF THE PERCEPTIVE AND THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
o enable his pupils to extend the exercise of attention into that of
continued observation, is the great aim of the teacher, who works in-
telligently on the material of mind, with a view to elicit power of
thought. As far as the discipline of the perceptive faculties extends,
the end of culture is to create an observing mind ; from which, in the
beautifully perfect arrangements of the great Author of intelligence,
spring, in succession, a reasoning and a reflecting mind. The latter,
however, can never be obtained without due obedience to the Creator's
law of succession, in the development of intellect. The materials of
reason and reflection lie, to a great extent, though not exclusively, in
the field of observation ; and, a regard to the law of natural and
healthy development, therefore, induces the teacher to look carefully
to the first steps of his procedure in the processes of cultivation.
Having used his best endeavors to vivify and invigorate the power of
attention, by all appropriate means and appliances, he proceeds to the
use of every genial method of confirming the tendency of the mind
to maintain that faculty in habitual action ; to stamp on the intellect,
as a characteristic trait, an inquisitive and appropriating spirit/which
examines and searches into all things within its sphere, aggregates
their riches to itself, and ever comes home laden with results for the
exercise of powers and faculties yet greater than itself; and, to which
it is ordained to minister.) It is thus that the mind becomes the
delighted and conscious agent in its own advancement.
// PROCESSES BY WHICH THE HABIT OF OBSERVATION IS SECURED.
The frequent solicitation of attention, by the presentation of attract-
ive objects, would, of itself, as we see in Nature's unaided training of
the savage, provoke a tendency to observe. and to inquire. But, the
action of the intelligent teacher, in aid of Nature, and in obedience
to her dictation, is founded on a law of moral certainty, derived from
the study of the laws of mental action. Understanding and relying
42 EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
on the susceptibility of the mind to the influence of the objects by
which it is surrounded, and the perfect adaptation of these objects to
that end ; and, aided, no less effectually, by that inward thirst for
knowledge, that burning desire to observe and understand, which actu-
ates the young mind itself, the enlightened teacher knows he has but
to attract attention to the object which he wishes to employ as a ma-
terial in the fabric of knowledge. Attention gained, secures percep-
tion ; if the object is properly selected, and skillfully handled.
The volatility of attention in the immature mind, which, if unguarded,
tends to mental dissipation and superficial observation, the teacher
counteracts by genial measures, adapted to arrest and fix this subtle
element of mental power, and carry it successfully forward, from step
to step in observation, till the end in view in investigation is attained.
The successive steps of the mind's progress, under the guidance of a
skillful instructor, in endeavoring to arrive at the result of true per-
ception, exact observation, and complete knowledge, are suggestively
indicated in the process of investigating the structure of any visible
object, and naturally present themselves in the following order: exam-
ination^ analysis, inspection j aided by interrogation, direction, and
information, and extended successively to the more complex processes
/ of comparison and classijication.fj^lf
Examination, as a Process in Intellectual Training. In the
absence of the prompting and directing power of genial culture, it is
true, perhaps, that most of our race are permitted to fill the measure
of their days without one definite or quickening thought of the objects
by which they are surrounded for a life-time. The peasant boy, who,
of all hjjman beings, is the most favorably situated for the contempla-
tion and intelligent study of nature, seldom experiences the friendly
aid of a suggestive question, that might lead him to appreciate the
elements of intellectual wealth, in which the field of his daily labor
abounds. Education has given him the ability to compute his wages,
to read, or to sign a receipt; and, thus to meet the humble demands
of his animal subsistence. It may even have afforded him some
formal instruction in grammar or geography. But, it has not even
hinted to him that, in "herb, tree, fruit, flower, glistering with dew,"
there are wonders of skill, and beauty, and power, fitted to fill his
soul with delight, and to exalt him to a higher intelligence ; that, in
the bud, as it opens in spring, in the expanded blossom of summer, in
the tinted leaf of autumn, in the shell which he picks up from the
sand of the brook, in the very pebble which he " turns with his share,
and treads upon," there are offered to his mind whole volumes of the
richest knowledge, which the study of a life-time cannot exhaust.
EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES. 43
An eloquent American writer, speaking of the advancement of edu-
cation, says : " The time may come when the teacher will take his
pupil by the hand, and lead him by the running streams, and teach
him all the principles of Science, as she comes from her Maker." The
teacher is here rightfully represented as fulfilling, in his humble sphere
of duty, the highest offices of philanthropy and of religion. Such is
the teacher's noble and beneficent function, in favoring circumstances ;
yet, not less when, yielding to the exigencies of life, he is confined
within the walls of his school-room, but brings in Nature's apparatus
from without, to give life, and meaning, and efficacy to his instruc-
tions, and win the young mind to the earnest and devoted study of
the works of the Creator.
Intellectual Effects Resulting from the Examination of Objecis.
The zealous teacher, working with such light shed upon his labors,
knows that, in presenting a product of Nature to the eye, he is pre-
senting a germ of thought to the mind, which, under his skillful man-
agement, shall duly unfold, in leaf, and blossom, and ultimate fruit.
He knows that, in the absence of a guiding suggestion, his young
pupil may have looked a thousand times on that leaf, as a thing
which did not concern him; on the shell, as only something queer;
on the pebble, as an unintelligible intruder, perhaps, on his personal
comfort ; on the flower, as something pretty, that his sisters are fond
of; on the fruit, as a sufficiently satisfactory morsel for his palate ; and,
that thus, in the great universal hall of learning, stored with library
and apparatus, the orphaned mind may have sauntered away the pre-
cious hours of early life, without having been induced to study a single
lesson, or engage in a single exercise. All this the teacher is well
aware of; but, he knows, too, the hidden life and power that lie
wrapped up in the little object .with which, as a specimen from
Nature's cabinet, he proceeds to magnetize the sentient intellects before
him. He knows that, as surely as these susceptible beings are brought
near enough to come within the range of action, they fall under the
spell of its power, are charmed to rapt attention, and carried on, in
wondering and delighted observation, till they are finally arrested
by the grateful surprise of conscious knowledge, and advanced
intelligence.
Is it a plant which forms the subject of the lesson he would give ?
He has but, by a striking question, to break the crust of habituation,
which has blunted the perception of his pupils, and hinders their
mental vision. He has but to ask them to describe its parts, in detail,
as he holds it up before them, and he has gained the grand prelimi-
nary condition of effective perception, attentive examination. As
44 EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES
the description extends its ramifications, the weed, which had been a
thousand times trodden under foot, without a thought of its nature or
construction, becomes an eloquent expositor of Creative mechanism
and life ; its parts become organs and channels of vitality, a won-
drous laboratory of chemical elements and action ; the individual
object becomes a member of a family, each of whom has his life and
his history, his birth, growth, maturity, and decay ; leaving, as the
moral of his story, the parting suggestive question, riveted in the
wondering mind, " Am I not wonderfully made ? "
One such result, and the more common the object which secures
it the better, one such result is sufficient to ensure a repetition of
itself, in a thousand other instances. The ice of indifference is broken ;
and the observer may now see clearly, through the transparant water,
the many-formed beautiful pebbles on the sandy bed of the stream.
The time and trouble of examination, it is now found, are amply
repaid in the conscious pleasure of intelligent observation ; and, they
are no longer begrudged. The mind has now become desirous to
observe, examine, and explore. It has already set out on a career
which, were all educators intelligent agents, would be ceaseless to all
to whose advancement it is their part to minister.
Example of a Successful Teacher. A most striking exemplification,
in this respect, of successful instruction, was often exhibited in the
devoted labors of the late Josiah Holbrook, who, although the very
extent of some of his plans for the advancement of popular education
may have rendered their execution difficult for the endeavors of an
individual, yet was uniformly successful in his attempts to introduce
the study of natural objects, as a part of early education in all schools.
Trusting to the power of attraction and development latent within a
stone, picked up by the wayside, he would enter a school, with no
other apparatus of instruction provided ; and, holding up the familiar
object, would succeed, by means of a few simple but skillfully-put
questions, in creating an earnest desire in his young audience to be
permitted to look more closely at the object. He would then hand it
to them, and have it passed from one to another.
Having thus secured the preliminary advantage of earnest attention,
his next step would be, by a few more brief questions, to lead his little
class to a close and careful examination of the specimen submitted to
their notice ; and, to their surprise and delight, to enable them to see
that the bit of granite in their hands, although but one stone to the
eye, at first sight, actually contained portions of three different kinds
of rock. He would then give his pupils an unpretending but thor-
oughly effective exercise in analysis, by inducing them to point out
EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES. 45
distinctly each component element, apart, and to describe, at the
moment of doing so, its points of difference from the others, by which
the eye might recognize and the mind distinguish it.
Another stage, in the well-planned lessons of this true teacher,
would lead to a yet closer inspection of the component elements in the
object of observation, by the presentation of separate specimens of
each, in comparison with the smaller portions of them perceptible in
the stone. The transparency of the mica, its laminated form, its
beauty to the eye, would all come up in turn, for due notice and
remark ; nor would its peculiar adaptation to several of the uses and
conveniences of life be overlooked. The quartz element, with its beau-
tiful crystalline aspect and forms, its value as a gem, its wide diffusion
in the granular condition, its presence and its effects in the composi-
tion of rocks and soils, all briefly exemplified and enumerated,
would form a copious subject of instruction and delight. The feld-
spar, too, with its creamy tint and block-like configuration, and its
valuable uses in the hands of the potter and the dentist, would come
in for its share of delighted attention and studious observation.
Here was the true office of instruction faithfully exemplified. Here
was genuine mental activity, on the part of the pupil ; and, here were
its natural effects, vigorous, healthy expansion and development,
together with the pure, natural, and salutary pleasure of intellectual
exercise, more dear to the child than even his favorite play. Here,
too, were effectually secured the moral influences of culture, docility,
order, regularity, voluntary attention and application, gratitude to the
instructor for personal favor and benefit consciously received, an earn
est desire implanted for the true and enduring pleasures which spring
from knowledge, and the first steps taken in the life-long pursuit of
science. The teacher, having put himself into a true living relation
to the mental constitution of his pupils, could, without delaying for
formal calls to order or attention, proceed, at once, to the benign office
of his vocation, as the guide of the young mind. By a wise prevent-
ive method, not by authority, rule, or penalty, he secured the
devoted attention and good order of his pupils, and, not less, their
own happiness, their sympathy with him, at the moment, and their
habitual reverence for him, as the living source of knowledge.
After one lesson, such as has been described, the substantial and
durable effect resulting from it was usually perceptible in the fact that,
on the dismission of the school, the juvenile members of Mr. Hoi-
brook's audience would be found resorting to whatever place they
thought likely to furnish them with specimens such as he had exhib|-
ited in his lesson. This was almost universally the case when the
46 EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
lesson happened to be given in a rural region, where objects of the
kind in question were easily obtained. But, not less zeal for collect-
ing specimens for juvenile cabinets, would sometimes be manifested in
the more confined sphere of city life, an instance of which it would
be difficult for the writer to forget.
An eager group of little collectors were scrambling for specimens
around the temporary shed of the stone-masons occupied in the erec-
tion of a public building. They were busily replenishing their pock-
ets with such pieces as struck their fancy, and stopping now and then
to compare specimens, or each to examine his own more closely.
Drawing near to the juvenile company of geologists, as their heads
were clubbed together in earnest inspection of a specimen, the observer
heard one exclaim, " Well, I do not think it is the right kind. For,
you know, Mr. Holbrook said the way to spell granite was not
g-r-a-n-i-t-e, but ' mica, quartz, and feldspar. 1 Now, there is not a bit
of mica in any of these stones." The observer happened to know of
Mr. Holbrook's visits to the school to which the boys belonged ; and,
as he saw that the little students had just found their way to the
exact spot in investigation where Mr. H. would be glad to meet them,
so as, by means of a little closer analysis, to enable them to detect the
difference between granite and " sienite," he relieved their anxiety by
telling them that they had better not throw away the pieces they had
picked up, but carry them to the school-room, next morning, and ask
Mr. Holbrook to tell them why there was no mica in their specimens,
and what those black specks were. One of the little explorers returned
to his home, on the following day, to tell, with a face all radiant with
intelligence, about the quarries of Syene, in Egypt, the quarries of
Quincy, and those of the " Granite " State, and even to go into some
details, in which neither of his parents was sufficiently versed in
science to follow him satisfactorily. '
Analysis, in its Connection with the Discipline of the Perceptive
faculties. An eminent writer has truly said that a dwarf, behind his
steam-engine, may remove mountains. Analysis is the correspondent
power of the intellect. It is the grand instrument in all the opera-
tions of the perceptive faculties. It is observation working scientifi-
cally ; and, of all the implements of science, it is the keenest in its
edge, the truest in its action, and the surest in the results which it
attains. It is the key to knowledge, in all departments of intelligence;
and, perfection in its processes is the crown of glory on the head of
him who stands foremost in the field of scientific research. Education,
as the power which trains and forms the mental habits, has no higher
EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES. 47
boon which it can confer, as the result of years of practice and
discipline.
Valuable, however, as this process is, education, in the history of
the past, could lay but slight claims to the merit of having formed the
mental habits which it implies; since the means and opportunities of
analytic intellection were withheld or neglected, to a very great extent,
in consequence of the omission to provide the requisite objects and
exercises for the discipline of the perceptive faculties. Education,
while it consisted chiefly in arbitrary forms of exercise on abstract
principles, connected with formulas in language and in number, drawn
from the sciences of grammar and arithmetic, precluded the exercise
of perception, by causing the learner to assume, instead of investiga-
ting, the primary facts of language and of number. At the present
day, we obey the law of inductive .procedure, and substitute personal
observation and distinct perception for wide assumption and broad
assertion. This is true of, at least, the modes and methods of all who
profess to teach philosophically, as not mere instructors, but educators
of the mind. Still, there remains much to be done with reference to
the early direction and training of the intellectual faculties, so as to
ensure the selection and presentation of the proper materials on which
the intellect should be exercised in the first stages of its course of
discipline.
Analysis, as a process of observant mind, implies the presence of
objects which, by its solvent power, it is to reduce to component ele-
ments ; and, as the real object, the fact, the actual relation, precede,
in the order of nature and development, the ideal image, the intellec-
tual abstraction, the logical deduction, early education in its primary
operations, should conform to this law of order and of progress, and,
in prescribing its first forms of exercise and discipline, should obviously
draw its materials from the external universe of palpable realities, and
not from the internal world of pure thought, in which the young
mind possesses so little conscious power. Nor is it well for the mind
that the habit of analytical observation and study, so indispensable to
its successful action, in all forms of acquisitive exercise, should be de-
ferred to the later stages of intellectual culture. Facility in analysis,
acquired by practice on the accessible forms and relations of external
objects, is easily transferred, by analogy, to the arithmetical exercise
of resolving complicated numbers into their simpler constituent
groups ; or, the grammatical one of reducing a perplexing period to
its primary elements, and these, in turn, to their component parts.
Progress in mathematical science and linguistic study, would be
much surer and l^ore rapid, if, instead of being demanded of the
48 EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
earlier stages of mental progress r it were postponed to a period subse-
quent to that of analytical exercise, practised, for years, on objects
perceptible to the senses.
Analysis, as the systematic process of examination, is one and the
same thing, in whatever direction it is applied ; its power as an instru-
ment of discipline, is as fully felt in investigating the structure of a
plant as that of a sentence ; and, the intelligent teacher, while super-
intending such a process, will feel the same weight of obligation rest-
ing on him in the one case as in the other. He will, accordingly, be
watchful over the manner in which the process is conducted, that it be
not superficial, or hasty, or partial, but thorough -going, deliberate, and
exhaustive, as far as it ought to extend ; and. that it be furnished with
faithful expression, or record, at every step of its progress. It is thus
only that the indispensable broad line of distinction can be drawn,
which gives certainty to knowledge, by separating what has been
examined from what has not been, and measures what is known by
what has been done.
Inspection, as a Disciplinary Process for the Perceptive faculties.
When analysis has faithfully performed its peculiar task, and
singled out for observation the very last component element in the
object of investigation, there remains yet, to the attentive teacher,
another stage of perceptive progress to be accomplished by his pupil,
under the suggestive direction of a mind which has already traveled
the path of knowledge. The searching inspection of the individual
elements which compose a complex whole, an inspection so minute,
that each element may be described and defined in its distinctive unity
of constitution and character, and, in the clearly traced relation which
it bears to the whole, as well as in each of its own chief characteris-
tics, or prominent features, becomes, perhaps, in turn, an element in
some wide-sweeping induction, for purposes of comparison and
classification.
Elementary botany, that which a young child is perfectly compe-
tent to study, and which requires but the seeing eye and the attentive
mind, to examine and describe the different parts of a plant, or even
a root, a stem, a bud, or a leaf, abounds in the best of materials for
exercise in close and minute examination of details. To renuer this
process a tendency and a habit of his pupil's mind, is here the office
of the educator. Yet, this is but one of the numerous resources of
nature on which he may draw for the cultivation of the highest traits
of intellectual skill and expertness, as attributes of the young minds,
which it is his business to train to the highest pitch of mental power
to which he can raise them.
EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES. 49
In the examination of a plant, for example, he does not limit the
attention of his pupils to the mere analysis of the whole into its parts.
Every part, separately, he makes an object of distinct inspection and
investigation, in every light in which observation or science enables
him to hold it up. No feature of individual character is suffered to
escape notice, no detail, how minute soever it may be, in which it
differs from, or resembles, a correspondent point of form or function,
in another specimen of kindred character.
In lessons on animal life, to use another example, the juvenile
student, under the charge of the watchful teacher, is directed to observe
the fact, which minute inspection discloses, that, in one instance, where
he would naturally, at first glance, think that he has seen two feet /
he will actually discover, on closer inspection, two hands j that, in
observing the figure of the chimpanzee, he has been contemplating
neither biped nor quadruped, but a quadrumanous (four-handed) ani-
mal ; and, that this distinction is founded chiefly on the careful exam-
ination of the member which he had been accustomed to call a toe,
but which is, in reality, a thumb, designed to aid in the actions of grasp-
ing and climbing, which are so important to the animal's mode of life.
The clo?e inspection of one member thus becomes, for the time, the
turning point on which the young student depends for the recognition
of a grand distinction in nature, and for the true understanding and
proper appreciation of the scientific term in which this distinction is
recorded, i/
Interrogation, as an Instrument of Intellectual Discipline. In the
language of general writers on subjects connected with the experi-
mental and tentative processes of science, man is said to interrogate
nature. The figure is a most suggestive one to the teacher, with,
reference to his business and duties. It presents man in his appropri-
ate attitude of an attentive and docile child of Nature, inquiring trust-
fully of her concerning the causes which lie too deep for mere intui-
tion, but which her maternal spirit is ever ready to reveal to earnest
desire and faithful endeavor. The human parent and the teacher
stand, to the young mind, in the same oracular relation, as expound-
ers and interpreters of the great volume of creation. But, how sel-
dom is the inquiring spirit of childhood encouraged to avail itself of
its lawful provision for the furnishing of that knowledge which it con-
sciously craves, as the sustenance of its life I How seldom does the
teacher feel the full force of the obligation which the inquisitive habits
of childhood lay upon him, to encourage the spirit of curiosity which
prompts the many questions of the child ! How seldom does he feel
that his business is to incite', and stimulate-, and! prompt, and enliven,
IB*
50 EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
in every way possible to him, this primary instinct, which impels tLo
mind toward the goal of knowledge ! How seldom does he enter into
the spirit of the wise suggestion of the poet ; and, even when in the
very act of feeding the intellectual appetite, so contrive as " by giving"
to " make it ask !"
Book Questions. The teacher is not usually so remiss in regard to
the importance of interrogation, as a stimulus to intelligence, so far as
concerns his own resort to that process. Far from it ! He knows its
value, as a pointer or guide-post, to definite results. Nor are there
wanting instructors so reliant on interrogatory forms, and so distrust-
ful of their own power to devise them, that they conduct the whole
business of a lesson, following literally the numerous questions printed
on the page of the text-book. Such questions, it is true, are not to
be despised and rejected in the wholesale style in which they are
sometimes disposed of by the young and sanguine teacher, who has
just begun to see their inadequacy to the purposes and wants of per-
sonal instruction. The printed question, even when extended to
minutia3, may be rendered very serviceable to the formation of habits
of faithful application and close study, as well as accurate recapitula-
tion ; if the young student is directed to make use of it as a test, in
regard to the exactness of his preparation for a personal examination
on the subject of his lesson ; if he is duly trained not to regard the
printed question as merely the teacher's part in a verbatim mechani-
cal dialogue between the master and himself, in which the last word
in the sentence of the one speaker forms the literal " cue " to the first
word in that of the other, but, as a criterion of his knowledge of the
subjects, as a friendly intimation that, if he can not furnish an answer
to the question before him, he is so far deficient in his preparation to
give intelligently an account of the part of the subject to which the
question refers.
Children's Questions, But, it would be more to the purpose of
the young teacher's business, if, instead of the printed aid offered to
him in what should be his own part of a lesson, and which, if he
respects his own mind, he will draw only from his own resources,
according to the needs of the pupil, the page of the text-book
abounded, rather, in the questions which children would like to ask,
for their personal information. The judicious instructor will always
make free use of interrogation, as a means of ascertaining or aiding
the degree of his pupil's intelligence. But, he will not overlook the
fact that this process, like that of the printer, in taking his proof
impression, is to certify a result, not to create it. The questions
which the child is permitted or encouraged to put to his teacher, are,
EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES. 51
often, the sole means by which the former is enabled to " set up * J
accurately in his mind the facts of the lesson required. The number
and the closeness of these questions become, further, the expression
and evidence of the interest which the pupil takes in the lesson. To
the teacher who possesses the patient and sympathizing spirit of his
office, these questionings come gratefully to his ear, even when they
betray the " blank misgivings of a creature wandering in worlds not *
realized." It is then that he is most impressively reminded of the
true nature of his work, as an intellectual guide and conductor. He
is ever careful, therefore, to provoke, rather than repress, interrogation ;
and, even so to frame his own questions that they shall serve to call
forth fresh inquiries from his pupils.
The appropriate discipline of the perceptive faculties, depending,
as it does, on the frequent presentation of objects of sense, with a
view to win attention, and secure exact observation, implies that the
teacher resorts, on all occasions, to close questioning, as the suggestive
process by which the pupil is induced to use his own perceptive power,
to rely on the fidelity of his own observation, and thus to acquire a
knowledge which is substantial and thorough -going. But, it is not
less true that, in proportion to the pupil's interest in the efforts which
he makes, and the progressive steps which he takes in every process,
his very attainments will be suggesting and prompting further inqui-
ries, for his future guidance. The spirit and intelligence, as well as
the pleasure, therefore, with which he proceeds. in his work, will
depend, to a great extent, on the consciousness that he is not working
in the dark.
Mode of Answering Questions. The answer to the pupil's questions,
however, the true teacher is well aware, is not always to come from
the lips of the instructor. It is often left intentionally to be the fruit
of the learner's further efforts and closer examination. To withhold
an answer to the most eager question, is sometimes a truer kindness
than to give it. The ripe and perfect fruit of knowledge must some-
times, like that of the tree, be patiently waited for, and wrought for.
Leading Questions. The wise teacher, however, will know as well
when to put the skillful leading question, which does not supersede,
but rather calls forth the activity of the pupil's mind. The leading
question, though unlawful at the bar, is, under the management of
the prudent teacher, the very turning point, in some cases, which
decides whether he is " apt to teach," as an intelligent guide to tht>
results of actual knowledge and true discipline.
Direction and Information, as Didactic Processes Connected with
the Exercise and Discipline of the Perceptive Faculties. The answers
52 EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
given by a judicious teacher to the questions of his pupils will often
consist in references to the sources of information, rather than in
direct replies. In the study of natural objects, it is peculiarly import-
ant that the pupil should see, and think, and judge, and discover, for
himself. To such training in self-reliance and self-help, the exercise
of the perceptive faculties on the details of form in animal, plant, and
mineral, is preeminently adapted. The embarrassing complexity and
intricacy, and the baffling abstruseness, and the perplexing obscurity,
which sometimes characterize other subjects of investigation, and
which call so loudly for the teacher's frequent aid to his pupil, do not
exist here. The simplicity and the beauty of nature's products, invite
and attract attention ; and, every successive stage of examination
leads unconsciously to another. The teacher has but to indicate and
to prompt, and thus leave the mind the rich satisfaction of achieving
its own progress. He is not tempted to fall into the besetting sin of
instruction, that of anticipating, and assuming, and asserting, and so
quenching the mind's healthful thirst by the lukewarm distillations of
precept and rule, instead of leaving it to refresh itself by drinking at
the cool, vivifying fountain-head of original observation.
An eminent naturalist once gave a very impressive lesson in the art
of teaching to one who is himself, professionally, an instructor. The
question proposed to the savant was, "How may we distinguish
snakes which are venomous from those which are not ? " " Come into
my study," was the answer, " and I will place before you some of
each kind ; and, then, by examining, you can see for yourself." It is
thus the true teacher proceeds with his pupils: it is thus he gives
certainty to knowledge, and clearness and vigor to the mental faculties.
As a guide and director of the mind, the intelligent instructor
points his pupils to the sources from which he himself obtained inform-
ation, and thus admits them to the honor of partnership with him in
investigation and accumulation. Teacher and student thus become
allied by friendly participation in the same pursuits ; and, a high,
though unostentatious, moral effect is blended with the cultivation and
enjoyment of intellect.
The teacher, however, who thus wisely throws his pupils, as far as
practicable on their own resources, does not thereby preclude the
ample furnishing of all needed information, which intelligent apprecia-
tion and successful application may require. He will, on the contrary,
take pleasure in disclosing facts, in tracing analogies, and furnishing
explanations, when these serve to give additional value and attraction
to the theme of his instructions. He will thus contrive, at once, to
satisfy and to stimulate the mind's natural craving for knowledge, and
EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES. 53
make every step of progress the foothold and the impulse to yet
another. He will still be careful, however, even when imparting direct
information, to confine it within those limits which shall leave a wide
and inviting field for the pupil's own investigations, and secure his
personal interest in future explorations, which may subserve the im-
portant purposes of acquisition, as connected with attainments in the
various departments of education, or with those advances in science
which may form a large part of his own conscious happiness, and con-
tribute, ultimately, to the general diffusion of knowledge.
Comparison, as a Disciplinary Exercise of the Perceptive Facul-
ties. The unity of the intellect, as a principle in the human
constitution, forbids any attempt at literal or exhaustive analysis,
in the study of its diversified character and modes of action. In edu-
cational relations, more particularly, all attempts at the analytic observ-
ation of mental phenomena, for purposes of intelligent and healthful
culture, must ever be regarded as merely analogical presentations and
figurative expositions. The successive stages of mental development
and discipline, in like manner, are incapable of being cut apart and
separated by any dividing line of demarcation. On the contrary, they
naturally blend into one another, with a closeness of connection, and
a delicacy of shading, which does not admit of precise distinctions, or
marked discriminations.
When we group, therefore, the various modes in which intellect
manifests itself in action, and designate one of these groups by the
term " perceptive," and another by the term " reflective," we recognize
a distinction, with regard to which, even a superficial observer of the
mind's activity, would not venture to say that it is not founded on an
actual difference. Still, we should find it extremely difficult to lay
down a precise line of demarcation, and say with certainty, in every
instance, here terminates the perceptive, and here commences the re-
flective action of intellect. Thus, in assigning its place to the master
faculty of intelligence, we should feel no hesitation in ranking reason
among the reflective faculties. But, when this noble power descends,
as has been so happily expressed, to the humble office of "judging
according to sense," it necessarily partakes of the character of the
class of faculties with which it mingles in action. It constitutes, thus,
an element and a condition in perception itself; as is verified by the
consequences of its absence, in the intellectual action of the insane
person, who distinctly enough perceives the form of his friend, but, in
the inexplicable aberration of reason, salutes him as a foreign ambas-
sador, come to do him the honor of a visit, in consideration of his world-
renowned skill in disentangling complicated questions in state policy.
54 EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
Comparison combines, usually, an act of volition with the process
of observation, directed to two or more objects, for the purpose of
recognizing their unity or diversity of character ; and, hence, is prop-
erly regarded as but the preliminary or introductory step to the act
of judgment, which pronounces the case one of analogy or anomaly.
It is not unusual, therefore, to class comparison as purely an act of
judgment, or decisive reason ; and, by its office, a reflective faculty.
As a process of intellection, however, it obviously commences with the
perceptive act of attentive observation; and, as a disciplinary and
developing operation in mental culture, it falls under the special care
of the educator, as an exercise in the early training and forming of
intellectual habit.
Proper Rank of Comparison, as an Intellectual Process. Regarded
in connection with the study of natural objects, the act of comparison,
is an exercise of the perceptive faculties, which, in the order of intel-
ligence, is the immediate^ sequel to the processes of examination,
analysis, and inspection. These, indeed, are but the legitimate pre-
paratory stages for its wider mode of action, and higher offices in the
sphere of intelligence. Yet, in its turn, it is but the humble minis-
tration of intellect to the yet higher offices of classification, under the
guidance of the master function of induction, which presides over all
the varied forms of intellectual activity, connected with the observa-
tion and study of nature.
Intellectual Effects of the Discipline Resulting from the Exercise
of Comparison. Comparison, as a process of intelligence, commenced
under the watchful eye of the teacher, on the objects of perception,
the only sure and firm ground of early mental development, gives a
certainty and a skill to the perceptive action of the mind, which tell,
with sure effect, on all analogous operations of a more purely intellec-
tual or even an abstract character, in later stages of education. The
influence of the habit of careful and exact comparison, extends, with
full effect, to the highest efforts of mature mind, in the most compli-
cated and intricate relations of thought, in mathematics, in logic, and
in language. Comparison, as the first step in the higher progress of
the mind, when making its transition from the study of single objects
to that of numbers, and grouping them, by their analogies, in classes,
brings the intellect under the dominion of order, introduces it to the
discipline of method, and ultimately rewards it by the recognition of
law. Principle and rule then take charge of the intelligent mind ;
and, as u strong siding champions," beat down every barrier to its
progress toward consummate knowledge.
Natural Objects peculiarly adapted to the purposes of Comparison,
as a Disciplinary Exercise. As means of discipline for the perceptive
EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES. 55
faculties, in various modes of comparison, the materials for practice,
furnished in the different departments of nature, are peculiarly adapted
to the great ends of education. Their mutual resemblances and con-
trasts, the prominent features of their correspondent forms, seem to
solicit comparison and classification, as destined results of man's men-
tal adaptation to the scene in which he moves, and which so abounds
in objects of attractive interest, the germs of intelligence, enveloped
in consummate beauty, that they may lead to the conscious delights
of knowledge.
By the introductory discipline resulting from the humble exercise
of carefully comparing objects and their characteristic parts, the young
mind receives its preparation for the scientific intelligence and the
conscious pleasure with which it subsequently enters on the wide
range of action afforded by the inviting analogies revealed in the
study of comparative physiology and anatomy, and in all investiga-
tions to which science conducts, wherever exact classification and con-
summate knowledge are dependent on attentive and faithful compari-
son, a condition equally indispensable, whether in collating the
vestiges of past eras in the physical history of our globe, or those of
language and of intellect, as revealed in the investigations of philology.
Classification, as an Exercise for the Discipline of the Perceptive
Faculties. This form of intellectual action, which, in its various
aspects, may be said to constitute and to consummate human know-
ledge, in whatever department we contemplate, is the immediate
sequel of the preceding act of mind, in collating the objects of obser-
vation, or their peculiar features and characteristics. The resemblances
which comparison recognizes in objects, become the leading titles and
significant designations of groups and classes. Intellect is thus freed
from the burden of the endless and unsatisfactory task of wandering
from object to object, in detail, without any conscious thread of con-
nection or guidance, and without any suggestion of a definite end in
view, in its wearisome mode of action. By the aid of classification,
the chaos of disconnected individualities is converted into an orderly
creation, where everything, as of old, is seen to exist " after his kind."
Knowledge thus becomes a series of aggregated accumulations,
arranged and labelled to the intellectual eye ; and, investigation is
rendered a rational and inviting pursuit, directed by definite aims,
and leading to satisfactory results.
Benefits of Classification, as an Intellectual Exercise. By the
process of classification, man is enabled to trace the successive footsteps
of the Creator in the outward world, to recognize the grand law of
universal order, and yield obedience to its dictates in his modes of
56 EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.
mental action. The student of nature, pursuing his investigations in
this spirit, is prepared, by successive illustrations of fact, to amplify
his classifications into those wide inductions which are the glory of
science, and which aid the intellect in accomplishing the vast general-
izations for which its powers of comprehension and its ceaseless aspira-
tions seem equally adapted.
The exercise of classification tends to create in the young mind the
love of order and method. It is, in fact, a strictly logical discipline,
resulting in the highest mental benefits, and preparing the heart for
the influence of the most exalted moral principle. It belongs, how-
ever, as a process of mental culture, to a very early stage of intel-
lectual progress, and begins appropriately with the first conscious
steps of advancement in the observation and study of nature. The
child, in Nature's great school, finds himself placed in a vast cabinet
of specimens, which he takes a peculiar pleasure in examining, and
from which, even when little aided by formal education, he draws,
with delight, stores of personal knowledge, and the pure pleasure of
the conscious activity which his spirit craves.
The objects of nature, as the results of a designing Mind, seem
peculiarly adapted to the end of drawing forth the action of intellect
and building up intellectual character in th0 human being. In no
respect is this more true than with reference to the facilities furnished
in the three great kingdoms of nature, for the purely intellectual pro-
cesses of arranging and classifying the objects of observation* The
young mind here finds itself placed in a sphere of order, in which
every thing is arranged for the correspondent action of thought ; in
which every object invites to observation, and every group solicits a
recognition of the principle of classification.
Early Training in Classification. Furnished with such an appa-
ratus for the purposes of instruction, the teacher has but to point sug-
gestively to the successive classes of objects most easily accessible to
the young learner in the great classified receptacles of earth, air, and
water. He has but to encourage his pupil to collect, compare, and
classify the various forms of mineral, plant, and animal, which lie
within the range of his daily walks ; or, even to deposit, in any con-
venient and suitable receptacle, groups of leaves of similar form, and
to define the shape or the feature which, in his distribution of them,
is made the ground of classification. The learner thus obtains a
measure and a record of his progress in knowledge ; and, the know-
ledge which he acquires, possesses a true and substantial character,
which, in turn, affects that of his mind, giving it a taste for solid
acquirements and genuine pleasures.
CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. The classification of the mental
faculties under the designations of "perceptive," "expressive," and
"reflective," was adopted in the preceding lecture of this series, as a
convenient one for a survey of the human mind, with reference to the
purposes of education. This classification, it was mentioned, could
not be regarded as founded on lines of distinction which could be
assumed as rigorously or literally exact ; since its terms are properly
but so many names for various states, acts, or operations of the mind,
itself one and the same in all.
Imperfect as such a classification must necessarily be, however, it
enables us, by its distinctions, to trace more clearly and definitely the
forms of mental action, and the power which the mind possesses of
exerting itself in different modes ; and it affords to the educator, when
contemplating the intellectual capabilities Of man with reference to
the processes and efllcts of culture, the advantages of analysis and
systematic examination, as aids to the prosecution of his inquiries.
Following the order of nature and of fact, when we trace the suc-
cession of action in the exercise of man's intellectual powers, as these
are designated in the classification which we have adopted, we observe
that, in the mature and deliberate use of the mental faculties, the
habitual and normal succession is, (1.) Observation, (2.) Reflection,
(3.) Expression. In the immature and susceptible condition of
childhood and youth, however, the spontaneous activity and develop-
ment of the communicative tendencies of the mind cause the action
of the expressive faculties to precede that of the reflective ; and to
this law the order of education will properly correspond.
The, perfect action and discipline of the power of expression, re-
quire, no doubt, all the aid derived from the .maturity of reason and re-
flection, and, consequently, an advanced stage of intellectual culture.
But, in the history of man's mental progress, under the guidance of
natural laws, the educator perceives and recognizes in the young
mind, an early necessity of utterance, or of expression in some form,
as one of the divinely implanted instincts by which it is actuated, and
58 CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
which therefore becomes an indication to be obeyed in the plan and
progress of culture.
The phenomena of the external world irresistibly impel the child
to utter the emotions which they excite ; and the judicious educator
will always encourage the young observer to record them, long before
the era of experience in which they become subjects of reflective
thought or profound cogitation. To give consistency and effect,
however, to the forms of expression, whether for purposes of record
or of discipline, a certain degree of progress must have been attained
in the exercise and development not only of the perceptive, but also
of the reflective faculties ; a result inseparable, indeed, as was
mentioned in the preceding lecture, from the right direction of the
perceptive powers themselves. In this and in every other attempt to
trace the order of mental development, we are always brought back
to the grand primal truth that the mind is properly one, in all its
action ; we are reminded that this great fact is the basis of all true
culture, and that the different intellectual faculties, as we term them,
are but the varied phases or modes of action of the same subtle
power.
As an introduction, accordingly, to the discussion of the principles
which regulate the cultivation of the expressive faculties, as a depart-
ment of intellectual education, our last lecture followed, to some
extent, the necessary connection existing between the discipline of the
perceptive faculties and the primary action of the reflective* With
this preliminary preparation, we will now proceed, on the plan indi-
cated in the first lecture of this series, to the study of the various
forms of mental action which, in the figurative language unavoidable
in all intellectual analysis and classification, may be termed the
expressive faculties. "
The plan proposed embraced, it will be recollected, the following
prominent features:- (1.) an enumeration of each group of faculties,
by its modes, or forms, of action; (2.) the actuating principle, or
impelling force, of each group ; (3.) the tendency, or habit, of action
in each; (4.) the result, or issue, of such action ; (5.) the educational
processes, forms of exercise, or modes of culture, suggested by the
four preceding considerations.
Following the order here mentioned, we commence with the
(I.) ENUMERATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
These-may be grouped under the following designations : Emotion,
Imagination, Fancy, Imitation, Personation, Representation, Lan-
guage, Taste.
Explanatory Remark. To ascertain, with precision, what powers
CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES. 59
or attributes of the human being should be regarded as properly
comprehended under the above denomination, the educator would do
well, here as elsewhere, to advert to the primitive signification of the
term which is employed to designate the class of faculties to which
it is applied. At every step of his progress in the study of man as a
being capable of systematic development, the teacher finds a guiding
light perpetually emanating from the primary sense of the terms
which constitute the nomenclature of intellectual philosophy, in its
nalysis of the human faculties. These terms are often highly figu-
rative, and hence peculiarly suggestive with reference whether to dis-
tinctness of classification, or to purposes of culture and development.
In no case does this remark apply more forcibly than in the present.
The term "expression," (pressing out,) implies, in the first instance,
the existence of something within, which, under the action of a force,
working whether from within or from without, is pressed out, and
thus rendered external, palpable, or perceptible.
Referring this term to the phenomena of human experience, we
derive, from its prim'ary and figurative sense, the inference, or impli-
cation, that man is endued with the power of giving an external man-
ifestation to his internal conditions of thought or feeling. The form
of this manifestation may be that of attitudes and actions of the body,
changes in the aspect of the countenance, effects on the tones of the
voice, or efforts in the organs of articulation, and modifications of the
accents of speech ; it may appear in imitative acts, in suggestive
graphic delineations, or in intelligible written characters. But in all
cases, it is the representative expression (pressing out,) of what has
been impressed, or is present, within. The inward working may be
that of a feeling, an affection, an emotion, or a passion : it may be
that of an impressive idea, or of a thought, an opinion, or a senti-
ment But the result is invariably an outward effect, audible or visible.
Whatever power or faculty, therefore, has an agency in the process
of thus giving an external manifestation to an internal mental condi-
tion, will be appropriately comprehended under the designation
" expressive ;'' and the classification will be exhaustive and complete,
if it include all those mental states, acts, or operations which give
form to thought or feeling. The preceding enumeration of the ex-
pressive faculties, however, is intended to present only those which
are prominently active in the ordinary conditions of humanity, and
which are the principal subjects of disciplinary training, in the pro-
cesses of education.
1. EMOTION: its Offices in Expression. Emotion is the natural
language of that sensibility which tends to render man conscious of
60 CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
himself, which serves to unite him, by a law of sympathy, with othei
beings as well as with those of his own race, and which, as a stim-
ulus to his power of will, impels him to the various forms of salutary
arid pleasurable, or injurious and destructive action. Without this
power, ("emotion," moviny outward,) man might, indeed, possess
the profoundest capacity of feeling, the utmost depth of thought, the
grandest or the most beautiful forms of imagination. His whole
inner world might be consciously a scene of ideal glory. But, to his
fellow man, he would be mute and unintelligible. Self-contained arid
solitary, the individual would be as destitute of sympathy as of
expression, and live unappreciated and iminterpreted, because incom-
municative and unintelligible./
Emotion, therefore, we find is not left wholly at the discretion or
the control of man, as a purely voluntary power. Its tirst and all its
strongest manifestations are spontaneous and involuntary. It is the
natural and irrepressible language of that wondrous capacity of
pleasure and pain with which the human being is invested, in conse-
quence of the susceptive sensibility with which his Creator has seen
fit to enliven and to protect his nature.
Emotion, as the natural expression of sympathy, renders feeling
legible and audible, and thus enables man instinctively to utter or to
interpret the language of the heart ; as an intimation of the will, it
enables him to read the disposition and intentions, friendly or hostile,
of his fellow beings. It is an early instrument of power to the help-
lessness or the sufferings of infancy, while it proclaims the presence
of pain, and brings to the little patient the ready sympathy arid reme-
dial aid of the mother. It expresses and attracts the sympathetic
//affections of childhood and youth. (It gives eloquence to the speech
of man, warmth to the cordial welcome of friendship, or fire to the
hostility of hatred. It melts in pity and compassion for suffering; it
glows with indignation at oppression and wrong; it bends in humility
and adoration before Infinite majesty, and in reverence to human
worth ; or it looks haughtily down on the lowly, spurns the petitioner
for mercy, and tramples on the weak and the unresisting. Its power
for good or evil is unspeakable in all that involves the moral or the
intellectual character of human utterance}
The Forms cf Emotion. These are as various as the mental rela-
tions of man. It is Love, in the instincts of affection ; Wonder, in
those of the intellect; Awe, in those of the spirit ; Admiration, in
those of sentiment ; Joy and Grief, to the heart ; Hatred and Re-
venge, in the malignant passions ; Ardor and Enthusiasm, in the aspi-
rations of the soul ; Courage and Exultation, in conflict ; Fear and
CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES. Ql
Terror, in danger ; Embarrassment, Confusion, and Shame, in failure
or defeat ; Anguish, in pain ; Contrition or Remorse, in conscious
guilt ; Agony and Despair, in utter ruin; Serenity, Tranquillity, and
Peace, in conscious rectitude ; Calmness and Composure, in self-
control ; Sorrow and Gladness, in sympathy ; Laughter, in mirth ;
Caricature, in humor ; Gloom, in melancholy.
Effects of Emotion. Its aspects and its traits are as numerous as
the ever-changing moods of the " many-sided mind ;" and its power
of expression ranges through all degrees of force, from the gentle
half-whisper of confiding love, or the accents of a mother's tender-
ness, to the scream of madness and the burst of rage. It moves to
deeds of gentleness and mercy, as consciously pleasing acts dictated
by the principle of duty ; and it prompts to the perpetration of crimes
at the thought of which humanity shudders. In all circumstances
it becomes an expressive language of indescribable power, a power
for the exercise of which man is laid under responsibleness the most
appalling. Its genial effects carry man beyond the limits of his
nature, and enable. him to approximate to the benignity of an angel ;
and its malignant workings invest him with the character of a fiend.
Emotion, the Inspiration of Language. Emotion, as the natural,
involuntary, or irrepressible manifestation of feeling, is, in itself, the
primary form as well as cause of expression. The writhings and the
outcries of pain, the tears and the wailings of sorrow, the smiles and
the sweet tones of pleasure, the leaping and the laughter of exuberant
joy, the exultant attitudes and shouts of triumph, the frown, the
harsh tone, and the blow of anger, are all a universally intelligible
language. But emotion is also the power which gives life, and force,
and effect to voluntary and deliberate utterance, not only in the tones
of spoken language but in the burning words which the glowing
heart prompts to the pen of the eloquent writer, and which, when
read from the mouldering parchment or the crumbling tablet, ages
after they were written, have still the power to stir men's blood, "as
with the sound of a trumpet." It inspires the modern youth with
the eloquence of Demosthenes, in the words with which he " fulmined
over Greece ;" it kindles the heart of the student in his "still removed
place," with the fire and the shout and the fierceness of the battle
scenes of Homer ; it appalls him with the spectacle of the victims of
inexorable fate, in the defiant appeals of the suffering Prometheus, as
he writhes on his rock of torture, in the superhuman agonies of the
doomed Orestes, in the wailings of the guiltless (Edipus, when he
is awakened to the complicated horrors which .he has unwittingly
drawn down upon himself and upon the very au {.hoi's of his being.
62 CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
It is the same expressive power, in its more genial forms, which lulia
the youthful reader into the dreamy repose of the pastoral scenes of
the eclogue, where
" Every shepherd tells his tale
Under the hawthorn in the dale."
It is the same power, in its ecstatic moods, which lights up the soul
with the brilliant fire of the lyric ode, whose burning words have
immortalized equally the bard and the hero of the antique world of
gods and godlike men ; and it is still the same magic power over
sympathy which holds us entranced over " what, though rare, of later
age," we feel to possess the same sway over the heart as that which
was written of old for all time.
2. IMAGINATION : its Office in Expression. Emotion endows man
with the power of expression : his ability to give force and effect to
expression, is as his capability of emotion ; and the vividness of emo-
tion is dependent on his susceptibility of feeling. But the utmost in-
tensity of feeling might exist in internal consciousness merely ; the
most vehement excitement of emotion might find no definite or intel-
ligible manifestation ; it might be but the idiot's " sound and fury,
signifying nothing;" the noblest sentiments of the human soul might
find no adequate expression ; were it not for the action of another
faculty, that whose office it is to give form to the vague effects of
feeling, to embody the evanescent phenomena of emotion, and to give
to the abstractions of thought and the generalizations of sentiment a
definite shape and the durability of a permanent record.
Consciousness and introversion might enable the individual man to
hold communion with his own inner conditions of thought and feel-
ing; and memory might enable him to recall them. But, as it is not
given to man, by any act of mere direct introspection, to read the
heart or mind of his fellow man, sympathetic and intelligent human
intercommunication requires, as a condition, the aid of some power or
faculty by which feeling may be distinctly manifested, not merely in
its stronger and involuntary excitements, but also in its quietest moods,
in its gentlest movements and most delicate effects. The communica-
tion of pure thought, apart entirely from excited emotion, is also a
necessity of man's mental character and relations. Intellect, not less
than feeling, has its claims on utterance, that the individual may be-
come consciously a progressive being, and that mutual intelligence
and benefit may be ensured to society. Some means, in a word, are
needed to represent what is present to the mind, to suggest the idea
or the thought which, by a law of his nature impelling him, man de-
sires to communicate to his fellow being.
CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES. (53
Analogy, the Medium of Expression. Taught by a wisdom above
his own, man finds, in the analogies of the outward universe, corre- /
spondences to his own inward states of thought and feeling. Theses
analogous forms he refers to as interpreters, in his acts of expression ;
he transfers them, by a heaven-taught instinct, from their original places
in the visible outward sphere to his own inner and invisible world of
thought and feeling. These borrowed forms, addressing themselves
to a common nature in common circumstances, become the suggestive
language of emotion and intelligence between man and man ; and,
as intellectual skill and expertness are developed, these forms are at
length multiplied and complicated so as to assume all the varied shapes
of the current coin of speech, even in its most arbitrary modes ; just as,
in the history of human intercourse, traffic, which commenced with
the interchange and barter of commodities, gradually becomes a
process of purchase and sale, by the adoption of convenient forms
representing value and price.
Significance of the term " Imagination" The power by which
man recognizes the analogies of form presented in the external world,
the power by which he represents these, the power by which he trans-
fers these to his own internal world, and thus images, by analogy,
his invisible, impalpable, feelings and conceptions ; the power which
thus embodies sentiment, and gives shape to language and all other
modes of expression, is suggestively named "Imagination," the
imaging faculty.
The Sphere of Imagination. The office of this faculty, as an ex-
pressive power, is one of vast extent and of immense value ; and its
domain, like that of emotion, is indefinite. Intellect, in its widest excur-
sions and its highest aims, is definite and limited. Its outward sphere
is that of sense, as comprehended by the understanding, and measured
by the rule of judgment ; its inner sphere is that of reason acting on
data of/definite thought, even in its purest abstractions and widest
generalizations. Intellect, in its judicial and critical capacity, may
justly assume 1 the authority of deciding on the symmetry and pro-
portion of expression as the form of thought. But it has no creative,
no inventive power by which to call up form ; it may interpret or ex-
plain feeling ; but it can not, without the aid of imagination, embody
it. Imagination extends its dominion alike over feeling and intellect :
it possesses, exclusively, the power of investing them with form. As
a sovereign in the vast world of analogy, it reaches, in one direction,
to the farthest limits of the outward universe, wherever form exists,
in conditions known or unknown ; in another direction, it penetrates
the deepest secrets of human feeling, and brings them up from their
64 CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
darkest regions of half-unconscious being to the world of form and
light, endues them with conscious life and speech, and sends them
abroad as ministering angels of good or evil ; in still another direction,
it explores the ethereal world of thought, and, by its creative energy,
gives imagery, and form, and recognized character to impalpable
ideas, clothes the naked conceptions of intellect with the garb of
symmetrical expression, forges the golden links of language for the
continuous processes of reason, invests sentiment with the living maj-
esty and power of utterance, and crowns the inspired productions of
the artist and the poet with the consummate beauty of form and the
music of immortal verse.
3. FANCY : its Effects on Expression. This faculty, although it
possesses a character so peculiarly marked by external tendencies, and
proneness to a lower sphere of action than that of imagination, can
hardly claim, with justice, the dignity of a separate and independent
existence. The term " Fancy," (fantasy,) is, strictly speaking, but
another name for imagination, when that faculty, as an expressive
power, assumes, occasionally, a lower than its wonted office, and, not
content with the creation of form, descends to the addition of minute
detail, in the shape, or figure, or color of its embodiments. Fancy,
considered as a separate faculty, may be regarded as the servant and
laborer of imagination, employed to take charge of all the merely out-
ward effects of expressive art, but whose ambition sometimes leads it to
aim at higher offices than it is, in itself, competent to fill. Attempting
the creation of visible beauty, it assumes the office of a presiding deity
over the fleeting, fluctuating phenomena of fashion and other mani-
festations of arbitrary taste. Uniting itself with humor and burlesque,
it displays the whole world of fantastic oddity, drollery, and grotesque
effects, of every species. It handles, with peculiar skill, the pencil of
the caricaturist, and delights, sometimes, in the most hideous exaggera-
tions. It contrives, occasionally, to lay mischievous hands on Taste,
and with 1 perverting influence to make her play all manner of antics,
quite unconscious, all the while, how infinitely absurd and ridiculous
she is making herself appear. Hence the whole world of absurd form
and combinations in modes of dress and decoration, in incongruous
architecture, deformed sculpture, distorted drawing, tawdry coloring,
paltry novel-writing, fugitive (and vagabond) verses, agonistic orations,
and nondescript lectures.
Fancy, however, has also her own becoming and proper part to
play, when, in strictest unison with true Taste, and in filial obedience
to her parent, Imagination, she gives symmetry to our dwellings and
to our garments, genuine grace to manners, true beauty to our gardens,
CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES. 55
happy touches to the details of artistic execution, chaste style to wri-
ting, and manly plainness to speech.
4. IMITATION : its Tendencies. The faculty of Imitation and the
tendency to its exercise, which, in the earlier stages of life, more par-
ticularly, man possesses in common with many other of the animal
tribes, form, in whatever regards expression, a peculiar source of
power. It ensures, when judiciously developed, as a salutary instinct,
all the advantages arising from native facility, as contrasted with the
comparatively slow acquirements and laborious endeavors of mere arti-
ficial or mechanical training. The long non-age required for the
comparatively slow development and maturing of the human being,
implies a large dependence on the fostering care of parental guardian-
ship and example; and the innate propensity to imitation, on the part
of the child, coincides, in the effect of rendering more ample the
opportunity of a long course of model training and practical lessons
in the appropriate accomplishments of humanity. Among these,
Speech, as the consummation of the expressive faculties, thus becomes
the inheritance which one generation transmits to another, a posses-
sion unconsciously acquired, although actually the result of long-con-
tinued training, and sometimes, of painful efforts in detail.
Drawing, as on Imitative Art. The imitative tendency of the
young, leading, as it doos, to the perfecting of utterance, as an exer-
cise in which practice begets skill, extends its influence, by the law of
analogy, far and wide, over every branch of art which involves ex-
pression as a result. Nor is there one of all these branches which
does not, by the habitual practice of it, under the same law, serve to
discipline and perfect the power of expression in every other.
The feelings, the imagination, the conceptive power, the taste, and
even the critical judgment of the young mind, are all called into as
active exercise, in every earnest attempt to draw in outline, to shade,
or to color the form of any external object, as in any endeavor to
describe it by tongue or pen. Indeed, the extreme fixedness of atten-
tion demanded for exact and faithful delineation by the pencil, ensures
a yet higher degree of mental activity, than does any other form of
descriptive execution, and contributes more effectually to the develop-
ment of graphic power of expression in language, than can any direct
exercise in speech or writing ; because the same powers are exerted in
the one case ae in the other, but with much more care and closeness
of application.
MUM, as an Imitative Art. Another of the poetic and purely
beneficent forms of the divinely implanted faculty of imitation, by
which man attains the development of his powers of expression and
1 E
gfj CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
communication, is that of Music, in the form of song. The young
ear drinks in, instinctively and intuitively, the beauty of sound, as the
eye takes in that of form and color. The laws of melodic variation
of tone seem to be inscribed on the human ear, with few exceptions,
as the laws of graceful form and expansion are stamped on the plant.
But the musical sense is not a merely dry perception or recognition, or
a mechanical obedience to law. It is one of the most delightful forms
in which man becomes conscious of the pleasure of feeling or the
power of emotion ; and, as his culture extends, he recognizes it as
the intelligent utterance of sentiment, in the noblest expressions of
social sympathy, or even of devotional aspiration.
The imitative practice of music, accordingly, in all its forms, from
the humblest lullaby of the nursery to the most exalted strains of the
perfect vocalist, becomes a powerful discipline of the ear, because of
the heart, the intellect, and the imagination. It prepares them to
receive more fully the impressions of the melody of speech, and, in
due season, to give forth their effects in appropriate expression. The
child imbibes from the mother's song the theme of its own imitative
efforts, and from the simple beauty of the natural model, catches, at the
same time, unconsciously, the emotion of which it is the utterance, and
thus early learns to unite expression with feeling. At a later stage of
his musical culture and development, he acquires more consciously and
more distinctly, a perception of the inspiration which marks the tones
of the empassioned eloquence of the orator and the poet, and learns
to appreciate the delicious melody of the " numerous verse" which
"clothes the poet's thought in fitting sound."
The great masters in musical science and art, abundantly prove, by
the transcendent delight which their efforts yield to universal man,
the power and value of music as an expressive art, independently of
its relation to the cultivation of the power of languag*?. But the in-
tensity of pleasure derived from the perfection of musical composition
and execution combined, suggests instructively to the educator the
power which even the elementary practice of this imitative art exerts
on the character of expression, when embodied in the forms of lan-
guage, the ability which it gives to touch the heart, or to kindle
emotion, and to throw the whole soul of the speaker and the writer
into the mould of utterance.
5. PERSONATION: its Tendency and Effects, as a^ Mode of Ex-
pression. The faculty of imitation with which man is endowed, as a
form of expressive power, leading him to the acquisition of language,
is early manifested in the passion of childhood for Personation ; the
living, actual representation of what he sees going on in the human
CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES. (ft
world around him. The lively feelings of the child are not satisfied
with the mere verbal presentation of thought and feeling in the arbi-
trary and conventional forms of language. He has an instinctive
desire to impersonate the being of others in himself, and thus to en-
ter more fully into their feelings, and acquire a truer power of ex-
pressing them. To his fresh sympathies and ever active imagination,
life around him is a drama : " all the world's a stage, and all the men
and women are but players," each performing his part.
The child, the primitive man, the poet, all tend to dramatize hu-
man life, and to present it in living impersonation. The boy struts
the mimic soldier, to his own mimic music; he drags his little wagon
as an imaginary fire-engine, or mounts a chair and plays the orator
to his little mates. In his puerile sports, he enacts a character or an
incident, in dumb show, and requires that his juvenile companions
shall express it in words. He personates a hero in history, or makes
one in a group in a tableau, in which, as an Indian brave, he is about
to dash out the brains of Captain Smith with his war-club, when his
sister, as the compassionate princess Pocahontas, rushes in, and res-
cues the hero. At the academy exhibition, he personifies Mark An-
tony weeping over the murdered Caesar, and with words of fire rousing
the Romans to mutiny, "crying havoc! and letting slip the dogs of
war;" or he resorts, in preference, to the pen, and dramatizes a scene
from his country's history, which he and his class-mates enact to the
life, according to their power. In the maturity of his intellect, and
amid the grave duties of professional life, he pauses, perhaps, to re-
create himself, and delight the world with the production of a Comus
or a Hamlet, in which, besides furnishing the composition, he still
takes an active part in the business of representation, and, true to the
dramatic instinct of his nature, sustains a character himself. It is
thus that he completes the educational training by which he attains
to the height of eloquence and expressive power in word and action ;
and this dramatic faculty of personation, while it gives vividness and
intensity to his utterance, proclaims the meaning and intention of the
self-discipline to which he was early impelled, by unconscious instinct.
6. REPRESENTATION : The Language of Signs. In addition to the
more imaginative and, sometimes, physical or corporeal manifestations
of expressive power, which the human being exhibits in imitative acts,
he possesses, as his special attribute, in virtue of his intellectual en-
dowments, working in unison with the instinctive elements of his na-
ture, that peculiar faculty of Representation, by which he is enabled
to suggest his thoughts or feelings to the mind of his fellow man, by
substituting for graphic or mimetic, or other forms of delineation, con-
gg CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
ventional signs, audible or visible, devised by his imaginative facul-
ties of invention and combination. These signs are recognized and
defined by his conceptive intellect ; they are interpreted by the under-
standing, acting on a law of arbitrary association, established by mu-
tual agreement or common consent, and ultimately sanctioned by
prevalent usage. Furnished with this primitive telegraphic apparatus
of audible and visible signs, man is enabled to put himself in com-
munication with his sympathetic, intelligent, and rational fellow-
beings, to reveal to them the workings of his mind, and disclose the
inmost secrets of his heart.
Speech and Writing. Disciplined and perfected by art and skill,
and aided by ingenious and asiduous educational cultivation, man's
primitive power of utterance and expression, ultimately manifests it-
self in the consummated forms of spoken and written language, regu-
lated by the laws of thought, as dictated by the sciences of logic and
grammar, and adorned by the graces of rhetoric.
Language, a measure of Power. The feeble but persevering en-
deavors of childhood to conquer the difficulties of articulation, and to
compass the power of oral expression, indicate, by the successive
years which the task demands, how arduous is its accomplishment,
and how thoroughly it puts to proof the ability which the young hu-
man being possesses to direct and develop his own powers of exe-
cution. Yet more striking is the magnitude of the task and the tri-
umph, in the progress achieved by the student of written language,
from the date of his first attempt, in boyhood, to pen a letter or com-,
pose a theme, to the time when, in the maturity of his intellectual
manhood, he rises to address assembled multitudes of his fellow men,
and to sway them by the potency of triumphant eloquence; or when
he issues from his poetic privacy a work which shall live for ages, as
an object of wonder and admiration.
Pictured and Written Characters. Somewhat similar, indeed,
have been the difficulty and the progress in the attainment of a mas-
tery over the merely external part of written language ; as we per-
ceive when tracing the process from its primal rude attempts in the
form of graphic delineations, through its advancement to symbolic
representation, and, ultimately, to phonetic characters and alphabetic
letters. Of the width of this vast field of human labor, and of the
toil which its cultivation has cost, we have no adequate conception,
till we look at the graphic delineations which form the historical
records of Nineveh, or at the symbolic hieroglyphics and the clumsy
phonetic characters inscribed on the temples of Egypt, and then con-
trast with these the simple and symmetrical letters of the Greek or
CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES. QQ
Roman alphabet, known and read alike throughout the ancient and
modern world of civilization.
The Value of Language. Man's expressive power seems to have
consummated itself in the representative phenomena of language.
In this form his whole nature, animal, intellectual, and moral, finds
effectual utterance ; and by this instrumentality, does he become pre-
eminently a progressive being. Language is the channel in which
the ceaseless stream of mental action flows onward to its great re-
sults. Without this outlet, his soul, imprisoned within itself, would
stagnate, and all its wondrous powers perish from inaction. As the
medium of communication between mind and mind, language renders
education practicable, and brings to the aid of the individual the ac-
cumulated thoughts of all times and of all men. Language is the
peculiar and chosen province of education. Every process of human
culture is conducted through its agency ; every result attained in hu-
man progress is recorded in its terms ; and in every civilized* and cul-
tivated community language is justly taken as the measure of indi-
vidual and social attainment.
7. TASTE : The Signification of the Term. The word u Taste," em-
ployed to designate one of the expressive faculties, might seem, from
its primary signification, (relink,) to be one appropriately applied
rather to a passive and receptive condition of mind, than to one so
active or energetic as are all those which are properly termed " ex-
pressive." But, in the affairs of the mental world, not less than in
those of the political, influence is often more efficient than power.
So it is with Taste. The office of this faculty in relation to express-
ion, is to retain, in th selection and use of language, the relish for
appropriateness, symmetry, and grace, which the soul has imbibed
from the primitive beauty of the forms and the effects in other
words, the language of nature, that other name for life and truth.
Character of True Taxte. As true taste secures genuine beauty of
effect, it is not a merely passive power. It rejects every false savor ;
for it relishes only the true. It refuses to inhale the flavor of the
artificial perfume ; because it prefers the aroma of nature. It detests
the ugly, and shuns the ungraceful ; but it loves the truly beautiful,
and builds the fabric of noble thought " after the pattern shown it on
the mount," as a chaste harmonious whole, conceived in pure ideal
perfection, and executed with faultless skill, like that structure which
"Rose like an exhalation, with the sound
Of dulcet symphonies and vo'ces sweet ;
Built like a temple, where pilasters round
Were set, and Doric pillars overlaid
With golden architrave ; nor did there want
Cornice or frieze with bossy sculpture graven ;
The roof was fretted gold."
70 CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
Taste is not a quality merely negative in its influence : it is, in
language, a positive power. It suggests and prescribes beauty ; and,
in all expression, beauty is power. Taste virtually decides and ordains
the forms of language. It is therefore justly classed as an expressive
faculty. It blends its effects, undoubtedly, with those of imagination
and fancy, and with those of sentiment and emotion ; controlling and
directing and modifying these by its intuitive recognition of the eter-
nal laws of beauty and proportion, and instinctively rejecting every
blemish. If it is sometimes lost, to appearance, in the effects pro-
duced by the more obvious working of other expressive forces ; its
actual presence and power are not less deeply felt in the pervading
harmony which, in such circumstances, it has established, and the
genuine beauty which it has diffused. Its influence extends over
every form of expressive art; and its results are equally legible in all.
It guides the pencil of the painter, the chisel of the sculptor, the tool
of the *rtizan, the hand of the musician, the pen of the poet, the
voice and action of the speaker. It reigns over every form of lan-
guage; and it moulds alike habit, character, and manners; for 'all of
these are but varied modes of expression.
Taste, under the Influence of Culture. Of all the faculties with
which man is endued, none, perhaps, is more susceptible of cultivation
than taste ; and none yields larger results to the process. Trained
under the fresh aspects of nature, and the strict discipline of truth, it
becomes one of the most healthful influences that a liberal culture
infuses into the human soul. It leads to the true, the pure, and the
beautiful, in every relation of thought and feeling. Next to the hal-
lowing influence of religious principle, it elevates and refines the whole
being, and confers pure and lasting enjoyment on its possessor. It
forms one of the most attractive graces of character, and breathes a
genuine charm over the aspect of social life. But neglected, cor-
rupted, or perverted, deprived of the healthful air of nature, aban-
doned to coarse and low association, vitiated by the influence of false
custom, distorted by conventional regulations, or tainted by the im-
pure atmosphere of vice, taste becomes depraved, and morbidly craves
deformity instead of beauty, and prefers falsehood to truth.
(II.) THE ACTUATING PRINCIPLE, OR IMPELLING FORCE, OF THE
EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
FEELING : its Office in Expression. The Sensibility with which
the constitution of man, as a sentient animal and as a self-conscious
moral being, is invested, and by which he is stimulated to action and
to utterance, may, for our present purpose, be defined as that element
in his nature, which, whether manifesting itself in temporary sym-
pathy, in permanent affections, in vivid emotion, or intense passion
CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES. ^J
has, for its office, the excitation of his being. As the stimulus of hia
constitution, it impels man to the function of expression, as a result
indispensable to sympathy and communication, the necessary con-
dition of his social and moral life. It originates in that sensibility to
pleasure and pain by which the Creator has enhanced to man the
enjoyment and the value of his organized and conscious existence,
and secured it, at the same time, by a law of instinctive dread, from
exposure to peril and to destruction.
Feeling, as an Incitement to Sympathy. The effect of sensibility,
in this relation, is three-fold ; producing in man, (1.) a sympathy with
the conditions and aspects of the surrounding external world, whether
pleasurable or painful, attractive or repulsive ; (2.) the mutual sym-
pathy, conscious correlation, and consentaneous action of the two
component elements of his constitution, body and mind ; (3.) a
sympathy with his fellow men, which makes him a partaker of their
pleasures and pains, causes him to desire a return of their sympathies
to himself, and consequently leads him to expression and communica-
tion, as the means of exciting and attracting it.
Fetling, as an Involuntary or Empassioned^ Instigation. The sen-
tient and susceptible nature of man, his capacity and his experience
of pleasure and pain, affected by causes whether external or internal
in their operation, render him liable to unconscious and involuntary
excitement, rising, sometimes, to the height of passion. This excite-
ment manifesting itself in emotion, the main spring of expression,
becomes, in some circumstances, itself a language sufficiently defi-
nite, intelligible, and expressive ; as may be observed in the laughter
and the crying of the infant, in the sympathizing countenance of the
compassionate mother, in the ruffled features and angry temper of
impatient youth, in the ghastly face of the terrified child, in the glare
of the hostile savage, or in the glad smiles of the emancipated school-
boy at his holiday sport.
Feeling, influenced by Imagination and Volition. The beings
and forms of his own ideal world of imagination and fancy, or of
creative thought, have also their exciting power over the internal
sense of pleasure or of pain, and impel man, more or less voluntarily,
to exhibit emotion, and to find its natural or customary form- of ex-
pression in the articulate words of speech, in the simpler eloquence
of mere vocal tone, uttered or suppressed, or in the silent but more
enduring form of the written word.
Influence of Feeling on the Artist. Even language itself, however,
in its most distinct and definite forms, is not always sufficiently ex-
pressive for empassioned emotion. The admiration of grandeur or
72 CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
beauty may be strong enough and deep enough to demand some
more palpable and durable shape in which to express itself. The
intense delight in beauty impels the Artist to devote himself to days
and nights of toil over the image which alone can satisfy the longing
of his soul, for the visible presence of the loveliness which his fancy
has conceived in his inner world of life and form.
On the Actions of the Child and of the Adult. It is the untaught,
unconscious working of the emotion of love which makes the child
find expression for his sympathy in the act of imitating the gait and
actions, and the characteristic expressions of those whom he admires.
Nor does adult man always escape the effects of this tendency, when
maturity of mind and habits of grave research seem sometimes to
render the result ridiculous.
On the Actor and his Audience. The natural delight in sympathy
and communication, is the incitement which impels the actor on the
stage to assume and exhibit, in his plastic frame and features, the
agonies of dramatic passion, in all their terrific extremes, while he
personates the ravings of Lear, the frenzy of Othello, or the remorse
of Macbeth ; and it is the same cause which attracts, night after night,
to the crowded theatre, the audience who thus acknowledge the furce
of the great element of sympathy in human nature, and the power
which vivid expression exercises over the heart, when it has even the
well sustained semblance of coming from the heart.
On the Eloquence of the Orator. It is from sympathy with the
very passions which he delights to excite, that the orator devotes his
days of seclusion and nights of application to the study of every art
by which expression may be heightened and emotion aroused, when
the decisive moment is come, and the interests of the state are at
hazard, and men are to feel that their welfare or their safety is to
depend on adopting the views of an eloquent and competent leader.
On the soul of the Poet. It is sympathy with the highest senti-
ments and emotions of his race, and the conscious delight in giving
these a noble utterance, that inspires the poet with the assurance of
immortality, while he meditates his great theme, and touches and re-
touches, his artistic work, till it stands forth complete in the majestic
beauty and perfection after which his soul has, for years, aspired.
Universality of Feeling, as the Actuating Principle of Expression.
In all the above and similar instances, the sympathetic feeling which
thirsts for expression, and impels to the utterance or the recording of
sentiment, is one and the same. It may assume the definiteness and
the depth of a personal affection, or the intensity and the comparative
excess of a passion, to whatever extent the instigation of feeling may
CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES. 73
excite the sentient agent. But it is still the same element of sensi-
bility, only working in deeper channels, and with a stronger tide, and
therefore doing its work more effectually and impressively. In what-
ever form, it is still but an act of obedience to the law of his consti-
tution, by which man, as a sympathetic being, is impelled to expres-
sion, that he may attain to the power and the habit of communica-
tion ; arid thus fulfill the conditions of his social and moral nature.
Influence cf Feeling on Moral Character, as a Form of Expression.
The extent to which the element of feeling exerts its power over ex-
pression, and the degree to which its development in this relation may
be carried, under the influence of educational culture, can be appro-
priately measured only when we trace it to its effects on the tenden-
cies, the character, and the will of human beings individually, or in
their aggregations in society. In either case, we see it in the gentle,
the peaceful, and affectionate spirit of the genuine disciple of Him
whom we reverence as the " meek and the lowly," and in the genial
intercourse of communities governed by the influence of His law of
universal love ; or we read it in the arrogance, the violence, and the
hatred, of which perverted humanity is so fatally capable. As " out
of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh," the prevalent
emotions and expression, 'the manners, and the habitual language of
man, in these opposite conditions of individual and social life, will
depict themselves on character and action.
Influence of Feeling on the Character of Art. In the visible lan-
guage of graphic art, we read the same lesson of the power of feeling
as an element of expression. We see it in the appalling force with
which the sculptor has presented the agony of pain and struggle, in
the writhing frame and contorted features of Laocoon, or the perfect
placidity and repose with which he has invested the face and form of
Antinous. Nor is the lesson less impressive when we turn from the
superhuman fierceness of expression in attitude and features, which
characterizes the delineations of passion and penal torture, in some of
the figures depicted by the hand of Angelo, to the serenity, the sanc-
tity, and the unutterable loveliness, beaming from the half-divine
forms in which innocence or holiness is pictured by the pencil of
Raphael.
Its power in Music. The ear drinks in the same lesson of the power
of empassioned expression, while it listens to the great masters of
musical art, and feels the majesty of its utterance, as conceived in the
soul of Handel, and worthily executed by the skillful hand of the ac-
complished performer. From such effects of sublimity and force and
solemn grandeur, down to the breathings of tenderness in a plaintive
strain of pastoral melody, the thrill, responding to the stirring air of
74 CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
the soldier's march, or the wild gayety of the peasant's dance, we have
but the varied forms in which emotion evinces its sway over this most
expressive of arts, by the inspiration which it breathes into its num-
berless moods.
Its Effect on Language. To the emotive force of feeling, Lan-
guage owes all its sublimest and most beautiful forms of cultivated
utterance, whether in expressing the depth of affection or the intensity
of passion; and the remark is equally true of the literature of the
elder world and that of modern times. In no record of humanity is
the fact more strikingly exhibited than in the pages of the Sacred
volume, where the heart of man is laid open in all its workings, in
the primitive language of poetic imagination and Divine truth com-
bined, and where the human soul pours itself forth in every mood ;
now wondering at the vastness of the creation, or adoring the infinite
majesty of the Creator ; now humbled to the dust, under the sense of
man's insignificance, or, in the tones of contrition and penitence, im-
ploring the boon of pardon ; uttering thanks for boundless goodness
and mercy ; rejoicing in the conscious favor of God; sympathizing in
the gladness and beauty of nature ; touched by the paternal tender-
ness and compassion of Jehovah, or joining in the denunciations of
" indignation and wrath, tribulation and anguish," threatened to his
enemies.
In all the uninspired delineations of thought which have come
down to us from ancient times, it is the same pervading element of
feeling which has given them their lasting life and their sway over the
mind. To some prominent passages of this, character we have already
alluded ; and, for the present, the allusion must suffice. Nor have we
time now to dwell on corresponding examples drawn 'from modern
literature, the peculiar charm of which, in one word, is the power
with which it calls forth the natural emotions of the heart. In every
form which literature assumes, as a power or an influence over the
soul, exerted through the medium of expressive language, the main
spring of effect, the grand motive power, is feeling. The life of ex-
pression, in all its cultivated forms of language or of art, is emotion.
Feeling, under the Guidance of Education. Recognizing the fact
last mentioned, the intelligent superintendent of education will direct
his endeavors to the due cherishing, strengthening, and developing,
as well as to the moulding, guiding, and governing of this great ele-
ment of intellectual and moral power. With his eye fixed on this
momentous issue, he will watch the natural tendency and direction of
the instinct whose action he is to guide, so as intelligently to co-
operate with its spontaneous working, and aid in the accomplish-
ments of its peculiar office.
THE CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES. 75
The teacher is, to a certain extent, or, at least, so far as he is a
teacher of language, bound to furnish his pupil with the invaluable
advantage resulting from a ready command of correct expression,
one of the surest passports to usefulness and success in life. But the
life-spark of expression can not be struck from a dull mind. The
latent fire of feeling must be kindled, must be brought to the surface,
that it may glow in the living look and audible tone of emotion, or
beam forth in the burning words of eloquence, whether flowing from
tongue or pen. The judicious instructor will resort to every expe-
dient suggested by the life and beauty of nature and of art, as sources of
inspiration, whence corresponding life, and beauty,-and expressive pow-
er may be breathed into the soul of his pupil, and live in his utterance.
III. THE TENDENCY OR HABIT OF ACTION, IN THE EXPRESSIVE FAC-
ULTIES, AS IT is MANIFESTED IN UTTERANCE.
Utterance an Instinct. When we contemplate man as a being ca-
pable of education, he may, for our immediate purpose, be regarded
as furnished by his Creator, with what may be termed the apparatus
of expression, in the gift of the various faculties which we have been
hitherto considering. We perceive him further provided with an
adequate motive power, by which this apparatus is propelled, in the
involuntary or voluntary action of feeling. The indication next to
be obseived by the educator, as the suggestion for his guidance, in
his endeavors to cooperate with Nature's tendency to development,
is, In what direction does the action of the expressive faculties nat-
urally tend? What, in this instance, is the instinct of spontaneity?
What, under the guidance of his own inward promptings, does the
child incline to do or to become ? What habit or attribute of char-
acter does he thus acquire ? The answer furnished by observation, in
this case, plainly is, Man, as a sentient, intellectual, and sympathizing
being, acting under the primary impulse of instinct, and without any
interference of human culture, obviously inclines to Utterance, (throw
ing himself out,) or, in other words, to self-revelation, as an ordained
function of his nature, verifying and crowning his intelligence, and
constituting him a social and moral being, capable of progress and
of culture. He craves and finds expression, accordingly, in many and
various forms : he makes himself felt and understood, in some way or
other, by his fellows. Under the guidance of education, he but
learns to do this more definitely and successfully, through lan-
guage and expressive art. From a sentient and intelligent, he devel-
ops thus into a communicative being, the result, so far, of the com-
bination of unconscious and voluntary education, and, at the same time,
76 CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
the condition and the pledge of subsequent intellectual and moral
progress.
Repression a Common Error of Educational Training. The at-
tentive observation not to say the systematic study of man, to
which the educator and teacher should ever feel himself bound, as the
only security for the intelligent and successful discharge of his duties,
suggests, at this stage of our subject, the fact, that a prominent fea-
ture of error, in the too prevalent arbitrary modes of education, has
been the repression rather than the development of the natural desire
of utterance in childhood.
From the very first steps of his mental and moral progress, man is
not a merely selfish and receptive being. He longs to impart his
feelings, and to communicate his observations : he wishes to give, as well
as to receive : he feels impelled to utter himself that he may impart and
confer, not less than receive. His impulse, as a sympathetic one, is
unselfish, generous, noble. When the child exclaims to his play-
mate on the beauty of the flower which they see, he does not merely
call for sympathy in the delight which he feels : he would, by his
instinctive expression of pleasure, suggest and impart that delight.
Utterance, under the benign guardianship of Nature, as its Author's
interpreter, is thus, essentially and substantially, a moral process, not
less than a merely sympathetic and intellectual one. Nor, in educa-
tion, should it ever be forgotten that, by the Creator's ordination,
every utterance of a feeling or an emotion, gives it additional strength
and life; and that, obeying the divinely instituted law of speech and
communication, we are aiding in the process of building up, day by
day, and hour by hour, the fabric of human character.
Arbitrary education, however, is, in no feature of its meddling
mismanagement more conspicuous than in the restriction, the reserve,
and the silence, which it is ever so prone to impose, and on which it
is so apt to plume itself, with reference even to the very first stages
of its repellent sway.
The five years' probationary and preparatory silence which Pythag-
oras is said to have exacted of his disciples, might be an excellent
discipline for mature minds, as an introduction to the " metaphysic
bog profound," into which he meant thereafter to plunge them. But
one of the first and most urgent wants of childhood is utterance.
The innocent little human being is ever thus holding out his petty
link in the golden chain which binds heart to heart, mind to mind,
and man to God : he is ever ready to join his link to that of his
neighbor. But the mechanical educationist, with his "look at your
book, arid not at me !" frowns the infant volunteer back to his seat,
CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES. ^
to his individuality, and his isolation ; and the chain by which the
little petitioner for sympathy and knowledge, might have been lifted
with the conjoined force of the mental world, is of no avail to him :
his link of connection with it is yet detached. Llis turn has not yet
come, in the great game of opportunity ] and he must bide his time
as best he may.
Appropriate Training. Under the unerring and genial guidance
of the mother, the child is not perpetually immured within doors, or
confined to one spot, or fixed in orte posture : he is allowed, occasion-
ally, at least, to behold the outward world, to range the fields, to
walk on the road, to observe the objects around him, to feel their at-
tractive force, to admire their beauty, to wonder and to inquire about
what is new to him, to utter his exclamations of pleasure, to examine,
and to name whatever strikes his attention. He thus enjoys his own
nature in the free exercise of his faculties ; he is consciously progress-
ive in intelligence and in speech, as in feeling, and, so far, is effectually
and successfully preparing to become, in due season, eloquently ex-
pressive.
Disadvantages of City Education. The worst, perhaps, of all the
many evils attending the supposed necessity of congregating in cities,
and adopting artificial modes of life, is one but little thought of.
The parent who relinquishes his rural home in the open village street
or in the field, flatters himself, perhaps, that he is securing better edu-
cational advantages for his children, when he takes up his abode in
one of the confined dwellings of the close-crowded city. He may
lind, by the exchange, a teacher more expert in turning the machin-
ery of instruction, and a more ample supply of the learning to be had
from books. But the nobler, the truly liberal part of his childrens'
education, he has foregone forever. The free scope, the pure, bracing
air, the rich variety of nature, the healthful influence of these on
the growing frame and the expanding mind, on the susceptible heart,
on the plastic imagination, on the whole soul and character ; these
are sacrificed, and with them, the best capabilities of culture.
Educational Benefits of Rural Life. In no respect are the losses
just mentioned greater than in regard to the part of education which
we are now contemplating. To the child reared in the freedom and
the beauty of nature, everything around him becomes a language,
expressing the happiness which he unconsciously enjoys. His vocab-
ulary is furnished in the forms, the colors, the life, the sounds and mo-
tion, amid which he finds himself. The half-conscious awe which he
feels, under the deep shade and the sweeping boughs of the great
elm, through which he looks up, with a pleasing dread and wonder
f g CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
to the over-arching sky, the beautiful wild-flower which waves and
nods to him as he passes, the brook which runs bubbling and gur-
gling through the meadow, the majesty of the flowing river, the roar-
ing of the winter wind through the bare trees, the whirling of the
snow-flakes, the glittering garment of the ice-storm, the opening of
the spring buds, the fluttering of the summer leaves, and the sailing
of the falling leaf in autumn, the enlivening voices of the domestic
animals, the entrancing music of the birds; these, and a thousand
other unpaid teachers, have all been training him in a language true,
copious, perfect, and inspiring, compared to which, book-learning is
but as the dry husk to the rich nutritious grain.
Genial Culture. To favor and cherish, not to check, utterance
to elicit, not to repress expression, to multiply, and deepen, and ex-
pand, and fill, not to dry up, the sources and reservoirs of language ;
these are the true offices of education. The cultivation of the young
mind, taking a suggestive hint from the cultivation of the young tree,
should allow a liberal scope of nutrition, of growth and expansion,
before calling in the aid of the pruning knife. A large part of early
education should consist in conversation, in which the pupil should
freely partake, as the natural means of acquiring accuracy and ex-
pertness, as well as freedom, in expression. The tendency to write
and to draw, should have full scope and ample encouragement. Care
should be taken to render interesting and attractive every form of
exercise by which the student may ultimately attain to the free, for-
cible, and correct expression of thought. To the various modes of
securing such fruits of culture, in detail, we shall have occasion to
advert in the sequel.
IV. RESULT OF THE ACTION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES :
COMMUNICATION.
The Power of Communication. In the previous stages of our
present inquiries, we have been occupied with the classification of the
powers of expression, their springs of action, and the habitual ten-
dency and direction of their current, under the guidance of unassisted
nature and of education. The next step in the progress of investiga-
tion preliminary and introductory to the actual work of express cul-
ture, is the consideration of the Results at which, whether by the
law of natural development or that of educational cultivation, the
human being arrives, in consequence of the exercise of his powers of
expression.
The immediate result of utterance is Communication, the impar-
tation and interchange of sympathy or sentiment, by which man in-
spires his fellow man with the same feeling, affection, emotion, passion,
CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES. 79
thought, or sentiment, which actuates himself; and which, as the cir-
cle of kindred minds is enlarged by the aggregation of numbers, ex-
tends his personal mood or mental condition throughout the sphere
of the community of which he is a member.
Intellectual and Moral Effects of Communication. The views,
the will, and the power of an individual, acquire, through communi-
cation, an ascendency, it may be, over a nation, or even over the
whole civilized race, for successive ages; while, on the other hand,
the intellectual acquisitions, the moral and spiritual attainments, the
sympathies and the accumulated resources of nations and of ages,
may be brought to the aid of the individual, through the magic
power of language.
For good or for evil, man's power of communication with his fel-
lows, gives to the aggregated multitudes of a whole people, or even
of the race, the unity of purpose, the singleness of aim, the direct-
ness, the personal efficiency, the ease and the certainty of action of a
single agent ; while it equally arms the individual with the intellect-
ual, the physical, and the moral force of millions. The sage, the
orator, the poet, the artist, the statesman, the warrior, thus become
the recognized representatives of a people or of mankind, to whom
communities and nations bow in submission or in homage, and to
whose ascendant genius they render the tribute of heart and hand,
of treasure, or of life. Thus, too, the youth, in his studious endeav-
ors to advance his intellectual and moral condition, has the aid arising
from the experience, the counsels, the guidance, and the sympathies
of the intelligent and the virtuous of every age and nation which
possesses an accessible record of its progress ; and the student whose
days have been spent in strictest seclusion and unremitting investiga-
tion, enjoys the assurance that the fruits of his solitary research and
strenuous application shall be gathered not by himself alone, but by
whatever enlightened and sympathizing minds, throughout the
world, and in all subsequent time, shall come within his sphere of
communication by living voice or written word.
Value of Communication. Communication, as the boon of lan-
guage, is not to be measured by its immediate results merely, as a
telegraphic convenience for the impartation of feeling or the convey-
ance of thought, great as its uses, in this relation, are to the whole
race. Language is the vehicle of all knowledge. Like the noble
ship, costly and valuable in itself, but yet more valuable in the treas-
ure with which it is fraught, it comes laden with the accumulations
of countless minds and boundless wealth. To measure its full value,
we should have to compute the number and the worth of every
80 CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
acquisition which the mind has garnered up in the records of every
department of science and literature, and thus rendered capable of
conveyance from man to man, and from generation to generation,
throughout the world.
V. EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE EX-
PRESSIVE FACULTIES.
These may be classed under the following heads: The Attentive
Observation and the Love of Nature ; the Study and the Practice of
Art; the Study of Language; the Practice of Exercises in Oral and
Written Expression.
OMISSIONS AND DEFECTS IN MODES OF CULTURE. Language.
The plan of education generally adopted for the exercise and disci-
pline of the expressive faculties, indicates little philosophical design,
logical consistency, generous spirit, or liberal scope, in the course
which it prescribes. It is founded on views too narrow and exclu-
sive ; and its execution has been too mechanical. The mothers and
the teacher's eye has been fastened too exclusively on the facts of
language alone, as so many detached points to be mastered in detail.
Hence the injury sometimes done to the organs of speech, by prema-
ture attempts to conquer some of the difficulties of articulation, in the
mother's zeal for the precocious development of the faculties of her
child ; and hence, also, the mechanical and arbitrary processes of
alphabetic training, in its customary forms. The eager desire for im-
mediate definite results, has caused the teacher, too generally, to over-
look the great facts that language is but one of the forms in which
the expressive faculties are exerted, or in which expressive power is
to be developed, and that the successful cultivation of language is in-
separable from due exercise in all the kindred forms of expression to
which the mind naturally tends.
The general plan of education is limited to instruction and prac-
tice in the oral and written forms of language, in the school rou-
tine of reading and grammar, and what is termed composition.
The forms of exercise and the methods of training, also, in these de-
partments of education, have too generally been literal and mechan-
ical ;' and the poverty and imperfection of the results have betrayed
the defects of the plan which prescribed them.
Methods too exclusively Passive and Receptive. The great im-
portance of a full and generous development of the whole mental con-
stitution, as indispensable to the right action of any of its elements,
having been overlooked in the plan of education, due allowance has
too seldom been made, in the training of the mind, for the adequate
exercise and discipline of the active nature and of the expressive
CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTES. g^
powers of the human being. The general prescription of the pro-
cesses of instruction, has evidently been directed to the receptive ac-
tion of the understanding and the imple.ting of the memory. The
mind of the pupil has been too uniformly kept in a comparatively
passive condition. He has not been permitted and invited to use suf-
ficiently even those materials of expression which he has, from the
earliest steps of his progress, in the routine of education, been so
laboriously employed in accumulating. Expression, neglected in
early training, becomes difficult in later stages; and conscious failure
incurred in attempting it, renders it distasteful. Effort, under such
circumstances, is reluctantly made, frequently intermitted, and ere
long discontinued.
Nenlect of our own Language. No remark is more common
or more true, than that even our highest and best courses of cul-
ture do not result in furnishing accomplished men, as regards the
actual use, in speech or writing, of our own language. Ample time,
comparatively, is usually allowed for the study of the ancient lan-
guages, and even for that of some of the modern ; but little is ex-
pressly assigned for the thorough acquisition of our own, which, to
ensure to the student a perfect command of it, should be the ground-
work of daily exercises, thoughtfully planned and carefully executed*
from the first steps in education onward to the last day of professional
preparation for the business of life.
Faults of Unconscious Teaching. Some of the many causes of
imperfect teaching, in the department of language, may be found in
the fact, that the true nature and actual character of early training
are not recognized by those whose office it is to superintend the first
steps of childhood in the path of development. The mother and the
primary teacher too often overlook the vast influence of example,
which, to the imitative nature of childhood, always becomes a model.
Hence the imperfect articulation, incorrect pronunciation, mechanical
monotony, and lifeless tone, which are so generally prevalent in
school reading. These faults are, too often, faithful copies of the
style which the ear of the young learner has unconsciously caught
from his mother, his teacher, or his class-mates, and which habit
rivets on his voice, for life.
Error in Alphabetic Instruction. The mechanical manner in
which the child's first lessons in reading are sometimes conducted,
is another cause of failure, in the department of instruction to which
we now refer. In many schools, the young pupil never has his at-
tention called, definitely or consciously, to the fact that the letters of
the alphabet are phonetic characters, the whole value of which con-
1 F
82 CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
sists in the sounds which they represent: in many, he may pass
through the whole course of instruction without being once called to
practice the constituent elementary sounds of his own language : in
very many, there is no attempt made to exercise and develop, modify,
or cultivate, in any form, the voice itself. Hence the prevalence of
the errors which have been already mentioned as fruits of uncon-
scious imitation, and which careful, early cultivation can alone pre-
vent.
Neglect of the Meaning of Words. An obvious defect in preva-
lent modes of education, as regards adequate preparation for the free
and correct use of our native language, is the yet too common neg-
lect of early and progressive etymological training in the analysis of
words, and the tracing of the significant value of their component
syllables, so as to ascertain and fix in the mind their exact meaning
and full power, and to follow their transitions from a primary to a
secondary sense, or from one which is figurative and imaginative to
one which is purely intellectual or merely practical. It is such inti-
mate knowledge, and such only, the fruit of daily exercise and careful
training, that can give, at length, to the mature scholar, or the pro-
fessional speaker, that mastery of words, which now so often, when
almost too late, he feels that he needs for the full and perfect express-
ion of his thoughts.
Defective Forms of Reading Exercises. A common and marked
failure of education, as regards the course of instruction in reading,
is partly attributable to the cause last mentioned, the unintelligent
enunciation of words, but largely, also, to the mechanical perusal and
unmeaning pronunciation of sentences, as merely so many successions of
audible sounds. Such exercises deaden rather than enliven the powers
of expression, as they blunt rather than sharpen the understanding, for
the intelligent conception of meaning. Yet, in not a few schools is it
the fact, that even quite young pupils are never asked, in performing a
reading exercise, to point out, previous to the pronouncing of a sen-
tence, those words in it which are most significant or expressive, and
accordingly require that special force or turn of utterance, which
alone can render them emphatic, so as to convey their full sense, or
bring out the whole sentiment which the sentence was framed to ex-
press. A similar neglect is too prevalent as regards the effect of
proper pauses in reading, which should always suggest to the ear an
intelligent analysis of a sentence into its constituent portions of sense,
not, as is very frequently the case, a mechanical analysis, servilely
following the grammatical punctuation with measured uniformity of
utterance, whatever be the depth of thought, or the force of feeling,
CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES. 83
implied in the language of the composition. As the syntactical punc-
tuation, although it may often coincide with the expressive and signifi-
cant rhetorical pausing, does not necessarily do so, but, on the con-
trary, is sometimes directly at variance with it, the effect of uniformly
following the points, must, in such cases, be a positive hindrance rath-
er than a help to intelligible or appropriate reading, as an exercise
of voice. The utterance of the common phrases, " Yes, sir," or " No,
sir," will furnish sufficient illustration here. The comma preceding
the word tt sir," is due to the eye, on the score of syntax, but not to
the ear or the voice, on that of sense.
It is in the audible reading of poetry, however, that the defects of
current education are most strikingly exhibited, as regards the disci-
pline of the expressive faculties. Poetry, as the language of imag-
ination and feeling, speaking to the heart, properly requires a mode
of reading obviously quite different from that of the usual forms of
plain didactic prose, addressed to the understanding merely. The
word-pictures of the poet paint their imagery on the imagination ; the
intellect interprets their forms ; the heart beats in response to the
graphic delineation ; and the voice gives expression to a correspon-
dent melody of tone, while it utters the words of the verse. To read
poetry aright, therefore, implies the poet's inspiration, imparted to
the soul and voice of the reader, an exalted state of imagination, a
sympathetic vividness of feeling, unconscious quickness and acuteness
of intellectual conception, a plastic voice and expressive tone. An
appropriate course of preparatory discipline of feeling and imagina-
tion, is obviously, then, as indispensable to poetic utterance, as the
right understanding of the intellectual sense of a sentence, is to the
ordinary reading of prose. For this purpose, every grand or beauti-
ful form of nature or of expressive art to which he can resort, with a
view to give susceptibility to feeling and imagination or pleasure to
taste, now becomes, in the hands of the intelligent teacher, an instru-
ment of power, to aid him in the processes of culture. Now is the
time when he feels how deeply he must ever be indebted to the vivi-
fying influence of music, painting, and sculpture, and every chaste
form of decorative art, as the effective means of opening the eye of
the soul to the vision of grandeur or of beauty, firing the heart with
the ardor of inspiration, touching it with the sense of tenderness
and love, and refining the taste by the display of true elegance and
grace.
The dry, prosaic, lifeless style in which poetry is too generally read
in our schools, is more injurious than beneficial, not merely to the fac-
ulties more immediately concerned in the conception or utterance of
84 CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
poetic composition, but to the action and influence of all those pow-
ers, mental and moral, which tend to elevate and refine the soul, and
mould the character to the highest forms of excellence. There is
something akin to the barrenness of spirit with which the sceptic pe-
ruses a page of sacred scripture, in the utterly mechanical manner in
which the well-drilled pupil in mathematics or in grammar, is some-
times permitted to read strains of the purest poetry, embodying the
sublimest sentiments, and calling for tones of the deepest and most
vivid emotion, or even of the most exalted passion.
The general neglect of appropriate means for cherishing sensibility
and cultivating taste, in the relation now referred to, is the more to
be regretted that it prevails most in that form of education and in
that class of schools in which it tells with the deepest effect : I refer
to our common modes of mental cultivation, and to those seminaries
in which the mass of our people are trained. The recuperative influ-
ences of classical culture, in our higher literary institutions, does
something to redeem, in this respect, the omissions and the detects of
earlier training. But it is much to be feared that, even in our boast-
ed New England education, as generally conducted, the young who
are to receive no such remedial aid for disproportioned and defective
cultivation, close their school course without the benefit of a single
effort, on the part of instructors, to render their pupils capable of ap-
preciating or expressing the sentiments embodied in the best passages
of our own literature and that of the parent land, a literature which
contains confessedly more of the inspiring elements of pure morality
and noble character, as well as genuine beauty, than any that has yet
appeared ou earth ; not excepting even the model languages of
classic antiquity.
Instruction in Grammar. It is but of late that those who pre-
scribe the forms of education or the modes of instruction, have fur-
nished the working teacher with the means of rational and philosophic
training for his pupils, in another department of culture professedly
occupied with the discipline of the expressive faculties, but, in past
years, so formally conducted, for the most part, as to embarrass and
retard rather than aid the progress of development. A great change,
unquestionably, has -taken place in the character of text-books on
Grammar ; and in this branch of instruction we have recently been
provided with valuable facilities for improvement, in several excellent
treatises, well suited to the true uses of a text-book, not a synthetic
synopsis of the science as it lies in the mind of the consummate gram-
marian, but a gradually progressive and practical presentation of the
subject, from its simplest elements upward, in a course, at the sarna
CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES. 85
time, so strictly logical, that every step leads, by a law of thought, to
another, and so thoroughly practical, that, to use the not inapt
expression of a German instructor visiting one of our American
schools, the pupil is made, at every step, to " experience grammar."
Defective Methods. Still, too many of our teachers cling to the
narrow practice of following, in every grammar lesson, the order of a
synthetic text-book, in which the subject is admirably arranged for a
systematic and philosophic review of the science, but by no means
for the successive steps of progress to the young mind commencing
the study of it. The method of such text-books is precisely that
which must be inverted in all true, living, oral instruction, or in any
rational attempt to introduce a learner to a knowledge of the subject,
and to guide him in his first endeavors to reduce it to practice in illus-
trative forms of exercise. The logic of instruction requires that the
whole science of grammar should be first subjected to a rigorous an-
alysis in the teacher's own mind, that its elements may be exhibited
individually and successively to that of the pupil, and so become the
groundwork of his inductive and intelligent progress from the recog-
nition of facts to that of principles and laws. The practical part of
the instructor's business, requires, in this, as in all other branches, a
strict compliance with the rule of presenting one element only at a
time, but in such succession as to develop the whole subject in easy
steps of connected progress, each perfectly understood and thor-
oughly exemplified ; nothing assumed, but everything proved ; noth-
ing merely defined without being reduced to practice.
The Practice of Composition. Till very recently, in comparison,
no branch of education connected so immediately with the discipline
of the expressive faculties, has been more faultily conducted than
this. Without waiting for the development and efficient action of
the reflective faculties, or the power of abstract conception and gen-
eral thought, the teacher, when he has conducted his pupils through
a very imperfect course of grammar and mechanical " parsing," and,
perhaps, a little technical rhetoric, proceeds to prescribe a task in com-
position, on p,ome general theme requiring the thoughts of a mature
and capacious mind, besides the command of a skillful pen, for its
proper treatment.
Results of Defective Methods of Teaching. Called thus, without
means, to perform a task which leads him entirely away from the re-
gion in which his mind naturally and habitually works, the concrete
world of actual observation and of clear conception or conscious feel-
ing, the pupil finds himself unable to do what is required of him as
a personal effort. In these circumstances, if he does not actually
86 CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
shirk the task imposed on him, he has no resort but to repeat the
commonplace thoughts and sayings of others, in which he feels no
interest, and which, to his consciousness, have no truth. The precious
moments of youth are thus worse than wasted ; the expressive facul-
ties are withered and dried up ; and education, thus misdirected,
destroys the powers which it was employed to cherish.
Advantages of Seasonable Training. Teachers who take the pains
to observe well, know that there is a stage in the life of childhood,
when expression is a spontaneous tendency and a delight, when to
construct a sentence on his slate, or pencil a little note on paper, is to
the miniature " ambitious student," a conscious achievement and a
triumph of power. Then is the happy moment for beginning the
work of practice, which, if neglected at that stage, will never be
easily, naturally, or effectively done afterward. The attempt may be
made at a later period, under the influence of a sense of duty, or a
feeling of shame, or the consciousness of compulsion. But, by this time,
the plastic suppleness and pliancy of the mind is gone; and the whole
endeavor proves an affair of difficulty and dislike. ' The teacher's pol-
icy is never to let the moment come when composition, whether in
the form of note or letter, or narrative, or description, is felt to be
anything else than a pleasure and a privilege. The expression of sen-
timent, and the argument for an opinion, will then, become as easy,
as natural, and as pleasurable employment, as the first steps of con-
scious progress, in the penning of a juvenile note or letter.
Rhetoric. The great defect in conducting this branch of educa-
tion, a defect which is still very prevalent, consists in the fact that
the study of it is so much a matter of theoretic speculation on prin-
ciples of taste, or is limited to the mere committing of rules to .mem-
ory. Rhetoric, to become a useful branch of modern education,
should embrace a gradually progressive course of exercises, embody-
ing successively the facts of language, in the use of words and the
construction of sentences ; it should include the practice of daily
writing, for successive years ; frequent exercises in the logical arrang-
ing of thought for the purposes of expression, and the adapting of
the forms and character of expression to thought ; and it should be
accompanied by the close study and critical analysis of the works of
distinguished writers, with a view to acquire a perfect mastery over
every form of style.
Elocution : Errors in Modes of Instruction. Few branches of
education are so little understood or rightly practiced as this. We
have, in our current modes of instruction, little choice between the
*aults of style arising from what the indolent incline to term "a
CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES. Q7
generous neglect," through fear of "spoiling " what they claim as
41 nature," and those faults, on the other hand, which are attributable
to literal and mechanical modes of cultivation, and consist in the ob-
trusion of arbitrary details and artificial forms. Hence the results
which characterize the one, in the gross errors of slovenly and low
habit, coarse and disgusting manner, uncouth effect, bawling vehe-
mence, and gesticulating violence, of what is sometimes dignified
with the name of "popular oratory ;" and hence the opposite traits of
finical taste, affected elegance, false refinement, and studied contri-
vances of effect, which belong to perverted culture.
Errors in Theory. With the advocates of neglect, the true teach-
er, as a believer in the value of cultivation, can have little sympathy,
further than in the condemnation of false and artificial manner. Neg-
lect of culture, he knows well, produces, in regard to all expressive
art, the same obvious faults of rawness and in appropriateness, awk-
wardness and error. It is much to be regretted, however, that the
language of some eminent writers, in their anxiety to protest against
the errors of mechanical and literal training, gives countenance to
the claims of ignorance on this subject, and seems to sanction the
utter neglect of cultivation. Prominent among these it is to be re-
gretted that we find an authority otherwise so justly eminent as Dr.
Whately, whose own brilliant talents and ready power of expression,
while they tend to give him an ascendency over the minds of stu-
dents and teachers, are perhaps the very circumstances which dis-
qualify him to form a true judgment on the modes of cultivation
best adapted to the great majority of minds which fall under the care
of the teacher, in the common routine of education. The error, if
one may be pardoned the term, by which ingenious minds are, on
this subject sometimes entirely misled by superficial observation and
hasty conclusions, is that of overlooking the great fact that, in the
cultivation of any branch of expressive art, education is properly
charged with a double duty, that of aiding, by every favoring influ-
ence, the inward power of conception, and that of watching over the
outward form of expression. In the former function, education is
spiritual, genial, inspiring, intellectual, in its suggestions : in the latter,
its office is formative and exterior ; it watches, with the nicety of a
musician's ear and a painter's eye, over every point of detail, and as-
siduously trains every organ of the pupil to exactness,. as the law of
truth, extending to the minutest effect of vocal utterance and visible
action. True culture, in this relation, aims at a perfect result, and
descends, therefore, to the moulding of every detail.
The necessary Union of Theory and Practice in Teaching. It is
88 CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
a great error to suppose that, in doing its practical work, education
must do it in a narrow and servile spirit, or in a merely mechanical
form. Genuine instruction, in its minutest direction, recognizes and
impresses a principle which prompts the preference of one form of
expression to another ; and it takes care to deepen the impression of
the principle by means of the associated art in practice. Faithful
teaching must always extend to details. There is no slighting or
slovening in its work. The difference between true and false instruc-
tion, in all art, is simply this : the former in prescribing a rule, refers
to the parent principle from which it is derived, and thus makes
instruction logical ; the latter lays down the rule as a detached and
arbitrary fact of mere inculcation, and thus renders instruction em-
pirical and mechanical. The skillful teacher knows how, in inculca-
ting the closest application to detail, to keep the mind intent on the
principle which suggests it. No error in educational training can be
greater than that of shrinking from or shunning particulars, under
the plea of generalizing. In all matters of expressive art, principle
must be developed and applied in practice.
Necessity of Detail. The right expression of a sentiment by
voice and action, like every other external act of mind and organ,
has necessarily a mode and a form, coextensive with the words in
which it is embodied ; and neither teacher nor student can afford to
dispense with one element of the true effect. The attention, there-
fore, must be directed to the study and observation, " analytically, of
the emphasis, tones, pauses, <fcc./' unless we are willing to neglect the
proper effect of these on speech. If we can not communicate senti-
ment without a due observance of these, they must evidently be
studied, more or less, according to their value and importance ; and
the very office of instruction is, in all such cases, patiently to descend
to the study and practice of detail.
Yet Dr. Whately, in his Elements of Rhetoric, asserts that the an-
alytic study of detail, in such matters, " must vitiate every system
of instruction founded upon it." For this conclusion, fortunately,
however, he gives no reason but what is contained in the brief phrase,
" according to my views/' and adds, further, the saving clause, " if
those views be correct.'' A true and efficient friend of education, in
other respects, thus sides with the opponents of culture, by speaking
from the preferences of personal taste and arbitrary opinion, instead
of the laws of analogy and universal truth.
In most Anglo-Saxon communities, the teacher of elocution re-
ceives his pupils encrusted, one might say, with the errors of neg-
lected or corrupted habit, unconsciously contracted from the current
CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES. g9
faults of his home, his early school, the street, the local style of his
vicinity, or that of some popular public speaker. The eradication of
these errors is obviously the first duty of an instructor. But, accor-
ding to the views of Dr. Whately, the instructor must not put forth
his hand to touch such faults ; for this could not be done without
incurring the evil of entering into ** analytic details of emphasis, tones,
pauses, &c." The fabric of education, in this as in all other depart-
ments, resembles the well constructed edifice, liberally and scientific-
ally planned, symmetrically proportioned, and thoroughly finished in
detail. The outside observers of the processes of instruction,
among whom Dr. Whately, for the time, takes his position, are
quite willing that the intellectual structure should be a goodly man-
sion, on the whole, but insist on the notion that it shall be built
without any detail of wood, stone, or brick, in particular.
"Natural Advantages" In the act of utterance, the glance of gen-
ius may suffice, at times, for the intuitive recognition of a principle ;
and the empassioned impulse of artistic temperament, may prompt to
instantaneous and perfect expression. The possessor of such attri-
butes may, on exciting occasions, dispense with reflective thought and
studious application as securities for success in utterance. But the
majority of mankind, whether in youth or maturity, consciously and
habitually need all the aids of Analysis and study, and are successful
in proportion to the closeness of their application and the thorough-
ness of their practice. The aid, in such circumstances, to be render-
ed by the intelligent and faithful teacher, is precisely that work of de-
tail to which Dr. Whately objects. The student, through inadverten-
cy, overlooks, for example, the true and appropriate manner of express-
ion in solemn emotion ; and, in the utterance of a passage of that
character, runs on, through the influence of neglected habit, in a high,
loud, and rapid voice. Here, the mechanical teacher will, of course,
rectify the error, for the moment, by merely exemplifying the proper
style, and making the pupil repeat in imitation of the model, but
with no explanation, and with no reference of any point to a fixed
principle which might be a guide in future practice. The true teacher,
who never can rest satisfied with anything merely mimetic or par-
rot-like, when he indicates errors, endeavors to correct them by re-
ferring his pupil to the principle from which they deviate. He inter-
rogates him in this case as to the true and natural style of voice in
which solemn emotion is uttered, and directs his attention successively
to the facts that it is characterized by tones which are compara-
tively low, soft, and slow, as heard in the natural and appropriate
utterance of devotional feeling. Teacher and pupil have thus a defi
90 CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
n:te aim and an intelligent course before them in the reiterated prac-
tice which may be required for the correction of error, and a guiding
light to direct them in all similar difficulties which may occur in sub-
sequent exercises. In this department of education, as well as in
others, true instruction is nothing else than the exposition of a prin-
ciple along with an analytical application of it. Yet this is the very
mode of procedure which Dr. Whately condemns, when he objects so
decidedly to that method of elocutionary training which calls the
attention of the student first to the prominent vocal effects of an
emotion, and then descends to the particulars of expression in " em-
phasis, pauses, &c."
The errors of theory, regarding this department of education, have
been dwelt on longer than might have otherwise been necessary, were
it not for the proneness of those who superintend and control the
forms of instruction, to defer to the authority of distinguished names,
and to discourage the well directed efforts of the teacher. The mode
in which reading is taught, or elocution practiced, in the successive
stages of education, has a greater effect on mental and moral devel-
opment, than any other branch of instruction : it affects not only the
intelligence, but the taste, the habits, and the whole character of the
mind. To the young teacher, therefore, it is exceedingly important
that his views on the subject be clear and correct.
The practice of Gesture. The visible part of elocution, express-
ive action, is another subject on which the errors of theory and
practice are numerous and great. They consist chiefly, however, in
intentional or unconscious neglect, on the one hand, and mechanical
cultivation, on the other. The former cause of faulty habit appears
in inexpressive, unmeaning, and inappropriate forms of bodily action,
in insignificant tricks of personal habit, or in excessive and violent
gesticulation, accompanied by awkward and uncouth attitudes: the
latter shows itself in unnatural, affected, or fantastic gestures and posi-
tions. The expressive actions which naturally and properly belong
to public address on subjects which call forth emotion, being larger
and more forcible than those which belong to the habitual style of
private conversation, it is of great service, in the training of youth,
that, in addition to all the healthful aids arising from manly exercises
and enlivening sports, there should be a daily course of training on
the principal forms of oratorical action, with a view to ensure force,
and freedom, and propriety of manner, as regards the natural lan-
guage of attitude and action. This language has its principles for
the guidance of the teacher and the student as well as the artist.
The attentive investigation of these principles is the only source of
CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES. 91
true and liberal instruction or useful study. From these principles
rules for application necessarily flow ; and it depends on the teacher
and the student whether the latter shall be well and skillfully trained,
neglected, or superficially taught.
Artistic Cultivation of Taste. Provision is formally made, in
many seminaries, for a more liberal allowance of cultivation for the
expressive faculties, than is afforded in the mere learning to read, in
the study of grammar and rhetoric, or in the practice of composition
and elocution. The demands of Taste are recognized and complied
with, so far as regards a certain measure of instruction in music and
drawing. But, in very many seminaries, the little arbitrary and im-
perfect instruction which is given in these branches, is too frequently
much worse than none ; unless we are willing to recognize the form-
ing of bad taste in either art as an admissible service of education.
Lessons in Drawing : Common Mistake. Many parents and teach-
ers never bestow a thought on the true character or proper uses of
art, as a means of mental culture, or as a practical accomplishment,
but labor under the false notion that a little dabbling in it, under a
very ordinary instructor, is at least something gained toward refine-
ment of taste and graceful habit. There can not be a greater error
committed in education than this. Every attempt to copy an imper-
fect model, brings down the tone of taste, and does something to hin-
der the attainment of excellence. Neglect is wholesome, when com*-
pared with perversion or with false instruction.
"My daughter," says an affectionate mother, k ' wishes to learn draw-
ing ; and Mr. T31ank is getting up a class ; and I think I shall let her join.
Mr. Blank's drawing is no great things, to be sure. But a little no-
tion of drawing can do my daughter no harm, at least ; and, per-
haps, she may take a liking for it ; and then she can find a better
teacher, when it will be worth while to have one." Here are the com-
mon errors, that there is any benefit in a little poor or bad art, or that
any speck of it is not a positive blemish ; that the elements of art
can be taught by an incompetent teacher; and that, after having
taste thus perverted, the pupil can rally, acquire new principles, and
form new habits. The actual experience of most pupils thus misdi-
rected, is the painful conviction that, without a perfect command of
elements, nothing whatever can be done in art, and that every neg-
lected false line or touch, in rudimental lessons, is sure to injure the
habits of eye and hand, in all subsequent execution, besides lowering
the standard of excellence, and degrading the taste of the student.
Music: Singing. An error similar to that just mentioned, pre-
vails with regard to instruction and practice in music, more partic-
92 CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
ularly, in instrumental music. The vocal department, however, is
not without its many evils of erroneous conception and faulty instruc-
tion. Singing, by the formal manner in which it is sometimes taught,
becomes one of the listless tasks which the juvenile pupil is com-
pelled to perform in the routine of school duty, instead of being one
of the natural enjoyments and welcome recreations of daily life, in
which intellectual activity is accompanied by pleasing emotion and
free expression. The young learner, who should be permitted to
enter at once on the pleasure of listening to pure and perfect strains
of actual music, and then to join in the attempt to execute them, in
the natural training of ear and voice, is commonly detained for a long
course of drilling on technical terms and arbitrary rules. Music is
thus rendered a tasteless, irksome, artificial exercise to the pupil, and
fails of accomplishing its main objects of quickening the ear, enlivening
the feelings, moulding the voice, and cultivating the taste, by the in-
fluence of pure and beautiful examples of vocal sound, in the express-
ion of feelinof and sentiment.
O
Demoralizing Influence of Low Taste. The result is still more
injurious when low taste is permitted to obtrude its degrading influ-
ences on the sacred sphere of music ; when song is treated as merely
a form of amusement or of sport, and when the corrupting effects of
gross humor and ridiculous caricature, are intentionally introduced in
the lessons of an art designed to purify and elevate the soul. When
to such influences there is added the express utterance of degrading
and demoralizing sentiment, in the words of a piece of music selected
for a school exercise, the work of the enemy who sows tares in the
field, is fully accomplished ; and education lends its hand to the act
of helping the young mind not upward but positively downward.
Deficient and Faulty Instruction. When the grosser evils which,
have been mentioned, are avoided, there are not unfrequently others,
quite serious in effect, arising from the influence of imperfect cultiva-
tion and false taste in the teacher, or in the community of which the
pupil is a member. Inaccurate, slovenly, and heedless execution de-
feats all the purposes of musical cultivation, and renders the absence
of culture preferable to the possession of it. Every repetition of a
fault confirms an error of perception, a perversion of feeling, or a cor-
ruption of taste, and deepens it into a vice of habit and a defect in
mental character.
Instrumental Music. The more laborious forms of culture which
are indispensable to success in the performance of instrumental mu-
sic, strike yet deeper into the taste and tendencies of the mind, as
regards the character and effects of expression. Faults in this
CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES. 93
department of musical instruction, are, it is true, not so widely diffused
as those which are so often displayed in the teaching of vocal music.
But they are not less prejudicial to the pupil individually. The in-
cessant and arduous application which is required of all who wish to
perform successfully on any instrument, exhausts and discourages
pupils who have not a true and deep love of music, together with the
enduring physical vigor and muscular power which consummate exe-
cution demands. The attempt to continue practice, under such dis-
advantages, is more injurious than beneficial ; and when the pupil is
dragged through the daily infliction, the whole course ends in that
miserable failure over whose multitude of sins the false charity of
society is so often called to throw its mantle. In music, as in every
other form of expressive art, no culture is greatly to be preferred to
that which entails error and imperfection.
False Models. The evils of defective cultivation are not less con-
spicuous when the pupil possesses both taste and diligence and good
ability, but is misled in style, by the influence of a false model in
instruction. Of late years, the facility of obtaining instruction of the
best order, is greatly increased. But a fatal error is still quite cur-
rent among parents, that elementary lessons do not require a high
standard of perfection in the teacher, and that therefore the rudiments
of music may be acquired under any supervision. In this way, vast
numbers of pupils are rendered imperfect performers, for life, by
wrong habits acquired in the earliest stages of instruction and prac-
tice, habits which no subsequent reformatory training is capable of
correcting.
MEANS OF CORRECTING PREVALENT ERRORS IN THE CULTIVATION
OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
Remedial Effects of Good Instruction. The remedy for existing
evils in this as in other departments of education, lies partly, it must
be acknowledged, with parents and the official guardians of public
instruction ; and some of the evils adverted to are confessedly beyond
the sphere of the teacher's action. Still, in the actual business of
teaching, even under all the impediments arising from false views of
education arid false plans of established procedure in instruction,
much may be effected in the way of beneficial reformation, by intel-
ligent and judicious measures on the part of the teacher, in his mode
of conducting the daily lessons and exercises in those branches of
instruction which are recognized and demanded by general opinion
or by legislative enactment.
Examples. Referring to the utterly deficient provision which the
94 CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
general plan of current education makes for the cultivation and devel-
opment of the perceptive faculties, an enterprising and vigilant teacher
will find no difficulty in inducing his pupils to take a short walk with
him, for a few minutes daily, at a suitable season of the year, with a
view to a little familiar conversation with them about the form and
character of a plant, even though but a weed on the road-side.
The conversation can be easily so managed as to lead to the attentive
observation and close examination of every part of the plant, as des-
ignated, first, by the name in ordinary use, and, afterward, if conven-
ient, by the more exact term of scientific nomenclature. A micro-
scope, such as may be easily obtained for a few dollars, will be an
infallible attraction to observation and inspection, in such excursions,
and will prove a most efficient assistant teacher. Curiosity, and won-
der, and inquiry, once excited in this way, will cause the young mind
to drink in, with delight, every item of information which falls from
the lips of the teacher. Actual knowledge will thus be obtained, and
its pleasure consciously felt. Feeling and emotion, the main springs
of expression, are now brought into play ; imagination is awakened,
and, under the guidance of intelligence, will recognize the traces of
beauty and skill in the handiwork of Nature. To record, in writing,
what the eye has seen, and the ear heard, and the mind conceived,
during such a lesson, will be no hardship of Egyptian task-work, but
a pleasure and a privilege. Many a faithful teacher in our New
England States, has, in this way, without waiting for an educational
millennium, in which botany, composition, and natural theology shall
all be introduced into our common schools, by legislative authority,
"taken the responsibility," personally, and given an excellent element-
ary lesson in all three.
First Lessons in Spelling and Reading. The un philosophical and
arbitrary manner in which many branches of education are actually
taught, admits obviously of a remedy at the teacher's will. There is
no necessity of blindly following the practice of making the child
commit to memory the names of all the letters of the alphabet before
he is asked to join the sounds of two, so as to read the words he or
me. There is abundance of rhyme, but very little reason, in making
the child read a whole column of rarely occurring and even of unin-
telligible words, because they all happen to have the same or similar
combination of letters ; while his bright eyes would sparkle with in
telligence and delight, to see, in the column, a single word whose
familiar sound would soon render its face as familiar. To the young
learner in the primer, the spelling-book, or the school dictionary, the
whole volume arranges itself in three classes of words: (1,) those
CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES. 95
which children of his age understand and use] (2,) those which they
understand, when they hear them from the lips of older children or
of adults, but which they do not use themselves ; (3,) those which
they neither use nor understand, but which with the aid of teacher
and book, they are, in due season, to learn to understand and use
aright. To follow the true order of teaching, in such circumstances,
will cost the teacher no more trouble than the simple act of dotting
with the pencil point, on the column of the given page of the pupil's
book, those words which he finds adapted to the class-lesson of the
hour, according to the intelligence and advancement of his scholars.
Phonetic and Empirical Methods. Another expedient for the re-
moval of impediments to successful elementary instruction, and one
which the teacher can easily adopt, after having made the selection
of words, as suggested above, would consist in the subdivision of
each of the classes mentioned into analogous and anomalous sub-
classes. AH the words of the first class, for example, those which
are familiar to the child's ear and mind, by daily personal use, are
either regular or irregular, as to the combination of their letters in
name and sound. The former of these sub-classes may be easily
learned by the process of spelling them by the sounds of the letters
which compose the words. Thus, in the word " page," the names of
the first three letters very readily suggest their sounds, the combina-
tion of which constitutes the reading of the word. But not so with
the word "gag," in which not one of all the letters suggests its own
sound by the name given to it. By the principle of analogy, there-
fore, all words in which the name of the letter prompts the sound to
the ear, may be advantageously taught by the phonetic method of
merely articulating the sounds of the letters successively. The sim-
plicity of this method enables children to make rapid progress in syl-
labication and in reading ; and on the principle of allowing children
the pleasure of helping themselves forward in an intelligent, conscious
progress, this part of early training should never be neglected. But,
even in those words which are familiar, in sense and in use, to the
ears and minds of young children, there are very many in which
there is little or no analogy between the names of the letters and the
sounds which they receive in the pronunciation of a word or the
enunciation of a syllable. The orthography of such words is no relia-
ble guide to their orthoepy. To name their component letters, there-
fore, can effect nothing further than to satisfy the teacher that the
eye of the 4 child has taken in every letter of the word before him.
So far well. But, after all, the child's eye actually learns to take in
such words by the letters in mass, and depends on an Arbitrary effort
96 CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
of memory, in pronouncing them. The sooner, therefore, that the
little learner acquires the habit of reading such words at sight, with-
out puzzling himself with the confusion arising from the discrepancy
between the names and the sounds of their component letters, the
more easy and the more sure will be his progress.
Each of these methods of teaching, in the elementary processes of
spelling and reading, is good for its own purpose ; the phonetic for
the analogies of orthoepy, and the empirical, as it may be called, for
its anomalies. But the error in teaching has been the indiscriminate
and exclusive use of the one or the other; in consequence of which,
the learner's progress has been rendered unnecessarily difficult and
tedious. The inherent difficulties of a language so irregular as the
English, render the closest attention, on the part of the teacher, to
every means of overcoming them, doubly important in early training.
Orthoepy. In this branch of instruction everything depends on
the living teacher, on the correctness of his own exemplifications
and the diligence of his endeavors. Indeed, there is, commonly, nc
reason, but neglect on jhe part of the instructor, why every child at
school is not daily and thoroughly trained in the exact articulation of
all the elementary sounds of the English language, and in the dis
tinct enunciation of their principal radical combinations; nor any
other reason why an obsolete, awkward, or inappropriate manner of
pronouncing common words should be tolerated in any stage of
education.
'* School Reading? A similar remark may be made, as regards
the unmeaning and inexpressive style of reading, which is so current,
not only in schools, but in higher seminaries and professional exer-
cises. This fault, so commonly remarked, would not exist at any
stage of education, or in any form of life, private or public, if our
primary teachers were only attentive to accustom their pupils, in their
very first exercises in the reading of sentences, to repeat them care-
fully, with a view to the expression of sense and not the mere pronoun-
cing of words.
Academic Elocution. This department of instruction is another
in which the appropriate cultivation of the expressive faculties is not
dependent on any change in the prescribed forms of education, so
much as on the personal endeavors of the teacher. Our public speak-
ers would not so generally utter their words in the formal tones of
arbitrary pulpit style, were teachers duly attentive to point out to
young academic declaimers the natural and appropriate vocal express-
ion of feeling and sentiment; nor should we ever see those frenzied
extravagances of passion and grotesque gesticulation, which so fre-
CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES. 97
quently degrade the style of popular oratory, were teachers careful to
cultivate, in academic declamation, purity of taste, and true force of
effect, in the utterance of emotion.
Grammatical Instruction. Even in the teaching of grammar,
where less scope, perhaps, is given to the discretion of the teacher, it
still depends on himself whether he shall follow the precise order
of topics in an ill-arranged text-book, or use his own judgment, and
present the subject to the minds of his pupils in the order which he
feels that an intelligent and practical study of the subject, and a ra-
tional progress in its application, demand. Nothing lies more prop-
erly within the province of the teacher, than the duty of seeing to it
that his pupils thoroughly understand every word of their various
lessons, and thus reap the benefit of grammar, in the perfect inter-
pretation and right use of the current words of their own communi-
cations by speech and writing, and in the perusal of the useful pro-
ductions'of the press. The faithful use of an etymological spelling-
book, and of the dictionary, is all the cost of an aid so valuable to
the teacher, and of an attainment so valuable to die pupil.
Practical Rhetoric: School Exercises. Training in the appropriate
use of the English language, ought not to be limited to the mere
grammatical exercise of composing sentences. Even in our common
schools, it should extend to that cultivation of taste by which neat as
well as correct expression is acquired as a habit. To cultivate, in his
pupils, the power of appreciating excellence in language, it is not
necessary that the teacher should refer them to a systematic treatise
on rhetoric. The school reading book usually furnishes abundance
of the best materials for culture, in the presentation of the best modes
of composition, as exemplified in the language of the pieces pre-
scribed as reading lessons. The very best training for the acquisition
of sound judgment and good taste in expression, may easily be had,
if the teacher will but secure the intelligent and voluntary action of
his pupils, in frequently analysing portions of some of the best of
such passages, in occasionally transcribing them, and even committing
them to memory. The exercise of careful transcription, is, perhaps,
the bes f , practical expedient that can be found for securing that literal
and mechanical correctness in the details of the written forms of lan-
guage, as to orthography and punctuation, which though, indeed, but
minor mattci-s^are yet so important, as indispensable to the decencies
arid proprieties of style. How ineffectual, for such purposes, the
common routine of education proves, none can know but persons-
whose business brings them into extensive observation of such par-
ticulars.
1 IT
98 CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
Rhetorical Exercises in higher Seminaries. To remedy the evils
arising from the narrow and artificial character of our higher forms
of rhetorical culture, we need a wider : scope of discipline not only in
rhetoric itself, but in logic, and in the principles of taste as embodied
in the esthetics of every form of expressive art. We need, yet more,
however, a special course of practical training, for which the rhetori-
cal teacher ought justly to be held responsible, a course which
should consist in the careful and close analysis of distinguished mod-
els of successful composition, so as to trace their order and method in
the arrangement of thought, the artistic character of their aesthetic
light and shade and coloring, the mechanism of their sentential struc-
ture, and the aptness of their verbal expression in detail. A long
and rigorous course of disciplinary exercise in such forms, would not
only furnish the pen of the ready writer for the varied demands of
actual life, but the requisite preparatory training for the office of pub-
lic speaking, in which a ready command of well digested thought
and fit expression is so important to successful effort. The student
would, by such training, effectually learn the value of clear consecu-
tive thinking, of genuine taste, of manly plainness of diction and
simplicity of expression : he would be thoroughly secured from fall-
ing into the "bald, disjointed chat," the pompous harangue, the insane
extravagance of emotion, and the fantastic verbiage, which are so
often palmed on our popular assemblies, and lauded in our transient
vehicles of criticism, as wonderful displays of or'ginal genius or orator-
ical power.
The Study of Language. One very important aid to the gene-
rous culture and full development of the expressive faculties, is, as yet,
very imperfectly furnished by our higher forms of liberal education.
While the study of the ancient languages is formally acknowledged
as one of the most efficacious methods of training the mind to a dis-
tinct perception of whatever constitutes power or perfection of ex-
pression ; and while liberal provision of time and means is carefully
made, with a view to secure the full benefit to be derived from the
contemplation and analytical examination of these faultless models ;
too little attention is paid to the invaluable advantages which might
be gained from a corresponding rigor of study and analysis, directed
to the great authors who constitute the classics of modern literature,
in foreign languages, and in our own.
The perfunctory perusal and verbal recitation of a few passages
from such authors, which usually form a part of academic exercises,
in this department of education, can never be seriously proposed as
etlocting the purposes of critical appreciation and thorough discipline.
CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES. 99
In our highest seminaries, little is attempted beyond the processes of
grammatical analysis and interpretation, in a course of literal and
mechanical routine, even with regard to the ancient classics ; a mere
modicum of the same species of attention is usually given to the
very noblest writers of Germany, France or Italy. The Spanish and
the Portuguese languages are given up, for the most part, to those per-
sons who happen to have occasion for the use of them, as a conven-
ience in mercantile operations. The languages of the North of Europe,
whose ancestral affinities with the English render them so richly
instructive, as regards the full and true understanding and expert use
of the most significant and expressive part of our own native lan-
guage ; these, as yet, are left to an adventurous few, comparatively,
the solitary explorers and pioneers in the study of modern literature.
Ajnerica, in its peculiar national position, which brings to its
open homes men of all countries and of every tongue, possesses un-
equaled facilities for the extensive acquisition of all the benefits
resulting from the study of language in its various forms ; and a wide
range of advantages, in this relation of culture, should be justly held
as the birthright of our children, and as the characteristic distinction
of our educated youth and mature scholars. Not that we would
have American teachers pursue the course, which is unfortunately yet
too common, of giving a superficial attention, for a few months, or a
few weeks, perhaps, to one or more of the languages of modern
Europe, and then attempting the task of teaching them. But, gen-
erally speaking, American teachers who wish to enjoy the advan-
tage of teaching more intelligently and effectually their native lan-
guage, in consequence of the opportunity of better understanding its
character, by their ability to compare it with others, an advantage
beyond price ; most, if not all, of such teachers have easy resort to a
living instructor in whatever language they desire to study, and may,
in due time, become possessed in this way, of a vast amount of intel-
lectual wealth, the benefit of which is sure to be felt, not only in
their own mental action, but in the attainments of their pupils.
In the department of language, however, there is no acquirement
of which teachers and pupils stand in more urgent need than that of
a perfect command of correct, clear, strong, expressive English. The
attention paid to this most important attainment is, as yet, utterly in-
adequate to the demands of a generous cultivation or those of actual
life and its daily duties. Nothing is more common than this humilia-
ting admission. Yet little is done to do away with the necessity for
it. We have, it is true, of late years, made some advances toward a
100 CULTIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIVE FACULTIES.
better state of things, in our educational provision of better modes of
teaching grammar, synthetically as well as analytically ; and, in some
schools, the practical study of etymology receives a commendable
degree of attention. Yet it is rare to find in any seminary that
thorough analytical investigation of the words of our language which
every student is expected to exemplify in his exercises on a pagp of
the ancient classics.
The study of English words, if faithfully pursued in the daily les-
sons of our schools, with any thing like the application exhibited in
the examination, and classifying, and arranging, and labeling of the
specimens of even a very ordinary cabinet, .would enrich the intel-
lectual stores of the young and even of the mature mind, to an ex-
tent of which we can, at present, hardly form a conception. Nothing,
however, short of such diligence will serve any effectual purpose.
The student of his own vernacular tongue must be content to employ
the same close, minute inspection, the same careful examination, the
same correct designation, the same exact location and scrupulous con-
servation of every word that he would intelligently appreciate or
skillfully use, as the mineralogist adopts in the selection and arrange-
ment of his specimens.
Our prevalent modes of education have been so defective, as re-
gards the means or opportunities of acquiring a proper knowledge of
the English language, that the humble attainment of perfect orthogra-
phy is comparatively rare, even among the "liberally" educated.
Few students, even in our higher seminaries of learning, are trained
to recognize and appreciate the value of an English root or primitive
word, to trace a secondary to a primary sense, or a primary to its
secondary, to translate a passage of Latinized English into its Saxon
equivalent words of the mother- tongue, to draw the line of discrimina-
tion between present and obsolete usage in expression, to detect the
nice shades of meaning in words regarded as synonymous, to use,
in fact, their own language expertly.
It is universally admitted that no language needs such processes to
be applied to it so much as our own. Its vast copiousness, in conse-
quence of its many sources, the conflicting character of these them-
selves, the comparatively small number of English writers who have
been willing to take the pains to write correctly, so far as to merit the
name of models, the contradictory usage which has, from this cause,
prevailed, even among distinguished authors all have conspired to
render careful study and extensive practice indispensable to the stu-
dent who would do justice to the great language which it is his birth-
right to inherit, for all of life's best purposes.
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. In the preceding lectures of this
series, we were occupied with the consideration of the perceptive
and the expressive faculties, with a view to the plan and purposes of
education. Following the historical order of development in the dif-
ferent classes in which the mental powers may, for such purposes, be
grouped, we enter now on the study of the various modes of intellect-
ual action which may be classed under the denomination of
REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
Here we are met anew by a difficulty inherent in our native lan-
guage, in the paucity and indefiniteness of the terms which it employs
to designate the phenomena of mind. The vagueness of the phrase
" reflective faculties," is a serious impediment to clearness and dis-
tinctness of conception, as regards any attempt at exact definition or
satisfactory classification of intellectual acts or conditions. The term
" reflective," however, if we resort once more to the serviceable aid
of etymology, as a key to the interpretation of language, will prove
strikingly suggestive of meaning ; and, by its figurative force and pe-
culiar significance, will atone, to some extent; iJo/jtq da
philosophic precision. ^> n
The term "perceptive," (literally, taking\tJ\rQik/&,) ^U
tellectual condition in which the mind is in the act of taking, receiv-'
ing, or forming, ideas through the medium of the senses. The term
" expression " implies a state in which the mind is undergoing a
process of pressing, or being pressed, from within outward. But the
term * 4 reflection," (bending back,} suggests, figuratively, that state or
act of the mind in which it reflects, repeats, or gives back, inwardly,
the images impressed upon itself, the effects of which it is conscious,
whether produced from without or from within, whether occasioned
by perception, imagination, conception, or emotion. In this condition
is is implied that attention turns inward, and dwells, more or less
consciously, on its internal subjects, rather than on the objects by
which they may have been occasioned.
}Q2 CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
The history, so to term it, of intellectual action implied in the
application of the word "reflective," represents the mind, as in the
act of going forth from its inner self, meeting the forms of the
external world, and, by the impression which these produce upon it,
"reflecting," (turning back or inward,) upon itself, to contemplate and
deliberately consider what it there consciously beholds. Nor does the
term lose aught of its significance, when it is applied to the inward
action of the mind on the phenomena of its own consciousness, when
the forms of imagination, or even of pure thought itself, become so
forcible as to attract and absorb the attention. The figurative word
then represents the mind as turning back upon itself, to look inward,
so as to ascertain and define, or consider more fully, the objects of its
own creation, and to follow the trains of thought which these suggest.
In either of the supposed cases, whether the objective or the sub-
jective world furnish the data of thought, the result is an ultimate
inward movement, which, although it may, in given instances, lead to
the anticipation of external action, as a consequence, is, so far, a
purely mental condition, sanctioning the popular usage which applies
the term u reflection " to all modes of intellectual action which are
of a strictly internal character.
Recognizing this fact of language, and pursuing our analysis of the
human faculties as subjects of disciplinary culture, we now, therefore,
change our field of observation, arid pass from the outward spheres of
perceptive observation and expressive communication to the silent, in-
ner, invisible, spiritual, and purely intellectual region of Thought.
We now contempjate 'man as made in the image of his Maker, as an
'intelligent- and r r2tTr>rfal being; and we trace the working of those
powers which ally J>im r t& " things unseen and eternal."
< SV>1 lowing: fes >Mfre/the method of observing (1,) the forms of
mental action grouped under a given classification ; (2,) their actua-
ting principle, or motive force ; (3,) their natural and habitual tendency;
(4,) the results of their action ; and (5,) the educational processes
consequently required for their development and discipline, we proceed
to a summary
(I.) ENUMERATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
Memory, Conception, Consciousness, Reason, Understanding, Judg-
ment.
Explanatory Remark. This classification is presented not as one
philosophically complete or exhaustive, but merely as a suggestive out-
line, for educational purposes. It is intentionally limited to the chief
of those forms of mental action which may be regarded as acts or
powers not only strictly interior, but purely intellectual, as contradis-
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. JQ3
tinguished from those which are concerned with the external objects
and facts of perception, from those which consist in inward or outward
movements of feeling, and from those which are conversant with the
ideal forms and creations of the imagination. A more extensive clas-
sification, including the subdivisions and subordinate details of reflec-
tive intellection, will rfecessarily present itself at a later stage of our
analysis, when we come to the consideration of the various forms of
exercise to which this group of faculties is subjected in the processes
of education.
(1.) MEMORY: the Basis of Reflective Power. This faculty nat-
urally claims our first attention, when we contemplate man as a being
endowed with the power of reflective intelligence. It is this faculty
which enables him to take the first step from the exterior and object-
ive world into the interior and subjective. Its exercise empowers him,
even in the absence of the objects of sense, to retain or to recall, for
indefinite periods, and at indefinite intervals, the ideas which he de-
rived from them. He can thus, at pleasure, dispense with the actual
presence of external objects, and yet, by dwelling on ,them mentally,
after he has withdrawn from them outwardly, pursue the trains of
thought to which they give rise. As a result, he thus acquires a more
intimate knowledge of their relations to his own interior being, and
converts the pabulum of intelligence, furnished in the data of the out-
ward world, into the pure elements of intellectual sustenance. The
activity of this power is, in fact, the measure of his growth in mental
stature and strength. It is the condition of all intelligent pro-
gress, whether we regard memory as the grand receptacle and deposi-
tory of all those elements of knowledge which are at once the rudi-
ments of intellectual life, the springs mental of action, and the
material of thought, or as the chain which links the past to the
present, and retains every acquisition as a foothold for the next step
forward in the processes of reason and the investigation of truth.
Remembrance. The faculty of memory, even in its comparatively
passive and quiescent form of mere retention, or remembrance, gives
man the power of holding with a firm grasp all the treasures which
observation enables him to accumulate from without, and to carry
them with him into that internal region of thought where they are to
be assimilated to his own mental being, and become component parts
of it, in transfigured forms of living power and beauty. Not only so :
but even the involuntary susceptibility of this vast capacity preserves
in the mind the imprint of every passing thought, every form of
imagination, and every mood of feeling, which has character enough
to excite his attention and recall him to himself, in the exercise of
consciousness and reflection.
104 CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
Intellectual and Moral Offices of Memory. This benign retentive
power gives unity to man's intellectual and moral life. It is the sure
and steadfast anchor by which he grapples the present to the past,
and is saved from the fluctuation and fragmentary tossing of "the ig-
norant present." In the wide field of culture, memory makes the mind
the seed plot and garden ground of all the knowledge which human care
and kindness have the skill or the power to drop into it. Fertilized
by the genial influences of well directed education, the retentive ca-
pacity of memory becomes rich in every precious and noble product
of mind by which the intellectual life of the world is nourished and
sustained.
But it is as an element of intellectual and moral power in human
character, that this faculty reveals its chief value. Its very nature and
tendency is to constitute man a reflective being, by withdrawing him
from the influence of a too exclusive regard to the present and the
external ; by soliciting his attention to the profoundest verities of his
own intelligent and immortal being ; and by balancing the stern real-
ities of experience against the sometimes fallacious solicitations of
hope, or the grave actualities of the past against the doubtful
promises of the future. It prompts to thought, and leads to security
amidst uncertainty and distraction. It invites to reflective meditation,
by the suggestive materials in which it abounds. It cherishes contem-
plation, by opening to the mind's eye the long vista of the past with
its fast-linked trains of scene and incident and action, and the inef-
faceable impressions which all these have graven upon the heart. It
tends to make man a considerate and thoughtful being, by the faith-
ful monitions which it furnishes to the lips of wisdom warning against
the errors of judgment or of will, by reminding of their penalties
formerly incurred.
Remembrance saves from the domineering ascendency and absorb-
ing attractions of the sensuous and the transient, by intermingling with
the fluidity and evanescence of the present the solidity and perma-
nence of the past. It thus tends to give gravity and weight to char-
acter ; and if its influence is sometimes a shade too sombre forgayety,
it contributes a not undesirable element to the sternness of manhood,
as a safeguard to the firmness of will. Its office is, in this respect, a
preventive one, to save man from the instability which the exclusive
influence of things present and things outward might induce ; and,
by attracting him inward to himself, it favors the acquisition of that
self-knowledge which is the anchor of his safety.
Recollection. This term is but another name for the faculty of
memory, and merely intimates that the impressiops made on the mind
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. 105
by a given object, scene, or event, may have been, for a time, effaced,
or its elements dispersed,, by the intervention of other agencies ; and
that, with or without an effort of the will to tHat effect, but by the
operation of some law of mental association, the idea recurs or re-
turns, as it were, and, perhaps, unexpectedly and suddenly, to the
mind. We are then said to " recollect," (gather again,) or recall
what had, for a season, escaped the retentive hold of memory.
The very abruptness and suddenness of the transition of thought,
in such instances, exerts a peculiar power on the reflective action of
the mind, and makes it more striking, more impressive, and more ef-
fectual. Recollection may thus light up the soul with the instantane-
ous gleam of a rekindled thought, or plunge it into the depths
of a past grief; or it may arrest the will on the very brink of
remembered evil. A long train of profound reflections may thus
be suggested, which may exert an influence on the character of a.
whole life.
A mere flash of reflection has sometimes sufficed, by the instant re-
calling of scenes of childhood's innocent enjoyment, or the injunctions
of parental wisdom and love to reinstate conscience on its rightful
throne, and bring back the tempted to himself, or to restrain him
from the first steps of a career of ruin. A remembered promise,
pledging honor and truth, has sometimes risen up as a barrier against
an approaching tide of overwhelming guilt. Averse of sacred Scrip-
ture, darting across the mind, has checked the hand already stretched
out to do the deed of wickedness which no after tears of penitence
could have sufficed to wash out.
But not as a preventive only does memory thus subserve man's
highest interests : its recurring suggestions are not less frequently in-
spiring prompters to every form of virtue. To the dispirited traveler
on the pathway of life, it comes, sometimes, as an inspiring angel,
with messages of cheering and encouragement drawn from the
remembered virtues of the struggling great and good who have gone
before. It points him to " their footprints on the sands of time," and
bids him " take heart again." It reminds him that his great reliance
is not on the outward and the material, but on that " hidden
strength" of which our greatest poet speaks so eloquently. The
maxim or the motto which the guardian care of the mother or the
teacher had engraven as a watchword on the tablet of the heart, in
early years, recurs, sometimes, to incite to noble deeds or noble en-
during, the man encompassed by difficulties and dangers before which
he would otherwise have staggered. The " one, last, best effort,
more," which wins the crown of victory, is that, not unfrequently,
100 CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
which follows the backward glance of memory to the parting scene,
and farewell words of a parent's blessing.
Memory as a Subject of Cultivation. In either form, whether
that of retentive remembrance or momentary recollection, memory
furnishes the material, and solicits the action, of the whole class of
reflective faculties. To the educator, therefore, the judicious cultiva-
tion and development of this capacity, in the minds committed to his
care, becomes a matter of vital moment, that the impressible memor} r
.of the young may be rich in valuable resources, and strong for the aid
of every good purpose, sound and healthy in its action, firm in its
grasp, and prompt to yield up its acquisitions when in demand for
intellectual emergencies.
The true teacher will be careful that this indispensable servant of
the mind be not exhausted by overwork, that its strength be not
expended on worthless material, that its receptive capacity be not
crammed to unhealthful and unprofitable repletion, at the expense of
inaction and inanity to all the other capacities of the mind. But of
the appropriate modes of exercise for the cultivation of this faculty,
we shall have occasion to speak more fully under the head of educa-
tional processes.
(2.) CONCEPTION : Etymological Sense of the Word. The prim-
itive signification of this term implies that the mind has the power of
"taking" (receiving, or forming,) ideas "with," (within,) itself,
whether on data furnished from without, and by the alchemy of mind,
transmuted into intellectual forms, or on materials found within itself,
originating in feeling or in thought, partaking of its own character,
and wearing forms purely ideal. In the process of intelligence, con-
ception presents itself as the counterpart of perception, performing, in
the interior world of thought, an office similar to that of the latter in
the domain of exterjor observation.
Its Proper Acceptation. The term " conception," in its full and
proper acceptation, comprehends the action of the mind in the intel-
ligent contemplation or cognition of any object or subject in the
whole range of the ideal world. It applies to the recognition or cre-
ation of the forms of imagination and the figures of fancy, not less
than to the ideas of pure intellection. In the former relation, it
stands connected with the action of the expressive faculties, as dis-
cussed in a previous lecture ; but it is in the latter sense, as a contem-
plative and reflective faculty, that we now regard it. In this connec-
tion, it approaches, sometimes to the sphere of memory, and draws
from that source the materials on which it acts, whether these wore
originally external or internal in their origin.
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. iQf
Different Views of this Faculty. Contemplated in the light last
mentioned, the faculty of conception has, by some eminent writers on
intellectual philosophy, been considered as identical with memory ;
while, by others, its definite action on forms furnished by imagination,
has been regarded as identifying it with that faculty. Hence, we read
of the "conceptions of memory," and the "conceptions of imagina-
tion." A third class of authors treating of intellectual topics,
evidently regard conception as simply an act of the understanding.
The unsatisfactory character of popular usage in our own tongue,
as regards the application of language to mental phenomena, is strik-
ingly exhibited in the several arbitrary senses in which the term.
" conception " is used, as suggesting imperfection, dimness, or remote-
ness in the objects or subjects of contemplation. We can not, there-
fore, rely on any consentaneous use of nomenclature as a guide to
the character or action of the faculty in question. Adverting, how-
ever, to the highly suggestive etymological sense of the term " con-
ception," as it has been employed in the metaphysical vocabulary of
all nations, for successive ages, we find the susceptive intellect figura-
tively represented by it as when in the act of forming ideas impreg-
nated, or fertilized, not only from the various sources of intelligence
furnished by the external world of perception and the interior spheres
of feeling and imagination, but as possessing a self-vivifying power of
creating and contemplating an inner world of its own, more or less
analogous to that without, though formed of materials purely intel-
lectual and spiritual ; a condition which is exemplified in the
exercises of its own conscious intuition, in the sequences of thought,
and in the processes of reasoning. Nor is the independent power of
this faculty in any case more distinctly perceptible than when, bor-
rowing the congenial aid of reason, it inspires with intelligence, and
moulds into symmetry the fluctuating forms of imagination which
hover in the ideal atmosphere.
This strictly interior power of the mind may be regarded as the
first step in its consciously reflective action, in which, not as in the
partly involuntary condition of mere remembrance or recollection, it
is comparatively passive, or works under a law of necessity, but vol-
untarily and deliberately cooperates with impressions received from
without, with a consciousness of their tendencies and of its own action.
It is this power which virtually confers on man a world of his own,
an intelligent sphere of activity, independent, for the time, of the
external universe in which he moves, a sphere in which his higher
intellectual and moral nature has its appropriate scope. The strength,
the clearness, and the precision with which this faculty acts, deter-
mine his rank in the scale of intelligence and moral power.
108 CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
Its Susceptibility of Cultivation. In the relations of educational
culture, the exercise of this faculty becomes a subject of deepest in-
terest to those whose office it is to train the mind to true and effective
habits of action. Nothing, indeed, can give a more impressive view
of the benefits of proper cultivation, or of the susceptibility of this
faculty to the influence of culture, than the contrast between the fee-
ble and futile efforts of the child to form an adequate conception of
the causes of the most ordinary phenomena of daily life, and the com-
prehensive grasp of conceptive intelligence with which the mature
mind of man reads the great volume of facts and their relations, and
interprets their most hidden laws. A similar contrast is exhibited to
us in the wondering ignorance of the savage, contemplating the vary-
ing aspects of nature, and the man of science, to whom they present
themselves as necessary results, thoroughly understood, and as veri-
fications of philosophic theory.
The mere perceptions of the child or of the savage may often be
more exact than those of the philosopher, because these depend on
the freshness and vividness of sensation. But the conceptive power of
the mind is, to a great extent, the result of the force of processes
purely mental, and the skill and exactness with which these are con-
ducted. In such operations, practice and discipline alone can yield
perfection as a result ; and for success in them the candidate must
look to the sustaining aid and the crowning hand of education.
If we would form even the humblest idea of the mental value of
the power of conception, we must refer to all that man has achieved
in the acquisition of knowledge or the attainment of truth ; we must
advert to all the relations which he sustains to things lying beyond
the sphere of sense, in the wide regions of opinion, of theory, and of
sentiment; we must include his views of his own position in the uni-
verse, his views of the character of Deity, of the immortality of the
soul, of the obligations of duty, of his social and civil life, and of
all the institutions to which his conceptions of these various relations
have given origin.
' It is in ^ these wider and higher references that conception, as a
power of reflective intelligence, indicates its peculiar rank and office.
Working by the blended lights of reason and of consciousness, it en-
ables man to construct the fabrics of science and of character, by a
consecutive progress of attainments in which every deposit becomes
but a substratum for another in the series of an indefinite succession.
(3.) CONSCIOUSNESS : Etymology of the Term. The etymologi-
cal signification of this term invites our attention for a moment, to the
peculiar suggestive value of the first clement in the composition of
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. JQ9
the word. Primitively, the meaning of this element is fully given by
the equivalent term together, always implying a reference to
duality or plurality. It ranges, accordingly, over the whole class of
synonyms which may be grouped under the terms, "collation,"
*' apposition," u union." In the use, therefore, of the term ** con-
sciousness," since the root of the word signifies knowledge, or intel-
ligence, the mind is represented as acting together with, or in union
with, itself that is, with self -intelligence. The prefix of the term,
in this instance, accordinglv. as in that of the word " conception," has
the virtual significance of inner, inward, or interior, and suggests the
idea of the mind acting on itself, on the objects of its own creation,
or on the subjects of its own reflective conceptions.
Fitness of its Application. There is a striking appropriateness,
in this view, of the term " consciousness " as a designation for that
power by which the mind becomes capable of momentarily detaching,
as it were, from itself the idea of its contemplation, and working as a
two-fold power ; one effort of which is to hold up the ideal object, and
the other to direct a wakeful and conscious attention to it, for some
purpose of examination or reflective inquiry. The intelligent princi-
ple thus works according to the interpretation of the term together
with, or in union with itself, in the compound or two-fold action of
conception, and attention ; the latter being introverted, so that the
mind is aware of its own condition.
The peculiar fitness of the term in question becomes yet more dis-
tinctly apparent, when we advert to the common fact of experience,
that, in the outward tendencies of the faculty of perception, the at-
traction of external objects is often so powerful and absorbing as to
cause the mind to " lose its consciousness " in the contemplation of
what it beholds, and to forget, for a time, its own existence, in the
force of the attraction by which it is evoked, or the intensity of the
excitement to which it is subjected, and which it temporarily identifies
with the object of its attention. In the state of consciousness, on the
other hand, the mind is self-possessed ; it is aware of its own
state of thought or feeling, and voluntarily dwells on the fact of
introversion.
Different Opinions on the Nature of this Faculty. Consciousness,
as a term applied to the designation of a mental faculty of the re-
flective class, is, like many other terms in the nomenclature of intel-
lectual analysis, a confessedly imperfect yet significant attempt to sug-
gest a perfect recoginition of an act or state purely internal. The
imperfection here felt, attends more or less obviously, yet unavoidably,
every attempt to define the action of mind, that transcendent power
HO CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
whose subtle agencv often proves too fine for the grasp of its human
representative, language, an interpreter whose terms are all, in
consequence of the limitations of humanity, "of the earth, earthy."
The diversity of opinion among intellectual philosophers, therefore,
on the nature of this power, is not surprising. Some would ignore
its existence as a cognizable faculty, and identify it with the mere re-
flex act of attention ; others elaborate its action in detail, so as to
identify it with voluntary and prolonged reflection. Both these
classes of observers evidently take the ground that it is dependent on
the exercise, more or less active, of the will. But the painful act of
consciousness in the experience of corporal or mental suffering, is
often altogether involuntary, and resists, sometimes, the strongest ef-
forts of the will, even in the loftiest moods of heroism itself; and the
intellectual attraction of a mathematical problem, or a metaphysical
question, will fascinate the conscious thinker, and draw him on invol-
untarily, from stage to stage of its processes, till, in the poet's
language, he " forgets himself to marble."
Other authorities on topics of intellectual philosophy, have deemed
it more rational to assume that consciousness is an inseparable attri-
bute of intelligence, necessary to its very existence. They represent
it as the element which constitutes the dividing line between thought
and mere reverie, between judgment and imagination, or, sometimes,
between reason and insanity.
Educational View of this Faculty. For the preliminary analysis
which the intelligent conductor of education requires as his guide in
the planning of his procedure, it is sufficient, perhaps, to take the ac-
knowledged ground that consciousness is that state, act, or operation
of the mind in which it is aware of its own activity. He will, from
this view of the subject, derive two most important conclusions : (1,)
that the vividness and distinctness of consciousness must always be in
proportion to the clearness, exactness, and force of the ideas which
are, so to speak, impressed on the mind from without, and solicit its
conscious action as subjects of thought ; and (2,) that the definite-
ness, the fullness, and the depth of consciousness, must always be in
proportion to the power of directing and controlling the attention of
the mind with reference to its own inward acts and conditions'.
Intellectual and Moral Offices of Consciousness. It is thus that
consciousness assumes its true place as a reflective faculty, in the re-
lations of intellect, as the power by which the mind learns to see
clearly with its own inner eye, to define with accuracy the ideas which
conception creates, to interpret nature's innermost secrets of causation,
to follow the lengthening processes of reason, in the profoundest depths
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. j j j
of investigation, and so to construct the magnificent fabrics of pure
science. The reflective power of consciousness becomes yet moie im-
pressive to us, when we regard its vast influence on the moral rela-
tions of mental action. It then reveals itself as an agent but a little
lower than the divine element of conscience, and as the very condition
of the paramount influence of that power over heart, will, action, and
character. In the unconscious condition of childhood, and in the
immaturity of experience, conscience moves with the light step, and
the gentle hand and the soft accents of the guiding angel of Inno-
cence. But it watches with a jealous eye, restrains with a firm hand,
controls with the tone of command, or rebukes with the voice of re-
proach, the conscious agent who, in maturity of years, departs from
the path of rectitude. But not in the stern monitions or the agoniz-
ing inflictions of remorse alone, does conscience act on consciousness.
The sting and the lash are not its only implements of discipline.
Conscience appeals to man's conscious power for good, when it uses
" the spur which the clear spirit doth raise," and reminds him of his
position " but a little lower than the angels," his resources of intel-
lect, his moral ability, his relations of duty, his capacity of ceaseless
progress, his desire to win the crown of excellence, his obligations to the
Author of his being, and his aspirations after an immortality of glory.
Educational Culture of this Faculty. The educator, therefore,
while he would guard his pupils against that selfish and morbid con-
sciousness which dwells exclusively on the condition of the individual,
and keeps him forever in the abstracted mood of introspection and in-
troversion, shut up in the cell of self, and withdrawn from usefulness
to others, will use all salutary measures to give vigor and life and full
activity to this powerful element of mental action and character.
(4.) REASON : Explanatory Remark. The successive changes
which, in the progress of time, are produced on the original meanings of
words, will sometimes render a literal adoption of the primitive sense
of any term an uncertain guide in metaphysical investigations con-
nected with the action and phenomena of mind. A due regard, how-
ever, to the etymological structure of terms employed to designate
the intellectual faculties, will always serve to suggest useful ideas for
the guidance and direction of education. Such terms, it is not to be
forgotten, had their origin in simple and primitive states of human
life and character, and are therefore exempt from the uncertainty and
ambiguity resulting from the mental condition of more advanced
stages of society, in which opinion is refined, by false as well as true
culture, into more subtle and more sceptical forms, and sometimes
tails into the entangling web of sophistry and false judgment. The
112 CULTIVATION Of THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
primitive uses of language betray, it must be acknowledged, the his-
torical childhood of man ; but they possess, also, the truthfulness,
the simplicity, and the directness of that stage ; and their vivacious
arid figurative character always render them strikingly suggestive.
In philosophic investigations connected with the analytic study of
mind and the adaptation of modes of culture to mental discipline and
development, the primitive signification of terms, whether it be literal
or figurative, becomes, at least, an index to analysis, which, if faith-
fully traced, may lead to true and satisfactory conclusions on topics
otherwise obscure and uncertain.
Etymology of the Term. To apply this remark to the instance be-
fore us. Clearer conceptions and juster views of the faculty which we
designate by the term " reason," would generally prevail, and would
exert a corresponding influence on modes of mental culture, were the
original meaning of. the word adverted to in discussions connected
with these subjects. The word " reason " is but the Latin scientific
term " ratio" so familiar to the ear and rnind of every teacher and every
student of mathematics. It has merely undergone some slight modifi-
cations in passingfrom the Latin language, through the French, into our
own. Its original sense, therefore, suggests the idea of rate, measure,
or computation, as a conscious application, or act, of intelligence ;
and if we would trace the simplest and purest form of reason, we
thus find it in the act of recognizing or constituting rate, or ratio,
which in complicated processes, becomes proportion, t>r symmetry.
Reason characterized by the Definiteness and Certainty of its Action.
The idea suggested by the primary application of the term " reason,"
is that of de.fimteness and exactness of observation, carried even to
the extent of examination by actual measurement or computation. No
certainty of knowledge can be greater than what is thus intimated,
when the inner action of intellect is verified by a direct appeal to ob-
jective reality attested by sense ; and, in the legitimate uses of lan-
guage, the measured exactness of verified observation is figuratively
transferred to the decisions of judgment and the deductions of reason,
in the comparison and examination of ideas and conceptions begun,
continued, and ended, within the mind itself.
The processes of thought conducted on this firm ground, possess a
definiteness which places the conclusions of reason in striking contrast
with the comparatively vague and indefinite intimations of feeling,
around which the boundary line of distinction can not with certainty
be drawn, even in the most vivid states of consciousness. The ideas
of reason stand thus contrasted, also, with those of imagination,
which are often shadowy and indefinite, inexact, or inadequate, and
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. U3
always comparatively fleeting and uncertain ; sometimes, unreal and
false, the mere flitting phantoms of fancy. The purely intellectual
conceptions of reason, as subjects of the mind's own inner conscious-
ness, are, yet further, distinguished from the merely perceptive action
of sense and understanding, in the relations of intelligence directed to
the external world. Reason, working on data strictly mental, ever
partakes of the certainty of personal knowledge and conviction, which,
to the individual, whatever it may be to others, is, in its proper
relations, the surest of all the grounds of mental action. Our senses,
we are aware, may misinform us : our conscious experience can not.
Offices of Reason in Definition and Discrimination. This faculty,
by the measured accuracy of its action, becomes the means of defining
our ideas and discriminating them in differential detail. It groups
them in the genera and species of orderly classification, and analyses
the complex into the simple, even to the minutest individual element
of the compound. It thus enables the mind to search and scrutinize
the obscure or the uncertain, till every object is brought out into the
light of certainty and conscious knowledege. In these, as in all other
forms in which this faculty is exerted, the appropriateness of the pri-
mary application of the term by which it is designated, is distinctly
perceived. In all its operations, it is stable, sure, exact, to absolute
certainty. It was in virtue of its authority that the great modern
philosopher " carried," as has been happily said, " the measuring line
to the boundary of creation ;" and all its inward and conscious
exercises partake of the same exactitude.
Reason, an Authoritative Power. When this faculty condescends
to its humbler offices of recognizing the intimations of sense, and ac-
cumulating the deposits of knowledge, and maintains a comparatively
quiescent, receptive, or passive condition, it bears the unassuming
designation of " understanding ;" as it is then regarded as merely fur-
nishing the groundwork, or under stratum, of intelligence. But
when it assumes the higher office of deciding on and determining the
exact relations of thought, it is honored by the highly figurative ap-
pellation of "judgment" a term the etymology of which implies the
enunciation of right, or justice, and hence, whatever, also, is implied
in its synonyms, decree, sentence, or decision. Reason, when thus oc-
cupied in comparing, measuring, or exactly estimating things or their
relations, is, by the use of language, personified as the judge, whose
office it is to scrutinize, compare, and balance evidence, so as ultimate-
ly to decide or determine, and give judgment, sentence, or decree, accord-
ing to the usage of ancient times, when it was that officer's preroga-
tive to discharge the office ass'gn^d to our modern juries, as well as
1 H
1 14: CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
that still recognized as proper to him who presides in the court of
justice.
When this master faculty of human intelligence soars to a yet high-
er pitch, and its action, whether " intuitive or discursive," embraces
great and general principles, sees or traces the relations of necessary
and universal truths, and announces the majesty of causation and of
law, it resumes its wonted designation of reason, a term too limited
for the scope and grandeur of its action, and the dignity of its office,
as man's highest functions, in the relations of intellect.
True, it fails whenever it would usurp the appointed place of con-
science, and reason man into perfect rectitude, or when it presumes to
supersede the guardian office of faith, and offers man the guidance of
mere intellection to the recognition of a paternal God. But, limited
as it is, by the conditions of humanity, it still is, within the sphere of
pure intelligence, that which reflects in man the image of God, and
to which, in healthy and normal conditions, all his other intellectual
powers pay homage.
Reason as cognizant of Relations. Reverting to the primitive
sense of the term " reason," as recognized in the application of the
word " ratio" to processes of measurement connected with time and
space, and figuratively transferred to operations purely intellectual,
we are reminded that, in all such processes, one object or subject is
referred to another, with a view to determine or define a connection
of some sort or other between them. This fact accounts for the usage
in language by which reason is represented as the faculty which
takes cognizance of, or traces, relations in general, or, in other words,
refers one thing to another, for purposes of examination, comparison,
or investigation, with a view to ascertain their connection, or their
independence of each other, as an element of thought essential to the
acquisition of knowledge or to the discovery of truth. The mind is
thus introduced into a sphere of action coextensive with all the out-
ward objects and inward subjects of thought, and expatiates, with the
delight of conscious freedom and power, in the two great domains
with which it is endowed as its heritage and birth-right ; for reason,
not less than imagination is an excursive faculty, designed to give
amplitude and expansion to the being of man; and many of the
grandest creations of the latter, are those which it achieves when fol-
lowing the sure and firm steps of the former, in its excursions into the
unexplored.
Reason as an Inventive Faculty. The reference of one object or
idea to another, the comparison of one with another, or the discovered
relation of one to another, yields within the mind itself, as a result, a
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. H5
third idea, or conception, a creation of its own. Reason thus becomes
a combining, creative, and inventive, (finding) faculty, not less than
imagination is, in its peculiar sphere ; and, by following its well as-
certained discoveries through their long and complicated successions
of ever fresh-springing truth, attains, at length, the conscious power
to move in new spheres of knowledge, created by its own activity,
and in which it furnishes its own material, and erects its. own structures.
It is thus that it empowers man to fu!6ll the poet's condition of
" erecting himself above himself." Reason, not less than its noble
kindred powers, Faith and Imagination, is then justly said to " soar."
In the processes of investigation in which the mind pursues its
quest of knowledge as the guide to truth, reason becomes the master
key of intelligence, the paramount authority of intellect, the law
which gives order and unity to man's intellectual being, the crown
and glory of humanity in its distinctive supremacy over the lower
tribes of partially intelligent nature.
Aberration of Reason. When disease or passion has beclouded,
or disturbed, or deranged this power, which heaven has ordained as the
executive of its own first law of order, in the gradations of intelligence,
man is then dethroned and discrowned ; and, with the eye of his mind
extinguished, wanders, like the blind champion of old, seeking some
one to lead him by the hand.
Reason in the processes of Analysis and Abstraction. When this
faculty is occupied with the processes of collating and comparing, for
purposes of discrimination, its action assumes the form of " analysis,"
(loosening, detaching, or resolving,) so as to simplify the objects or
subjects of contemplation, and scan their utmost details of individual-
ity, in character, that the component elements of the concrete may be
distinctly recognized, in all their differential relations. Subjected to
this process, the genus, or general class, is reduced to its component
species, and these, in turn, to the varieties or the individuals of which
they consist. Last of all, the scrutiny must be extended to the differ-
ence between individual and individual, or where still more minute ex-
amination is required, to the distinctive elements which maybe found
comprised within the unity of the individual.
Such, in our previous discussion of subjects involved in the theory
of education, we found to be the requisite action of the mind in the
exercise of the perceptive faculties, when observation descends to the
minutiae of difference on which true distinctions are founded. A sim-
ilar operation goes on in the interior world of conception, when the
reflective faculties are called into their peculiar province, when the com
plex ideas or thoughts of the mind are subjected to the processes of
HQ CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES
scrutiny and analysis, and the qualities of objects, or of ideas, are, by
an act of abstraction, (taking away, withdrawing,} considered sepa-
rately, as if they had for the moment, an independent existence.
One quality of an object, one attribute of a subject, is, by this concen-
trated and exclusive act of attention, "abstracted," (drawn away,) or
detached, mentally, from the object itself, and from all the other
qualities of which it is possessed. The mind is, in consequence of this
act of " abstraction," enabled to contemplate more distinctly, or to
examine more closely and discriminate more exactly, the given quality.
The quality so discriminated may, in turn, become the groundwork
of classification, or the commencement of a train of abstract reason-
ing on broad and general principles connected with the laws of nature
and the truths of science.
Intuition. The immediate action of reason by which it assents to
self-evident and necessary truths, on mere " intuition," (inspection or
sight,) without the aid of any intermediate or intervening thought for
the discovery of sameness or difference, might, at first view, seern to
be improperly introduced in a survey of the reflective faculties or of
educational processes for development. But, the intuitive exercise of
reason is, not unfrequently, the basis of its reflective action, and, some-
times, is the authority to which it appeals, when prosecuting examina-
tion and inquiry to the profoundest depths of research.
Processes of Inference and Deduction. Reason, as the faculty by
which one object or idea is referred to another, in virtue of some real
or supposed connection existing between them, takes cognizance of
antecedence and consequence; and, when this relation is, in given
circumstances, observed to be uniform, reason, working by the great
law of analogy, " infers," (brings in,) the continuance of this uniformity
as a necessary principle or law of order. In such instances, this
" inference," supported by the undeviating testimony of personal or
accredited experience, becomes a firm belief, which identifies uni-
formity of antecedence with the power of causation, and uniformity of
sequence with the character of effect. Sequence thus becomes the law
of rational connection, and a security for the attainment of truth in
matters of theory referring to the external universe.
In the consecutive internal acts of mind, reason gives " sequence "
to the relations of thought, in exercises purely discursive and intellec-
tual, by recognizing the dependence of one idea or conception on an-
other, in the relation of effect to cause. From one defined antecedent
idea the mind is authorized to " infer" another, as a consequence ; from
"premises," (thoughts antecedent,) to "deduce," (draw down, derive^}
K conclusions," (closes,) results, or final consequences ; and thus, by
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. ^f
giving certainty to opinion and assurance to belief, in relations purely
mental, it forges the successive links of that golden chain of intellectual
necessity which binds together the elements of the moral world.
Reason, in its processes of Generalization and Induction. In the
wider action of this sovereign power, it takes that highest course of
which human intellect is capable ; and, in tracing the relations of
causation, aspires, by its power of generalization and its processes of
induction, to announce and interpret the laws of the universe, and to
read the evidences of a First ordaining Cause.
In these excursions, reason gathers in, from the vast field of anal-
ogy, corresponding facts and relations ; and, in virtue of that pervad-
ing unity which comparison has enabled it to discover as existing
among them, recognizes that spacious principle of generality coexten-
sive with its own capacities of thought, by which it rises above the
limits of the concrete and the particular to the contemplation of those
abstract ideas and comprehensive principles which constitute the
prime elements of intellectual and moral truth, and which bear the
stamp of supremacy and the inscription of Law, human or Divine.
Not less impressive or sublime is the action of this .august faculty
of the human soul, when it puts forth its constructive power, and,
aided by the scrutiny of patient experiment, it verifies the analogies
of phenomena and of fact, " inducts '' them, (leads them,) into their ap-
propriate groups of affinity and correlation, plies them with its tenta-
tive, magnetic, aggregating power of " hypothesis," (theoretic, inter-
rogative assumption^) and, by careful induction, at last consummates
the vast fabric of " theory," (intellectual vision,) whose foundations
are laid in the certainty of knowledge, and whose walls rise, in the
symmetry of truth, to heights which inspire the mind with awe.
Ratiocination. In the dimness of abstract conceptions, in the ob-
scurity of abstruse relations of thought, or in the apparent conflict of
contrasted truths, when the eviction of hidden causes, or when the
detection of intermediate and reconciling principles, becomes essential
to the conscious recognition of ideas, to the distinct conception of re-
lations, or to the firm conviction of truth, reason comes to the mind
laboring under uncertainty, and brings the aid of its discursive pro-
cesses of ratiocination, in the form of dissertation, argument, discus-
sion, and debate. Assuming the seat of judgment, it thus institutes
inquiry, conducts examination, prosecutes investigation, discriminates
terms, scrutinizes allegations, compares conflicting arguments, weighs
opposing evidence, judges of facts, rejects assumptions, exposes error,
detects truth or falsehood, and pronounces its authoritive and final
decision, as the inevitable law of intellection.
118 CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
Reason, as cognizant of Truth. Reason, in its judicial capacity,
traces, or recognizes and announces, the correspondence or the dis-
crepance of idea with object, thought with fact, conception with con-
ception, principle with principle, proposition with proposition,
sentiment with sentiment, opinion and statement with fact, language
with thought, argument with argument, effect with cause. It thus,
by the eviction of truth, produces in the mind the result of conviction;
and truth, as the consummated and perfect result of the action of
reason, in its cognizance of the ascertained relations of knowledge,
demands, in virtue of the supremacy and authority of the faculty by
whose agency it is discovered, the assent of the mind, in the form
which we term belief, not a bare comprehension or merely passive
reception by the understanding, not the mere negative acquiescence
or silent admission of \\\v judgment, but the consentaneous recognition
and adoption which come from the voluntary action of reason*, uni-
ting itself with the subject of its contemplation, and identifying with
it all its own consequent action. Reason, therefore, has to do with
all the preliminary processes by which truth is established ; and in
the moral no.t less than in the intellectual relations of thought, has,
for its office, the sifting of evidence, the scrutiny of testimony, the
weighing of proof ; on the validity of all which, belief, as the normal
and healthy tendency of the mind, is conditioned. In the yet higher
sphere of Sacred truth, belief becomes subsidiary to the Faith which
trusts.
Reason, as susceptible of Cultivation. As the subject of disciplin-
ary culture, this faculty presents itself to the educator as that to which
his chief attention is due, in the relations of intellect, not only from
its supremacy in the class of faculties to which it belongs, and the
fact of its being the very constituent of intelligence, but from its pe-
culiar susceptibility of development and training, and the extent to
which it may be rendered clear, decisive, vigorous, and comprehen-
sive, by 'appropriate exercise. No faculty reveals more distinctly than
this the progressive character of man, as an intelligent agent, if we
advert to its dim, uncertain, and feeble action in childhood, and its
ceaseless growth ia soundness, clearness, and vigor, as life advances
to its maturity. But when we contrast the reasoning powers of such
individuals as Newton, Locke, Butler, or Edwards, in manhood, with
the mere germ of latent capability which they possessed in infancy,
we perceive yet more distinctly what education may accomplish for
the eduction and strengthening of this powerful element in the
mental constitution of man.
The cultivation of this faculty becomes yet more important in its
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. H9
results, when we advert to its value in the relation of morals. Reason
is naturally the firm ally of conscience, in discriminating between
right and wrong, and in instituting those reflective trains of thought
by which man is arrested in the pursuit of sensual gratification, and
called home to himself, in the conscious exercise of higher faculties,
in the enjoyment of truer satisfactions, and in obedience to the recti-
tude which he feels to be the great law of his being. Reason, in co-
operation with conscience, then becomes the regulating principle of
his actions ; raising them from mere obedience to prudence and
judgment, and conservative propriety, to the higher influences of self-
intelligence, consentaneous action, and rational conformity with the
laws and conditions of his own nature, and of the Power by which
those laws were ordained. Reason is the eye by which he learns to
read the volume of revelation, whether that written in the language
of the " elder Scripture," which speaks of the " eternal power and
godhead of the Creator," or that of the recorded Word which makes
man "wise unto salvation."
(5. and 6.) JUDGMENT AND UNDERSTANDING : their Identity with
Reason. It has been justly remarked by an eminent writer on intel-
lectual philosophy, that, in arbitrarily multiplying the number of fac-
ulties attributed to the mind, we confuse our own views of mental
action, and lose rather than gain by such uses of analysis. In the
prosecution of our present inquiries, it will be recollected, that it has
been uniformly our endeavor to keep in mind the absolute unity of
intellection, under whatever apparent diversity of processes it con-
ducts its action ; and the preceding observations on reason, as a re-
flective faculty, have, it may have been perceived, presented the
operations of judgment and understanding as virtually but different
functions of reason. To venture on a figure drawn from the sciences
of observation : Reason may be regarded as bearing the relation of
44 genus " to judgment and understanding as "species." Reason sur-
veys the whole ground of intellection, whether directed outward or
inward ; it works in the great field of analogy, and on the common
ground of correlation, colendency and consistency, in the universal
sphere of thought. In its comprehensive action, it proclaims the
harmonies of the universe. It has the power, therefore, of investiga-
ting and proving analogies, and, consequently, of rejecting discordant
elements. Descending to this task, reason becomes, in the vocabulary
of intellection, "judgment." Stooping yet lower, to trace and verify
relations of humbler value, or of exterior character, or processes of
passive reception of knowledge or of truth, it assumes the lower office
and familiar name of " understanding."
120 CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
Maintaining the justness of this definition of the faculty of reason,
we would not, however, overlook the fact, so important to the right
management of education, that the more closely we watch the oper-
ations of intellect, the more searching the investigation, and the more
minute our analysis, we shall be the better prepared to minister to
the manifold wants of the mind, and to its healthful development.
The subdivision of reason into "judgment" and "understanding," if
taken as merely a temporary assumption of theory, with a view to
fuller provision for mental action and discipline, can not be objected
to ; and, indeed, the common branches of useful knowledge and of
scientific acquirement which constitute the material and media of
intellectual education, address themselves distinctively to that classifi-
cation of the mental faculties which is commonly adopted or recog-
nized. Of these we shall have occasion to speak, when discussing the
modes and processes of culture. Nor can any detriment to a just
view of mind as subjected to invigorating discipline, arise from adopt-
ing, for the time, that more comprehensive classification of the forms
of mental action, which is now proposed.
An extensive course of study in every department of mental phil-
osophy, can not be too earnestly urged on the attention of all teachers
who are so situated as to exert a controlling or directing influence on
the plan of education, or to enjoy adequate opportunities of pursuing
a full course of professional reading. No serious evil will in this way
be incurred, even if the teacher become, in consequence of his studies,
the disciple of a particular school of metaphysics or psychology ;
provided he do not lose sight of the great fact that, as a teacher, he
is called to work as a personal and original observer of the actual
workings and tendencies of the young mind itself, and, as its guide
and director, to proceed according to his own personal observation
and convictions, independently of all theories and speculations of a
merely abstract character.
One of the greatest metaphysicians of modern times* who, more
than any writer or teacher on his class of subjects, is entitled to the
rank of an authority who, to a depth of research and a profound-
ness of learning which man has seldom attained, adds the simplicity,
the docility, and the candor of a child in the attitude of inquiry
has most justly said to the student of mental philosophy : " If he only
effectively pursue the method of observation arid analysis, he may
even dispense with the study of philosophical systems. This is, at
best, only useful as a mean toward a deeper and more varied study
of himself, and is often only a tribute paid by philosophy to erudi-
* Sir William Hamilton.
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
the same characteristic frankness he remar
connection, that psychology (the direct study of mind) is yet incom-
plete as a science; since the phenomena of which it takes cognizance
have not yet been exhaustively enumerated or defined, and speaks, at
the same time, of the service which, in this respect, might be rendered
to philosophy by adequate investigation and faithful reporting.
To so noble an office no candidate can more justly aspire than the
intelligent teacher. His occupation renders him conversant with
mind in its purest and truest states, its primal tendencies and aspira-
tions, its incipient endeavors, and forming habits.
II. THE ACTUATING PRINCIPLE OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES:
INQUIRY.
Its analor/y to Curiosity. When we trace the natural development
of the human faculties, in their first stage of perceptive action, we
observe them working by a law of incitement manifesting itself in the
restless principle of curiosity, the desire of knowledge. It is this
feeling which prompts the child's appealing question, as he points to
a new object that has attracted his attention, " What is this ?'' But,
as his reflective power developes, and his capacity of knowledge
enlarges, his desire of information pierces deeper ; and his interroga-
tion takes a shape which indicates a more profound exercise of thought.
He now inquires not " What is this ?" but "How? or " Why is this ?"
Reason, as the principle of intelligence which gleans and assorts the
contributions of knowledge, has helped him to understand the exterior
character of the object of his attention, and by the due exercise of
judgment, in analytic observation, to distinguish, and classify, and
denominate it accordingly. But a deeper thirst than mere curiosity
as to external phenomena and characteristics, now actuates him : a
more powerful instinct is at work within him. Reason has reached
a maturer stage of development, and, prompted by inquiry, sets out
the young explorer in quest not of mere facts, but of relations and
causes. He thus learns to trace the successive links of connected
phenomena and facts, to investigate the connection itself, and deter-
mine its character, to search for interior and hidden springs of sequence,
to arrive at principles and causes, to read and interpret laws, and,
ultimately, to reach the certainty and the completeness of science.
The appetite of curiosity is satisfied with the knowledge of phenome-
na and of facts individually, or even as detached matters of observa-
tion : inquiry is restless till it arrives at their connections and depend-
encies, and the mind is thus put in possession of those relations of
knowledge which constitute principles and establish truth. As an
impelling and actuating force, inquiry, or inquisition, performs for the
intellectual powers, in their comparative maturity, the same genial
122 CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES
office which was discharged by the awakening influence of curiosity
at an earlier stage of mental activity. It is, in fact, but the same
instinctive law of the irrepressible desire to know, only working in a
higher sphere, and for a higher end. Curiosity, working on the per-
ceptive faculties, induces a tendency to observation, and forms the
habit of wakeful attention to external phenomena, as the elements of
KNOWLEDGE I inquiry, as the expressed desire to ascertain relations,
principles, and laws, awakens the reflective faculties, and impels to
investigation, with a view to the discovery of TRUTH. In the develop-
ment and formation of mental character, curiosity, as the desire of
knowledge, tends to create an attentive and observing mind, character-
ized by intelligence: inquiry, as the quest of truth, produces a con-
templative, thoughtful, reflective, reasoning mind, addicted to explora-
tion and research, and delighting in the attainments of science.
But in this higher sphere of intellectual activity, the human being
is still acting under the guidance of an implanted instinct; no
longer, indeed, a mere unconscious stimulus, but a conscious and
recognized impulse of progression toward a definite end and a satisfy-
ing consummation. The tendency, however, proves itself equally
irr sistible in the one form as in the other. For, while the child is
sometimes so absorbed in the contemplati >n of the visible attractions
of objects of beauty or of curiosity, as to forego even the calls of appe-
tite for the sustenance of his body, in obedience to the more imperious
claims of the wants of his intellectual nature ; the adult man may lose
himself yet more profoundly, when inquiry compels him to investiga-
tion, and plunges him into depths of thought in which he becomes
lost to all surrounding objects and relations, and, like Newton, medi-
tates on the fall of an apple, with an intensity and concentration of
reflective attention which beguile him of needed sleep, and render him
unaware of the presence of food or of the fact of his having omitted
its use.
III. THE TENDENCY OF ACTION IN THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES .
INVESTIGATION.
Its manifold directions. Inquiry, as the grand prompter of the
reflective faculties, impels to habits of investigation and research. It
not only leads to the scrutiny of the present, in quest of causes and of
truth, but ransacks the records of the past, and penetrates into the
probabilities of the future. It impels reason to explore the inmost
recesses of nature, in pursuit of latent causes. It prompts man to con-
duct the experiments by which he interrogates nature of her processes,
and wins, as the reward of his faithful inquest, the answers which he
records in the archives of science. In the relations of moral truth, it
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. 123
compels the investigation of evidence, the verifying of proofs, the sift-
ing of testimony, for the attaining of certainty and the confirmation of
belief. But for its influence, the world would be to man a mass of
unconnected objects or facts : he would be to himself a mere embodi-
ment of inconsistent elements, unintelligible and destitute of purpose.
Examples of the spirit of Investigation. Incited by this principle,
the naturalist explores the remotest regions of earth, to contemplate 5
the productions of nature, to survey the great features of the globe,
its various aspects of scenery, its mountains and rivers, its atmospheric
phenomena, its mineral, vegetable, and animal products, and the
mutual relations of cause and effect which all these bear to each other.
The scientific voyager and traveler, impelled by the irrepressible
desire to prosecute his favorite researches, patiently endures fatigue,
and sickness, and exhaustion, through every extreme of heat or cold ;
he exiles himself from society, for months and years, to pursue his
solitary investigations ; regardless of danger and difficulty, he bravely
encounters every obstacle, and patiently endures every form of pain
and privation. He goes forth with the spirit and hardihood of an
invader, to extend the domain of science, and returns laden with the
trophies of victory, in discoveries which enlighten and enrich the
human race.
In the same spirit of investigation, the astronomer secludes himself,
for successive months and years, to contemplate and record the phe-
nomena of the heavens, and to immure himself in those labyrinths of
computation by which the sublime truths of his noble science are
investigated and revealed.
Actuated by the same principle, the historian pursues his laborious
researches in the records of remotest time, in the half-effaced carving
on the crumbling monument, or the dim characters on the decaying
parchment, in the obscure tradition or superstitious myth, where-
ever a gleam or a spark of truth is to be found regarding the past life
"of man on earth. From his devotion to such investigations, no fresh
charm of nature, or invitation of social delight, can induce him to
withdraw, till he has sifted every alledged fact, verified every event,
dispersed the clouds of fable, and let in the pure light of truth upon
the historic page.
The philologist, in quest of a particle of meaning or significant value
in the component elements of a word, is another impressive example
of the spirit of inquiry leading to profoundest research. Whole years,
nay, a long life, are joyfully devoted by him to such pursuits.
Language after language, by his slow but sure processes of mining and
sapping, is forced to give way to his irresistible energy and persevering
124 CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
toil. Nothing can divert his attention, or turn him from his course
of persistent indagation. A syllable or a letter, he feels assured,
contains a secreted gem of meaning, the investigation of which will
put him in possession of wealth untold ; and that element he will
trace, at whatever cost of persevering investigation, through libraries
and through languages, till the lustre of the intellectual diamond beams
full upon his mind. His personal acquisition, purchased at such a
price, becomes, in due season, through the instrumentality of his
devoted labors, the common property of the intellectual world.
The investigations of the mechanician into the laws and forces of
nature, again exemplify the power which the spirit of inquiry exerts
over the human mind, and the value of the results to which it leads.
The long and complicated processes of computation by which the
devoted servant of science pursues his study of its principles, when
occupied with the intricate combinations involved in the invention of
some device of mechanism, by which the well-being of mankind may
be promoted for ages ; the unabating ardor with which, in spite of
every discouragement, he continues to consume fortune and life in the
prosecution of his purpose ; all indicate the moving force of the men-
tal principle by which his own interior world of invention and contriv-
ance is actuated ; and the results ultimately obtained reveal the value
of the intellectual habits which are concerned in the processes of
investigation.
The chemist, interrogating nature, as he investigates the constitution
of her elements, is yet another forcible example of the same spirit.
At the risk, sometimes, of life itself, he pursues his inquest of hidden
relations, perplexing facts, and hitherto undiscovered elements and
undeveloped forces, till he is enabled to enlighten the world by the
revelation of a new material in the construction of the physical
universe, and an invaluable aid to the welfare of man.
Investigation, in all the relations of mental action, is, in brief, the
just price of labor, which man is doomed to pay for value received.
The noblest of all intellectual acquirements, the grandest discoveries
and most useful inventions, are due alike to this process by which the
mind is enabled to read, whether in the world of matter or that of
spirit, the laws instituted by the Creator ; cooperating with which,
man becomes possessed of a portion of divine power, and unaided by
which, every attempt of human force or skill must be baffled. The
tendency and the ability to penetrate into th depths of causation,
constitute the mental prerogatives of man ; they lift him up to the
rank of nobility, in the orders of intelligence, and make his mind the
well-spring of a stream which is destined to flow on forever, not with
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. jog
the mere casual or limited contributions of observation, but ever
enlarging itself by the broad and deep affluents of profouudest thought
and reflective reason, and richly laden with all the treasures of dis-
covery, which have been accumulated by laborious and successful
investigation.
TV. THE RESULT OF THE ACTION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES :
TRUTH.
The successive stages of intellectual progress. Furnished with the
interior principle of intelligence, invested with the organized apparatus
of sensation, and provided with the physical material for the exercise
of his powers, the child, under the guidance of Creative wisdom, sets
out on the career of intellectual progress, actuated by the impulse of
curiosity, whose tendency is to insure the habit of observation and that
discipline of his perceptive faculties by which he is ultimately enabled
to win the prize of KNOWLEDGE. He thus accomplishes his first cur-
riculum in the great school established by the benignant universal
Providence which careth for humanity, and under whose discipline the
law of progressive intellection secures, to a given extent, the welfare of
man, whether more or less favored by intelligent human culture. To
this first stage of development gradually succeeds that other, in which,
through the inward action of the divinely-implanted principle of intel-
ligence, man's own inner, mental world of conscious condition, act,
cause, effects, tendency, and power, of memory, reason, imagination,
feeling, and will, is revealed and explored, as a theatre of comparatively
unlimited expansion and ceaseless action. Within himself, he finds,
at once, the power, the springs, the scope, the materials of this new
career of activity, in which he is impelled by the same earnest irrepres-
sible desire to discover and to know, as before, but now working in a
higher sphere, and with a higher aim. Prompted by inquiry, and
impelled to investigation, he is thus led onward to that higher goal of
intellectual progress, where, by the disciplined action of the reflective
faculties, knowledge is consummated in TRUTH, and where man dis-
covers, and learns to reverence and obey, the highest law of his being.
subordination to the sway of the Reason which reigns supreme in
the universe of thought.
Appropriate application of the term Truth. The sense in which
the word "truth" is properly used in general discussions connected
with mental processes, is, of course, wider than that in which it is
employed in relations strictly or exclusively pertaining to the science
of logic. In the latter case, it implies no more than the exact con-
formity of the terms of a proposition to the fact which it is obviously
meant to announce. But, in well-sanctioned forms of expression on
126 CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
general topics, truth is, with equal justice, predicated of the corres-
pondence of language to thought, of art to nature, of action to inten-
tion, of antitype to type, in any relation whatever.
In the working of the mind, the term applies, with not less pro-
priety, to the correspondence of perception to object, of conception to
idea, of word to thing, of language to relation, of action to conscience,
of habit to character, of aim to end, of opinion to sentiment or state-
ment to fact, of expression or representation to reality or actuality.
The word " truth," in brief, covers, properly, the whole ground of
intellectual, esthetic, or moral conformity of thought, expression, or
action, to an exact and recognized standard, sanctioned by the canons
of criticism or of conscience. It stands opposed, therefore, equally to
falsity of conception, of expression, or of action. As a quality, it char-
acterizes alike the habits of the correct thinker, of the exact artist,
whether in the use of pencil, pen, or tongue, and those of the sincere
and honest man. It secures the individual from the unintentional
defects of error, and guards him against the voluntary deviations of
design.
In relation, however, to the subject of human culture, and, in par-
ticular, to the discipline of the mental powers, truth is regarded as a
result of voluntary and studious application, as a product of the exer-
cise of the reflective faculties, in the quest of ultimate principles in
science, physicaF, intellectual, or moral. Examples in point are fur-
nished in the process of tracing the great laws of physics, in the
demonstrations of geometry, in the verification of history, in logical
ratiocination, in the discussion of moral obligations, in the scrutiny of
evidence. In such investigations, the quest of truth, conducted by
well-disciplined reflective faculties, is steadily, skillfully, and success-
fully pushed onward to the grand crowning result of certainty and
conviction. Unaided by the skill which culture and discipline insure,
the mind has no security against the involuntary illusions of error, or
the intentional misrepresentations of deceit ; it discovers no stability
in the outward universe, has no confidence in its own conclusions, no
just reliance on itself, no firm conviction of duty, no enlightened
faith in testimony ; but blown about by every plausible assumption
of theory, and every shifting phase of circumstance, a prey to every
reigning delusion, unsettled on any sure foundation of moral principle,
skeptical as to every vital truth, plunging into every approaching
fog-bank of error, and drifting, without chart or compass, on the great
ocean of uncertainty, suffers, at length, an intellectual and moral
wreck.
Most justly, as well as beautifully, has Bacon said, " truth, which
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. J27
only doth judge itself, teacheth that the inquiry of truth, which is the
love-making, or wooing, of it, the knowledge of truth, which is the
presence of it, and the belief of truth, which is the enjoying of it,
is the sovereign good of human nature."
Guided by his own unassisted reflective reason, man does unques-
tionably attain to great results, both intellectual and moral. But,
enlightened by the knowledge which science and education shed on
every relation of his being, what a vast expansion, what a wondrous
elevation is he capable of attaining ; all resulting from the faithful
application and skillful exercise of the reason with which his Creator
has crowned his intellectual faculties ! How noble, in this view,
becomes the office of the educator, whose daily endeavor it is to cher-
ish, and strengthen, and vivify this master principle of all intelligence !
V. EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT AND DISCIPLINE
OF TEE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
Defective Methods. If we look at what is professedly and formally
done, in our common modes of education, for the exercise and disci-
pline of the reflective faculties ; and if we found our estimate on the
number of branches of knowledge or of science, and the number and
variety of books nominally employed for the purpose, we might be
inclined to suppose that, in this important part of culture, much is
effected. But, on examining the actual state of things, errors and
oversights, in this respect, are found to be numerous, and methods
comparatively ineffectual.
Exclusive reliance on exactness of recollection. Memory, the
appointed servant of the reflective faculties, whose office it is to collect
and keep and furnish the materials for their action, is, indeed, amply
laden with the semblance and show of matter ; but most of it in the
form of Hamlet's book of " words, words, words.'' The too exclusive
use of manuals, the mere records of knowledge, instead of the actual
study of objects, facts and relations, the observation and the under-
standing of which constitute knowledge itself, leads to the cultivation
of a verbal and mechanical memory, instead of a living and intelligent
one. The fact is still too generally overlooked, that memory is not
so much a separate faculty, which can be trained and disciplined by
itself, as the mind, in virtue of its spiritual nature and exemption
from limits of time and space, retaining or recalling what it has once
observed or conceived ; that the vigor of this retention, or the force of
this recurrence, must always be as that of the original impression ,
and that the only rational reliance for the healthy and effective action
of memory, must therefore be the freshness, the force, and the depth
of attention. But, obviously, no impression made on the mind through
128 CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES
the medium of language, no matter how exact may be the definition,
or how true the description, can ever be so complete or so effectual
as that of direct observation through the senses, personal experience,
or distinct conciousness. Here, again, we are referred to two great
educational principles : that the study of things should precede the
study of words, and should always be resorted to, in preference, where-
ever there is a choice of modes of instruction ; and that, to awaken
and develope the reflective faculties, the true course is, in obedience
to the Creator's appointment, to use the objects of nature as the appa-
ratus which His wisdom has provided, not only for the exercise and
training of the mind's perceptive faculties, with a view to the acquisi-
tion of knowledge, but for the expanding and deepening of its capaci-
ties of discovering truth. Observation naturally prompts to thought
and reflection. There is, in such circumstances, a conscious, living
transition from one sphere of intelligence to another, from one com-
paratively lower and more limited to one higher and more spacious.
But in the mere contemplation or repetition of the words which des-
cribe an object, record a fact, or state a principle, the condition of mind
is that of abstraction ; and the mental associations, in such conditions,
are always less vivid, forcible and distinct, than in the observation of
concrete realities ; and, when the former of these conditions is recalled,
its impress is necessarily dim and obscure, compared to that of the
latter, which, by the experience of actual perception, has become a
comparatively inseparable part of the mental life and history of the
agent.
The difference in these two cases will be rendered yet more strik-
ingly apparent, if we suppose, what is commonly true in verbatim
processes of committing to memory, that the mind of the learner, in
his anxiety to retain and repeat with exactness the phraseology of the
book which he studies, often glances aside from the contemplation of
the fact or the principle which he is enunciating, to the literal succes-
sion of the words in which it is expressed. The mind's power of
abstraction becomes, in this way, the very means of its deterioration ;
and the memory, abused by this arbitrary and mechanical mode of
exercise, loses its healthy power of retention and recollection ; and
unfortunately, most of all, in those reflective processes of earnest
thought which demand its most vigorous exertion.
The prevalent methods of teaching, moreover, are still too exclusively
directed to the exercise of memory, at the expense of neglecting the
other faculties, an evil inseparable from the false views which still
usurp the seats of instruction, and make education consist in processes
of passive reception, on the part of the pupil ; as if his mind were a
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. 129
capacity to be filled, rather than a capability to be developed, or a
life-power to be awakened.
Reading. The greater number of the subjects which are introduced
in early education, as means of exercise and discipline for the mind,
are still too commonly treated under the influence of these erroneous
views of the character and objects of mental culture. Hence the
wearisome experience of the child, when compelled to drudge through
the task of committing to memory the names of all the alphabetic
characters of the language, before, or perhaps without ever, acquiring
a knowledge of the power, or actual sound, of any one of the whole
group. Every day, he is giving two or three of these sounds in every
one of the short and easy words which he uses in conversation. But
he is not allowed the satisfaction of recognizing the fac.t, that these
troublesome and perplexing marks before his eye, are little graphic
characters to suggest, phonetically to eye and ear, the very words
which he is constantly uttering. When the alphabetic task is accom-
plished, there follows, usually, in the child's experience, that of hew-
ing his way through whole columns of words, to him unmeaning,
because lying out of his sphere in the understanding and use of lan-
guage ; and to this useless toil too often succeeds that of reading multi-
tudes of unintelligible- sentences of a character corresponding to the
words which baffled him. But we need not dwell on this topic now,
having entered into it at length, in former connections of this part of
our subject.
Arithmetic. In arithmetical instruction, which might be so effect-
ive an aid to the development of the mind's reflective power, the
same evil still too generally prevails, as in the rudimental stages of
spelling and reading. The very first step taken, in some instances, is
to prescribe and enforce the committing to memory of elementary
tables of numbers, by arbitrary repetition of the words in which these
are expressed. Were the child allowed the fair opportunity of first
seeing, in concrete form, the facts which he is made to assume and
communicate in parrot-like form ; and were he allowed to create them
for himself, in visible or tangible shape, in copious instances, and thus
to generalize the facts from his own observation, memory would have
an intelligent, living office to perform, would work with freshness and
strength, arid long retain, or easily recall, what attention had proved.
Were it required of the pupil thus to construct the given table, instead
of merely repeating the words in which it is expressed, the exercise of
memory would be as pleasing as it would be invigorating. It would
thus be aided by the deepening and strengthening effect of the not
less delightful processes of combining and constructing, in the actua.
II
130 CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
work of practical operations. The busy hand would thus help the
thinking head to clearer views and deeper impressions ; and the true
and proper work of memory would be done in accordance with the
law of mental action. "As is THE EARNESTNESS OF ATTENTION, so is
THE DURATION OF REMEMBRANCE, OR THE DISTINCTNESS AND READINESS
OF RECOLLECTION."
Geography. The subject of geography furnishes very frequently
another example of memoriter lessons, exacted, perhaps, with a well-
ineamng rigorous fidelity to the language of a text-book, but sacri-
ficing the useful knowledge, the pleasing information, and the invalu-
able mental training and discipline, which this instructive branch of
science might be made to furnish. Detached facts, comparative
numerical tables, and assumed definitions, are yet too uniformly
imposed as a burden on the memory ; while the actual survey of even
a limited portion of the earth's surface, within daily view, perhaps, of
the learner, would furnish him with the best materials on which to
build up the noble and majestic structure of geographical science.
Fortunately, through the labors of Professor Arnold Guyot, in his
luminous exposition of the philosophy of instruction in this department
of science, a new and better era is begun in American schools ; and
this branch of education is now, in many seminaries, taught on
methods strictly logical. The study of geography thus becomes an
admirable intellectual discipline, in addition to the systematic forms
in which it embodies the great facts and pervading laws of nature,
which are its peculiar province as a science. The student, who is
trained on this admirable method, has the great features of the globe,
and all their relations of consequent fact, imprinted forever on his
memory. The very inequalities of the earth's surface, become to him
an intelligible language, by which he reads the laws of design, and
traces effects to causes, with the certainty of distinct recognition.
Taught in this manner, few sciences are more adapted to the develop-
ment of the reflective faculties, in their first steps of advancement from
the field of perceptive observation to that of contemplative survey and
rational inquiry, or to that of profound scientific investigation. The
methods which Professor Guyot has transferred from the lessons of
his own distinguished instructor, Carl Ritter, and the views of the
patriarch of geographical science, Baron Alexander Von Humboldt,
will, it is to be hoped, soon find their way not only into our text-books,
in which they are beginning to appear, but into all our seminaries in
which the young mind is undergoing the formative processes of
education.
History.- Of all the sciences which are naturally fitted to invite the
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. 131
mind to the full exercise of its reflective tendencies, none would seem
so happily adapted to this end as history. Its records, while they are,
in one sense, but forms of memory, are still the records of man mov-
ing on his amplest stage of action, as a human being, intelligent,
rational, and moral; blending the relations of individual character and
social life with those of the national and political sphere, with the
founding the government, or the fall of states and empires.
History, as it necessarily exhibits man in his moral relations, ought
to be one of the most instructive and suggestive of studies. If any
subject can excite reflective thought, it is this. Its analysis and scru-
tiny of human character; its investigation into the motives of action,
in every form and condition of life; the research, to which it invites,
into the manners and customs of by -gone ages ; the careful examina-
tion which it induces of the testimony of conflicting records ; the views
which it discloses of national character and institutions ; the insight
which it gives into the policy of nations, and the influence of different
forms of government ; all bespeak the tendency of historical studies
to evoke the most earnest and profound reflection. The study of his-
tory should be, in itself, an effective discipline of the mind, in all the
noblest relations of its action. But, here, too, the mere imprinting on
the memory a naked record of detached facts, of single events, or
striking incidents, or of the items of a chronological table, is the too
prevalent law of custom in the requisitions of educational establish-
ments. The life of history, its suggestive power, as a reflective and
moral instructor, is thus killed ; and, instead of the living form, in its
natural lineaments and beauty, we have but a meagre outline of the
dry bones of what, in the technical language of historic compilation, is
most aptly denominated a " skeleton."
To the mature mind, willing to encounter fatiguing effort, and
patiently to add stone to stone of the intellectual fabric, the plan too
commonly adopted in the instruction of young learners, of beginning
the study of history with a mere outline of dates and events and eras,
may prove practicable, though not easy or pleasant. But, to the
youthful spirit, the great attraction of this study lies in its pictures of
life and action, and in the sympathies which these evoke. To the
juvenile reader all history is biography. The policy of nations, the
intrigues of state, the strategics of war, are unintelligible and uninter-
esting to him ; and he ignores them, if they intrude upon the narra-
tive. But the feeling and the character and actions of individuals, he
understands, and admires or hates, according to the promptings of his
unperverted heart. He follows the steps of the historic hero, through
all his scenes of struggle and trial, of effort and of triumph ; imbibing v ,
1-32 CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
unconsciously, in the successive stages of this ideal progress, inspiring
lessons of wisdom and virtue from all, or listening to the warnings
which recorded experience gives on the evils of folly or of vice.
A course of judiciously selected biography, should be the educa-
tional introduction to the study of history. The interest attached to
the personal narrative, accompanies the young student into his read-
ing on the broader scale of national movements and their various con-
sequences ; and the life breathed into the study from the character of
its earliest stage, gives warmth and attraction to all its more extensive
views and complicated relations.
Language, as the product of the expressive faculties, and as a dis-
cipline for their development, we had occasion to discuss under that
head, in a former lecture. But we have still to do with it as a part
of education adapted to the strengthening of the mind's power of
reflective investigation. Our common error in this department, as in
others, is a too exclusive attention to the acquisition of a certain
amount of knowledge of the etymological and syntactical forms of
words and phrases, a knowledge depending entirely on the exercise
of memory in retaining or recalling these forms. Through the various
stages of education, the attention is too exclusively fixed on these
im'nutiaB of language ; and, neither in the study of ancient or of modern
languages, nor even in that of our own, is the mind duly attracted to
the character of the sentiments embodied in the works of the authors
which are read in the progress of education, nor to the broad distinct-
ive traits which form the character of the given language, to the
individuality which a successful writer stamps on it, or to the mental
value of the forms of expression which he adopts. Philology, a pur-
suit so peculiarly adapted to the cultivation of the mind's reflective
and investigating powers, is cut off from the student till the strong
bias of personal taste or inclination induces him to open this mental
vista for himself. Criticism, too, the art which demands the closest
application of reflective judgment, in addition to perfect purity of taste,
is. handed over to the lessons of some meagre text-book, which does
not contain matter enough within its boards for the proper discussion
or fitting elucidation of a single principle of aBsthetics.
Logic is another science belonging to the more advanced stages of
education, the study of which ought to exert a powerful influence on
the tendencies and habits of the reflective faculties, but which is some-
times very inadequately taught even in our higher seminaries of learn-
ing. In some of these institutions, it is customary to restrict the study
of logic to the ancient Aristotelian form of it, and without the advant-
age of the scholastic, syllogistic disputations, which, although alwavs
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. 13^
formal in character, and sometimes frivolous in result, were yet designed
to be rigorouslv exact exemplifications of pure logical reasoning ; and
which, with all their faults and failures, secured, at least, one great
practical object of education, by giving the mind active exercise in
applying principles, instead of leaving it merely to listen, and remem-
ber, and record. It is true that, in some educational establishments, a
more liberal view of logic is entertained, and that, in these seminaries,
the science is regarded not merely as one which t^ac ( hes the art of
reasoning, but as that which investigates and enunciates the laws of
thought, and involves, therefore, a knowledge of the elements of intel-
lectual philosophy, together with the application of all the principles
of mental science which affect the exercise of any class of the various
powers and faculties of the mind.
An instructive exposition of this view of logic, as the first stage of
purely intellectual discipline, is given in the " Outlines of Philosophic
Education," by the late Professor Jardine, of Glasgow University, who,
for fifty years, conducted, with distinguished success, his course of
instruction, on the plan delineated in his work. That eminently skill-
ful teacher, for he regarded the duties of a professor in his depart-
ment as consisting quite as much in conducting the practical processes
of training exercises, as in the didactic routine of lecturing, regarded
the study of the Aristotelian logic but as a very limited part of intel-
lectual discipline, and, while he allowed it its distinct place and full
value, justly maintained that, for the purposes of modern education,
which imply so wide and varied applications of thought, in directions
so different from those pursued in ancient times, the sphere of study
must be greatly enlarged beyond the narrow limits of the scholastic
discipline, and a course of training prescribed which shall prepare the
mind for the new demands made upon its powers, in the new modes
of action with which modern science is conversant.
This broader view of logical discipline is fortunately taken by several
of our own recent writers on the subject; and the course of instruction
is, accordingly, in some seminaries, enlarged so as to embrace the
elements of intellectual philosophy, as indispensable to clear and satis-
factory views of logic itself, and to the purposes for which the study
of logic was originally constituted a department of education. But
even in such instances, the young student is not trained to apply the
principles embodied in his text- book to an extensive course of practi-
cal exemplifications and personal discipline. He is not called to per-
form anv series of practical exercises bearing the same relation to the
science of logic that analytic parsing and written composition bear to
grammar. He is not trained to trace the logic of great arguments
134 CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
exemplified in the productions of eminent metaphysical writers. He
is not disciplined in the digesting and methodizing of his own concep-
tions on prescribed subjects, so as to give sequence or soundness to
argument, and certainty to his own conclusions.
In the study of intellectual philosophy we see, too often, another
instance of the imperfect learning by book, without the contemplation
of the thing itself of which the book treats. Our current instruction,
in this department, consists in little more than the assigning of so
many pages of a text-book to be committed to memory ; and the pro-
gress made in the study of the science is judged of by the correctness
or the fluency with which the terms employed in the nomenclature
of a favorite system can be repeated, rather than by any actual know-
ledge or personal opinions on the subject itself. The student is not
invited to put forth his own mind, in actual investigations on the
topics which he studies : he is not permitted to enjoy the benefit of
those conversational discussions with his instructor, which might create
a living interest in the subject prescribed, and induce the student to
prosecute with effect those unaided researches of individual applica-
tion, without which knowledge is not to be acquired, or truth
ascertained.
In the department of moral philosophy, a subject so peculiarly
adapted to the development and discipline of the reflective faculties,
we find, usually, the same mechanical routine of book-study and
recitation adopted. In this highest relation of human instruction, the
mind is still left passive and receptive merely ; while there is no sub-
ject on which original, vigorous, and personal thought is so important
to the acquisition of principle or the formation of character. Here,
more than anywhere else, living, eloquent instruction from the man,
rather than the book, is indispensable to the production of deep and
enduring impressions of truth, and the exciting of hearty sympathy
with its applications. Here, too, more than elsewhere, is the active
use of the student's own mind necessary to the results of true culture
on personal habit and character. His own investigations, and his own
record of these, ought to be required of him, as the only rational
benefit of the guidance afforded by a text-book or a teacher. Conver-
sation and writing would throw life into these subjects, and make them
matters of personal interest and personal conviction to the individual ;
and the fruits of education would thus be more extensively reaped in
the experience of society.
APPROPRIATE METHODS OF DISCIPLINE. We will now turn from
the consideration of the subjects which form the usual material for the
education and development of the reflective faculties, to the more
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. 135
immediate contemplation of those faculties themselves, with regard to
their natural wants and appropriate aids ; and, first, as regards the
faculty of
Memory. In the fact of muscular action, the power to retain
depends on the firmness of the original grasp. The analogy holds in
the exercise of memory : the retentive or repeating power depends on
the depth of the impression : concentrated and sustained attention is
the condition of remembrance. If we would strengthen the memory,
we must cultivate force of attention. The indication of nature to the
teacher, in this case, obviously is, Select for the mind's first exercises,
striking or attractive objects of attention, or interesting subjects of
thought. For more advanced stages of mental progress, when accu-
racy demands comparative minuteness and multiplicity of uninterest-
ing detail, rely on the moral force of the will and disciplined habit, to
give closeness and persistency to attention. In all cases, keep fully in
mind the great value of mer) repetition and frequent review, without
which all ordinary subjects of past thought are ever tending to sink
into dimness and obscurity, and, ultimately, into utter forgetful ness.
Mechanical aids to memory may sometimes appear very plausible ;
and they often are very amusing temporary expedients. But they
actually destroy memory, by setting it aside, and usurping its place.
The physiologist tells us that if we omit the due use of the teeth, we
forfeit the possession of them. The fact is strictly so of memory.
The juggling tricks of perverted ingenuity may seem to conjure up a
substitute for the sound and healthy exercise of this faculty. But the
subject of the experiment, in this as in all other forms of charlatanry,
finds himself, in the end, the victim of deception.
Memory, when employed on subjects comparatively complex, or
intricate in tlieir relations, finds its surest reliance, next to close and
fixed attention, to consist in the grand universal law of order.
Arrangement, classification, system, method, are powerful auxiliaries
to memory, as they all tend, more or less, to give sequence to thought,
by the law of causation, in the closest connection of antecedent and
consequent. One stage of thought thus suggests another ; and the
machinery of memory, so to speak, works smoothly and well. The
security for remembrance or for recollection, in such circumstances,
lies, of course, in the clearness with which connections and relations
are perceived, and the fidelity with which they are observed. A
treacherous memory is often but the report of unfaithful observation
or dim conception.
Habits of Conception dependent on those of Perception. Conception,
jis a primary power of reflective intelligence, performing for the
136 CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
relations of pure intellection, the same office with that of perception, in
the exercise of the understanding on the objects of sensation, depends,
to a great extent, on the character and habits of the perceptive faculty.
The relations which the conceptive power discerns between the objects
and facts, presented to it by the ministrations of sense, constitute the
condition of intelligent observation, as, differing from mere ocular aspec-
tion. But these relations necessarily derive much of their reality and
force from the vividness of the sensation and the clearness of the
understanding, which have attracted attention to the external phenome-
na, and thus have elicited the conceptive acts of mind by which the
relations perceived and understood become the ground- work of reflec-
tion and meditation, leading in turn to farther processes of thought,
inductive or deductive, as investigation may require.
Clear, forcible and true perceptions, therefore, are requisite antece-
dents of corresponding qualities in conception / and a sound and active
condition of the latter depends on similar conditions and habits of
the former ; just as healthy sensation is, in turn, the pre-requisite of
distinct perception. We are thus again referred, in adopting educa-
tional measures for strengthening and developing the mind's conceptive
power, to the attentive observation of external nature, as the proper
commencement of early mental training; as the only security, also,
for the vigor of all those faculties which aid the mind in digesting and
assimilating to itself, by purely internal operations, the materials of
knowledge acquired through the action of sense, for the purpose of
being incorporated into the mental fabric. We are, at the same time,
reminded of the great fact, of which education should never lose sight,
that, whatever be the number of faculties into which the intellectual
philosopher may, in his scientific analysis, subdivide the action of the
mind, or whatever may be the personified individuality which the
figurative language of popular usage may arbitrarily confer on any one
mode of mental action, to distinguish it from others. the principle
of intelligence is strictly a unit ; that it is the same agent, whether
contemplating the external world through the windows of sense, or
looking inward upon itself, and interpreting its own action. In both
circumstances, we recognize a voluntary act of attention, followed by
an apprehensive or a comprehensive act of understanding. In either
case, intelligence is the power at work ; knowledge is the immediate,
and truth the flnal result.
Conception as dependent on Memory and Imagination. Under the
term " conception," however, in the vague usage to which the English
language is unfortunately prone, in all subjects purely intellectual, we
usually include states or acts of memory and of imagination. Nor is
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. 137
it to be denied that the conceptive faculty is often called into action
on data furnished by memory, as well as on those presented by sense
or by reason. To vivify and invigorate the power of conception,
therefore, in such relations, we are admonished to pursue the same
course of exercise and discipline by which that faculty is rendered
prompt and retentive. Whatever we succeed in doing to improve the
memory, becomes thus a gain to the power of conception.
Again, the prevalent use of language refers many of our conceptive
acts to forms of imagination. The astronomer, speaking of the sun,
tells us of its dark, central body, of its first layer or substratum of
cloudy atmosphere, of its photosphere, or luminous atmosphere, and
of yet a third rarer element, ethereal and slightly colored, as to the
character of which, science is somewhat perplexed with uncertainty.
The conceptive power of the mind enables us, in this case, to follow
the entrancing description as the scientific observer, aided by the many
appliances which modern instruments provide, proceeds with his veri-
fied observations ; and, with wondering attention, we draw on the tab-
let of imagination the successive images which his graphic but exact
expressions suggest : we see, with the mind's eye, the sun-world, and
its enfolding atmospheres, as distinctly in our consciousness as if we
surveyed them with eye or "optic tube."
Correctness of Conception. Even in such cases, however, the truth-
fulness and the distinctness of the mental picture depend, to a great
extent, on the exactness of its correspondence to fact, as regards not
only the forms but the character of objects, and the relations existing
between them. Here, again, we are referred to the working of the
intelligent principle in the modes which we denominate understanding
and judgment, without which the whole structure erected in the mind
would be as the poet's " baseless fabric of a vision."
In educational training, therefore, while every endeavor should be
used to vivify and incite imagination, and to awaken it to its utmost
activity by appropriate exercise, with a view to the vast power which
that faculty confers on conception, as a creative energy of mind ; and
while all the aids which nature, art, and poetry, offer to this end,
should be fully employed ; there remains yet a task for education to
perform, in inuring the conceptive faculty to the discipline of reason
and judgment, so as to render it exact, and truthful, and symmetrical,
in all its work.
The means by which the mind is to be formed to such habits in its
conceptive action, are evidently the same which we would employ for
developing and strengthening the reasoning powers : first, the inter-
esting presentation of the objects and facts of the natural world, so
138 CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
as to elicit thought and reflection on their character and relations ;
secondly, the teacher's skillful suggestion, designed to aid the observer
in tracing those relations to principles and laws of logical science ; and,
thirdly, the careful training of the mind to the contemplation of its own
action, to the critical inspection and exact discrimination of the results
of its action, and to the thorough investigation of the laws of thought,
applied to the quest of truth.
CONSCIOUSNESS : as an aid to Reflective Reason. Of the reflective
conditions of mind which tend to give accuracy to knowledge, or cer-
tainty to truth, none is more conducive to such results than that of
consciousness. Not that it necessarily constitutes a separate power or
faculty ; (since it is plainly but an act of introverted attention, by
which the mind becomes aware of its existing states, acts, or pro-
cesses ;) but rather that it is a mental condition distinctly recognized
in all the languages of civilized man, and implies the power which the
intelligent principle possesses of holding up, in distinct vision to itself,
its own acts and operations; whether these refer to the external
world of perception or the interior world of thought. This power of
self-observation, when the attention is directed to relations purely
intellectual, is necessarily the condition and the measure offeree with
which the mind pursues its trains of reflection, traces the invisible
relations of sequence, or follows the continuous processes of meditation,
in the prosecution of those profound researches which the depth and
intricacy of scientific or moral truth not unfrequently require.
Its Susceptibility of Culture. In the relations of moral culture,
this faculty, so to term it, works in so close and intimate union
with the great master principle of conscience, that its importance as a
fact of mind demanding the earnest attention of the educator, in his
capacity of moral guardian, is, at once, apparent. On that department
of our subject we do not, at present, dwell, as it will invite our atten-
tion hereafter, in its proper place. But, as an intellectual condition,
subject, to some extent, to the action of the will, and to the influence
of disciplinary exercise, it is obvious that conciousness or self-observa-
tion, may, like any other power which the mind possesses, be rendered
vivid, prompt, and operative, by repeated action.
Man commences his intellectual and moral life an unconscious agent,
in the unknown and wonderful world around him, in childhood. He
is as utterly unconscious of the influences exerted on himself as he is
ignorant of the true character and relations of the objects by which
he is surrounded. Absorbed in the contemplation of the broad field
of the external world, or in the observation of its objects individually,
he is lost alike to the consciousness of his own being, and to that of
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. 139
the effects which are wrought within him by these very objects.
Drawn onward by an unconscious power of attraction, he follows the
study of nature, in obedience to an instinct of which he is not yet
aware, but which, by leading him out of himself, conducts hirn to the
school of observation, where knowledge commences, and from which he,
in due season, returns, empowered by the instruction he has received
to observe and understand himself.
As his nobler powers mature, they begin to work on the data which
observation has furnished ; and, as he examines, he thinks, he com-
pares, he reflects, he reasons ; he becomes aware of a more powerful
influence and a deeper satisfaction than that of mere observation, while
he consciously follows his successive conceptions, and meditates not
only on the relations of object to object, and of effect to cause, in the
outward universe, but on the yet more wonderful and mysterious action
of his own inward being, to the conciousness of which he is now fully
awakened. This newly-discovered world attracts his attention with a
yet greater force and intensity of interest than that of the external
sphere, in which he has hitherto moved ; and the growing strength of
his intellect, he finds, is more fuljy exerted and more decidedly proved
in this inner region of its action, than in the outer field of sense and
perception. He delights, accordingly, in this conscious exercise of a
higher power, and recognizes the nobility of reason.
Such is man's progress, even when little assisted by the formal aids
of education. But we see thus more clearly how judicious and skillful
training may render conciousness comparatively vivid, definite, and
distinct^ by aiding, with appropriate appliances of exercise and disci-
pline, this capability of reflective contemplation, of self-intelligence, and
of self-development, which grows with the growth, and strengthens
with the strength of the maturing mind. If this power is permitted
to lie neglected and undeveloped, the result is uniformly a character-
istic dullness, obscurity, and vagueness in the mind's habitual action.
This fact we recognize, in full exemplification, when we contrast the
uncultivated, half-conscious child, youth, or man, with the well-edu-
cated and the self-intelligent.
Mode of Culture. Subjected to processes of cultivation, however,
this faculty, like memory, can not be brought under the law of direct
action. Memory is to be reached through attention ; to enliven and
strengthen the former, we must work upon the latter. We have no
more power over it, separately, than we have over the reflection of an
object in a mirror. Memory is the reflection of attention. We can
not render the image distinct, unless the object is so. The same is
true of consciousness. It has no separate or independent existence
140 CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
It is, so to speak, the mind's reflection of itself; it is but an act of
attention directed inward. The vividness, the definiteness, and the
distinctness of consciousness, are, as the corresponding properties in
the act of attention, blended with the consentaneous force of will
cooperating in the act. In this latter circumstance, its action differs
from that of memory, which is often, even in its most vivid delinea-
tions, wholly involuntary. But the depth and fullness of conscious-
ness are always dependent, more or less, on the force of the will
which directs the act of attention inward. It is thus rendered more
perceptibly a subject of culture by educational training.
Morbid Unconsciousness. To some minds the intellectual and
moral value of habits of wakeful consciousness, is very great from,
perhaps, some defect of organization or fault of habit, inclining the
individual to a half dreamy condition of reverie, in which the mind
loses power over its own action, and becomes lost amid the scenes of
memory or of imagination. To the artist and the poet, an intensity
of abstracted attention is, in some relations, the condition of imagina-
tive power of conception and of living expression. But, in such cases,
the mind is healthy, vigorous, and voluntary, in its action : it is obey-
ing one of its own highest laws, which demands this almost super-
human power of abstracted and concentrated attention, for the contem-
plation and embodiment of ideal images of perfection. The abstract-
edness and " absence of mind, 1 ' on the other hand, which become
habitual from neglect, are nothing else than a morbid unconscious-
ness indulged, a result of organic or mental weakness, and a habit
utterly destructive of voluntary power of attention or depth of
thought. In some mournful instances, it is the sure precursor of
insanity.
In all circumstances, the tendency of such habits is to cherish a
morbid preponderance of imagination over reason and judgment, and
to create a dreamy twilight of thought, in preference to the clear
light of intellectual day. Listlessness of attention, and dullness of
understanding, and every other evil of mental torpor, are thus
entailed on the intellectual character.
Cultivation of the Reasoning Faculty. The principle of reflective
intelligence assumes, in the language of recognized usage, the various
forms of action implied in the terms understanding, judgment, reason ;
and this triple denomination suggests also the progressive measures
adopted in education, for the cultivation of this master power of
intellect.
Understanding, as the primary act and condition of intelligence, is
involved in every instance of perception, even in the cognizance of the
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. 141
mere form and character of outward objects ; in the contemplation
of facts, its aid is indispensable to the apprehension of their connec-
tions and relations ; and, in the tracing of these, its assistance is requi-
site to enable the mind to arrive at the comprehension of principles and
causes. When the mind is unable to put forth this prehensile, (seiz-
ing, grasping, holding?) power, we say, in current phrase, the connec-
tion, the principle, the cause, or the relation, is " not understood."
Keverting to the etymological signification of the term, by which this
faculty is designated, we observed that the action of the "understand-
ing " was represented as a necessary ground, or foundation, without
which, of course, there could be no superstructure of thought or
knowledge. In the terms now introduced, which denote the two
chief forms of action in the process of understanding, the figurative
suggestion is not less forcible or appropriate, than in the former in-
stance. The uninformed understanding, is, in the latter case, repre-
sented as the powerless hand, which is not put forth, which does not
lay hold on its object, or which lets it slip.
Natural Development of the Understanding. The appropriate
training of this fundamental faculty of the mind is distinctly indicated
to the educator in the first natural workings of intellect in child-
hood. The inciting principle of curiosity impels the child to observe
and to learn. But he is not satisfied with the mere knowledge of the
o
external character of objects ; he is eagerly desirous to understand
their internal construction, and hence he tears open, and pulls to
pieces, even the flower which delights him ; and the indulgent father
knows that it needs a sharp eye to keep the little investigator from
practicing a similar experiment on a gold watch.
Educational Development. That spirit of inquisition which is im-
planted in the mind, to secure its progressive development, renders
the examination and inspection of objects, for the discovery of their
internal structure and character, an exercise still more attractive and
inviting to a child than that of the perception even of beauty in form
or color; and the investigation of the connection and relations of
phenomena and of facts, yields him a deeper gratification than the
delight arising from the recognition of any merely exterior trait of
character in outward objects. Here, then, is the proper place where
to commence the training of the understanding to the exercise of
true apprehension and full comprehension, in the acqusition of a
thorough knowledge of the objects by which the child is naturally sur-
rounded, and of their relations to one another, in mutual adaptation,
or in cause and effect. Perception is thus transmuted into knowledge ;
without which transition there is no intellectual progress. The
142 CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
understanding of relations is the mediating process by which object is
linked to object, fact to fact, and relation to relation ; till knowledge, in
its turn, becomes the completed chain of principle and truth, in the
relations of system and science.
Practical Exercises. One of the most hopeful indications of the
general progress of opinion on the subject of education, is afforded in
the comparatively recent introduction into primary schools of lessons
on objects, not merely the productions of nature in animal and vege-
table and mineral form, but the common objects of observation in the
child's daily notice at home and in school, in the street, and in the
workshop. The young mind is thus strengthened, while it is gratified,
by the exercise of tracing design and adaptation in the various contriv-
ances of mechanical ingenuity. The conscious understanding of re-
lations and processes, becomes to the mind what the expanding and
enlivening influence of light is to the plant; while the self-intelligent
agent enjoys the double pleasure of growth and the consciousness of
it. Understanding, as the mind's prehensile and digestive power, ap-
propriates to itself the material of its own life and strength, and quickens
and expands with every acquisition, till it reaches the culminating
point of the full maturity and vigor of a well-developed capacity.
Observation of the processes of Nature. Next to the study of the
elementary principles and application of mechanics, as a means of en-
lightening and invigorating the understanding by disciplinary exercises
in tracing combination and operations to their causes, should come
appropriate exercises in watching and tracing the great processes of
nature, daily passing before the learner's observation, and inviting him
to the study of those larger displays of power and intelligence, which
are exhibited in the mechanism of the worlds moving in space, and
obeying the laws of time.
The chemistry of nature, too, should be made to furnish ample em-
ployment for the exercise of the understanding, in tracing the curious
relations which that vast department of knowledge discloses. No
science has more power than chemistry to stimulate curiosity, and pro-
voke inquiry, and thus invite the mind to penetrate the mysteries of
nature, and evolve the hidden causes and secret influences at work in
phenomena, which the mind can not contemplate without the feeling
of wonder, and which, at first, seem to baffle the power of intelli-
gence; but through which the prying eye of the understanding
learns, ere long, to penetrate, in the inquest of relations by which
mystery is solved and difficulty explained. A simple elementary
course of experiments, in this department of science, by the light
which it sheds on common phenomena, exerts a great power over the
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. ^43
young mind; suggesting inquiries and leading to investigations
which call the understanding into wakeful and vigorous action on all
facts accessible to observation. The teacher, who is true to his office,
as guardian of the young mind, and who takes pleasure in aiding the
formation of habits of intelligence and inquiry, will spare neither
time, nor trouble, nor expense, in his endeavors to secure to his pupils
the benefit of such aids to their intellectual culture.
Combined Exercises of Understanding and Judgment : Arithmetic.
In the department of mathematical science, there is no lack of at-
tention to the study of arithmetic, as an important branch of exercise
and discipline for the reflective faculties, in the relations of the under-
standing operating on numbers. In this branch of culture, the pure-
ly mental processes first introduced by Pestalozzi, and transferred to
American schools by the late Warren Colburn, have let in a flood of
light not only on the subject of arithmetic, as an instrument of intel-
lectual discipline, but on the whole field of education, and on all the
details of methods of instruction, as regards the principles of rational
and genial development applied to the human mind. Whatever may
be the .case elsewhere, there are few schools, in New England at least,
in which arithmetic is not philosophically and successfully taught; and
the vast improvement, or rather the entire renovation of the character
of our primary schools, since the introduction of Colburn's method,
may well suggest to the thoughtful teacher the immense amount of
benefit which would certainly follow corresponding changes in other
departments of education.
Geometry. Another branch of mathematics admirably adapted to
the cultivation of the mind's reflective and reasoning powers, when
applied to external relations, and one which forms, by its very nature, the
vestibule to all the other apartments of the great temple of knowledge,
has not commonly met with that attention or that place which its im-
portance requires. Geometry is too commonly deferred till a late
stage, comparatively, in the progress of education ; and it is, for the
most part, taught abstractly, commencing with its linear forms. But
the few teachers who have ventured to break away from the trammels
of routine and prescription, and who have taken their suggestion from
the obvious fact that, even in early childhood, the mind is delighted with
the observation of definite forms in all their simple varieties, and that,
at this stage of progress, form exists only in the visible and tangible
concrete, and not in the abstract, the few teachers who have here
followed nature's course, and allowed the young learner to commence
an easy elementary and practical study of geometry in its relation to
solid objects, have found no difficulty arising from permitting children
144 CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
to commence their attention to this branch of knowledge at a very
early age, and to unspeakable advantage, as regards the exactness of
mental habit which this mode of discipline so peculiarly tends to form.
From the observation and study of the solid, the transition is
rational, natural arid easy to the consideration and examination of its
surface ; and here another wide field of thought is opened to the
mind of the juvenile learner, yet one which is perfectly practicable
to his faculties, and which he can always submit to actual survey and
ocular measurement. With the solid body in his hand, the little
student finds it an easy and a pleasing step to proceed from the con-
templation of the surface, to that of its "edges," as he calls the
boundary lines of the surface ; and here still another delightful scope
of observation opens to his mind, as he proceeds to compare line with
line, and, applying the definite and exact relations of number, learns
to measure, and thus to ghie certainty and precision to his observations,
and accuracy to his conceptions.
General Effects of Mathematical Discipline. In the more advanced
stages of education, the modes of instruction in the department of
mathematics, are, from the nature of the subject, of a character so
definite and comparatively immutable as to suggest methods and forms
of exercise uniform and sure. Hence, the admirable results secured by
the discipline to which the reasoning powers are subjected in the
prosecution of these studies. The value of mathematical training
consists, chiefly, in the exactness of attention and discrimination, and
in the orderly procedure of thought required in the processes which
it prescribes, and, consequently, in the correctness of conception and
accuracy of judgment thus attained in the habits of the mind.
Another invaluable advantage of mathematical studies, connected
more immediately, however, with their advanced stages of mental ap-
plication, consists in the extent and scope of their operations, com-
bined with the perfect sequence of every step in their procedure, and
the confidence which they serve to create in the mind's own action, by
the certainty of its conclusions.
The main duty of the teacher, in this department of education, lies,
from the very character of the subject, in watching carefully the
mind's first steps in the earliest stages of exercise ; so as to see to it
that the perfect rigor of intellectual discipline is attained, which mathe-
matical science is designed to produce, that there be no yielding to
juvenile impatience, tending to laxity of attention, careless assumption,
heedless oversight, and unconscious inaccuracy of mental habit. lu
more advanced stages of progress, the successive branches of the sub-
ject afford, by their own intrinsic character, a comparative security
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES 145
for correctness in the processes of evolution, and especially in the
case of all students whose first steps have been carefully watched.
Common Mistake. There is an opinion somewhat prevalent, e\ f en
among those who have the control of education, that the certainty
of mathematical reasoning, depending on the peculiar character of the
grounds on which it rests, has but little effect on the formation of ac-
curate habits of judgment in relations which have no firmer founda-
tion than matters of opinion, or of taste, or of metaphysical inquiry.
But, in this view of the question, the inevitable influence of the law
of analogy on the constitution and habits of the mind is overlooked.
The educational effect of any study lies not so much in the specific
character of the subject, or the particular exercises of intellect which
any one of its processes requires, as -in the analogous tendencies and
habits which the given exercise contributes to form. The perfect pre-
cision of observation, the scrupulous correctness of judgment, and the
strict sequence of thought, which mathematical operations* demand,
are invaluable aids to every process of mind in which the reasoning
faculties are employed. A disproportioued excess of attention to
mathematics in the assignments of education, may, certainly, be
chargeable on the plan of intellectual culture adopted in many semi-
naries of learning, and, particularly, of such as are devoted to the
mental training of the female sex. But this mistake, like that of at-
tempting the exposition of moral truth by mathematical forms of
reasoning, does not prove any want of adaptation in mathematics to
the design and purpose of intellectual discipline on kindred subjects,
or in the results of such discipline in the formation of mental habits
and- character.
Logical and Critical Discipline. Of the great importance of a
thorough practical logic, for the discipline of the reasoning faculties,
a course comprising processes of strict personal training in the art
of thinking, we have had occasion to speak, under other heads of our
present investigation, and on this topic we need not now enlarge.
Another department of higher mental culture, the art of criticism^
was briefly adverted to, on a former occasion. As one of the highest
forms in which reason can be applied, and as the ground- work of all
true discipline of imagination and taste, it claims a large share of at-
tention in educational training. But, to render this department of
study truly beneficial, it needs a thorough revision and enlargement
of its plan. As generally adopted in our seminaries of learning, it is
made to consist too much of processes of training by which the men-
tal eye is sharpened for the perception of error and the detection of
defect. This is but the negative part of critical discipline, and is
1 J
146 CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
chiefly directed to the faults of others, rather than those of the observer
himself; while, as a forming and moulding process, its chief benefit
would lie in its efficacy in training the mind to the perception and
recognition of positive beauty and perfection, and in forming the tastes
and habits of the individual by a strict but genial preventive discipline,
which should preclude the tendency to deviation from the principles
of beauty and truth. To secure the results of such discipline, a liberal
course of early training, directed to the intelligent recognition of
beauty in nature and in art, as was suggested in a former lecture,
becomes an indispensable foundation. The reasoning, on the data
thus furnished, would necessarily become positive and practical. The
mind would proceed under the sure guidance of ascertained principle ;
and the canons, so called, of criticism, would have an authority more
sure than merely the speculative opinions of an individual, or of a
class of theorizers. But, so far are we, as yet, from a truly liberal
standard of education, that in all our higher seminaries, scarcely can
we find a place assigned to any course of aesthetic study or training.
Yet no species of discipline could be prescribed so admirably adapted
to the generous development of the powers of judgment and reason,
as that critical exercise by which the mind, in the analysis and combi-
nation of the elements of beauty, learns to interpret to its own con-
sciousness the laws of grace and of harmony.
Philosophical Training. The principles of intellectual and moral
philosophy, we have already adverted to, as peculiarly adapted to the
discipline of the reflective faculties. The great facts which the mind
recognizes in contemplating the principles of the former of these
branches of science, and the vital truths which it evolves in tracing the
relations of the latter to the former, call for the exercise of reason
and judgment on materials purely mental, and, by their very nature,
fitted to train the mind to habits of close investigation and nice dis-
crimination. On these habits is the mind's whole reliance to be placed
in tracing the subtle distinctions on which the eviction of the
profoundest truths not unfrequently depends.
On such subjects, as also in relation to logic and criticism, it was
Suggested, in a former connection of our subject, that education should
be rendered more personal and practical in its methods ; that it should
comprise, in its measures for discipline, the mental efforts of the
sjtudent himself in thought, conversation and discussion, rather than
the mere endeavor to retain in memory the definitions and statements
'of a text-book.
Civic Training. The study of civil polity, as it comprehends
subjects collateral to history and to ethics, forms a theme well-suited
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. J47
to the exercise of the mind's reflective powers, b ( y the trains of thought
to which it naturally leads. As a branch of education, it should be
extended to an attentive survey of all the political relations of human
society, as embodied in forms of government, in national constitutions,
in international law, in civil institutions. Independently of the value
of such investigations to the intelligent discharge of the duties of life,
in all countries favored with constitutional immunities, the class of
subjects now mentioned is of the utmost moment in the higher rela-
tions of education, as affording large scope and full exercise for the
reasoning powers, in the investigations and discussions to which such
subjects naturally invite the mind of the student. The discipline,
however, resulting from this branch of studies, depends, obviously, on
the extent to which it is made a matter of personal thought, of writ-
ten dissertations, and of oral discussion, on the part of the student.
In this, as in other departments of ethical science, our colleges would
do well to arrange their exercises on the model of the debating society,
or of the moot-courts of professional schools; so as to elicit voluntary
mental action and effective cooperation on the part of students in their
own education. The random exercises of debating clubs, as they are
commonly conducted, in which little or no systematic preparation is
made for discussion, do not serve such a purpose. For educational
influences, careful premeditation and critical supervision are equally
necessary to render discussion an appropriate discipline.
Natural Thcoloyy forms another branch of study peculiarly fitted
to call forth and improve the reflective and reasoning powers of the
mind. Every new advance of science gives additional attractions to
this ennobling theme of contemplation. The profound thought to
which it leads, the large analogies which it reveals, the great truths
which it urges home to the mind, the sublime heights to which it
conducts aspiring reason, all indicate the high value of this branch
of philosophic investigation, as an effective means of enlarging and
invigorating the noblest faculties with which man is invested.
The subject of natural theology is, by no means, neglected in our
customary routine of studies, either in schools or colleges. It is care-
fully designated on the programme of instruction, and regularly
assigned to a definite term of the course. But restricted, as the atten-
tion given to these subjects generally is, to recitation from a formal
text-book, little of the peculiar effect of personal investigation into
them is felt on the mind at the time, or marked on the subsequent
mental character of the student. Personal examination, and actual
analysis and manipulation, are as much needed in the illustrations
which serve to throw light on the subject of natural theology as they
148 CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
are in the study of any other branch of science. The actual, ocular
inspection of objects, is felt to be the only means of effective instruc-
tion in all other subjects which require the verification of principle by
reference to fact. Without the aid of such practical measures, the
best of text-books becomes dry or tedious, and, at all events, fails of
exciting* the earnest attention and personal interest which secure the
energetic action of the whole mind, give life and vigor to its habits
of action, and insure the further prosecution of inquiry in after stages
of life.
To secure an earnest voluntary application to this noble study is not
difficult, if the instructor take pains to invite his students to personal
investigation of the numberless evidences of Divine power, wisdom,
and goodness, which are furnished in every department of nature.
The pleasure of observing, recording, and reporting these, is one to
which the teacher who will faithfully make the experiment will find
few minds so torpid as to be insensible.
Evidences of Christianity. This subject, too, has its appointed
place in our seminaries of learning; and that it is a study required in
our higher schools for the female sex, as well as in our colleges, is a
happy indication. But, the unintellectual, unmeaning process of
reciting merely the paragraphs of a text-book, has the same injurious
effect in this as in other departments of education. No subject can
be presented to the mind on which the importance of clear and distinct
views, or deep impressions and personal convictions of truth, are so
important to the student, as on this ; none on which the utmost
rigor of deduction, the closest investigation, the most cautious induc-
tion, are so imperatively demanded. The mere verbatim committing
to memory, or even the careful recapitulation, of the arguments
presented in the best of manuals, is a process too passive for any valu-
able purpose of educational influence on the individual. The second-
hand knowledge thus acquired, makes too slight an impression to
become a permanent personal possession ; as the experienced teacher
has sometimes cause to feel most deeply, when he sees a promising
youth, who has recited his way successfully through a whole manual
of " evidences," so easily caught and entangled in the slight web of
superficial and sophistical arguments offered by a fluent fellow-student,
inclined to skeptical habits of thought.
The result is quite different when the instructor prescribes, not the
mere language or reasoning of a single author, but a careful compari-
son of several, and a resume prepared by the student himself, together
with a full statement of objections, and the arguments by which these
are rebutted. A still deeper impression is made on the mind of the
individual, when such recapitulations are made, not only in the regular
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. 549
form of writing, but in that also of deliberate, correct, and, if possible,
earnest oral expression. It is thus only that great and vital truths
can be woven into the texture of his own mind, and become, as it
were, inseparable parts of itself.
Practical Exercises. In conclusion of these suggestions regarding
the development and discipline of the reflective faculties, a few other
forms of practical exercise may deserve attention, as matters which
devolve on the personal action and diligence of the teacher, in regard
to the aid which his living instructions and intelligent supervision
ought to furnish, in addition to the customary course prescribed in
manuals or text-books ; and here we may advert to the great value of
(1.) Systematic Reading, as a means of cultivating reflective and
thoughtful habits of mind, reading, I mean, which is study, and not
mere perusal ; reading which is attentively done, carefully reviewed,
exactly recorded, and, if practicable, orally recounted. Memory,
under such discipline, becomes thoroughly retentive, information
exact, judgment correct, conception clear, thought copious, and
expression ready arid appropriate.
(2.) An important aid to systematic reading may be found in the
exercise of writing a careful, marginal synopsis of valuable works,
comprising all their principal topics, distinctly presented, and, in
addition to this, a penciled analysis of every prominent head or para-
graph into its constituent subordinate details. In the case of standard
works of great value and permanent authority, it may be worth while
to draught a separate plan of the entire work under study, in which
the synopsis and the analysis are so arranged to the eye, that the
advantage of a mental map of the whole subject is secured for distinct
and easy recollection, by the union of logical and ocular method.
(3.) As a means of training the faculty of judgment to correctness
in its decisions, and exactness in discrimination, exercises in analysis,
on every description of material, are of the greatest value. In the
earliest stages of education, these may be performed, to great advan-
tage, on objects in nature, particularly on the structure and organiza-
tion of plants, with the aid, too, of the microscope. At a more advanced
stage, the analysis of language, successively extending to sentences,
clauses, phrases, words, and syllables, in written as well as oral forms,
is another exercise of great value for sharpening the power of discrimin-
ation and forming habits of correct judgment. Still greater benefit
attends the oral analysis of discourses, essays, and other didactic com-
positions, for the purpose of tracing their authors' trains of thought,
following these in detail, and afterward recording the analysis, as has
been already suggested.
150 CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
(4.} To cultivate successfully the reasoning faculty, no method more
effectual can be adopted than that of training the mind to a perfect
observance of the prime law of Order. This great principle comes to
the aid of the young mind, as creative ordination applied to chaos.
The countless multitude and variety of objects soliciting observation,
in the early years of childhood, and even at much later stages, often
throw the mind into confusion and perplexity, till order comes to its
aid, and, like the benevolent fairy in the fable, arranges the compli-
cated masses and irregular accumulations, and lets in the light of
system and method upon the elements of the mental world. Conflict-
ing objects and relations are thus parted by due distinction ; accordant
elements and phenomena are grouped together, by their analogies and
affinities, their connections and dependencies, the predominance of some
and the subordination of others ; till, at length, the authority of Law
is recognized, and harmony established.
To attain this result, Reason, the supreme ordaining faculty, has to
exert its power in various modes of operation. Judgment, as reason's
executive, has to collate, examine, compare, associate, combine and
classify the objects of observation and the subjects of consciousness.
For such purposes no exercises can be better adapted than those which
commence with the action of the perceptive faculties, and yet involve
the use of the reflective, to a certain extent. Nature's great systems,
in her three vast kingdoms, furnish, of course, the best material for
such exercise and discipline of the mind, by combining with its perceptive
action the aid of reflecting reason, in the contemplation and study of
the vast domain of creation. As a noble discipline for the rational
faculties, in their ascendancy over those of outward observation, and
yet in perfect harmony and cooperation with them, no exercise can be
more beneficial than that of surveying, in the light of science, the
elements and forms of external nature. An illustration in point may
be found in the science of botany, which is now rendered so generally
accessible and so highly attractive, by recent manuals presenting this
subject on the " natural " system, as an instructive and interesting branch
of knowledge for all minds. Another example occurs in the arrange-
ment of the animal kingdom presented by Cuvier, and modified by
our great contemporary naturalist, Agassiz. The generous labors of
this distinguished instructor, in his endeavors to bring his favorite
subject before the minds of teachers, in forms happily adapted to the
condition of their schools, have afforded the best suggestions for
conducting appropriate exercises in this department of education. And
it is to be hoped that many of our seminaries will henceforward enjoy
the benefits of the admirable mental discipline resulting from those
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. 151
habits of attentive observation, careful examination, and close analysis,
as well as those of orderly arrangement, enlarged contemplation, and
systematic classification, which the thorough study of nature is so hap-
pily adapted to insure.
But it should never be forgotten by the teacher that it is the extent
to which the student is induced to carry the personal observation and
actual collection of natural objects, and the care and fidelity with
which he arranges his specimens according to the requirements of
scientific classification, which determine how far the higher powers of
his mind will be benefited by the study. There are too many semi-
naries, even now, in which the teacher, far from following the instruc-
tive personal example of the eminent authority to whom we have just
referred, and joining their students in the actual exploration of nature,
in the field exercises of observing and collecting, permit them to stay
within doors, and " study " the whole subject by book.
The value of personal observation and actual investigation, as the
only sure means of rendering the educational materials furnished in
external nature, and in the action of the percipient intellect on these,
conducive to the development and discipline of the mind's reflective
power, is evinced in all the other relations and departments of physi-
cal science. The study of astronomy, as commonly conducted in our
seminaries of all grades, has been, till recently, a process of mere book-
work, of committing to memory the successive sentences of a manual,
and repeating them by word of mouth. The actual observation of
the heavens was a thing not thought of but as a matter of occasional
gratification to curiosity ; while, to render astronomy an effective
instrument of mental culture, capable of awakening attention and
eliciting reflection, the nightly survey of the varying aspects of the
firmament, in conjunction with the passing hours, and the actual posi-
tions, or apparent shifting of the planetary bodies, should be continued
till the eye finds itself, so to speak, at home in that upper world of
wondrous facts, and the observer can literally ** call the stars by name."
Many teachers have it easily in their power to render the young
mind this noble service, which may stamp a thoughtful character on
its habits of action for a whole life-time. Happily, many of our col-
leges are now enabled to offer to those who enjoy the superior oppor-
tunities of studf afforded by such seminaries, the facilities for actual
observation, which modern science and art so amply provide, in this
department of education. But, in most of our higher schools and
academies, even in some which are favored with the possession and
occasional use of a telescope, the actual study of the heavens, even
with the naked eye, or the humblest endeavor to note the position and
]52 CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
movements of the heavenly bodies, so as to enable the learner intelli-
gently to read the sky, remains, as yet, a thing seldom attempted.
Were early education in this department rightly conducted, the
young student would be prepared to receive with delight those sub-
lime revelations of astronomical science which exhibit the laws of order
and subordination, of mutual influence and adjustment, ruling in
the apparent " wilderness of worlds," and indicating the controlling
power of that Reason which presides in eternal supremacy over the
universe.
CONCLUDING EXPLANATIONS.
The brief and imperfect survey of the ground and principles of
intellectual culture, which is here concluded, was, as has been inti-
mated, originally presented in the form of conversational oral lectures
to successive classes of young teachers and of persons intending to
enter on the occupation of teaching. The views presented in these
lectures were adapted, therefore, to the mental circumstances of
students to some of whom any form of systematic investigation on the
subject of intellectual discipline was wholly new, and to many of
whom the philosophy of education was, as yet, a field unexplored.
This fact will serve to explain the strictly elementary character of the
preceding discussion, and the familiar style of its illustrations, as well
as the frequent iteration of special topics ; while the vast importance of
the subject itself, in relation to the anticipated office and duties of the
teacher, as the educator and guardian of the young rnind, together
with the acknowledged too general neglect of such considerations,
rendered it necessary that the lecturer should endeavor to present the
whole work of education in the impressive light of the highest rela-
tions and principles of human action.
To some of the readers of this journal, therefore, the whole series
of these lectures may have seemed common-place and uninteresting ;
and to others the course of analysis may have seemed too abstract and
philosophical for the ordinary purposes and business of education.
The contributor of this and the preceding communications of the series
to the pages of this journal can only plead, in answer to both classes
of objections, that, for many years, his personal field of observation
and of action has made it necessary for him to endeavor to meet the
wants of ingenuous minds, conscious of deficiencies in their own course
of early training, and earnestly desirous of the guiding light of the
simplest, yet the highest, educational principles, to direct their own
efforts for the advancement of others. Successive years, occupied in
three of our New England States, in endeavoring to aid the noble
aspirations of those whose daily labors form the ground of the
CULTIVATION OF THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. 153
intellectual and moral hope of the community, have convinced the writer '
that the teacher's professional wants are most satisfactorily met when
elementary principles of education are simply stated and practically
illustrated, and the highest relations of human duty are presented as
the motives to personal and professional action. Long may the " plain
living and high thinking " of their ancestry continue to characterize the
teachers of New England !
The allusions made, in the course of the preceding discussion, to
existing defects in "higher" seminaries, might seem uncalled for in a
course of remarks addressed to young teachers. To explain this
apparent intrusion, it may be sufficient to say, that some of the classes
to which these lectures were originally addressed included among
their members individuals who, though young both in years and
experience, were graduates of the highest class of literary institutions,
were anticipating professional employment in such establishments, and
were attending the course of lectures with reference to the application,
in their personal instructions, of the principles under discussion.
Apart, however, from this relation of circumstances, the considera-
tion of principles of education, and methods of instruction, necessarily
extends through the whole educational course of training; and defec-
tive methods of teaching are but little less injurious in the higher than
in the lower forms of culture. The fact, moreover, is undeniable, that
the renovation of the character of instruction, whether at home or
abroad, has uniformly commenced in the primary stages of education,
and won its way gradually upward ; a circumstance easily accounted
for, when we recollect that, in the reformation, now so generally
effected in elementary teaching, more regard has been paid to the
wants of the mind, and less to the demands of subjects, than formerly
was the case in the management of primary schools, or than is now,
in the customary regulation of institutions of the highest nominal
order, in most of which the subject of study is still too uniformly
regarded in preference to the instrument of study.
To some readers of the journal, the intellectual philosophy, involved
in the principles adopted in the preceding analysis of mental action
and development, may not seem satisfactory, as not according, in
express terms, with established authorities on such topics. To objec-
tions of this character the author can only suggest that, in the circum-
stances of many of those to whom his lectures were addressed, it was
not practicable to assume the data of a previous course of study in
intellectual philosophy ; and all that could properly be done, on his
part, was to interweave, with his suggestions for the guidance of
instructors in their professional endeavors, such elementary views of
1 K
154 CULTIVATION OP THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES.
mental action and tendency as might afford intelligible ground for
these suggestions.
At the same time, the writer feels free to say that, following the
counsels of his own instructor, the venerable Jardine, (a student and
successor of Dr. Reid,) he could not adopt any " system " of intellec-
tual philosophy as such. All systems hitherto offered have contri-
buted useful suggestions for the guidance of inquiry. But none, as
yet, can be regarded as exhaustive or complete. The mind, as a sub-
ject of study, has not yet received the humble measure of justice
which we yield to a plant or a mineral, a careful observation and
close examination of its own character, apart from the obscuring
influence of the conflicting views and metaphysical speculations of
great writers and eminent authorities. But, to the teacher, philosophi
cal theory is a doubtful aid, compared to his own daily inspection
of the mind itself, in its actual working and obvious tendencies. He
is, if he understands his position, himself a primary observer, authority
and reporter, in the science of mind, as developed in the processes of
education. His work is that of a living philosopher, in act. To his
young disciples, he is Plato, and Socrates, and Aristotle, embodied in
one person ; opening to their expanding minds the highest spiritual,
moral, and intellectual relations of truth.
The ground thus assigned as the field of the teacher's labor, is not
too high to be assumed by any instructor, whatever be the nominal
rank of the seminary in which he teaches. A mind accustomed to
large views, and working on broad principles, will, unconsciously antl
necessarily, adopt methods correspondent, and will radiate, from its
own action, light and truth throughout the sphere of its influence.
Nowhere is this statement more strikingly verified than in the case of
an intelligent teacher, in the direction and instruction of an element-
ary school. It is in this sphere that ingenuity, and tact, and origin-
ality, arid skill are most needed, in endeavors to develop intellectual
capabilities, and build up the great fabric of mental power. Nowhere
else, in the whole field of education, is the demand so urgent for a
thorough insight into the nature and working of the mind, for the
light to guide its advances, or the power to mold its expanding
character.
INDEX.
Alphabet, mere drilling on, injurious,
p. 16 ; error of omitting the sounds
of letters, 81 ; recognition of the
forms of letters^ 38.
Analogy, the medium of expression, 63.
Analysis, preliminary of intellectual
faculties, 11 ; as a process, facilitated
bv training on objects, 29; its disci-
plinary character and value, 46, 47.
Apparatus, educational, provision of, 26.
Art, pictorial, as a discipline of the per-
ceptive faculties, 30.
Articulation, practice of, 32.
Attention, delinition of, 13 ; as a volun-
tary act, 34, 35 ; promptness of, 35 ;
earnestness, 36 ; closeness, 37 ; aided
by the microscope, conducive to al-
phabetic instruction, to mathematical
attainments, 38 : tenacity of, its val-
ue, how attained, 39 ; ultimate etf'ects
on mental power, 40.
Classification as a disciplinary process,
55 ; its appropriate materials for early
training, 56.
Communication, the result of the action
of the expressive faculties ; viewed
as a power, 78 ; its intellectual and
moral effects, its value, 79.
Comparison, as a disciplinary exercise
for the expressive faculties, its influ-
ence on rational and reflective pro-
cesses, 53; its relations to classifica-
tion and induction, to order, method,
law, principleSj rule ; proper materi-
als for its exercise, 54.
Composition, practice of; defective
methods, 85 ; seasonable training, 86.
Conception, etymology and acceptation
of the term," 106; different views of
this faculty ; 107 ; its susceptibility of
culture, its intellectual and moral val-
ue, 10S.
Concluding explanations, 152.
Consciousness, etymology of the term,
108 ; fitness of its application, differ-
ent opinions of the nature of this fac-
ulty, 109 ; educational view ; intel-
lectual and moral offices of conscious-
ness, 110 ; its educational culture, 111.
Culture, intellectual, outline of, 11, 12.
Curiosity, the actuating principle of the
perceptive faculties, 14.
Deduction, as a process of reason, 116.
Direction, as a didactic process, 51 ; ex-
emplified, 52.
Drawing, its effects as a discipline of
the perceptive faculties, 30 ; common
mistake regarding its relation to the
cultivation of taste, 91.
Elocution : as a discipline of the ear ; its
connections with music, oratory, poe-
try, 33 ; errors in instruction, 86 ; in
theory, exemplified by Dr. Whately,
87, 90.
Emotion, its offices in expression ; a re-
sult of sensibility, 59 ; naturally spon-
taneous and involuntary, the language
of sympathy, its various forms, 60 ;
its different effects ; its influence on
language, 61.
English language, neglect of, 81, 99,
100.
Enunciation, its connection with articu-
lation and pronunciation. 32.
Errors in education : in tlie order of
cultivation, 13 ; m school regime,
16, 19 ; in the cultivation of the
expressive faculties, repression, 76 ;
limited exercise in passive forms. 80 ;
incorrect example, false alphabetic
training, 81 ; neglect of the meaning
of words, defective reading exercises,
82, 83 ; arbitrary methods of teaching
grammar, composition, 84, 85 ; rhet-
oric, elocution, 86 1*0 ; drawing, mu-
sic, vocal and instrumental, 91 93;
remedies for these errors, 93 100.
Etymology of terms applied to mental
action, and educational relations, 18,
49, 50, 101. 106, 107, 108. Ill, 112,
116, 117.
Expressive faculties, cultivation of:
their place in the order of action and
development, 57 ; classification of,
58.; their actuating principle, 70; their
tendency, 75 ; result of their action,
78 ; their educational processes, 80,
93100.
Fancy, its effects on expression, 64.
Feeling, the actuating principle of the
expressive faculties, 70 ; an incite-
ment to sympath^, an instigation ; in-
fluenced Dy imagination ana volition ;
its influence on the artist, 71 ; the
child, the adult, the actor and his au-
dience, the orator, the poet, and on
all forms of expression, 72 ; on moral
character; on art, as exemplified in
music, 73 ; on language and litera-
ture ; its subjection to the guidance
of education, 74.
Furniture, intellectual, for schoolrooms,
16.
Gesture, a subject of cultivation, 90.
Grammar, methods of instruction, 84,
85.
Ilolbrook, Josiah, an example to teach-
ers, 44.
Imagination, significance of the term ;
sphere of the faculty, 64.
Imitation, its tendencies; drawing, as
an imitative art ; music, 65.
Inference, as a process of reason, 116.
Information, as a guide to observation,
51, 52.
Inquiry, the actuating principle of the
reflective faculties ; its analogy to cu-
riosity, 121.
Inspection of objects, as a disciplinary
exercise ; exemplified in botany, 48 ;
in zoology, 49.
Interrogation, as an intellectual disci-
pline, 49 ; book questions, children's
questions, 50 ; leading questions, 51.
156
RUSSELL ON INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.
Intuition, an act of reason, 116.
Investigation, the tendency of action in
the reflective faculties ; its directions,
122 exemplified in the scientific trav-
eler, the astronomer ; the historian,
the philologist, 123 m the mechani-
cian, the chemist ; its value in all the
higher relations of thought, 124.
Judgment, identical with reason, 119.
Knowledge, the result of the action of
the perceptive faculties, 21 ; actual,
22 ; verbal accuracy a false test of:
true knowledge experimental and
personal, 23.
Language, a measure of power, 68 ;^ its
vtilue, 69; study of languages ancient
and modern, of "the English language,
98100.
Memory, the basis of reflective power ;
remembrance, 103; intellectual and
moral offic.es of memory, recollection,
104; suggestive power of memory,
105 ; its susceptibility of cultivation,
106.
Method, importance of, to the teacher, 10.
Methods, defective, of instruction, re-
garding the action of the reflective
faculties, 127 ; exemplified with ref-
erence to reading, arithmetic, geogra-
phy, history, language, logic, intel-
factual and moral philosophy, 121'
134 ; appropriate methods for the dis-
cipline of the reflective faculties,
135151.
Modeling, its uses in training the per-
ceptive faculties, 30.
Models, false, in music; their injurious
effects, 93. .
Monotony, evils of, in modes of train-
ing, 15.
Music, as a discipline for the ear, 31 ;
errors regarding it, 91 93.
Nature, importance of early study of,
20; universal susceptibility to its in-
fluence, eifects of on mental charac-
ter, 21 ; value of the study and ob-
servation of it, as a discipline of in-
tellect, 40.
Novelty, need of in modes of early
training, 15.
Objects, study of, with reference to col-
or, form, measure, number, organiza-
tion, 2729.
Observation, definition of, 13 ; its influ-
ence as an instinctive intellectual ten-
dency, 17; its effects as a habit, 18;
cherished by early attention to ele-
mentary botany, geology, mineralogy,
zo5logy, 19 ; habits of attentive ob-
servation, how secured and confirmed,
4146.
Perception, definition of, 13.
Perceptive faculties, cultivation of, 9;
contemplated with reference to their
classification, 12, 13 ; their actuating
principle, 14 17 ; their tendency,
17 21 ; the result of their action,
21 26 ; their appropriate educational
processes of exercise, development,
and discipline, 20 55.
Personation, as a mode of expression,
66 ; exemplified in the successive
stages of life, 67.
Philosophy, mental importance of, to
the teacher, 120.
Plan necessary for the guidance of the
teacher, 10.
Processes, educational, for the disci-
pline of the perceptive faculties, 12,
26 55 ; of the expressive, 80, 93
100; of the reflective, 127151.
Progressive intellection, law of, 26 ;
progressive discipline of the percep-
tive faculties, 33.
Eatiocination, definition of, 117.
Eeason, explanatory remark, 111 ; ety-
mology of the term ; definiteness and
certainty of action in this faculty,
112 ; its offices in definition and dis-
crimination, its authority,, 113 ; its
cognizance of relations ; its invent-
ive character, 114 ; aberration of rea-
son ; uses of reason in analysis and
abstraction, 115; intuition, inference,
deduction, 116 ; generalization, in-
duction, ratiocination, 117 ; reason, as
cognizant of truth, as susceptible of
cultivation, 118 ; judgment, under-
standing, 119.
Recollection, definition of, 104, 105.
Reflective faculties, cultivation of; in-
troductory observations; etymology
of terms, 101 ; classification, 102 ; act-
uating principle, 121; tendency, 122
124 ; result, 125, 126 ; educational
processes, 127 151.
Remedies for errors regarding the culti-
vation of the expressive faculties,
93100.
Remembrance, definition of, 103.
Representation, a form of expression,
67.
Repression, evils of, 9 ;
Revision, necessity of in the plan of
education, 5, 0.
Rhetoric, methods of teaching, 86.
Sensation 2 definition of, _12.
Senses, discipline of; sight, color, 27 ;
form, measure, number, 28 ; natural
objects, animated forms, 29 ; the ear,
music, speech, 31.
Speech and writing, results of disci-
pline, 68.
Taste, significance of the term ; char-
acter of true taste, 69 ; its positive
power ; a subject of culture, 70.
Teacher, his true point of view, 6 ; his
aim" in instruction, 9; his "need of
plan and method, 10 ; his place as an
observer of the mind, 14 ; his proper
business as its superintendent, 23.
Truth, the result of the action of the
reflective faculties, 125, 126.
Understanding, its identity with reason,
119.
Utterance, the tendency of the express-
ive faculties, 75 78.
Variety, its importance in modes of
culture, 15.
Wonder, its analogy to curiosity, 15:
its eifects, 17.
II. MORAL EDUCATION.*
LECTURES ADDRESSED TO YOUNG TEACHERS.
BY WILLIAM RUSSELL,
Editor of the American Journal of Education (Boston,) 1826-29.
INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS.
Importance of the Stud;/ of Marts Moral Constitution. The
vital part of human culture is not that which makes man what he is
intellectually, but that which makes him what he is in heart, life, and
character. Intellectual cultivation, however, is a source of moral
power to the individual, not merely in the mental aid which it enables
him to render to others, but in that which it gives him for the under-
standing and government of himself. All intellectual training, there-
fore, is necessarily moral in its influence, so far as regards enlarged
opportunity and power of intelligent, voluntary, and efficient action.
It is only misguided ignorance, blinding prejudice, or perverted in-
genuity, that would ignore or undo, in educational administration, the
natural union of morality with intelligence.
A culture exclusively intellectual serves but to exhibit the skeleton
of the mental frame, which moral influence is to furnish with the
means and the power of action, and into which religious principle is
to breathe the breath of life. But when moral culture assumes a
separate and formal character, it ceases to be a living spiritual reality,
and becomes but a mechanical routine of "the letter'' which, we are
told, "killeth." No reliance for effective moral influence on disposi-
tion or character, can be safely placed on mere didactic inculcation or
catechetical instruction. The oracles of Divine truth tell us, that the
highest moral training the spiritual does not separate '' admonition"
from "nurture" the life-giving influence but combines the two in
the educational process of "bringing up." The true study of the
human being, as a subject of meliorating culture, contemplates the
child in the living unity of his whole nature. It regards him as an
intelligent self-conscious, self-impelling, self-guiding, self-responsible
agent, yet dependent on, and responsible to, the law of a higher power
*Ar the suggestion of Hon. Henry Barnard the following series of lectures has been
transcribed from the author's general course on Human Culture, originally addressed to the
students of the Merrimack, (N. H.,) and New England, (Lancaster, Mass..) Normal Institutes.
A previous series on Intellectual Education, may be found by referring to Vols. II., Ill , and
IV., of this Journal.
158 MORAL EDUCATION.
than his own, which has summed up and defined his individuality in
a conscious will.
All careful investigation, however, in the mental, not less than in
the physical world, implies an examination so close as to constitute a
thorough analysis not, in this instance, for the sake of a mere philo-
sophic solution, but for the purpose of securing a true synthetic con-
struction of life and character, by the better understanding, so ob-
tained, of constituent elements and the influences which may best
secure their living union and power. In every process of " instruc-
tion," (inward building ,) the educator, whether parent or teacher, if
he would work thoughtfully and successfully if he would avoid lay-
ing upon the mental foundation of created capability a superstructure
of "wood, hay, stubble," instead of the "gold, silver, and precious
stones" of true worth and value is in duty bound to see to it that
lie attentively observe, and carefully study, the nature and constitu-
tion of the being, whose fabric of character it is his office to aid in
building up. The educator must, in a word, thoroughly understand
and appreciate the elements of human character. These must be
familiar to him in all their relations, and in all their varied work-
ings, that he may understand more fully the means and sources
of healthy action and healthful regimen, which it is his duty to
prescribe.
True position of the Teacher as a Moral Educator. Even to the
youngest and least experienced of teachers, who wishes to acquit him-
self to the moral obligations under which he is professionally laid,
equally to his pupils and himself, we would earnestly recommend not
the practice of looking into some text-book of moral philosophy, for
his own guidance, or for the instruction of his pupils, but in the
true spirit of an earnest, faithful, and intelligent instructor, who is
aware that all he daily does or omits is a part of the effectual, living
education of the subjects of his influence the careful study and
watchful observation of the moral indications and tendencies of his
pupils, as intimating their capabilities and suggesting his measures
and resources. It is his part to carry on, in successive stages, the
sacred offices of parental love and wisdom, daily transferred to his
charge, to be fulfilled in the sphere of the schoolroonf, according to
the measure of his judgment, his skill, and his benignity. But the
proper home influence, though so often missing, is the true ideal of
purpose, plan, and work, for the teacher ; and, so far as regards moral
results, in the schoolroom as at home, the appropriate influence must
ever be that of an authoritative, affectionate, living, presence not
that of an inanimate book or a deadening routine.
No one doubts that, to become a skillful cultivator of the intel
INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 159
lectual capabilities of his pupils, the instructor must understand the
character and action of the intellectual faculties not merely as these
exist in the enumeration of particulars in a text-book of mental phi-
losophy, but as they actually reveal themselves in the personal action
and relations of the living pupil, in whatever concerns the use and
exercise of his mind. The teacher must take the position not of a
student of intellectual philosophy, ruminating in his study, but of a
wakeful observer and inquirer into the phenomena of an actual, living
specimen of the human mind, whose course is to be, in part, depend-
ent on the fidelity of his observation, and the genial character of his
influence. Our previous course of suggestions on the cultivation of
the intellectual faculties, it will be recollected, assumed this ground as
the appropriate and peculiar one of the teacher, and the only one on
which he could justly be regarded as doing aright his professional
work. The same ground we would claim for the teacher, when sur-
veying the field of moral culture.
ARRANGEMENT OF TOPICS.
Recapitulation of Method. The plan which we propose to adopt
in the following series of lectures, will still be, as in the former series,
that which places the teacher as a responsible personal observer and
reporter on phenomena and facts; watching and aiding the progress
of human development. Our survey of the field of intellectual culti-
vation, as founded on the nature and constitution of the human being,
presented, (1.) it will be recollected, a given, class of the mental powers
and faculties, themselves, as subjects of examination; (2.) the actuat-
ing principle, or moving spring, of these powers; (3.) their percepti-
ble natural tendency, or course of action ; (4.) the results of their ac-
tion ; and, (5.) the educational processes designed for their appropriate
development.
Following this plan, we avoid all mere theoretic speculation, and
stand on the sure ground of observed fact the only point of view
for the discovery and recognition of truth, or the direction and guid-
ance of the teacher. We thus, moreover, place the work of educa-
tion in the teacher's own hands, as a charge devolving on him, not
merely professionally, but personally, and laying him under his just
responsibility, as an agent for others, and as one intrusted, in the
capacity of temporary guardian, with the dearest of all human inte-
rests, and the best of all hopes hopes extending even to a never-
dying life.
I. CLASSIFICATION OF THE MORAL CAPABILITIES.
Unity of Man's Moral Constitution. Adopting the above method
for our course of suggestions on moral education, we should proceed
160 MORAL EDUCATION.
to enumerate, as a class, the most prominent of the peculiar powers
and faculties which constitute man a moral being', capable of moral
influence, instruction, and development. But as every moral act
involves the whole man not merely the executive organ of muscle
or nerve, intellect, heart or will, but all, in their living unity and
active cooperation, we can not, as when examining the intellectual
faculties, select any class or group of powers as exclusively constitu-
ting the moral capabilities of the human being. We must take into
view his whole nature, comprehending, as it does, the vast range of
his physical, intellectual, emotional, and voluntary attributes, in the
personal constitution and organization .of the individual.
1. HEALTH as an element of Moral Life. Man's moral condition,
and his capability of moral development, depend, in no slight degree,
on that intimate connection which the Creator has ordained between
soul and body. As a necessary condition of the unity of man's
complex nature, wholeness of being is essential to whole and true,
that is, normal action, whether of body, or of mind, or of both.
Physical disorder, by its reactionary character, disintegrates its
subject as a moral agent, by withdrawing the executive organism
from cooperation and consentaneous action, in subordination whether
to the dictates of reason and conscience, the solicitations of feeling,
or the normal activity of the will. Physical suffering, and its attend-
ant involuntary irritation, are sufficient to overcast the clear healthy
action of the judgment, to stifle the monitions of conscience, to
change the natural current of affection, to generate angry passion,
and propagate moral evil, to any extent from the petty ebullitions
of peevish temper, to the outbreaks of the fiercest anger, or of raving
and furious insanity. Health, then, the educator must ever be careful
to enumerate among the conditions of morality, whether the healthy
state of the agent be owing to the normal sanity of mere bodily
condition, or to that health of the higher nature, conscience, which,
in man's fallen state, must so often be invoked, to rule the turbulent
and rebellious tendencies of a morbid physical organization, and
which, when enlightened, and strengthened, and purified, by super-
nal aid, is a surer reliance than the happiest condition of the best
normal animal life. To this branch of our subject we shall have
occasion to refer more distinctly, under other heads, in the discus-
sion of parental and educational influences.
2. INTELLECT, and its culture, important elements of Moral Life.
The vital fact of man's moral unity of constitution, involves the
condition of his intellectual nature, as sound and true, or otherwise.
The unhealthy condition of the bodily organism, is sufficient to sub-
vert, as we have seen, the whole moral character of the human being,
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MORAL CAPABILITIES. JgJ
in seasons of excessive morbid reaction. Sanity and vigor of mind,
not less than health of body, and conditions of moral life and action;
as is sadly manifest when we advert to those unhappy cases in which
there has been an overthrow or obscuration of the god-like power
of reason itself. Insanity, whether in the form of mental aberration
or delusion, is competent not only to impair, but to obliterate, the
distinctive mental and moral attributes of man.
The enlightened humanity of our day mitigates by genial, and
sometimes, successful treatment, the sufferings of our nature, when
reduced to such deplorable conditions; and its kind offices are
crowned with yet more marked success, in its endeavors to raise the
idiotic and the feeble minded to a comparatively healthy intellectual
and moral level. It is one of the .highest tributes paid to moral
culture we may observe in passing that such replacements of
depressed human nature are generally recognized as owing their
success to the purely moral measures adopted in effecting them,
whether in cases of insanity or of idiocy.
Culture essential to Intelligence, and therefore, to Moral Elevation.
Gross ignorance, and utter absence of mental culture, are proved to
be, in general, fruitful sources of crime, and of moral evil in every
shape. It is not enough that a sane mind and sound judgment be
taken into the account, as, indispensable elements in the production
of legitimate moral results in action and character. The intellect
beclouded and darkened by ignorance and its attendant hosts of
error and prejudice, or benumbed by neglect and disuse, is incapable
of the clearness and activity which belong to the normal states and
conditions of the human mind. A pure, intelligent, and loyal
adherence to principle and to conscience, can not, in such circum-
stances, be expected to exist. The character indicated in sacred
scripture, " a brutish man" who "doth not know," may not have chosen
his condition ; but, while in it, he is disqualified for every proper
exercise of man's reflective and moral nature. The density of igno-
rance to which some classes of the population of European cities,
and the majority of the slave population of our own country, are
sunk, shows, in its deplorable depression, and its nearly hopeless
extinction or absence of conscience, how important the daylight of
knowledge is to a pure atmosphere in the human soul.
Evils of excessive Cultivation. Morality necessarily implies a
certain degree of intelligence and of culture. But, unhappily, there
is, as is too plainly apparent in the forms of civilized and city life,
a condition in which a moral inefficiency of mind is attributable not
to the absence, but to the injudicious excess of cultivation; and the
pale and emaciated features of school children and students, too
11
162 MORAL EDUCATION.
generally indicate the incompatibility of sedentary life and close,
studious application, daily sustained, with a natural, healthy condi-
tion of body. The parental complaints against schools, as under-
mining the temper and vivacity of childhood, confirm the truth that
the "much study" which "is a weariness of the flesh," impairs, also,
the healthy vigor and freshness of the spirit.
Genial influence of appropriate early Culture. Were early
education what it should be, a course of invigorating, life-giving
observation of nature and its products, and a succession of healthful,
inspiring exercises, alternating with soothing relaxation and cheering
recreation, and a strictly limited and very moderate exercise of
pure intellection ; culture and intelligence would cease to be, as now,
too often purchased at the expense of a healthy tone of mind and
habit. But, as we must recur to this branch of our subject when we
come to the discussion of educational methods, we must leave it, for
the present, with this postulate, that a sound, clear, vigorous, and
well trained understanding, capable of correct and decisive judgments,
is as important as the possession of reason itself, to constitute man
a responsible, moral agent. In other words, that his rational faculty
is a moral power.
3. ^ESTHETIC CULTURE : its Moral Influence on Imagination and
Taste. Among the intellectual sources of moral life and power, a
prominent place must ever be assigned by the judicious educator
to the moulding and directing efficacy of imagination and taste. If
the.se influential faculties are untrue or impure in their action and
character, the tendency of the whole moral being is "only evil, and
that continually." If they are sound, healthy, pure, and vigorous,
they become sure safeguards, faithful guides, and genial companions
of the youthful spirit. They, also, rise to the rank of powers in the
moral domain of humanity.
Moral influence of the impressions of Sublimity and Beauty. In
that commingling of intuition, feeling, and imagination, and, some-
times, even of reflective judgment, by which the soul is at once
overawed, and delighted, and exalted, in the contemplation of the
vast, the sublime, the majestic in nature or in thought, or in that
only less elevating influence which is inspired by the blending effects
of greatness and grace in the grandeur of nature or of noble art, or
even in that delighted and admiring love which is elicited by the
presence of beauty in the myriad forms and hues with which the
Creator has invested the living and ever-varying aspects of nature,
which man delights to imitate in art; in all these relations of mind
is involved a moral element of power, by which man's nature is
ennobled and purified, a4 <prejwed, # s J n the vestibule of a sanctu-
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MORAL CAPABILITIES. 163
ary, for those yet higher and more effective influences which lift awe
into adoration, and attract the soul to the beauty of holiness. Such
at least, we know, is the natural tendency of unperverted mind, and
the experience of every soul on which the true Light shineth.
The mind which, under the purifying influence of genial culture,
enjoys the refining emotions and clear perceptions of a true "taste,"
(relish,) for those pursuits which lead to the admiring contemplation
of nature, and to the practice of those arts which enable man to
express his admiration of nature possesses, in its love of the beauti-
ful, a natural preparation for the reception of all those salutary
impressions which, in a higher relation, are stamped upon the heart
by the irresistible power of every trait ^of loveliness of disposition and
character embodied in the daily beauty of a pure and amiable life.
The Graphic Arts which embody and repeat and perpetuate such
impressions, are not to be overlooked in an enumeration of man's capa-
bilities of refining and elevating culture, even in its strictly moral and
spiritual relation. The dumb statue, by its perfect symmetry and
grace, or its touching beauty, makes the heart eloquent inwardly with
delight and love, with admiration, or with tenderness and sympathy.
The portrait which recalls the image of the lost and lovely, the good
and the true, the noble and the worthy, speaks most touchingly to
us, from the spirit of the departed, in the language of the heart.
The landscape which skillful art presents as a microcosm of glorious
nature, conjured from dead, material means and implements, by a
concentration of man's inventive genius and educated hand, deepens,
at once, our love of this our earthly home of palatial grandeur and
finished beauty, benignantly assigned us by the great Father, for out
preparatory abode, and our admiration of the powers with which He
has endowed the beings created in his image. The art which at
once refines and elevates, does a noble preparatory work in rendering
more vividly susceptible those faculties by which the soul, when
awakened to the consciousness of its highest relations, is yet more
effectually purified and ennobled.
But Music that art which God has been pleased to consecrate
for His own special service in the offices of human devotion, and
which may be employed in the humble station of a peculiar minister
to man's enjoyment, as a sentient being, capable of ever new and
ever pure gratification from the concord of sweet sounds, is, in its
influence on the soul, an element of singular moral efficacy, in its
power to inspire with reverence, with joy, with ecstatic delight, to
calm and soothe the agitated spirit, to touch the heart with sympathy
for sorrow, or to mingle the humanizing emotions of brotherhood and
companionship. Rightly cultivated and rightly practiced, it affects
164 MORAL EDUCATION.
with a pure and benign influence both mind and heart; and happily,
of late years, has it taken its appropriate place in schools, among the
effective means of moral culture not less than aesthetic.
It is no undue enlargement in the enumeration of the moral
capabilities of humanity, to include within its sphere the whole range
of those arts by which man's conceptions of grandeur and beauty are
rendered more definite in themselves, and more effective in their in-
fluence on his character.
4. SENSIBILITY, as an element of Moral Life. In our preceding
observations, we have adverted to health of body and mind, and to
intellectual and aesthetic culture, as determining, in degree, man's
moral capabilities ; since a normal physical and intellectual state is
the natural condition of normal moral action. Proceeding to the
further consideration of the moral capacities and powers, the next
element in our enumeration will be that Sensibility which, by Crea-
tive ordination, links man, by the sense of pleasure and pain, to the
outward world, establishes a sentient world within himself, and gives
birth to the vital elements of love and aversion, in all the varied forms
of appetite, instinct, desire, feeling, affection, passion, and emotion, by
which man is attracted or repelled, by which he is prompted to action
and expression, and which consequently determine his morality,
(manner of action.)
5. THE INSTINCTIVE TENDENCIES, as Moral Incitements. (1.) Ap-
petite, the natural primal craving for satisfaction, which implies a sense
of want and a desire of gratification, more or less definite according
to the degree of intellectual development and definite consciousness,
secures, by Divine appointment, the perpetual renovation of vigor,
health, and life, of comfort and complacency. In the natural sym-
pathy of mind and body, it tends, also, to generate the genial dis-
positions and emotions, and to diffuse the moral element of happiness.
The intelligent educator recognizes it as a moral power, in its influence
on habit and character. He well knows that, in its pure and healthy
conditions, it is an effective promoter of serenity and tranquillity and
cheerfulness, and favors the exercise of the benevolent affections; that,
when neglected, it brings on an irritative reaction, too strong, if ex-
treme, for the control of the guardian power of conscience; and that,
when glutted by excess, it irnbrutes the whole being, and leads to
those degrading habits by which humanity is desecrated or ruined.
(2.) The natural Love of Activity. One of the earliest manifesta-
tions of instinct is the restless desire of action, which is seen even in
the involuntary and spontaneous motions of the muscular frame in
infancy, in the insatiable thirst for exercise in childhood, in the irre-
pressible tendency of boyhood and youth to active exertion, in the
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MORAL CAPABILITIES. jgtj
indefatigable industry of adult man ; and not less in the instinctive
craving for intellectual action, and the inextinguishable curiosity of
the young mind, in the eager appetite for knowledge on all accessible
subjects, and the earnest desire to investigate the problems of our
being and destination, which impel the maturer mind, at every stage
of life. The same desire of activity is marked in the child's natural
craving for sympathy and affection, and in that desire for esteem and
approbation which mark the dispositions of youth and manhood.
All these impelling powers, as they tend to enlarge the sphere of life
to the individual, and prompt him to fill it by corresponding exertion,
become vital elements of moral life and character.
(3.) The natural Aversion to Pain. This instinctive principle,
which makes the sentient nature a provisional guardian of the safety
and welfare of infancy, and, in degree, of humanity, throughout the
course of life, operates, at first, with more obvious reference to the
protection of organic life and health. But, as the mental powers
progressively unfold themselves, and conscious sympathy becomes a
source of pleasure or of pain, the instinct becomes a moral sentiment,
and leads its subject to avoid whatever seems fitted to excite painful
or disagreeable emotions in the consciousness of his fellow beings. It
advances as self consciousness becomes more fully developed, to that
moral rank which places it in alliance with conscience, and warns us
to shun the foreseen pain of evil doing, and the reproaches of that
faithful monitor which Divine wisdom has implanted in the bosom of
man to represent its own jurisdiction. It rises, at length, to that fear
of God which deters from sin, under the dread of His sovereignty or
the apprehension of his displeasure, and which, in its truest and most
genial form of filial awe, forbids the very thought of offense. The
power of this instinct is most impressively shown when, as in some
deplorable instances, its first monitory warnings have been disregarded,
and its terrific reaction drives reason from the throne of intellect, or
haunts a death -bed with horrors.
(4.) The desire of Enjoyment which, in infancy and childhood,
tends to seek for gratification in the sphere of the sentient nature in
its animal relations, rises to intellectual and moral action, with pro-
gressive development, in subsequent stages 'of life and character, till it
becomes the conscious pursuit of even the highest happiness of
humanity, exalts successively the aims and endeavors of man to his
utmost elevation of moral action and character, and stamps itself as
one of the most powerful agents in the advancement of his being.
(5.) The desire of Power. No attribute of his nature more dis-
tinctly marks the character of man as a progressive being, than that
love of power which actuates the very infant in his attempts to stand,
160 MORAL EDUCATION.
to walk, to speak, to put forth efforts of muscular force. The child,
the boy, and the youth, all evince the activity of this principle, in the
conscious ambition for progress and advancement by which they are
impelled to earnest endeavor and arduous exertion, physical, intel-
lectual, and moral. The sense of power is, in every stage of human
l.fe, one of the strongest feelings of pleasure of which man is conscious.
In the maturity of his powers, it crowns his endeavors to explore the
worlds of nature and of thought, to achieve the miracles of perfect
art, to attain to positions of affluence or of rank, to enjoy, in what-
ever form, the splendor of greatness. It prompts man, at every stage
of his being, from childhood onward, to aim at the relative manifesta-
tion of power which is exhibited in superiority over others, in the
ability to control, direct, and sway the minds and actions of his fellow-
men. This instinct of his nature becomes an element of immense
productive force for evil, when perverted ; although, when prompted
by benevolence, and restrained by justice and rectitude, it has occa-
sionally made men the benefactors of their race.
(6.) The desire of Estimation. This principle which, in childhood,
is manifested in the desire of love and approbation, becomes, in the
adult, a love of esteem and respect, and, so far, is unquestionably a
worthy motive power, and one which, subordinated to conscientious
integrity and honor, elevates the character and prompts to benevolent
action. When it degenerates to mere love of fame and applause, or
sinks to the miserable desire for distinction or mere notoriety, its
effects are, of course, as degrading as in its purer forms, it is ennobling.
In any form, it is an ejement of peculiar power in man's moral
constitution.
(7.) The desire of Society. This principle man partakes with the
gregarious races of animal life. It manifests itself in the clinging
desire for sympathy and association, characteristic alike of infancy,
childhood, and youth. It becomes, in manhood, the foundation of
social and civil life, widens the sphere of the individual, and amplifies
his being by the sympathy, the intelligence, the material and moral
aid of a whole community of his fellow men. As an element of
human progress and power, it ranks among the strongest and the
most ample of man's moral resources.
(8.) The desire of Freedom. In the stages of infancy and child-
hood, and of immature life generally, the instinctive desire to throw
off restraint, and to enjoy liberty of action, is the natural expression
of that native desire of development which impels the progressive
human being in every direction that promises the pleasure of con-
scious effort and power. Partaking, however, of the partial blindness
attributable to all forms of mere instinct, it needs the direction and
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MORAL CAPABILITIES. Itf
guidance of faculties higher than itself, to constitute it a uniformly
safe element in activity. But as it is capable of employment in the
service of man's best rights and interests, and, in that capacity, has
achieved some of his noblest triumphs for intelligence, virtue, and
happiness, it takes justly a high rank among his moral capabilities,
as an indispensable condition of development and progress.
6. THE PRIMARY EMOTIONS, as Moral Powers. Sensibility, the
susceptibility of feeling, the great source of moral life, presents its
numerous family of emotions as constituent members of the group of
moral powers and faculties by which man is rendered capable of
meliorating culture and spiritual growth. Emotion, as the manifesta-
tion or expression of feeling and affection, is not merely the natural
language of the heart, rendered visible or audible, but in virtue of
the law of sympathy and mutual incitement, existing in the various
faculties of the soul, it is itself a vital moral element reacting with a
powerful augmenting force on the source whence it springs. As an
inner movement of the soul rendered legible, it has, in many cases,
become, by universal consent and usage, a synonym for the interior
condition whence it originates, whether in the quiet moods of serenity
or the turbulence of passion.
(1.) Joy. One of the earliest feelings manifested by look and ac-
tion, in the infant stage of life, is that joyous emotion which con-
stitutes, so largely, the happiness of animal existence, in all its earlier
conditions. The genial nature of this emotion is indicated in the in-
tense gratification which it evidently yields to its immediate subject,
and which, by the law of sympathy, it diffuses to all sentient natures
within its sphere. From its lowest forms of serene complacency, to its
more positively marked degrees of animation and cheerfulness, its
higher expressions of delight, of gladness, and hilarity, or its more
sedate and lasting satisfactions, in the mature sense of happiness
which attends true enjoyment, its influence on life and health, on con-
scious feeling, on temper and disposition, on the whole intellectual
and moral nature, is, in the highest degree, salutary ; while undue
devotion to its influence precludes the possibility of benefit from those
deeper and more lasting pleasures which flow from serious thought
and earnest purposes. Mirth, habitually indulged, leads to habitual
levity and frivolity, and foregoes the distinctive dignity of man. The
healthy and genial inspiration of joy, however, even intelligent educa-
tors are sometimes prone to forget, is, in all the relations of moral
condition and moral cultivation, one of the strongest influences to
which the young mind, by the law of its constitution, is peculiarly
subjected as a vital element the oxygen, of its spiritual atmosphere.
(2.) Sorrow, grief, regret, repentance, remorse. These emotions,
16$ MORAL EDUCATION.
diametrically opposed, in all their effects, to the genial influence of
the preceding, are to be eschewed as permanent educational elements
in any normal plan of early training; yet they have their salutary
office in abnormal instances, in softening obdurate hearts, and sub-
duing obstinate wills, or in awakening torpid and dormant intellects.
Their office, in the business of education, is that of exceptional reme-
dies for exceptional evils : they are punitive and reformatory in their
character, rather than genial and preventive. They belong not to the
primary stage of nurture, but rather to the secondary one of discipline.
Still they are sometimes of the greatest value, when they spring from
ingenuous feelings of regret for conscious error, or self-reprehension
for conscious faults. It was once most happily said, "The tear of
contrition serves to wash the mote of sin out of the eye." The hour
of grief is that which enhances the value of consolation. The
blameless sadness of the young heart calls for the gentle soothing of
the voice of affection. Sorrow for deplorable losses blesses the voice
which can say, in genuine sympathy and cheering kindness, " Let not
your heart be troubled!" The moment of "the heaviness of the
countenance" is sometimes that in which " the heart is made better/'
by detaching it from the burden of conscious evil, and preparing the
will for the better course of a new life. In such circumstances, the
judicious aid of the attentive educator may assist in the inauguration
of a new moral era in the personal history of the pupil. Even the
rougher and severer discipline of repentance and remorse becomes, to
the hardened adult, a minister of mercy, when it wrenches the sinner
from the thraldom of evil habit, and sets him free from the "bond-
age of iniquity."
The moral power of this whole class of emotions from the
unaccountable cloud of depression which sometimes steals over the
sunshine of the young heart, to the deepest plunge into the darkness
of remorse is peculiarly marked for its efficacy in the renovation of
feeling, and even of disposition and character. In the sphere of the
family and the school, it sometimes marks the record of the day's history
with the beginning of a salutary reformation of temper and deport-
ment. But, in the imperfections of human management, it some-
times is permitted to mark the commencement of a reactive sense of
wrong, when the feeling is unjustly caused by arbitrary or erring
authority. It then becomes a power for lasting evil.
(3.) Timidity, fear, terror. Like the natural aversion to pain,
these instinctive emotions, which are so easily excited in childhood,
bespeak the guardian care of the Creator, in his gracious provision
against danger, and consequent destruction to the organic frame, or
to the mental constitution. They are the swift preventives of evil,
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MORAL CAPABILITIES. jgg
the safeguards of humanity in peril. But the vividness of child-
hood's emotions needs the aid of the guardian auspices of education
to prevent a salutary instinct from degenerating into unreasoning
excess, and to protect the mental and moral nature from the para-
lyzing etfect, which, in unhappy instances, has extended to the over-
throw of reason itself. The timidity of childhood may, if not
watched over, become habitual self-distrust, embarrassment, confusion
of thought, or even moral cowardice. Wisely guarded, it may be
converted into a protection from rashness, presumption, and fool-
hardiness. Fear may be sometimes needed as a restraining influence
on forwardness and impudence, or as a check upon daring hardihood,
in resistance to authority. But its influence is unfriendly to the
healthy development of disposition and character. It never rises to
the dignity of an aid to the development of principle. It may aid in
producing a vivid apprehension of coercive and compulsory measures,
and so lead to obviate their necessity. But its low rank among
instincts, its semi-brutal character, at best, place it among the motives
which a generous educator would ever despise. If called in, for a
moment, to quell resistance to authority, it yet can never attain to
the dignity of a genuine moral influence. Expediency may some-
times sanction the appeal to its effect, as a matter of necessity. But,
if admitted at all into the circle of moral relations, it can not be
ranked higher than among the abnormal. As for its extreme form,
terror humanity, at the present day, forbids any resort to it, as a
moral expedient. The peril of insanity lies too close at hand to
permit any human being to adopt it, even as a means of deterring
from evil. Its only salutary use is its instinctive office to prompt the
instant flight from peril to life itself. So, and so only, does it prove
a benefit.
(4.) Indignation as a moral sentiment. The intelligent moral
instructor will, of course, carefully guard his pupils from confound-
ing this principle with the mere animal emotion or passion of anger.
Anger is the mere personal reaction of maddened feeling and blinded
reason, which man is capable of in common with the brutes, and
which vents itself in violence on the agent of injury. Indigna-
tion is that impersonal sentiment which regards not the agent but
the act, which makes the young heart glow at the sense of wrong,
when the teacher is relating an instance of oppression or cruelty,
which occurred, perhaps, ages ago, and in some distant land. This
species of resentment is a purely mental thing, a salutary and enno-
bling emotion of reactive sympathy, which belongs to man as a
being consciously endowed with free agency, and equally abhorring a
condition of unjust subjection, and the oppression which causes it
170 MORAL EDUCATION.
as a being instinctively impelled to oppose and overthrow every
palpable form of evil which besets the condition of humanity. In-
dignation has inspired many of those peaceful revolutions which
have renovated the social and moral condition of communities,
more frequently than it has originated those bloody revolutions
which have sometimes been the birth-throes of national life and
liberty.
(5.) Wonder. Among the first indications of mental life, in
childhood, is the emotion of wonder, which, at that stage of human
progress, is so often called forth by the novelties of observation and
experience. The freshness of feeling which it indicates, and the
manifest delight attending it, show plainly its power as an element
of mental life and moral activity. This emotion, judiciously evoked
and skillfully cherished by the watchful educator, becomes not only a
genial arid a powerful incentive to intellectual exertion, but the trib-
ute of the young heart on the altar of the yet " unknown God,"
who is waiting to be, in due season, revealed to intelligent faith. The
wonder which the novelty of all created things raises in the dawning
consciousness of childhood, is the preparatory stage of the intelli-
gence and reverence which are afterward to blend in the soul, as it
rises to the recognition of the Author of life and the Giver of its law
of duty.
(6.) Awe. This emotion transcends that of mere wonder, and
thrills the soul with a profounder sense of power, whether exhibited
in the tremendous forces of nature, in its astounding aspects of
elemental commotion, as in the heaving fire of the volcano, the
dashing billows of ocean, the rush of the cataract, the blinding flash
of the lightning, the roar of the thunder, or the fury of the tornado,
or in the calmer majesty of mountain forms, the overwhelming vast-
ness of impenetrable forests, or the immeasurable depths of space.
As a moral inspiration, it aids the feeble faculties of man in his
attempts to dwell upon the conception of almighty power and eter-
nal duration; and while he must ever sink consciously baffled in all
his attempts to comprehend Him " whose greatness is unsearchable,
and whose ways are past finding out," yet he never feels more vividly
the greatness of his own nature, limited though it is, than when
losing his human littleness in the contemplation of the great and
marvellous works which bespeak the majesty of Him who is " the
same yesterday, to-day, and forever."
This overwhelming and yet ennobling emotion, education has it
for one of its special offices to deepen and expand by all the aids
which nature and science furnfsh to the inquiring mind of man. Its
influence is doubly salutary, as it prostrates the human being in
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MORAL CAPABILITIES. Ifl
conscious insignificence before his Creator, and, at the same time,
exalts Him who is the " Majesty of heaven and earth."
(7.) Hope. As an intelligent inspiration, of intellect, heart, and
will, in activity connected with the sense of duty, hope, the expecta-
tion of success, becomes an element of high moral value and power.
It is congenial with the conscious happiness of being which natu-
rally belongs to the joyous associations of early childhood, and,
indeed, of young life in all its various stages. It inspires and sus-
tains the aspirations of boyhood and youth, and invigorates the
exertions of manhood. It is a silent tribute from the heart of man
to Divine benignity; and when elevated and hallowed by faith, it
rejoices in the anticipation of a future life of perfect felicity. Its
rank, and its efficacy as a moral influence, constitute it one of the
highest powers by which man's moral nature is actuated.
7. THE BENIGNANT AFFECTIONS, as elements of moral life and
power. (1.) Love. By the great pervading attribute of sensibility,
inherent in his constitution, man learns to feel his condition before he
knows it, and to sympathize with his fellow-beings before he is capa-
ble of understanding them. The law of Sympathy^ written on his
whole nature, as a primary element of his being, which ultimately
developed into every form of social and benevolent feeling, brings
him, unconsciously, at first, under the dominion of the paramount
law of Love, which attracts him toward his fellow-beings by a genial
and kindly influence which he delights to feel, and which, as his con-
scious intelligence gradually unfolds itself, he learns to understand as
mutual and reciprocal. This mysterious power ties the heart of the
infant to that of the mother, and that of the mother to the infant
with an affection stronger than life. In the little community of home,
it links the souls of brothers and sisters in fraternal union of affection.
It is the sacred law of parental and filial duty, and moves the whole
moral machinery of human life in its hallowed and blessed sphere of
privacy.
There virtue has its purest forms and dearest aspects, its genuine,
spontaneous amenities ; and though unknown beyond its own quiet
sphere, has its own unseen record of generous self-sacrifice, and of
fortitude more than heroic. Among the noblest motive powers of
moral action, the affections of home are those to which the enlightened
educator will ever assign the highest place, as regards the capabilities
of the human heart for living development.
(2.) Gratitude. This peculiar benignant reaction of love, in view
of favor or kindness experienced, mingles largely with the exercise of
filial and fraternal affection, and enters into every emotion called forth
by the consciousness of benefit conferred, in whatever degree from
172 . MORAL EDUCATION.
the ordinary acts of human kindness and courtesy, to those greater
expressions of benevolence, which bestow safety or comfort and hap-
piness, in valuable and lasting forms of beneficent action. This gen-
erous emotion is not always accompanied with the satisfaction of being
able to remunerate a benefactor by any adequate return. The service
or the favor which calls it forth, is sometimes greater than language
or action, or any form of external expression, can equal. It may be
sometimes so great as to prompt the devotion of a whole life to the
friend or benefactor toward whom it is directed. Such is true filial
attachment. Such is man's position toward his Creator.
The promptings of this generous emotion lead, sometimes, to the
noblest manifestations of true sensibility and self- renouncing devotion.
Some of the brightest passages on the page of history are those which
record the heroic actions to which this feeling has given birth.
In the relations of education, its influence on the ingenuous mind
and heart of youth, forms one of the most sacred attachments of
human life. A grateful feeling of returning love for the guardian
mental care which, in our early years, watched over, and served to
form and mould within us, the ideal image of excellence at which we
were taught to aspire, the filial reverence which the heart, in such cir-
cumstances, so gladly pays as a tribute to wisdom and worth, insure the
inspiration of the noblest aims in all subsequent life, to the heart which
is conscious of them.
8. THE GENEROUS AFFECTIONS, as Moral Powers. (1.) friend-
ship. The cordialities of disinterested friendship, and the mutual
good offices of human kindness and reciprocal obligation are but ex-
pansions of fraternal feeling from the primary sphere of home; and
their efficacy in promoting human well-being, on a broad scale, render
them powerful instruments of good, as well as rich elements of moral
life in the heart.
(2.) Patriotism. On a yet wider field, patriotic attachment and
principle, as they cherish the generous spirit of self-devotion, give
ample scope for the cultivation of the virtues which adorn and dignify
human life. The noblest pages of history are those which exhibit the
magnanimity of genuine patriotism. As a feeling of the heart, or a
principle of duty, this sentiment possesses peculiar power in inspiring
man to noble deeds ; and as a spring of development to personal
character, it must ever rank high among the moral capabilities of
man.
(3.) Philanthropy. The expansive feeling which embraces the
whole human family in the wide open arms of brotherhood, is a vir-
tue yet more disinterested, and more true to God and man, than even
the truest and the warmest patriotism. It is eminently the Christian's
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MORAL CAPABILITIES. 173
virtue, so far as he is true to the teachings and example of Him who
came to proclaim "good will to men," and charged his followers with
a message of love to " the whole world." The history of genuine
Christianity is chiefly the record of those who went forth on this
errand, "with their life in their hand," and who were ever cheerfully
ready to deposit it in pledge of their devotion to the well-being of
" Barbarian, Scythian, bond, or free."
Among the powers which characterize man as a moral being capa-
ble of culture, and of advancement in the scale of excellence, no trait
of disposition gives larger promise than this ; and on none does
humanizing culture produce larger effects.
(4.) Humanity toward Animal Nature. As the offspring of Divine
love, the human spirit, though its lustre has been dimmed by the
breath of sin, yet retains something of the characteristic benignity of
its Source ; and the range of its benevolent sympathy is not limited
to the circle of its fellow beings, but flows forth, if not unnaturally
diverted from its channel, to the wider sphere of universal being. In
its relation even to the humbler races of the creation, which have
been subjected to its dominion, by the appointed gradations in the
scale of life, it manifests itself capable of a beneficence for which the
designation of " humanity' 1 ' 1 has been suggestively chosen.
The universal law of Love, if obeyed, expands and elevates the
soul of man to that moral comprehensiveness of being which ranks
him " but little lower than the angels ;" and while he is thus permitted
to see "all earthly things put under his feet," his crown of royalty is
indeed one of " glory and honor," because it invests him with the
conscious responsibility of an intelligent and moral sovereign. This
true majesty of man is the source at once of his just self-respect, and
of some of his noblest regal attributes and virtues, to cherish and
confirm which is among the special offices of appropriate human cul-
ture.
9. RELIGIOUS PRINCIPLE, as a Moral Power. (1.) Reverence.
The feeling of which the young mind is conscious, as one of the dawn-
ing intimations of the development of its own reflective powers, when
contemplating the dignity, the authority, the wisdom, and the benignity
of the parental character on which it consciously depends for being
and happiness is although not yet fully or distinctly developed to its
own consciousness, one of the profoundest emotions of which it is
susceptible ; and to the unpgrverted heart it is one of the strongest
cords of sacred obligation by which it is bound to all filial duty.
The emotion thus experienced is naturally transferred, by the
mind's law of association to all forms of venerable human worth and
dignity. It is called forth by the wisdom of age, by nobility of charac-
174 MORAL EDUCATION.
ter in exalted station, and, in degree, by all authority justly exercised.
It marks alike, in such circumstances, the deportment of ingenuous
youth and of true manliness. Its indications in the intercourse of
life are the assurance of that susceptibility by which judicious cultiva-
tion, and the inspiration of a genuine faith, are enabled to lift the
human soul in reverence to the Father of spirits, and to create a
sacred regard for all that Divine truth reveals as duty. Its value as
an element in moral cultivation, is beyond expression, great, as re-
gards its influence, whether in securing the respect and obedience due
to parents and teachers, to seniority in years, and to eminence in at-
tainments, or in conferring on education itself, its true character as a
sacred relation in the business arid duties of life, and as a connecting
link in the chain which gives unity to man's being in its extension to
a higher sphere of mental and spiritual existence.
(2.) Faith. Another element of the highest power in moral
relations is the Faith which believes and trusts, and thus unites man
to his fellow man, and man to the Author of his being. A great
writer has denominated this principle as that " which holds the mor-
al elements of the world together." Without it, man is an isolated,
helpless, hopeless outcast, wandering on the shores of being without
aim and without direction, ready to be "swallowed up and lost," at
the end of his brief career of earthly life.
Faith is the source and spring of all moral life, and, as a capability
in the relations of culture, its productive power is comparatively
inexhaustible, or limited only by the measure of endeavor. It lifts
man above himself, and supplies him with a power beyond his own.
It gives the parent and the teacher an influence nearly unbounded.
In its highest form, it solves, with light from above, the great Chris-
tian paradox, " When I am weak, then am I strong."
(3.) Conscience. The primordial moral element which holds
sway over all man's powers and faculties, is Conscience. This great
regulator of the springs of action no competent educator can ever
permit himself to regard in the merely popular light of a reporter
and penal officer, following the acts of which it takes cognizance
only after they have been committed, or irretrievably determined.
As the sense of duty, it presides over the whole mental being. As
an intelligent agent, it partakes in the work of consciousness and
reason. It knows and judges. It remembers, indeed, with fearful
exactness, the deeds of the past. But.it has also the eyes of intui-
tion and of inference for the present, and the power of prospection,
prediction, and suggestion for the future. In feeling unless blunted
or extinguished it is sensitive, to the utmost degree of acuteness ;
and it pierces to the very "joints and marrow" of the moral organ-
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MORAL CAPABILITIES. 175
ism. Its cautery is terrible in its unsparing intensity. By Creative
ordination it is paramount to the will. It prompts, and threatens,
nud remonstrates, and commands, and forbids, and impels or deters,
with absolute authority; irresponsible to any higher power within
the whole domain of humanity, and acknowledging none without,
but the one supreme authority of God and duty.
As an intelligent sentiment, and determining principle, it sums up
man's moral capacities and powers in their whole extent of life and
action. It constitutes him what he is in the sight of God, and in
his own consciousness a responsible moral agent, whose motto, writ-
ten on his inmost being, is " Be perfect"
Under the prompting influence of conscience, as the law of duty,
appointed by the supreme lawgiver, a devout regard to His authority,
and a grateful sense of His benignant care, the young mind, enlight-
ened by the teachings of "the wisdom which cometh from above," is
betimes elevated to \\\&i piety toward the Father of all, which raises
the personal worth and virtues of the human being, in his aspira-
tions, to the height of sanctity, carries up all questions of moral
action to the highest of all tribunals, and breathes into all his en-
deavors of duty the inspiring breath of a spiritual life and a divine
power. Most justly did the fathers of New England require of the
teacher of youth that he should regard himself as specially set
apart for the "nurturing" of childhood in "piety," as the security
for all those virtues which insure the safety of a community and are
the adornment of humanity.
10. THE WILL, as a Moral Power. Man's ability to determine
the moral course of his actions, to choose the right and avoid the
wrong, can never be made clearer to himself by the light of "science
falsely so called," than it is in his own inmost convictions. It never
is obscured to his consciousness till, wandering from his limited
sphere of possible conception, he bedims it by some cloud of meta-
physical speculation, and perplexing casuistry " darkening counsel"
by " skeptical doubts" and " words without knowledge." Conscience,
the only competent court, adjudges him free, innocent or guilty, com-
mendable or culpable, in every act within the limits of his power,
yet for that very reason, not independent of the authority which
pronounces sentence on his actions, and which involves the existence
of an authority higher than itself, to which he is strictly responsible,
here and hereafter, though at liberty now to follow the bent of his
individual will. To the doings of this determining and executive
power, which directs and moves the arm, whether it is stretched forth
to succor or to kill, attaches, then, a moral character of fearful power ;
and to influence it for good, and not for evil, to guide it in the path
176 MORAL EDUCATION.
of rectitude and benevolence, is the appropriate work of education,
as the guardian of human welfare.
11. THE PRACTICAL VIRTUES, as Moral Powers. High among
these attributes stands Rectitude that power of self-adjustment by
which man corresponds to the dictates of conscience, as the sense of
right, which keeps him true to his position in the moral universe
true in thought, word, and deed, to the posture in which his Creator
placed him when He "made man upright." This principle confers
on the human being that noble power of self-poise, which bespeaks
his dignity, as a free agent, endowed with the ability, to maintain
his moral identity and stability, amid all the fluctuations of circum-
stance, or the plausible solicitations of evil. It tends to render him
sacredly regardful of truth in all his communications with his fellow-
beings, and of equity and justice in all his transactions. It stamps
his character with integrity and honor, in every station of power
with fidelity, honesty, and punctuality in the discharge of every
obligation of duty. Truthfulness, is, in a word, the one sure and
firm foundation of every personal virtue, and the only ground of
reliance between man and man. Without the security which it
affords, the whole fabric of human society would be but a hollow
structure of falsehood and hypocrisy, and life but a degrading scene
of deceit, imposition, and intrigue, issuing in universal corruption
and misery.
A sacred regard to truth, in all its relations of communication,
whether in expression or action, while it is an element so indispensa-
ble to the existence of human virtue, in any form, is one which
more than most others, is a growth of culture in the soul, and pecu-
liarly needs the genial guardianship of watchful care, mature wis-
dom, and consummate skill, on the part of the cultivator. The
fertile imagination and artistic fancy of childhood, are prone to
create a world of unreality around the unconscious spirit, in its im-
maturity of knowledge and experience ; and a guiding mind is ever
needed to lead it onward to a distinct perception of the sacred beau-
ty which invests the simplicity and severity of truth, and which
renders any conscious violation of it a desecration. The force of
truthfulness, as a moral principle, when so directed and matured, is
seen in that loyal and devoted adherence to its dictates, which is
exhibited in the constancy and genuine heroism of the martyr. In
his estimation, it is held dearer than life, no intensity of pain or
suffering has the power to wrest it from him.
12. THE HUMANE AND GENTLE VIRTUES, as Moral Powers. Un-
der this designation may be properly included those traits of disposi-
tion and character which soften the heart of man to his fellow man
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MORAL CAPABILITIES. 177
the sympathy which is not a mere passive condition of feeling or or-
ganic susceptibility, but a living, active participation in the emotions
evinced by our fellow creatures; leading us to rejoice in the happiness
of others, to compassionate them in conditions of want and distress,
to commiserate sorrow and suffering, in every form ignorance, error,
degradation, vice, and every pressure of evil which afflicts or depresses
humanity ; to cherish the catholic spirit of universal charity, toler-
ance for the sentiments which differ from our own, uniform tenderness
toward woman and childhood, calmness under irritating treatment,
meekness under a sense of wrong, quietness and mildness with the
violent, patience and forbearance with waywardness and opposition
and injury, pity for the erring, mercy for the evil-doer. All these god-
like traits of disposition are the features which characterize the pecu-
liar spirit of true Christian culture ; none of them the mere fortuitous
products of a happy constitution of body or of mind, but all earned
by ceaseless watchfulness, and diligent endeavor, and. sometimes, by
arduous struggles, and none of them perfected without aid from on
high.
13. PERSONAL QUALITIES, in their Moral Influence: The Self-as-
serting and Self- sustaining Virtues of the Individual Man. ( 1 .) Self-
respect. As a being created in the high sphere of intelligent and
moral existence, and possessed of an immortal nature, man enjoys, in
a just self-respect, a security against degradation by any influence
which he feels to be unworthy of the rank assigned him in the uni-
verse. Consciously noble in origin and destination, he tends, if not
perverted or degraded by habit, to noble action ; and if, in the pleni-
tude of Divine favor, he is consciously recovered from a fallen condi-
tion, he feels it his immunity, as "a new creature," to have been liber-
ated from a state of bondage set free for the enjoyment of a " glori-
ous liberty," and impelled to run a new and noble career. Respect
for his own nature and personal condition when kept pure from the
senseless interminglings of pride, or haughtiness, or arrogance, of
overweening self-esteem, or exclusive self-regard insures to man the
proper dignity of his being, and tends to elevate all his aims and ac-
tions. It is an element of high moral power ; and the judicious culti-
vation of its influence is a prominent duty of all whose office, as
educators, constitutes them the guardians of humanity.
(2.) Ambition. Feeling the nobility of his nature, man, when not
.hopelessly degraded, instinctively seeks to act in harmony with his
conscious position, and, under the influence of ambition, to aspire after
advancement, in every stage and relation of his life. This desire may,
it is true, be suffered to center on merely selfish purposes on the pef*-
sonal aggrandizement of an individual, to the exclusion or depression
12
178 MORAL EDUCATION.
of others, and to the violation of their rights. In such cases, it sinks
to the level of that brutal greed which prompts one of the inferior
animals to usurp the better place at the trough, and monopolize its
advantages, to the exclusion of the weaker members of the herd.
But the desire of advancement, as that of progress and attainment,
is utterly free from all considerations of relative superiority or ad-
vantage. It is obedience to an ennobling instinct, pure in its charac-
ter, and beneficial in its results, not merely to the individual whom it
elevates, but to all whom it enables him to aid from the higher sphere
of ability to which he has been raised. To the student it is a most
powerful incitement to application and exertion; and in the relations
of moral attainment, its influence is a salutary inspiration of the
highest order. It is not incompatible with the purest spirit of benevo-
lence, in the largeness of the plans on which it delights to work, and
the inestimable value of the benefits which it delights to bestow. It
urges the Christian aspirant to "press toward the mark, 1 ' " for the
prize of his high calling," and incites him by the promise of a "crown
of life."
(3.) Magnanimity. Ambition naturally tends to generate another
personal quality of noble character and influence that magnanimity
which life man above the littleness that would limit the scope of life,
and fritter away its purposes in paltry pursuits, in trivial employments,
or low gratifications, in snatching at mean advantages, or mingling in
petty strifes. This ennobling virtue incites its possessor to high aims
in all his plans and purposes, and to an utter disregard of meanness
in motive or action, as manifested by others toward himself. It over-
looks malice and injury, or forgives their results. It disdains revenge.
It is a sure preventive of that sordid narrowness of soul which induces
man to drudge, throughout life, for the mere purpose of accumulating
health, or to practice the degrading shifts of a niggardly parsimony
in expenditure, through fear of diminishing his hoards. A magnan-
imous spirit scorns the selfish littleness which thus wraps the individ-
ual in himself, and shuts the door of his. heart against the natural
claims of human brotherhood. It gives a generous breadth to meas-
ures of usefulness and benevolence, and raises human activity to a
higher sphere and ampler scope in all directions.
(4.) Resolution. This attribute, so important in all the practical
Delations of life, implies the clearness of perception and readiness of
judgment in consequence of which the will is empowered instantane-
ously to decide die course of action. Hence the certainty and the
swiftness with whic'h execution follows purpose, the invaluable habit
f promptness and dispatch in business, and of punctuality and effic-
iency in {&i&ttftAftae, as contrasted with the lagging irresolution, and
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MORAL CAPABILITIES.
halting, unavailing endeavor, which invariably issue in failure and
disappointment.
The power of energetic and decisive resolve determines, at once,
the practical value of ari individual, and the reliance which may be
placed on him by others. It determines, in fact, the mental health
and moral life of the man, the efficacy of his action, and the estima-
tion of his character.
Many constitutions are so formed that even this trait of mental
freshness and vigor, so natural'to early life, in general, needs diligent
cultivation .to secure its due development in particular cases. The
dreamy indolence, the languid inactivity, the tendency to aimless
reverie and absence of mind, which proceed from organic feebleness,
wear the same aspect with the profound abstraction of deep and earn-
est thought, and thus excite, perhaps, in the mind of the parent or
the teacher, the expectation of the fruits of close thinking and severe
application an expectation sure to be disappointed. The irresolute
youth is prone to sink into habitual vacancy of mind, indecision of
purpose, vacillation and feebleness of judgment, sluggishness and
utter inefficiency of will.
(5.) Courage. A kindred quality of soul to power and promptness
of resolution, is that genuine courage which man, as a self-reliant and
independent agent, is naturally called to exert ; and which, as a being
of conscious energy and power, by his very constitution, is one of the
primary instincts of his nature. It enables him to assert his place in
the creation, as an agent intrusted with dominion, to a vast extent,
over nature and circumstance, and destined to a high position by the
exercise of his peculiar endowments. It protects him, at the same
time, from any undue ascendency usurped over him by a fellow-man.
It prompts him to oppose and resist every encroachment on his rights,
and to imperil life itself in defense of his natural liberty of action. It
nerves him to encounter danger, to triumph over obstacles, and to
master difficulties. It lightens toil, and facilitates attainment.
It gives to the energies of individual mind and will the comparative
force of numbers. It enables man to achieve miracles of physical
strength and moral power, not merely on the field of conflict, or un-
der the gaze of admiration, but in the solitary grapple with physical
obstacles, and the daring, unassisted encounter with the fury of the
elements, when the lone adventurer hazards life on some far errand
of scientific or humane exploration. In its higher relations, as a moral
attribute, it inspires the individual to attack usurping or even ap-
proaching evil, in its most formidable shapes, and to encounter fear-
lessly opposition and opprobrium, and death itself, in the cause of
truth and duty.
]8Q MORAL EDUCATION.
Courage may, it is true, degenerate into inconsiderate rashness or
fool-hardy temerity, and prove itself but a blind animal impulse. It
is the office of education to enlighten and elevate it, and render it a
ministering spirit of good to humanity,, inspiring it with intelligence,
and hallowing it with the sanctity of benevolence ; so that it may be-
come wortfiy to fulfill its highest offices, and lead the van in noble
endeavor for the advancement of human well being. Its moral power
and value then become incalculable ; and to cherish it is a peculiar
duty of the educator.
, (6.) Fortitude. A virtue yet higher than even the noblest form
of courage, is that Firmness to sustain, to bear, to withstand, to en-
dure, or to resist every pressure of pain and of suffering which inev-
itable evil may call him to meet and to undergo. Along with this
upholding power usually comes the equanimity which preserves from
extremes of elation or depression, and maintains the moral identity
of the individual, the patience which soothes and tranquilizes, and co-
operating with the enduring firmness of its kindred virtue, contributes
to. that calm self possession which leaves man master of himself, and
equal, in his native greatness and acquired abilities, to resist the as-
saults of evil, and bear the double pressure of toil and pain with un-
shaken firmness.
These arduous virtues are, in no sense, innate, or constitutional
merely : they are the fruits of diligent and persevering culture the
attainments of the trained and practiced spirit. They owe their power
to, that self-education which, although it may be wisely anticipated,
must wer,. in substance, be purchased at the peculiar price of per-
sonal experience and strenuous endeavor.
(7.) Perseverance* Another quality of high rank as a moral power,
and closely allied to the preceding group, is the persistent firmness of
purpose which follows so worthily in the track of dauntless courage,
and enables man, with the aid of time, to accomplish, in life-long bat-
tles with external nature, those wonders of triumphant human energy
which inspire successive generations of the human race with mingled
admiration and awe. It is the same trait of persistent resolution that
has enabled com m unities to struggle, for successive years, for a foot-
hojd among the family of nations, and to endure, to the verge of ex-
tinction, for independence. . The same element sustains the explorer
ofroature, in his years of solitary exposure and unmitigated hardship,
thrpugh toil, and sickness, and peril.. The same sustaining power
cheers the secluded student onward through his labyrinths of exhaust-
ing, investigation, pursued year after .year, without aid or sympathy,
yet r never abandoned till some glorious discovery, duly verified, crowns
his devoted loyalty to science. Indefatigable perseverance, in the
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MORAL CAPABILITIES. 181
face of opposition and accumulated difficulty, has been the condition
of success in many a noble effort of philanthropy, in its devoted en-
deavors to alleviate the miseries of suffering humanity, by meliorating
its outward conditions, enlightening its mental darkness, or inspiring
it with the elements of a new moral and spiritual life.
Without the sustaining power of this attribute, no undertaking of
moment has ever succeeded, in the experience of individuals or
of communities. Yet it is a quality in which the young mind, in its
eager desire of novelty, and its need of alternations of activity, is more
deficient than it is in that which prompts to the most arduous
attempts or heroic efforts. The vigor which manifests itself in firm
adherence to plan or purpose, is usually acquired by degrees, under
skillful training. But, when attained, it stamps the seal of certainty
on whatever human endeavor is competent to effect.
(8.) Self-government. This invaluable trait of cultivated character
implies, in the individual who possesses it, the skill and the mastery
acquired in the training schools of conscience, magnanimity, resolu-
tion, courage, patience, fortitude, and perseverance. It implies all
these qualities turned inward for the control of self. Destitute of
self-command, man, when brought to the test, is but as the infant, or
the lower animal the mere victim of passion and impulse. The
main moral element of character, is, in such cases, wanting ; and the
individual sinks in the scale of being, not only in its moral, but its
mental relations. The exigencies of life which try men's souls, and
demand the perfect action of all their faculties, exhibit the inexpressi-
ble value of this trait of mental and moral power, by which man is
enabled to call into activity the nobler elements of his being, and, by
their authoritative mandate, control and restrain every lower ten-
dency of his nature. He thus reigns in moral sovereignty over him-
self, and reveals the true majesty of manhood ; while, in loyal subor-
dination to Divine law, he manifests, not less impressively, the moral
beauty of the spirit of filial obedience.
The power of self-direction and self -guidance, which that of self-
government implies, enables man, as an intellectual agent, to concen-
trate the activity of his whole mental being, on whatever solicits his
thoughtful attention, or tends to promote or enlarge his intelligence.
In the moral relations of his being, it secures him against the allure-
ments of evil, the eruptions of passion, the wreck of his peace of mind,
or the moral ruin of degrading habits.
Education, in its common forms, it is true, can do little by mere ex-
ternal precautions, admonitions, or promptings, to confer the personal
happiness which it is the peculiar office of self-government to bestow.
Self-intelligence, self-experience, and self-culture, and the sanctity of
182 MORAL EDUCATION.
religions principle, are, in this relation, the only sure reliance for hu-
man virtue. But when thus grounded and rooted, it becomes the
firmest security for every trait of excellence.
(9.) Self-reliance is the moral reward which man becomes entitled
to reap from the conscious power of self-government ; and, within
such limitation, it is the pledge of many of the distinguishing traits
of manly virtue. It may, without the genial guidance of education,
become over-weening confidence and presumption. But rightly de-
veloped, it is the proper result of faith in the attributes conferred on
man's nature by the Source of his being, in virtue of which he is render-
ed competent for the station and the duties assigned him, as an intelli-
gent, but responsible moral agent. The conscious feebleness which
induces infancy and childhood to rely on the power on which they
feel they are dependent, is a natural and appropriate influence. But
in the history of the moral progress of the human being, there soon
succeeds a stage, in which for the highest purposes of life and charac-
ter, he is weaned from the helpless condition of dependence on others ;
and self-intelligence and self-respect consciously demand the inde-
pendence of self-exertion and self-reliance. A manly spirit of just
confidence in conscious ability, never inconsistent with the crowning
grace of modesty, secures the sincere respect of all who themselves
feel the dignity of manhood, whether in its dawn or its maturity. It
is an indispensable element in personal character, as the pledge of
courageous enterprise, and persevering application, of firmness of pur-
pose, efficient exertion, and final success, in whatever the sense of
duty, or a just ambition, prompts the aspirant to attempt.
14. THE SELF-RENOUNCING VIRTUES. The dependent condition
of childhood suggests the indispensable relation of habitual obedience
to parental and guardian authority, and unquestioning submission to
requirements which the young mind may not always be able to com-
prehend. The unity of plan and administration, and the perfect sub-
ordination, which even the imperfect vision of the human eye can dis-
tinctly trace in the arrangement of the visible creation, suggest to the
reflective mind the universal prevalence of Law, as the prominent
feature of Divine government. Order, and system, and gradation,
which man sees inscribed on all things around him, and to which he
is conscious that his own mind is an analogous agent, he feels to be
indispensable in his own sphere of action. He recognizes them as
prompters endued with a wisdom and authority above his own, and*
as the legitimate directors of his whole course of action. From the
habit of early subordination, acquired under the guardian care of
education, when rightly conducted in the sphere of home and school
life, the self-intelligent mind, in its maturity of Christian growth,
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MORAL CAPABILITIES. 183
iearns to recognize the paramount claims of Divine authority to un>-
hesi taring obedience and cheerful submission, in the spirit of filial
confidence and love, even when patient resignation to ordination not
understood is the duty of the moment, and the utterance of the
trusting spirit to its Author can only be, " not as I will, but as Thou
wilt."
In the relations of human intercourse, the Modesty which feels
what is due to others as exceeding the measure of merit in snlf, is no
less surely an attribute of true nobility in man, than the self-reliance
which forbids a feeble dependence on others^ or a weak, subservient
compliance with their arbitrary wishes. A sincere respect for just
superiority, indicates the open eye for excellence, as manifested in the
attainments and actions of others, and a full recognition of the true
worth and genuine merit embodied in their character or conduct. It
is the rightful homage of the heart, which ennobles, and never de-
grades. It restrains presumptuous self-confidence and arrogant as-
sumption, and accepts, in true nobleness of spirit, that lower relative
position which conscious immaturity, or inexperience, or limited at-
tainments justly assign. It constitutes the docility of childhood and
youth, and not less that of the mature student of science, who loves
to sit at the feet of a competent instructor, and treasure up his words
of wisdom.
The true dignity of man, as an intelligent and moral being, whils
it secures his personal independence, and his equality, in the sight of
God, with every individual of the race, is by no means inconsistent
with that profound respect for man, as the offspring of the Father of
spirits, which generates humility of spirit and deportment, between
man and man, forbids all assumption as usurpation, arrogance as in-
jury, and haughtiness as insult, and yet knows how to meet them
with the gentle spirit of Christian meekness. True humility deem?
no office of kindness too low which can minister to the welfare of a
fellow being, whether the beneficent act be gratefully or thoughtlessly
received. The perfect model of this virtue exhibited by Him whose
spirit was so lowly that he condescended to wash the feet of his fol-
lowers, was nobly copied in the heroic explorer* who did not disdain
to perform the lowest of menial offices for his suffering crew.
The spirit of ' condescension which shuns all parade and formality in
intercourse with the young and the dependent, and easily and gently
glides into sympathy and due familiarity with all worthy fellow
beings which skillfully breaks down every " middle wall of partition"
between man and man, and knows how to "condescend to men of low
* Dr. Kane, in the scenes of his Arctic expedition.
]84 MORAL EDUCATION.
estate," without the display of condescension does homage to the
Maker, in honoring the man, and recognizes the individual's own posi-
tion as on the common level of membership in the great fam.ly which
has but one Head and one Master.
In the management of the family and the school, the whole class
of virtues on which we are now dwelling, requires particular attention
in all communities in which there is a peculiar tendency, owinjr to the
free spirit of their institutions, to place a high nominal value on those
traits of character which indicate independence and self-reliance. The
unreflective, unreasoning nature of childhood, early catches the spirit
of the moral and social atmosphere in which it breathes, and in its
natural tendency to exaggeration and excess, carries what might have
been a positive excellence to a noxious vice. The absurd and cul-
pable neglect of parental control, so prevalent in our day, often ex-
hibits a spectacle of apparent insanity, in the boys and girls of our
families and our schools abandoning the natural and beautiful charac-
ter of their years, and ridiculously trying to play the part of self-re-
sponsible men and women.
15. EXAMPLE, as a Moral Influence. Imitation the power by
which man is enabled to maintain his personal analogy to surround-
ing conditions of nature, life, and character, and thus to conform to
the laws of being, in their requirements lays him open, in the early
stages of life, more particularly, to the influence of example in the
actions of his fellow beings. The character of parents, teachers,
companions, is, in this way, unconsciously transcribed in the daily
l^fe of childhood and youth, and, to a great extent, even in the habit-
ual actions and expressions of maturer years. The law of sympa-
thy, written on the human constitution, in its effects on the imitative
tendency natural to man, is a most fruitful source of good or evil in
every moral relation and, emphatically calls for the watchful care of
the faithful educator.
16. PRUDENCE, as a Moral 'Monitor. This virtue if, in obedience
to ancient classification, it may be so called when it springs from
just and honorable motives, is a negative but preventive wisdom,
somewhat analogous in its conservative effects, to the modesty which
reserves itself in communication with others. It is, indeed, but a pre-
ventive virtue, yet one which education properly inculcates as a pro-
tection against manifold evil to the individual himself as well as to
others. It forbids hasty conclusions, rash resolves, injudicious com-
munication, inconsiderate conduct, hazardous undertakings, foolish ex-
penditures of time, strength, health, or other means of useful or
beneficent action. It resembles thus the self-control which keeps man
in possession of his powers, and enables him to use them at will. Its
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MORAL CAPABILITIES. JQ5
moral value, therefore, though negative, is great, and great, obviously,
in proportion to the inexperience and unconsciousness of the mind in
its earlier stages of progress.
17. PERSONAL HABITS: their Moral Value. (1.) The observance
of Order and Method in the distribution of time and the succession of
occupations, seems to be, in the sphere of daily life, what the regu-
larity of alternation in day and night and the return of the seasons,
is to the year. They form a security against a thoughless, random
mode of life, destitute of steady aim and purpose, made up of loose
scraps of time, unconsciously or idly passed in effecting nothing.
Man's dignity and destination imperatively forbid such a life. Moral-
ity and religion equally condemn it. But from the multitude and
variety of objects soliciting its attention, and of desires craving grati-
fication, the young mind, unaided by education, is prone to lose itself
in vague and abortive endeavor at the passing moment, instead of
relying on that continuous and systematic industry to which nothing
practicable is denied. As the bark of life floats down the ceaseless
stream of time, the hand of diligence gathers into it, hour by hour,
the rich and ever increasing freight of varied acquisition, in anticipa-
tion of another and yet happier voyage, in the great Hereafter.
Activity and energy, in any pursuit, are valuable or successful only
as far as they have the continuity and sequence of system. It is this
logical principle which gives unity and invaluable results to studies
pursued under even the most limited opportunities of time, and which
enables the student to weave the life of a day or of an hour into the
continuous web of the week, the month, and the year.
(2.) Industry. The love of work, and the habit of working the
steady pursuit, of a practical purpose in practical forms, is man's first
step in the efficiency which elevates him above the lower tribes of animal
life, as a being endowed riot with the mere sagacity if it may be so
called of instinct, but with the intelligent forecast which foresees,
and fore-ordains, and prepares; and which consciously shapes and
sustains a definite purpose, and willingly and skillfully toils for its ac-
complishment. For the attainment of such results he is qualified by
his original, native love of activity; and when this primary impelling
power is directed by intelligence and benevolence, it gives efficiency
and success to all his endeavors, whether in the toil which wins
the treasures of knowledge and learning, in that which accumulates
those of wealth, or in that which indefatigably works for human good,
in the labors of bene6cent philanthropy.
A judicious apportionment of time and occupation, however is
indispensable to successful and continuous industry. By such a
186 MORAL EDUCATION.
method only can the fatal evils of excessive close application be
avoided, and the due alternation of intervals of entire rest and of
renovating recreation afford opportunity of restoring ancl maintain-
ing the energies of life and mind. He who does not bring to his
work the powers of a whole man, is incompetent even to the task of
the moment, and, in the long run, his exertions prove but a success-
ion of failures. The jaded student or teacher, and the harassed man
of business, are alike unfitted for the nobler moral purposes of their
being. Habits of early-formed obedience to the Creator's laws which
regulate the whole nature of man, are the only sure reliance for the
possession of permanent vigor of body and mind, or the soundness
of moral health in the dispositions and affections of the heart. Noth-
ing short of this personal morality in planning and conducting the
business of life, can secure the unity of life in the whole man, as
an intelligent, efficient, responsible moral agent.
The hygiene of man's moral being demands the most faithful at-
tention even to the minor details of corporal well-being ; and in no
respect can education more effectually subserve man's best interests,
than by an enlightened and constant attention to these requisites of
mental health, through the whole decisive period of childhood and
youth, which sd effectually determines the character of subsequent
life.
The lengthened catalogue of virtues and of duties, which a dis-
tinct enumeration of the moral capabilities, of human nature, as the
subject of educational culture, required, will not discourage the faith-
ful teacher, in view of the manifold duties devolving on him as the
guardian of the young mind ; if, as we hope he does, he regards
moral culture as the chief part of his work, and values intellectual
attainment in his pupils only as it conduces to the higher ends of
being and of character. Nor will the extent of detail in our sugges-
tions be objected to by those who feel, from the daily experience of
the teacher's life, how close must be the watchful observation of
disposition, and habit, and how thoroughly practical must be the
meliorating methods of influence, in the management of the school-
room as a scene of moral development.
If the preceding outline of classification serve no higher purpose
than that of a convenient list for reference to prompt the, memory of
the teacher, in his endeavors to do some measure of justice to the
numerous sources of moral influence on life and character, the pur-
pose of the writer will have been effectually accomplished.
THOUGHTS ON RELIGION AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS.
BT BT. REV. GEORGE BURGESS, D. D.
IF the Chratian religion \>Q from God, it ought to influence every
thought and act of man, and to control every department of human
life. If education be the school of character, it is least of all to be
excepted from the sovereignty of that religion.
That Christian men, therefore, should view with indifference any
attempt to establish an absolute separation between education and
religion, is not to be expected from them till they renounce their
faith. They can have no more idea that a child can be rightly ed-
ucated without instruction in the laws of God and in the Gospel,
than that a man can live without the same knowledge, and yet duly
serve his Maker, and be prepared for the life to come.
Education, therefore, must be religious, and must include instruc-
tion in all necessary knowledge of the truths of divine revelation.
In proportion as the dignity, the importance, and the efficacy of
education are magnified, this necessity becomes but the more im-
pressive and undeniable. If the educator could be content with
defining his task as that of teaching to read and to write, or even to
measure the earth and to number the stars, it might be allowed
that this, like any other specific skill, could be imparted without
saying a word concerning duty, or sin, or salvation. But we are
accustomed to hear far higher praises of the work and of the men
that are to form the youthful mind, and so to shape the character
and the destinies of a people. Either undue and exaggerating
honor is paid to the office of the teacher, or he must teach the most
sacred truths, as well as those of inferior majesty and of only
earthly interest.
The honest Christian must bid him take his choice. Be the
teacher, he will say, of an art or any number of arts, if you will, and
touch not moral things; or be a teacher of all which makes the
man, and then you must teach the knowledge of God.
The honest teacher will answer, either that he is a Christian, and
is ready, according to his ability, to teach religiously and to teach
religion ; or that he is content to leave to others the higher
(187)
188 THOUGHTS ON RELIGION AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS.
and to teach only the elements of secular science and art. In either
event, there is no longer any confusion ; and the question, whether
there shall be a course of secular instruction, and a separate course
of religious instruction, or whether one course shall mingle both, be-
comes a question of possibility or of expediency, and is transferred
from the sphere of abstract principle and imperative conscience.
The clergy of most countries have adhered to the wider view of
education in schools, and have insisted, as long as they could, that
it should be distinctly Christian, and should even form a part of the
ecclesiastical system. They are not to be blamed,; and had union
in religious belief been preserved, it is hard to prove that their plan
would not have been altogether the best. But for this it is now too
late. In all free nations the freedom of discussion, doubt, and denial
has been practically asserted ; and, for all purposes of religious edu-
cation, the body of Christians is one no longer.
In education, viewed as a whole, the place to be occupied by re-
ligious truth has not lost, for this cause the smallest measure of its
importance. Religion is still as sovereign there as ever. Somewhere
in all true and sufficient education it must have its throne ; and from
that throne it must sway all the rest.
But the State can support no such throne ; because the State is
composed of an immense mass of men whose religion is not the
same. When education becomes a matter of public provision, the
very highest part of education is excepted. The public school, even
if under that name we should embrace any more elevated institu-
tions which the public funds might sustain, is not the seat of that
portion of this moral work which has to do, most directly and most
mightily, with the heart. That, however, it must forego, and be
content with its own appropriate task and praise.
The higher task must be performed elsewhere ; and the conse-
crated precincts of the church, and the equally hallowed walls of
home, must be the scene of religious instruction. It has there, too,
a fitter and a happier sphere than the State, with all its wealth or
its universal care, can attempt to furnish.
All this is perfectly consistent with the undoubted fact that re-
ligion is the prompting motive from which public education has had
its origin, and must have its best support. It sustains that educa-
tion as it sustains every good design. It desires that all men should
be trained in useful knowledge of every kind, because it desires
their improvement and happiness. Ignorance, in its view, is weak-
THOUGHTS ON RELIGION AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 189
ness, is poverty, is exposure to moral disease, is the absence of many
of the highest enjoyments, is the obstruction of the purposes for
which the beneficent Creator made rnan in His own image. There-
fore, ignorance is an enemy to godliness, and a hinderance of salva-
tion, as well as, in itself, a positive and mighty evil ; and religion
must long and labor to remove it from the path of society. To
suppose that a Christian can be indifferent to the intellectual culti-
vation of his fellow-men would simply imply that he had no appre
ciation of its value for himself; for he must wish to communicate
all which he prizes.
It is perfectly true, also, that even in the teachers of all secular
knowledge, religious men will desire and prefer a spirit and princi-
ples like their own. A father who merely commits his son to the
instructions of a writing-master, would rejoice to find in him a man
of Christian worth, and would feel that the boy was somewhat
safer. It is not possible, in any department of life, to exclude or
neutralize the beneficial influence of the steadfast fear of God and
the sincere love of mankind. The religious man or woman will
always be, all other things being equal, unspeakably the better
teacher, even of arithmetic or of needlework. Under any system of
public education, however remote from a sectarian or exclusive
character, this preference will be felt, and cannot be changed into
indifference.
Under these systems the introduction of religious instruction, in
combination with secular instruction, is relinquished, not upon
grounds of abstract excellence, but upon those of convenience or
necessity. Accordingly, either the system is not extended over the
youngest or the oldest of those who are to be educated ; or if it be,
it does not command a general acceptance. The public school
offers no urgent invitation to the child just rising from infancy ; it
leaves him, not unwillingly, to the gentle hands of his mother or of
some maternal preceptress. At the other end of the course, colleges
and universities are commonly allied to the Church rather than to
the State. From the latter they accept aid ; to the former they
accord welcome intervention and an active control. Not merely
financial or political considerations fix the limits of public educa-
tion on this side of the highest institutions of learning. For it is
felt that all education must begin and end in religion ; that the
infant must learn the names of God and of the crucified Redeemei
with his first accents; and that the young man should not go forth
]90 THOUGHTS ON RELIGION AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS.
into the world of professional study, action, and influence, without a
settled faith. But between these two periods lies the time which
public education appropriates ; appropriates, simply because the
interests of the commonwealth require the instruction of all in use-
ful knowledge, and because no other power can furnish the means
of such instruction for all alike.
If the task of religious education be then declined by the public
teacher, it is left in hands which certainly are better fitted to exe-
cute it with dignity, with diligence, with fidelity, and with tender-
ness. It is in the hands of special teachers, whose labors are volun-
tary ; of pastors ; and of parents.
The Sunday School has become one of the institutions of society,
wherever the English tongue is spoken. It enlists a body of teach-
ers whose intelligence is animated by no other impulse than that of
Christian love. They receive no hire, and they wield no instruments
of discipline. They come to their pupils on they day which is con-
secrated to all holy works of piety and chanty. There is nothing
to disturb the pure influence of their instruction ; no other studies
crowding in ; no intermixture of heathen mythology or abstract
science ; no hurry to the playground ; no dread of the rod or
superadded task ; and none of those hereditary associations, which,
absurd, unjust, and pernicious as they are, yet do still, more or less,
connect themselves with the relation between the boy and the pro-
fessional teacher. Love is the bond between those who teach and
those who learn on the Sabbath.
When the pastor is the teacher, love is united with reverence. His
office inspires that reverence, and his intelligence in sacred things
merits a confidence which might elsewhere be less readily bestowed.
The duties of pastors to the young may be but imperfectly under-
taken, especially where the ancient and most useful custom of cate-
chising has fallen into neglect. But it would still be great injus-
tice to compare their influence with that of teachers who sustain no
sanctity of office, have devoted no special study to sacred letters,
and are not, in virtue of their office, supposed to be persons of
piety.
But no teachers have an appointment more holy or divine than
fathers and mothers. The cannot but educate their children reli-
giously or irreligiously. No separation can take place in the train-
ing of home ; for that is purely for the heart and soul ; and its first
and supreme end is the goodness of the child. He learns his
THOUGHTS ON RELIGION AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 191
prayers on the knees of his mother ; he is taught to examine him-
self at the close of each day ; his conduct is, without ceasing, sub-
jected to a watchful scrutiny ; there is no vacation, no recess, no
occasion when he is released from this supervision. These teachers
have an authority, too, which, for him, is the direct interpretation
of the will of his Maker. To the child, the voice of the parent is
the voice of God ; for so has God commanded. And all which he
hears and learns from these sources comes to him as nourishment
from the bosom of an exhaustless love, to which his childhood must
cling as if it were to him the whole wide universe.
This is the provision which the Church and the family, with many
collateral aids, assign for religious education. Piety in the public
teachers, and religious truth in the common school, would be addi-
tional aids; but are they indispensable, or could their influence
be weighed in the balance against all this ? Whatever may be the
excellence of many professional instructors, whatever their noble en-
thusiasm in their calling, it is not to be disputed, that, as a body,
the teachers of public schools are governed, in the choice and
pursuit of their occupation, by the same motives which incite per-
sons of respectable and worthy characters in all departments of
business. They engage in it for a remuneration ; they abandon it
when it becomes unprofitable ; or they exchange if for positions which
are more lucrative or more to their taste. They are not appointed,
and cannot well be, for their personal devoutness. If they should teach
religion, it would be as they teach grammar, not 'because the task is
known to be enthroned in their affections, but because it is made a
part of their business. We do not disparage the transcendent benef-
icence and exalted piety of many teachers ; but it is an accident, so to
speak, whether these mark the character of an individual teacher ;
they are not and cannot be the distinguishing properties of a class
selected as teachers must always be under any public arrangements.
Little will it avail, that a cold, dry, unfeeling, and perhaps unbeliev-
ing teacher, consent to teach catechism, or to open his school with
prayers. A truly religious teacher, even without those exercises,
will leave some impress of his own spirit on the minds which he
has assisted in forming and replenishing. This can be attained
even now ; and if any would avoid this, they must make piety a
ground of exclusion from the office. The most determined unbe-
liever would hardly desire such an issue ; but neither can piety be
made a condition of admission, if it were even in our power to en-
192
force the rules, since the talents and acquisitions which make the
successful teacher are dissociated from it ; and since, precious as it
is, it cannot, in this position, be deemed one of the chief instruments
on which the cause of religion must rely.
What, then, is the power which Christianity cannot, and what is
that which it can, exercise in the system of public schools of a land
like our own ?
It cannot teach all its doctrines and laws, as they are held by any
body of Christian believers.
It cannot blend religious truth with secular instruction, to any
degree which implies the attempt to communicate systematic reli-
gious knowledge.
It cannot attempt to inculcate a religious character, or, in other
words, faith in the Lord Jesus Christ, by precept and exhortation.
It can take for granted a general acquaintance, in the pupils,
with the facts of Christianity, united with /everence for it as a
Divine revelation.
It can infuse into the teacher, so far as he obeys it, a spirit which
attracts to his religion, and inspires the desire to resemble its faith-
ful followers.
It caw afford a Christian view of every science and every depart-
ment of knowledge, and show their connection with revealed truth
in its great outlines.
It can inculcate the whole moral code of the Gospel, by rule and
example.
It can exclude and counteract every influence of infidelity.
It can, in many instances, with the universal consent of the com-
munity, affix a more decidedly religious character to the school
duties of each day, by the observance of daily prayers.
It can, with the same consent, introduce the Bible, and promote,
by daily reading, the familiar knowledge of its contents ; not as if
it were a mere reading-book, though the best, but as the generally
acknowledged word of God.
It can, with the same consent, which may generally be assumed,
impress, as occasion is offered, all that great and priceless mass of
truth in which all Christians are substantially united.
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48, 3Vols. $3.75.
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TRIBUTE TO GALLAUDET, with an account of the
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PART IV. Periodicals American and European.
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ENDOWED GRAMMAR SCHOOLS AND PUBLIC HIGH
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PART III. Great Britain and American States.
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PAPERS FOR THE TEACHER AND' SCHOOL
OFFICER; or Library of Practical Education,
gathered from the experience of different countries.
REVISED EDITION. In uniform cloth binding. Sold
in single volumes, or sets.
1. AMERICAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE PHILOSOPHY
AND PRACTICE OF EDUCATION. First Serifs. $2.50.
Russell, Hill, Thayer, Burgess, Mann, Hunting,
ton, Hart, Page.
2. OBJECT TEACHING AND OTHER METHODS OF PRI-
MARY INSTRUCTION in the Model and Training
Schools of Great Britain. $2.50.
3. MODERN GERMAN PEDAGOGY. $3.00.
Abbenrode, Beneke, Diesterweg, Fichte, Fro-
bel, Graser, Hentschel, Herbart, Raunier.
4. EDUCATIONAL APHORISMS AND SUGGESTIONS
Ancient and Modern. $2.00.
5. ENGLISH PEDAGOGY: or Treatises and Thoughts on
Education, the School and the Teacher in English
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Eylot, Colet, Mulcaster, Hoole, Cowley. Public
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12. AMERICAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS AND PEDAGOGY : a
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with an account of Public Schools in the Chief
Cities of Europe. $3.00.
13. SECONDARY INSTRUCTION: Systems, Instructions,
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grammes and Methods of the best European and
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16. SCHOOL CoDES-Old and New. $3.00.
17. TRUE STUDENT LIFE: Hints respecting Studies
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$3.00.
18. EDUCATIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY : Catalogue of
Books relating to the History, Organization, Ad-
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Orders will be received for any of tlie above Eooks
by E. STEIGER, New York.
AMERICAN PEDAGOGY : Contributions to the Principles and Methods of Edu-
cation, by Barnard, Burgess, Bushnell, Channing, Cowdery, Dickinson, Doane,
Everett, Fairchild, Hart, Hopkins, Huntington, Mann, Page, Philbrick, Pierce,
Potter, Sheldon, Wayland, and Wilbur. Selected from Barnard's American
Journal of Education. First Series. Third Ed. 576 pages. $3.00.
CONTENTS.
PAGE.
I. EDUCATION AND SCHOOLS 1-4
BUSHNELL PAGE POTTER WOODBRIDGE MANN 5
II. FACULTIES AND STUDIES Their Order and Method of Treatment. .5-268
I. INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL EDUCATION. By William Russell 5-156
1. The Perceptive Faculties 5
2. The Expressive Faculties ..! ^... 57
3. The Reflective Faculties 101
II. MORAL EDUCATION. By William Russell 157-186
Health Intellect Taste Sensibility Instinctive Tendencies 100
Primary Emotions Benignant Affections Generous Affections 165
Religious Principles The Will Practical Virtues Humane Virtues 175
Personal Qualities Self Renouncing. Virtues Example Habits 179
III. RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. By Rt. Rev. George Burgess 187-192
Intrinsic Importance Limitations in Public Schools 187
IV. THE TRUE ORDER OF STUDY. By Thomas Hill, D.D 193-254
Mathesis Physics History Psychology -Theology 196
V. THE POWERS TO BE EDUCATED. By Thomas Hill, D.D 245-256
The Senses Inward Intuition Memory Reason Sensibility Will 245
VI. MIND OBJECTS AND METHODS OP ITS CULTURE. By Francis Wayland, D.D. 257-272
1. Science of Education To discover, apply, and obey God's Laws 259
2. Methods of training the mind to these objects 266
III. THE TEACHER 273-304
I. THE DIGNITY OF THE OFFICE, AND SPECIAL PREPARATION. By W. E. Channing... . 273
II. THE TEACHER'S MOTIVES. By Horace Mann 277
IV. NATIONAL AND STATE RELATIONS TO EDUCATION 305-336
I. EDUCATION A NATIONAL INTEREST. George Washington 305
II. THE DUTY OF THE STATE TO MAKE EDUCATION UNIVERSAL 31
BISHOP DOANE Address to the People of New Jersey 313
PENN ADAMS JEFFERSON MADISON J AT RUSH KENT 317
III. THE RIGHT AND PRACTICE OF PROPERTY TAXATION FOR SCHOOL PURPOSES 323
D. D. BARNARD Report to the Legislature of New York 323
DANIEL WEBSTER The early School Policy of New England 327
HORACE MANN The principles underlying the Ordinance of 1647 328
HENRY BARNARD The Early School Codes of Connecticut and New Haven 332
National Land Grants for Educational Purposes 334
V. VARIOUS ASPECTS OP POPULAR AND HIGHER EDUCATION 337-400
I. BISHOP ALONZO POTTER, D.D., of Penn 337
Consolidation and other Modifications of American Colleges 337
II. EDWARD EVERETT, President of Harvard College 343
Reminiscences of School and College Life Conditions of a good school. ... 344
Popular Education and Sound Science Moral Education &50
Generous Studies Homeric Controversy Education and Civilization #>6
Popular Education-Boston Public Library Female Education 361
HI. F. A. P. BARNARD, D.D., LL.D., President of Columbia College 367
College Contributions to the American Educated Mind 367
Sub-graduate and Post-graduate Collegiate Course Oral Teaching 37J
Higher Scientific Instruction Elective Studies 375
AMERICAN PEDAGOGY. FIRST SERIES.
PAGE.
IV. MASK HOPKINS, D.D. , President of Williams College 378
Education Self Education Female Education Academies 378
Medical Science Theological Education Colleges 381
V. JAMES E. FAIRCHILD, D.D., President of Oberlin College 385
Co-education of the Sexes 385
VI. PROFESSIONAL OR NORMAL AIMS AND METHODS IN TEACHING 401
I. JOHN S. HART, Principal of State Normal School, Trenton 401
What is Special or Professional Preparation ? Teaching Training 403
Recitations Art of Questioning 417
II. CYRUS PIERCE, Principal of the first State Normal School 425
Aims and Methods in Training Pupil-Teachers 425
III. NICHOLAS TILLIXGHAST, Principal of State Normal School at Bridgewater 431
Aims and Methods in Training Teachers 432
IV. J. W. DICKINSON, Principal of State Normal School at Westfield 433
, The Philosophy and Method of Teaching at Westfield 433
V. D. P. PAGE, Principal of State Normal School, Albany.. . .- 437
The Pouring-in Process The Drawing-out Process Waking up of Mind. . . 437
DR. WAYLAND THOMAS H. GRIMKE 447
Method of Recitation and Study 448
VI. E. A. SHELDON, Principal of State Training School, Oswego 449
Object Teaching as pursued at Oswego 449
VII. H. B. WILBUR, Superintendent of State School for Feeble Minded Youth 459
Object Teaching as pursued at Oswego 459
VIII. S. W. MASON, Principal of Hancock Grammar School, Boston 465
Physical Exercises in School 465
IX. M. F. COWDERY, Superintendent of Public Schools, Sandusky 473
Formation of Moral Character 473
VII. WORK BEFORE THE AMERICAN TEACHER AND EDUCATOR.. 585-576
I. HENRY BARNARD 485
Magnitude and Modes of Advancing the Educational Interests of the
United States 485
II. HORACE MANN 513
Addresses as President of the National Convention of the Friends of
Common Schools, in Philadelphia, 1849 513
HI. JOHN D. PHILBRICK, Superintendent of Public Schools, Boston 513
Address before the National Teachers' Association, 1862 510
SECOND SERIES.
[A Second Volume of Selections from Barnard's American Journal of Educa-
tion on Topics in the wide field of American Pedagogy, will be issued in 1873,
and will contain Reports, Essays, and Thoughts, by Adams, Bache, Barnard,
Beecher, Boutwell, Brooks, Bushnell, Choate, Eaton, Emerson, Gregory, Har-
ris, Huntington, Kiddle, Lewis, Lindsley, Mann, Sears, Smith, White, and
others.]
I. EDUCATION AND SCHOOLS 1~4
II. LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. By Gideon F. Thayer 5-104
VIL POWER OF CHARACTER AND EXAMPLE 385-416
I. HOEACE BUSHNELL ^
Magnetism of Character Unconscious Influence J
n. RT. REV. F. D. HUNTINGTON
Unconscious Tuition
BARNARD'S PUBLICATIONS. y
PRIMARY SCHOOLS AND ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION : Object Teaching and
Oral Lessons on Social Science and Common Things, with various illus-
trations of the Principles and Practice of Primary and Elementary In-
struction in the Model and Training Schools of Great Britain. Second
Edition. 544 pp. $3.00.
CONTENTS.
PACK.
I. METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. By Rev. William Ross 7
1. The Catechetical Method 7
Conditions of a correct Question 9
Conditions of a good Answer 10
Counsels and Cautions 13
2. Socratic Method applied to Religious Subjects 15
3. Defense of the Catechetical Method 17
II. ORAL LESSONS ON REAL OBJECTS. By Thomas Morrison, Rector of the Free
Church Training College, Glasgow, 21
Science of Common Things, 22
Oral Lessons First Stage, 23
" Second Stage, 26
" Third Stage 26
Requisites for success in Oral Teaching, 27
Materials, 29
Methods, 29
Notes of Lessons, 30
First Stage. Example I. The Cow. II. A Fire. III. The Camel. IV. The
Elephant 31
List of Subjects 35
Second Stage. Example I. Winnowing of Corn. II. The Spider's Web. III.
The common Bat. IV. Reaping of Corn. V. Watering of Streets. VI.
The Duck. VII. Nests of Birds. VIII. The making of Grain into Meal,. 36
List of Subjects 41
Third Stage. Example I. The Thermometer. II. The Barometer. III. Dew.
IV. The Land and Sea Breeze. V. Why does Ice float. VI. Application
of Lesson. VII. Locality often determines Custom. VIII. Rice. IX. The
Cotton Plant. X. Oceanic Currents 42
List of Subjects On Heat, 47
Mechanics, Pneumatics, Optics, Daily life, 48
III. SPECIMEN NOTES OF LHSSONS. Selected from various authors, 49
The Palm Tree Analysis of a Reading Lesson, 49
Pens]. Ancient Pens, 49
2. Modern 50
Pens differently treated Fir ft Lesson, 55
" Second Lesson, 55
" " " Third Lesson, 56
Ronds, 51
Weekly Expenditure of a Laboring Man Food, 52
11 " Cooking of Food, 53
Climate, 55
IV. GALLERY TRAINING LESSONS ORALLY PRESENTED, ON NATURAL SCIENCE
AND COMMON THINGS. By David Stow, Founder of the Glasgow Normal
Training Seminary, 57
Oral Training Lessons in Science 57
Objects of daily observation and experience, 59
CONTENTS.
Practical Examples, ........................................................ 63
I. The Camel. II. The Mole. III. Air a Conductor of Sound ............ 71
Selections of subjects for Oral Gallery Lessons, ................................ 74
I. Infant or Initiatory Department. II. Juvenile Department. 111. Senior De-
partment. IV. Miscellaneous Department. V. Human Body and Health, 87
Apparatus and Material required, ............................................ 91
V. PRIZE SCHEMES FOR THE ENCOURAGEMENT OF A KNOWLEDGE OF COMMON
THINGS AMONG TEACHERS. By Prof. Sullivan, and Lord Ashburton, ........ 93
Special efforts to stimulate Teachers, ......................................... 93
Prof. Sullivan's Prize Scheme, ............................................... 97
Questions for the Ashburton Prizes, .......................................... 101
VI. NECESSITY AND PROGRESS OF ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION IN ECONOMICAL
SCIENCE. By Charles Knight, ............................................. 105
Objections to teaching Political Economy to the Laborer, ....................... 105
Objections answered by Dr. Chalmers, and Dr. Whately, ....................... 105
William Ellis, and the Birkbeck Schools, ...................................... 106
Specimen Lessons by Mr. Shields nt the Peckham School, ...................... 108
Lectures on Social Science, by Mr. Ellis, ......... .' ......................... .... 110
Enlarged course at Mechanic's Institutes, ..................................... 112
VII. SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF TEACHING IN REFERENCE TO THE PREVENTION
OF MISERY AND CRIME. By Edward Campbell Tainsh, ..................... 1 16
Causes of Misery and Crime, ................................................ 116
Idleness, Intemperance, Improvidence, ........................................ 1 )7
Extravagance, Dishonesty, Ungoverned Passions, ............................... 118
Correct Habits of feeling, thinking and acting, ................................. 119
Specimen Lesson on Industry, .............................................. 120
" " Economy, Forethought ................................. 121
" Drunkenness ............................................ 123
" " Honesty ............................................... 123
' " Envy, Jealousy, Cruelty, Revenge ........................ 126
" Morality ............................................... 127
" " Knowledge, ............................................ 128
' " Social Relationship, ................................... 129
Objections to this kind of teaching answered ................................... 131
VIII. PROGRESS OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN IRELAND, ......................... 133
Varied educational experience, .............................. . ................ 133
Efforts of the English Government to establish Protestant Schools ................ 134
Parliamentary Commissioners of Inquiry, ..................................... 135
Board of Commissioners of National Education ................................ 136
Results I. National system as to creed and politics, ......................... 137
41 II. Professional training of teachers, .................................. 138
" III. Schools of different grades, ....................................... 143
' IV. School-houses, .................................................. 147
" V. Cheap and uniform Text-books ................................... 147
" VI. Inspection, ..................................................... 147
" VII. Liberal appropriations, ........................................... 148
Testimony as to success in 1859, ............................................. 150
IX. SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF PRIMARY EDUCATION, AS PRESENTED IN THE MODEL
INFANT SCHOOL, DUBLIN. By Thomas Urry Young ......................... 155
Necessity and nature of the Infant or Primary School .......................... 155
Moral Education, ........................................................... 158
Intellectual Education, ...................................................... I 62
Physical Education, ................ ........................................ lf)U
Hints to Teachers,. . , 1G7
Qualifications of the Teacher,
169
Pestalozzi's opinion,
Wilderspin's I7
School Rules and Regulations,
Rules for Parents, .
171
Maxims to be observed by Teachers "
CONTENTS.
PACK.
School-room Rules, 172
Play-ground Rules, 172
Sanitary Regulations, 172
Time Table, 174
Daily Time Table, 175
Synopsis of a Weeks Lessons 175
Developing Lessons or the training of the Perceptive Faculties 17G
Form, 178
Lines, 180
Angles, 181
Plane Figures, 12
Solids Specimen Lesson, 184
Color Specimen Lesson, 186
Size Specimen Lesson, 188
X. ORGANIZATION AND INSTRUCTION OF THK ORDINARY NATIONAL SCHOOLS, 205
1. Circular of Commissioners in Deference to the organization of National Schools. 205
2. Remarks on the details of organization, 208
(a.) Tripartite System, . 210
(b.) Bipartite System 211
3. Time Table for Boys' School 212
4. Time Table for Girls' School, 213
5. Topics of Lectures on Methods of Teaching, 214
XL PROGRESS OF ELKMENTARY EDUCATION IN SCOTLAND 215
Enactment of 1464, 215
First Book of Discipline in 1560, . .... 215
Act of 1615, 1633, 1696 216
Results of the Parochial Schools, 217
Act of 1828 219
Sessional Schools, 219
Extension of the system, 220
Lord Brougham and Dr. Chalmers, on the socinl character of the schools, 221
Plan for improving the system, 223
Statistics, 224
XII. SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF EARLY EDUCATION. By James Currie. Principal of
the Church of Scotland Training College, Edinburgh, 229
1. Introduction General character of the Infant School, 229
II. Physical circumstances, 233
III. Intellectual instruction 236
1. Object-Lessons, 236
List of Subjects for First Stage (1) Natural History. (2.) Domestic
Economy. (3.) Physiology. (4.) Industrial Economy. (5.) Common
Things. 6.) Physical Appearance, 239
List of Subjects for Second Stage, 241
" " Third Stage, 242
Examples in Outline of Lessons for First Sta?e,. 242
I. The Sheep. II. A Bed. III. The Mouth. IV. The Baker's Shop. V.
The Cart. VI. Rain 244
Examples of Lessons for Second Stnge, 4 244
I. The Elephant. II. The Sponge. III. The term " Porous," 245
Example of Lessons for Analysis, 245
2. Number, 247
3. Color and Form, 2">8
4. Singing 207
5. Geography , 269
6. Reading to Children, 272
7. Reading and Spelling 277
8. Grammar 284
IV. Religious Instruction 284
Example (1.) Narrative. (2.) Emblem. (3.) Precept. (4.) Prayer. (5.) Moral
Lesson on Truth, 291
CONTENTS.
PA OB.
Exercises of Devotion, 292
XIII. METHOD AND EXAMINATION. By James Morrison, Rector of Free Church Train-
ing College, Glasgow, 294
1. Method in general, 294
2. Synthesis and Analysis, 294
3. Individual Instruction, 298
4. Simultaneous Instruction, 299
5. Mutual Instruction, 300
6. Questioning, 30 1
7. Ellipsis, 304
8. Examination, 305
XIV. LESSON ON COLOR. By J. H. Hay, 3-21
Diagram, 303
XV. PROGRESS or ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND, 323
1. Early educational movements, 323
2. Foundation of Grammar Schools and Free Schools, 324
3. Origin of Sunday Schools, labors of Lancaster and Bell, 328
Mechanic's Institutions Ragged Schools 332
4. Parliamentary Action, from 1807 to 1854, 337
Measures of the Committee of Council, 311
Normal Schools, or Training Colleges, in England, 349
Earliest efforts for the Professional Training of Teachers, 349
Parliamentary Grunt of 1835, 350
System of Denominational Training Colleges, 351
XVI. BRITISH AND FOREIGN SCHOOL SOCIETY, 355
History of Society, 355
" Normal Establishment, 355
XVII. MANUAL OF THE SYSTEM OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN THE MODEL SCHOOLS
OF THE BRITISH AND FOREIGN SCHOOL SOCIETY, 381
I. Fittings and Organization 381
1. School Fittings, 381
2. Sections and Drafts 383
3. Ckssification for Reading 383
4. " Writing 384
5. " Arithmetic 384
6. " for other Studies, 385
II. Agency Employed, 385
1. Pupil Teachers, 385
2. Monitors 387
III. Methods of Instruction 391
1. General Principles, / 391
2. Preparatory Section 393
3. Collective Teaching 395
4. Class Teaching Reading, 399
5. " " Interrogation, 401
6. " " Spelling 409
7. " Writing 410
8. " " Arithmetic, 411
9. " " Grammar and Composition, 415
30. Class Teaching Geography, 421
11. " " Miscellaneous Lessons, 425
12. " " Drawing 426
13. " " Vocal Music 426
IV. Scriptural Instruction, 427
V. Girls' School Needle-work, 432
XVIII. BRITISH AND FOREIGN SCHOOL SOCIETY RELIGIOUS BASIS, &c 435-448
XIX. HOME AND COLONIAL INFANT AND JUVENILE SCHOOL SOCIETY 449-486
XX. NATIONAL SOCIETY AND THE BELL OR MADRAS SYSTEM 487-500
XXI. MANUAL OF METHOD FOR NATIONAL SCHOOLS. By W. F. Richards 501-530
GERMAN PKDAGOGY : Views of German Educators and Teachers on tfie
Principles of Education, and Methods of Instruction for Schools of different
Grades. Republished from Barnard's American Journal of Education. 3d
Edition, 640 pages.
CONTENTS.
Page.
INTRODUCTION, . .. . . 9-22
SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION IN GERMAN LITERATURE, ..... 11
FREDERICK FROEBEL, 23
SYSTEM OP INFANT GARDEN TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION, .... 23
FROEBEL, HERBERT BEN NEKE, 33-78
PEDAGOGIC VIEWS, IN REFERENCE TO THE REQUIREMENTS OP THE AGE. By PROP. J. H.
VON FICHTE, ......... 35
KARL VON RAUMER, 79-368
CONTRIBUTIONS TO PEDAGOGY, ........ 81
I. EARLY CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH, .......81
II. HISTORY, - - - 101
III. GEOGRAPHY, lit
IV. NATURAL SCIENCE, .....-.-123
V. GEOMETRY, - - - - - - * - -153
VI. ARITHMETIC, - - - - - - - - 170
VII. PHYSICAL EDUCATION, ....... - 185
VIII. CHRISTIANITY IN PEDAGOGY, - - - - - - 218
LX- CLASSICAL INSTRUCTION, --..-.-- 229
X. "METHODS OF TEACHING LATIN, ....... 249
1. Old Grammatical Method, ....... 249
2. Speaking as in the Native Tongue, 252
Montaigne, Locke, Maupcrtius, Gesner, .... 252
3. Grammar evolved from Reading, Interlinear,- ... 253
Ratich, Locke, Hamilton Tafel, 253
4. Universal and other Methods, ...... 254
Jacotot, Ruthardt, Meierotto, Jacobs, - ... 255
XI. SCIENCE AND ART, -.--.... 283-29i
XII. EDUCATION OF GIRLS, ....... 295-368
RUDOLF RAUMER, 389-433
STUDY OF THE GERMAN LANGUAGE, -------- 373
F. ADOLPH WILHELM DIESTERWEG, 439
I. CATECHISM OF METHODS OF TEACHING, - - - - - 445
1. Intuitional Instruction. By Diesterweg, .... 445
2. Reading. By Hencomp, ---...- 447
3. Arithmetic. By Diesterweg, ...... 449
4. Geometry. By Diesterweg - - - - - - 451
5. National History. By Hentz, ------ 452
6. National Philosophy. By Diesterweg, - - - - - 454
7. Astronomy. By Diesterweg, --.-. 455
8. Geography. By Abbcnrode, -----.- 459
9. History. By Abbenroile, -------464
II. GUIDE FOR GERMAN TEACHERS, --..... 472
1. Intuitional and Speaking Exercises. By Diestenceg, 473
2. Drawing in Common, Schools. By Dr. E. Hentschel, ... 491
3. Singing in Common Schools. By Dr. E. Hentschel, ... 613
4. Discipline in Schools. By Diesterweg, - - - - - 541
G. A. RIECKE, - 559-576
MAN AS THE SUBJECT OP EDUCATION, - 559
JOHN BAPTIST GRASER, of Bayreuth, - 577-582
SYSTEM OF INSTRUCTION FOR COMMON SCHOOLS, ...... 577
JOHN HENRY WICHERN, - ....'. 683-648
GERMAN REFORM SCHOOLS, ......... 589
INDEX, - - 649-65G
STEIGER'S LIST OF GERMAN PEDAGOGICAL WORKS, .... 1-32
NATIONAL EDUCATION.
EMINENT TEACHERS AND EDUCATORS OF THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHT-
EENTH CENTURIES : Supplement to Volume II., of Barnard's National Edu-
cation, with Index. Pages 865-1264. Price, $2.00.
83^" VOLUME II. of Barnard's Comprehensive Survey of " National Education
in different countries" is devoted to systems of Elementary and Secondary In-
struction, with brief notices of Superior and Special Schools, in Switzerland,
France, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Russia, Turkey. Greece,
Italy, Spain and Portugal, in continuation of the account of the systems of the
several German States as constituted in 1866, in Volume I.
CONTENTS.
SUPPLEMENT TO NATIONAL EDUCATION, VOLUME II 865-1348
Progressive Development of Popular Education 865
SWITZERLAND, POPULAR EDUCATION IN 1871 863
Extracts from William Hepworth Dixon's The Switzers 867
SCHOOL AND UNIVERSITY LIFE IN THE ISxn AND 16m CENTURIES 877
Autobiography of Thomas Platter, 1492-1582 877
Bacchants, or Wandering Teachers, and School Life in Switzerland and Germany. . . 877
University Studies, Discipline and Customs 889
Deposition Pennalism Landsmannsclmften 897
PROGRESSIVES OF THE I?TH AND 18TH CENTURIES 919
Principles common to all 923
Special Notice of the Great Educational Reformers 927
RATICH Memoir and Labors, 1571-1635 * 927
COMENIUS Memoir and Publications, 1592-1671 955
LOCKE Memoir and Thoughts on Education, 1632-1704 997
FRANKE Memoir and Orphan-House at Halle. 1663-1727 1011
SEMLER, HECKER, HALM, and other laborers for Real Schools, 1669-1778 1029
Modern Gymnasium and Real School 1039
ROUSSEAU Memoir, and his Ideal Pupil, Emile, 1712-1778 1045
BASEDOW Memoir, and the Philunthropinum, 1723-1778 1073
PKSTALOZZI, FELLENBERO, KRUSI, and other founders of the modern Popular School. 1107
Principles and Methods applied in the Institutions at Burgdorf, Hofwyl, and other
schools of Switzerland 1107
DIESTERWEQ, ABBENRODE, HiNTZE, HONCAMP, and other prominent teachers, after the
more advanced German Methodology 1 135
Methods and Discipline 1134
Intuitional Instruction 1137
Reading, Arithmetic, Geometry, Natural History 1140
Natural Philosophy, Astronomy, Geography, History 1146
Discipline, Principles, Rules, Plan of Work 1207
RAUMER Contributions to the History of Pedagogy 1208
Arithmetic old and new methods 1163
Physical Culture, Health, Hardening the Body, Sharpening the Senses, Gymnastics 1177
MONITORIAL SYSTEM Bell, Lancaster, Spurzheirn, &c 1209
Historical Notice of the System 1209
EDUCATION FOR LIFE'. 1241
Graser's System and Schools 1241
BURGHER, OR CITIZENS' SCHOOL 1234
Dr. Vogel's School at Leipsic 1234
INDEX TO VOLUME II. of Barnard's National Education 1249
CONTENTS AND INDEX of other volumes of the Series 1265
Volume I. German States (912 pages) 121)5
Superior Instruction in Europe (896 pages) 1279
Military 'System and Schools (960 pages) 1283
Technical Schools (800 pnges) 1297
CLASSIFIED INDEX TO BARNAND'S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, Volume I. to XVI. 1201
INDEX
TO
EDUCATIONAL APHORISMS.
ABELARD 168
Actual life, 129
/Eschylus, 14, 43, 99
Andromache, 96
Anonymous,. . 17, 19, 20, 28, 30, 48, 53, 129, 169
Antoninus Pius, 14, 188
Appetite, 137
Aretinus 26,110
Aristotle,. . 40, 42, 43, 74, 75, 76, 79, 95, 9(5, 133,
145, 157, 102, 187, 194, 197
Art, .1(55
Aurelius Antoninus 44, 132
Aurelius Augustinus 133
Augustine, 51
Bacon, 47,144, 146, 147
Basedo wy 78, 179
Baur, 108,112,114,192
Bauer, (E .,) 34, 57, 58
Beday 63
Bendtt 101
Bhugavad-Gita, 10
Bible
Genesis, 9, 24, 166
Exodus, 92, 93
Deuteronomy, 166
Samuel 187
Psalms 9,69, 147, 166, 167
Son of Sirach 65
Ecclesiasticus, 93
Job 147, 151
Proverbs, 93, 97, 187
Wisdom of Solomon, 9
Apocrypha Tobit, 93
Matthew, 9. 166
Mark 167
Luke, 69, 93, 102
John 10, 93
Paul 10, 24, 93, 97, 147, 187
Bohme, (J.,) 35, 197
Bouterwek, 17
Bolingbroke, 153
Books 15H
Bretsehneider, 175
Bruno 16
Bucbncr, (Christian,) 70
Callimnchus 162
Camne 198
Chinese 11,65,92. 162,194
Charron, (P..) 134
Cicero 13, 15, 43, 80, 94, 133, 15], 167,
188, 194, 195, 196
Channincr, (W. E.,) 165
Character 138
Chrvsippus 74
CouMJniui 46, 76, 78, 84, 116, 140
Confucius, 10, 11, 132, 167
Czour-Vedam, 10
Democrinis 125, 139, 161, 163
Diesterweir, 59
Diodorus Sic.ulus 151
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 153
143
.. 187
Ttaci pline
Doederlei n,
Early Training,
59
Education, its nature and value, 38
Ehren berg 113
Epidaurus, 107
Epicurus, 132
Epictetus 11,43, 132, 168
Everhard, 134
Evangel of Nature, 155
Euripides 169
Example, 194
Feelings, 128
Feilenberg 164
Female Education, 96
Fenelon 105
Fischer, (J. A ,). 119, 120, 121, 125, 126, 130, 181
Fichte 29
Forster 87, 134, 135
Frederick (the Great,) 155
French Enclvclopedia, 62
Froebel,....'. 57,118
Fries 25
Fundamental Impulses 20
Galen, 76
Garve, 56
Geography, 150
Gizas,.., 73
Goethe, 20, 90, 100, 106, 113, 161, 175, 199
Grafe 57.180
Gruser 55, 58
Greiling 48
Greszler, (F. G. L.,) 148
Greverus, 129
Hanle 6
Harnisch, 58
Haulers, 153
Hegel 55, 171, 192
Helvetius, 87
Hernsterhuis .*. 17
Herder,. 17, 19, 30, 33, 50, 124, 136, 143, 150, 175
Hermannz 192
Heydenreich 21, 30, 49, 134
Hiackinff..., .' 92
Hindoo Book, 10
Hippel 72,122
H itopadesa, 10
Home Education, 75
Huffel, 37
Humboldt, (W. Von) 20, 100
Indian Tnle 40
Imagination 124
Impulses of Reason, 53
Intellectual Culture 116
Iselin, 68
Jncobi, (F.,) 37, 54, 56, 134, 135, 173, 199
John 182,186
Juvenal, 194,195
Kant 48, 100, 135, 137, 191
Knowing faculties 116, 135
Knowing versus Action 193
Kohr 47
Krause, 73
Krug 23, 60, 122, 123, 133
75,173,189 Language 141
EDUCATIONAL APHORISMS.
Lactantius, 168
Leibnitz, 57, 133, 134, 168
Livius 151
Locke, 46, 161
Lucian, 59,151
Luther, Ifi, 45, 67, 68, 78, 81, 84, 83, 85,
95, 98, 134, 137, 141, 147, 152,
163, 183, 188, 190, 191, 197.
Man, as the Subject of Education, 9
Mangelsdorf, 122
Marie Louise Wilhelmine, 18
MelanctKon, 152
Memory, 126
Mencke 103
Menu, Laws of, 10
Mendelssohn, 36, 48
Michaelis, 91
M ilton 1 64
Montaigne, 43, 46, 87, 152, 171
Moral Training, 166
Moris 24
Moscherosch,. . . ... 71, 84, 95, 99, 104, 190, 198
Moses Maimonides, 133
Music, 162
Musonius, 14
Nabbe, 37
Napoleon Bonaparte, 48
Nature, 165
Natural Science, 148
Niemeyer, 52, 56, 62, 67, 72, 109, 111, 117,
118, 119, 120, 121, 124, 126, 128, 130,
131, 132, 136, 138, 144, 149, 150, 156,
157, 158, 160, 161, 164, 173, 176, 184,
185, 197, 198, 199, 200.
Obedience, 92
Object Teaching, 117
Oezer, 106
Parents and Teachers, 65, 190
Perception, . ; 116
Perictione, 94
Persius, 14
Pestalozzi, 50, 88, 150, 175, 182
Petrarch, 134
Physical Education, 75
Philosophy, Natural, 157
Philemon, 14
Philo, 51
Philosophic de la Nature 48
Plato,... 12, 38, 43, 76, 78,79, 94, 114, 139, 141,
157, 162, 167, 170, 194
Plautus, 65
Pliny, 151
Plutarch, 39, 40, 42. 66, 77, 8J, 1 18, 127,
133, 159, 188, 194, 195
Poetry, 153, 161
Poleitz 153
Pythagoras,. 11, 12, 38, 42, 81, 96, 132, 162, 166
auinctilian 39, 42, 74, 75, 81, 85, 94, 127,
133, 151, 188, 195
Raumer 104, 105,107,114,115,179
Reading, 160
Recreation, 189
Reason, 11, 132
Reinhard, 63
Religious Training, 131, 166
Richter, 27, 50, 97, 101, 104, 119, ]27, 132,
154, 164, 177, 178, 179, 199
Ringwald, 95
Robbelen, 148
Rotteck, 61, 91
Rousseau, 68,80,90, 131, 19
Rudolphi, (Caroline.) 109
Rueckert, 11, 73, 110, 177, 178, 179, 199
Saadi 166
Senses, 116
Sai !er 125
Schelling, 36, 49
Scherer 63
Sch losser, 139
Schiller,... 16, 26, 50, 98, 100, 102, 110, 123, 128
136, 196, 153, 163
Schlenkert, (F. L.,) 17
Schleiermacher, 101, 112
Schmid, (C. C. E.,) 49, 56
Schneuber, 47
Schottin, 30
Schmid, (Karl,) 52
Schwabe, 73, 193
Schwarz 35, 53, 165
Schroder 90
Schrack 156
Schubert, 27
Seneca,. 13, 15, 39. 42, 61, 69, 8t, 82, 94, 95, 133,
145, 151, 158, 159, 189, 194, 196
SiaoHio, 92
Simonides, 14, 153
Socrates 77,93,168, 169, 187
Solon, 76, 94
Soldan 100
State Lexicon, 61,91
Starke, 34
Stoy 59, 90, 181, 193
Stoics 43
Sturm 169
Subjects and Means of Instruction 140
Tegner 144, 179
Temperament, 138
Terentius, 14,65
Tetens, 22
Tetzner, ; 88
Theano 44
Thomson 153
Thibaut 115
Thucydides, 96
Tischer 58, 149, 171, 172, 176
Tittemnn, 155
Tschuchi, 10
Understanding, or thinking faculty, 121
Uz,.. 21
Valerius Maximus, 65
Von Ammon, 24, 54, 68, 140, 200
Von Dulberg, 36
Von Haller, . , 22
Von Gentz, 62
Voss . 25, 48
Virtue, 10, 132
Wngner 137
Weikard, 50, 87
Wieland, 50
Will 137
Wohlfarth, (J. F. T.,) 5
Young, 27
Zaleueus, 167
Zschokke,.. 21, 22, 32, 33, 51, 95, 102, 105, 108,
109, 112, 113, 142, 160, 169, 172,
173, 174, 177, 199.
Zenophon, 40
Zollikofer 36
Zoroaster, 10, 11, 167, 179
PESTALOZZI AND HIS EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM.
PESTALOZZI AND PESTALOZZIANISM : Memoir, and Educational Princi
pies, Methods, and Influence of John Henry Pestalozzi, and Biographical
Sketches of several of his Assistants and Disciples ; together with Selec-
tions from his Publications. In Two Parts. By HENKY BAKNAKD, LL.D.
New York : E. STEIGER.
CONTENTS.
PART I.
LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OP PESTALOZZI.
Portrait of Pestalozzi, ......!
Preface, 3
INTRODUCTION. Influence of Pestalozzi on the aims, principles, and methods of popular
education, 11
Influence on Reformatory Education. By Dr. Blochmann, .... - 11
Influence on tlie Sch'ls and Educational Methods of Germany. By Dr. Diesterweg, 16
Summary of Pestalozzi's Principles of Education. By William C. VVoodbridge,
Influence on the Infant School System of England, 3?
LIFE OF PESTALOZZI. By Karl von Raumer, 37
Preface, ....--- 41
I. Childhood and Youth, 1746-1T67, 49
II. Agricultural and Educational Experiments at Neuhof, 1767, .... - 56
III. The Evening Hour of a Hermit, 1780, 69
IV. Leonard and Gertrude, 1781. 62
V. Life and Writings between 1781 and 1798. 65
VI. Experience at Stanz, 1798, 68
VII. " Burgdorf, 1799-1804, 71
VIII. " Buchsee, 1804, 87
IX. " Yverdun, 1805, 87
X. Last Years, 1815-1827, 115
XI. Relations to Christianity, 116
XII. Retrospect, 123
APPENDIX. By the American Editor, 127
Celebration of Pestalozzi's Centennial Birth-day in Germany and Switzerland, - 129
List of Publications by Pestalozzi, 139
List of Publications in different languages on Pestalozzi and his Educational Prin-
ciples and Methods, 142
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES of several of the assistants and disciples of Pestalozzi. - 145
Preface, 149
I. Johannes Niederer, .......... 151
II. Hermann Kriisi, 161
III. Johannes Buss, 193
IV. Joseph Schmid. 202
V. John (ieorge Tobler. 205
VI. John Ramsauer, ' 213
VII. John Ernst Plamann, 217
IX. Hans George Nageli, 220
X. Johannes Harnisch, 221
XI Karl Augustus Zeller. 223
XII. Charles Christian Wilhelm von Turk, 1M
yill. Bernhard Gottlieb Denzel. >7
XIV. Friedrich Adolf Wilhelm Diestervveg, 229
Gustavus Frederick Diiiter, 232
PART II.
SELECTIONS FROM THE PUBLICATIONS or PESTALOZZI. - .... . 515
Prefac, ---....517
I. Leonard and Gertrude, ; a Book for the People. - - - - . - - . 519
IT. The School in Bonnnl, .......... _ p5j
ITT. Christopher and Alice, -------.-.._ (5^5
IV. How Gertrude Teaches her Children, - ......... (j^g
V. Account of his own Educational Experience,, -.. ..fi7
VT. " " " Method of Instruction, ----... 074
VIT. A Christmas Eve Discourse, December 24th, 1810, ....... 703
VT1I. New- Year's Address, 1809, - .... ..... 712
IX. Address on his Seventy-third Birthday, - ..... -715
X. Paternal Instruction, ... .... 720
XI. Evening Hour of a Hermit, ... . . . 733
PART III. * ' i
PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN SWITZERLAND, -- . 313
Fellenberg, Vehrli, Kuratli and other Swiss Educators, - , . . 239
ENGLISH PEDAGOGY OLD AND NEW : or, Treatises and Thoughts on
Education, the School, and the Teacher in English Literature. Second
Series. Republished from Barnard's American Journal of Education.
628 pages. $3.00. 1873.
CONTENTS.
PAGE.
INTRODUCTION 1-16
CONTENTS AND INDEX OF FIRST SERIES, 3
ART. I. WILLIAM OP WYKEHAM AND THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 17-128
1. WILLIAM OF WYKEHAM, Bishop and Chancellor 1324-1404 19
2. PUBLIC OR ENDOWED SCHOOLS 23
3. ST. MARY'S COLLEGE, Winchester 1387-1865 49
4. REPORT OF ROYAL COMMISSIONERS ON THE GREAT PUBLIC SCHOOLS 81
5. ACTION OF PARLIAMENT AND COMMISSIONERS 118
II. DEAN COLET, AND ST. PAULS SCHOOL, London 129-160
III. CARDINAL WOLSEY 1471-1530 161-164
PLAN OF STUDIES FOR IPSWICH GRAMMAR SCHOOL, 1528 161
IY. SIR THOMAS ELYOT. 1497-1535 165-178
THE GOVERNOR, or Training for the Public Weal, 1564 107
Y. RICHARD MULCASTER. 1531-1611 179-190
POSITIONS respecting the Training of Children, 1581 179
VI. JOHN BRINSLY WEBSTER CHRISTOPHER WASE 185-190
VII. CHARLES HOOLE. 1616-1666 191-324
OBJECT TEACHING AND PICTORIAL ILLUSTRATIONS, 1661 192
THE NEW DISCOVERY OF THE OLD ART OF TEACHING, 1658 195
THE PETTY SCHOOL 195
THE GRAMMAR SCHOOL 223
SCHOLASTIC DISCIPLINE 293
VIII. ABRAHAM COWLEY. 1618-1677 325-336
PLAN OF A PHILOSOPHICAL COLLEGE, 1661 325
IX. ALEXANDER POPE ROBERT SOUTH SIR RICHARD STEELE. .. 337-346
THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 337
X. OLIVER GOLDSMITH. 1731-11 74 347-358
ESSAY ON EDUCATION 347
XL SAMUEL JOHNSON. 1708-1784 359-364
PLAN OF STUDIES AND DETACHED THOUGHTS 359
XII. SAMUEL PARR. 1747-1825 365-368
CHARITY SCHOOL SERMON 365
XIII. PEDAGOGY OF THE 19TH CENTURY 369-455
THOMAS K. ARNOLD. 1795-1842 369-410
MEMOIR AND EDUCATIONAL LABORS 369
DETACHED THOUGHTS ON STUDIES AND EDUCATION 417-544
1. TEMPLE IJOWE GLADSTONE DONALDSON HODGSON 417
MARTINE AU VAUGHAN DE MORGAN MULLKR SMITH 448
2. FARADAY HERSCHEL WHEWELL HAMILTON 449
3. ACLAND AIRY HENFREY HOOKER HUXLEY 465
LYELL OWEN PAGETTYNDALL WILSON 481
4. MILL FROUDE CARLYLE, on University Studies 497
5. MACAULAY NEWMAN, on the University of Books and Life 529
XIV. ART AND SCIENCE IN ENGLISH EDUCATION 545-592
XV. MECHANIC INSTITUTIONS AND POPULAR EDUCATION 593-628
GERMAN TEACHERS AND EDUCATORS.
GERMAN EDUCATIONAL REFORMERS; Memoirs of Eminent Teachers and Edu-
cators in Germany, from the Fourteenth to the Nineteenth Century, with con-
tributions to the History of Education from the Revival of Classical Learning.
From the " Geschichte der Padagogik" of Karl von Raumer. Republished from
"The American Journal of Education," edited by HENRY BARNARD, LL. D.
586 pages. New York: E. STEIGEB.
CONTENTS.
PAGE.
Preface, 7
Memoir of Karl von Raumer, 9
I. INTRODUCTION. Revival of Classical Literature in Italy, 17 64
1. The Middle Ages Condition of Studies, Teaching and the Arts 17
2. Dante, Boccaccio, Petrarch 28
3. Greek Scholars from Constantinople, John of Ravenna, Chrysoloras, 35
4. Italian Teachers Guarino, Philelphus, Poggius, Valla, Landinus, Politianus, Picus, 49
5. Transition to Germany, 62
n. DEVKLOPMKNT OF EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS AND NORTHERN GERMANY,. 65130
1. Gerard of Daventer Radewin Gerard of Zutphen The Hieronymians, 65
2. Wessel Rudolph Agricola Hegius Lange Busch, 72
3. Erasmus, 89
4. School of Schlettstadt-Dringenberg Wimpheling Reuchlin, 101
APPENDIX. Condition of Schools and Teachers in the Sixteenth Century, 113
Autobiography of John Platter ; A-B-C-shooters and Bacchants, 125
III. THE PERIOD OF THE REFORMATION, 131266
1. Martin Luther, 131
2. Philip Melancthon 161
3. Valentine Friedland Trotzendorf, 185
4. John Sturm 193
5. Michael Neander, 193
6. Ignatius Loyola and the Schools of the Jesuits, 229
7. The Early School Codes of Germany, 251
1. Dutchy of Wirtcmberg; 2. Electorate of Saxony, 257
8. The Universities of the Sixteenth Century, 261
IV. REALISM, 267-334
1. Verbal Realism Erasmus Melancthon...... 267
2. Real Realism Influence of Lord Bacon's Philosophy, 273
3. Real Schools. Hecker, Halm, Semler ; Modern Development of Realistic Instruction, 302
4. Michael Montaigne, 317
V. THE RENOVATORS, OR PROGRESSIVES, 335 520
1. New Ideas and Methods of Education, 335
2. Wolfgang Ratich, 343
3. John Amos Comenius, 371
4. Schools and Education in Periods of Peace and War, 413
1. The Thirty Years' War ; 2. The Century after the Peace of Westphalia, 416
5. John Locke and Influence of his Pedagogy on German Education, 427
6. Augustus Hermann Franke, and the Pietists, 441
7. Jean Jaques Rousseau and his Influence on the Philanthropinists, 459
8. The Philanthropinum at Dessau, ' 487
John Bernhard Basedow, 487
VI. THE REFORMATORY PHILOLOGISTS, 521574
1. Johann Mathias Gesner, 521
2. John August Ernesti, 530
3. Johann Georg Hamann, 533
3. Johann Gotfried Herder, 547
4. Friedrich August Wolf, 561
VII. PESTALOZZI AND THK COMMON, OR PEOPLE'S SCHOOLS, 575 586
NATIONAL EDUCATION.
AN ACCOUNT
HISTORY, ORGANIZATION, ADMINISTRATION, STUDIES, DISCIPLINE AND
STATISTICS OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF EVERY GRADE AND FOR
ALL CLASSES IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES.
BY HENRY BARNARD, LL.D.
NOW BEADY.
Elementary and Secondary Instruction in the German States : Anhnlt, Austria, Baden, Bava-
ria, Brunswick, Hanover, Hesse-Casse), Hesse- Darmstadt, Liechtenstein, Lippe-Detmold, Lippe-
Schaumburg, Luxemburg and Limberg, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelit/, Nassau,
Oldenburg, Prussia, Reuss, Saxony, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Wei-
mar, Waldeck, Wurtemberg, and the Free Cities, vwith a general summary of the Educational
Systems and Statistics for the whole of Germany. 850 pages. Price, $4.50. Sewed and in
paper covers.
Elementary and Secondary Instruction in Switzerland (each of the 23 Cantons), France, Bel-
gium, Holland, Denmark, Norway and Sweden, Russia, Turkey, Greece, Italy, Portugal and
Spain. 800 Pages. Price, $4,50. Sewed and in paper covers.
Scientific and Industrial Education in Austria, Baden, Biivnria, Brunswick, Free Cities, Hnn-
over, Nassau, Prussia, Saxony, Saxon-Principalities, Wnrtemberg, France, Belgium, Hollandi
Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Russia, Switzerland, Italy. 800 Pages. Price, $4.50.
Special Instruction in Great Britain, with an Appendix containing selected Chapters from
the Report on Scientific and Industrial Education in other European States with particular refer-
ence to Drawing, and Systems of Technical Schools. 500 Pages. Price, $3.00.
Superior Instruction in different countries: Universities of Germany, Past and Present;
History of Higher Teaching in Athens, Rome, and Alexandria ; Early Christian Schools ; Uni-
versities of Bologna and Paris; Revival of Classical Studies in Italy, the Netherlands, &c. ;
Present Condition of Universities and Colleges in Europe and the United States. 1 Volume.
800 pages. $4.50.
Military Schools and Special Instruction in the Science and Art of War by Land and Sea,
in France, Prussia, Austria, Bavaria, Italy, Switzerland, Russia, Great Britain, and the United
States. 1 Vol. 9GO pages. $4.50.
CLASSIFIED INMX
TO
BARNARD'S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION.
VOLUMES I. TO XVI.
CLASSIFICATION OF SUBJECTS.
I. General Principles and History of Education. XI. Education.^ the Deaf and Dumb, Blind, Idiots, &c.
II. Individual Views and Special Systems of Education. XII. Moral and Religious Education ; Sectarian Schools
III. Studies and Methods of Teaching; School Organiza- and Instruction.
tion and Government. XIII. Female Education.
IV. Teachers and their Training ; Normal and Model XIV, Physical Education.
Schools; Teachers' Institutes. XV. Supplementary, Self, and Home Education; Libra-
V. State and National Systems of Instruction. ries.
VI. Secondary, Intermediate, Academical, and High XVI. Educational Societies and Teachers' Associations.
Schools. XVII. Philology and Bibliography ; School-books and Peri-
VII. University and Collegiate Education. odicals, &c.
VIII. Special Schools and Departments of Science, Arts, XVIII. School Architecture.
Agriculture, Museums, &c. XIX. Educational Endowments and Benefactors.
IX. Military and Naval Education. XX. Miscellaneous.
X. Preventive and Reformatory Education. XXI. Educational Biography and List of Portraits.
18
CLASSIFIED INDEX OF BARNARD'S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION.
CHAPTER I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
EDUCATION defined by Eminent Authorities; English,
XI. U-20 ; Greek, Roman, French, German, Scotch
and American, XILT. 7-16.
Educational Aphorisms and Suggestions, from Two
Hundred Authorities, Ancient and Modern. Man,
his Dignity and Destiny, VILT. 9. Nature and
Value of Education, VILT. 38. Duties of Parents
and Teachers, VHI. 65. Early Home Training,
Vm. 75-80; XLU. 79-92. Female Education
XIII. 232-242. Intellectual Culture in General,
X. 116. Subjects and Means of Education, X. 141,
Religious and Moral Instruction, X. 166. Disci-
pline, X. 187. Example, X. 194-200. The State
and Education, XLU. 717-624.
Education, Nature and Objects of Prize Essay, by
John Lalor, XVI. 33-64.
Education for the Times, by T. M. Clark, LT. 375.
Education u State Duty, by D. B. Duffield, LLT. 81.
Education and the State ; Aphorisms, XLTL 717-724.
Views of Macaulay and Carlyle, XIV. 403. Amer-
ican Authorities, XI. 323 ; XV. 5.
Education Preventive of Crime and Misery, by E. C.
Tainsch, XI. 77-93.
Home Education Labors of W. Burton, LT. 333.
Intellectual Education, by William Russell. The
Perceptive Faculties, LI. 113-144, 317-332. The
Expressive Faculties, LTI. 47-64, 321-345. The
Reflective Faculties, IV. 199-218, 309-342.
Lectures on Education, by W. Knighton, X. 573.
Misdirected Education and Insanity, by E. Jarvis, IV.
591-612.
Moral and Mental Discipline, by Z. Richards, I. 107.
Objects and Methods of Intellectual Education, by
Francis Waylnnd, XILT. 801-816.
Philosophy of Education, by Joseph Henry, I. 17-31.
Philosophical Survey of Education, by Sir Henry
Wotton, XV. 131-143.
Problem of Education, by J. M. Gregory, XTV. 431.
Powers to be Educated, by Thomas Hill, XIV. 81-92.
Self-Education and College Education, by David Mas-
son, IV, 262-271.
Thoughts on Education, by Locke; Physical, XI.
461 ; Moral, XILT. 548 ; Intellectual, XIV. 305.
Views and Plan of Education, by Kriisi, V. 187-197.
Unconscious Tuition, by F. D. Huntington, I. 141-163.
Schools as they were Sixty Years Ago in United
States, Xm. 123, 837 ; XVI. 331, 738; XVLT.
Progressive Development of Schools and Education
in the United States, XVII.
History of Education, from the German of Karl von
Raumer, IV. 149* History of Education in Italy.
VII. 413-460. Eminent Teachers in Germany and
the Netherlands prior to the Fifteenth Century, IV.
714. Schlettstadt School, V. 65. School Life in
the Fifteenth Century, V. 79. Early School Codes
/' of Germany, VI. 426. Jesuits and their Schools,
V. 213; VI. 615. Universities in the Sixteenth
Century, V. 536. Verbal Realism, V. 655. School
Reformers at Beginning of Seventeenth Century,
VI. 459. Thirty Years' War, and the Century
Following, VII. 367. Real Schools, V. 689. Re
formatory Philologists, V. 741. Home and Privnte
Instruction, VLI. 381. Religious Instruction, fH.
401. Methods of Teaching Latin, VI. 581. Meth-
ods of Classical Instruction, VII. 471. Methods of
Teaching Real Branches, VIII. 101-228. German
Universities, VI. 9-65; VII. 47-152. Student So-
cieties, VLI. it>o.
Educational Development in Europe, by H. P. Tappan,
I. 247-268.
Hebrews, and their Education, by M. J. Raphall, I.
243.
Greek Views of Education, Aristotle, XIV. 131 ;
Lycurgus, and Spartan Education, XTV. 611;
Plutarch, XI. 99.
Roman Views of Education, Quintilian, XL 3.
Italian Views of Education and Schools, Acquavivn,
XIV. 462; Boccaccio, VLT. 422; Botta, ILL 513;
Dante and Petrarch, VLT. 418; Pictis, Politian,
Valla, Vittorino, VLI. 442; Rosmini, IV. 479.
Dutch Views of Education, Agricola, IV. 717; Busch
and Lange, IV. 726; Erasmus, IV. 729; Hierony-
mians, IV. 622; Reuchlin, V. 65; Wessel,LV. 714.
French Views of Education and Schools, Fenelon,
XLU. 477; Guizot, XI. 254, 357; Marcel, XI.
21; Montnigne, IV. 461; Rabelais, XIV. 147;
Rousseau, V. 459 ; La Salle, LLL 437.
German Views of Education, Abbenrode, IV. 505,
512; Basedow, V. 487; Comenius, V. 257; Dies-
terweg, IV. 235, 505; Dinter. VLI. 153; Felbiger,
IX. 600 ; Fliedner, LTL 487 ; Franke, V. 481 ;
Graser, VI. 575; Gutsmuths, VLT. 191; Hamann,
VI. 247; Hentschel, VLTI. 633; Herder, VI. 195 ;
Jacobs, VI. 612; Jahn, VLLL 196; Luther, IV.
421; Meinotto, VI. 609; Melancthon, IV. 741;
Neander, V. 599; Overberg, XLTI. 365; Ratich,
V. 229; Raumer, VLI. 200, 381; VIII. 101; X.
227, 613; Ruthardt, VI. COO; Sturm, IV. 167, 401;
Tobler, V. 205; Trotzendorf, V. 107; Von Turk,
V. 155 ; Vogel, IX. 210 ; Wolf, VI. 260.
Swiss Views of Education, Fellenberg, LTI, 594;
Kriisi, V. 189; Pestalozzi, TTT. 401; VLI. 513;
Vehrli, LU, 389.
English Views of Education, Arnold, IV. 545 ; As-
cham, IV. 155; Bacon, XLLI. 103; Bell, X. 467;
Colet, XVI, 657 ; Elyot, XVI. 485 ; Hale, XVLI.
Hartlib, XL 191 ; Goldsmith, XLTI, 347 ; John-
son, XLI. 369; Lalor, XVI. 33; Lancaster and
Bell, X. 355; Locke VI. 209; XL 461; XLLT.
548 ; Masson, IV. 262 ; XLV. 262 ; Milton, LI. 61 ;
Mulcaster, XVLT. 177 ; Spencer, XL 445 ; Sedg-
wi.'k, XVII. ; Temple, F.,XVLT. 5 Whewell.W.,
XVLT.
Early Promoters of Realism in England, XLT. 476.
Bacon, V. 663 ; Cowley, XLT. 651 ; Iloole, XLT.
647 ; Petty, XI. 199.
CLASSIFIED INDEX OF BARNARD'S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION.
19
II. INDIVIDUAL VIEWS AND SPECIAL SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION.
Abhenrode. On Teaching History and Geography,
IV. 505, 512.
Abl.ot, G. D., and the Useful Knowledge Society,
XV. 241. Educational Labors, XVI. 600.
Aekland, Henry W. Natural Science and Physical
Exercise in Schools, XVII.
Acquaviva, and the Ratio Studiorum, XIV. 462.
Adams, John. Education and the State, XV. 12.
Adams, J. a. On Normal Schools, I, 589. Educa-
tion and the State, XV. 12. Educational Reform
in Silesia, XVLT.
Addison, Joseph. Education and Sculpture, XI. 16.
Adelung, J. C. Philological Labors, XI. 451.
Agassiz, L. Museum of Comparative Zoology, IX. 615.
Agricola, Rudolf. Life and Opinions, IV. 717.
Airy, G. B. Mathematics and Natural Science in
Schools, XVLT.
Akerly, S. Deaf-mute Training, HI. 348.
Akroyd, E. Mode of Improving a Factory Popula-
tion, VLTI. 305.
Albert, Prince. On Science and Art, IV. 813.
Alcott, A. Bronson. School-days, XVI. 130.
Alcott, William A. Educational Views, IV. 629.
Plan of Village School, IX. 540.
lllyn, Robert. Schools of Rhode Island, H. 544.
Anderson, H. J. Schools of Physical Science, I. 515.
Andrews, I. W. Educational Labors, XVI. 604.
Andrews, L. Educational Labors, XVI. 604.
Andrews, S. J. The Jesuits and their Schools,
XIV. 455.
Anthony, H. On Competitive Examinations at West
Point, XV. 51.
Aristotle, nnd his Educational Views, XIV. 131.
Cited, HI. 45; IV. 4f>3; V. 673; VII. 415;
Vm. 40-79 ; X. 132-195.
Arnold, Matthew. Tribute to Guizot, XI. 281.
Schools of Holland, XIV. 712.
Arnold, Thomas, as a Teacher, IV. 545-581.
Ascham, Roger. Biographical Sketch, HI. 23.
Toxophilus; the Schoole of Shootinge, LTI. 41.
The Schoolmaster, IV. 155 ; XI. 57.
Ashburton; Lord. Prize Scheme and Address on
Teaching Common Things, I. 629.
Austin, Sarah. Ends of a Good Education, XI. 20.
Aventinus. Study of German, XI. 162.
Bache, A. D. On a National University, I. 477.
Education in Europe, VIII. 435, 444, 455, 564, 609;
IX. 167, 210, 569; XLT. 337; XLTI. 303, 307.
Bacon, Leonard. Life of James Hillhouse, VI. 325.
Bacon, Lord. His Philosophy and its Influence upon
Education, V. 663. Essays on Education, and
Studies, with Annotations by Whately, XIH. 103.
Bailey, Ebenezer. Memoir, XLT. 429. Girls' High
School in Boston in 1828, XILT. 252.
Baker, T. B. L. Reformatory Education, HI. 789.
Baker, W. S. Itinerating School Agency, I. 729.
Bauks, N. P. Museum of Zoology, IX. 619.
Bard, Samuel. Schools of Louisiana. LT. 473.
Barnard, D. D. Right of State to establish Schools,
XI. 323. Membir of S. Van Rensellaer, VI. 223.
Barnard, F. A. P. Improvements in American Col-
leges, I. 269. Influence of Yale College, V. 723.
Memoir, V. 753-780. Titles and Analysis of Publi-
cations, V. 763-769. Value of Classical Studies,
V. 763. Open System of University Teaching, V.
765. Post-graduate Department, V. 775. Oral
Teaching, V. 775.
Barnard, H. Educational Labors in Connecticut from
1837 to 1842, I. 669; Speech in Legislature in 1838,
678; Address to the People of Connecticut, 670;
Analysis of First Report in 1839, 674 ; Expenditures
for School Purposes. 679; Measures and Results,
685; Schedule of Inquiries, 686; Topics of School
Lectures, 709 ; Plan of State Institute, 721. Labors
in Rhode Island from 1843 to 1849, I. 723 ; XIV.
558; Institute of Instruction, 559; Series of Educa-
tional Tracts, 567; Educational Libraries, 568;
Correspondence with Committee of Teachers, 579.
Labors in Connecticut from 1850 to 1854, XV. 276 ;
Plan of Public High School, 279; Public and Pa-
rental Interest and Cooperation, 285; Legal Organi-
zation of Schools, 289; School Attendance, 293;
Agricultural Districts, 303; Manufacturing Districts,
305; Cities, 309; 'Gradation of Schools, 316; Pri-
vate versus Public Schools, 323; Teachers' Insti-
tutes, 387. Arguments for, VILT. 672. Normal
Schools, I. 753; X. 15.' Plan of Society, and Jour-
nal and Library of Education, I. 15, 134. Princi-
ples and Plans of School Architecture, I. 740; IX.
487 ; X. 695 ; XII. 701 ; XLH. 818 ; XIV. 780 ;
XV. 783 ; XVI. 781. National Education in Eu-
rope, I. 745; XV. 329. Reports and Documents
on Common Schools in Connecticut, I. 754, 761.
Reports and Journal of Public Schools in Rhode
Island, I. 755. Tribute to Gallaudet, I. 417, 759.
Memoir of Ezekiel Cheever, I. 297, 769. Reforma
tory Schools and Education, HI. 551, 819. Mili-
tary Schools and Education, XH. 3-400. Naval
and Navigation Schools, XV. 17, 65. Competitive
Examination, XL 103. Educational Aphorisms,
VHI. 7 ; XLH. 7, 717. German Universities, VI.
9; VH. 49, 201. Books for the Teacher, XHI.
447. German Educational Reformers, XHI. 448.
American Text-books, XIH. 209, 401, 628 ; XIV.
753; XV. 539. English Pedagogy, XVI. 467;
Object Teaching and Primary Instruction in Great
Britain, 469. Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism, VH.
284, 502. National and State Educational Associa-
tions, XVI. 311 ; American College Education, 339.
Standard Publications, XVI. 797; Progressive De-
velopment of Education in the United States,
XVH| Educational Land Grants, XVH.
Barnard, J. School-days in 1689, I. 307.
Barnard, J. G. Treatise on the Gyroscope, HI 537 ;
IV. 529; V. 298.
20
CLASSIFIED INDEX OF BARNARD'S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION.
Barney, II. H. Schools of Ohio, H. 531.
Barrow, Istinc. Education defined, XI. 13.
Basedow, and the Philanthropinuni, V. 487-520.
Butemtin, N. Educational Labors, XVI. 165.
Bates, S. P. On Liberal Education, XV. 155. Me-
moir, XV. 682.
Bates, W. G. On Training of Teachers, XVI. 453.
Becker, K. L. Study of Language, XII. 460.
Beecher, Miss C. E. Physical Training, II. 399.
Western Education, XV. 274.
Beecher, Henry W. School Reminiscences, XVI. 135.
Bell, Andrew, and the Madras System, X. 467.
Benedict, St., and the Benedictines, XVII.
Beneke, F. E. Pedagogical Views, XVH.
Bernhardt. Teachers' Conferences, XILI. 277.
Berranger. Training of Orphan Children, III. 736.
Bingham, Caleb. Educational Labors, V. 325.
Bishop, Nathan. Public Schools of Boston, I. 458.
Girls' High School of Boston, XI. 2C3. Plans of
Providence School-houses, XI. 582. Memoir,
XVII.
Blockman, Dr Pestalozzi's Poor School at Neuhoff,
in. 585.
Boccaccio, arrd Educational Reform in Italy, XII.
418.
Podleigh. Sir T. On Travel, XV. 380.
Bolingbroke. Genius and Experience, XI. 12.
Booth, Rev. J. Popular Education in England, HI,
252, 265. Competitive Examination, IH. 257.
Borgi, Jean, and Abandoned Orphans, HI. 583.
Botta, V. Public Instruction in Sardinia. HI. 513;
IV. 37, 479.
Bowen, Francis. Life of Edmund Dwight, IV. 5.
Braidwood, J. Education of Deaf-mutes, HI. 348.
Bniinerd, T. Home and School Training in 1718,
XVI. 331.
Braun, T. Education defined. XIH. 10.
Breckenridge, R. J. Schools of Kentucky, H. 488.
Brinsley, J. Consolations for Grammar Schools, I. 311.
Brockett, L. P. Idiots and their Training, I. 593.
Institutions and Instruction for the Blind, IV. 127.
Brooks, Charles. Best Methods of Teaching Morals,
I. 336. Education of Teachers, I. 587.
Brooks, K. Labors of Dr. Wayland, XIH. 771.
Brougham, Lord. Life and Educational Views, VI.
467. Education and the State, XIII. 722. Train-
ing of the Orator, and Value of Eloquence, XVI. 187.
Brown, Thomas. Education defined, XIII. 13.
Brownson, O. A. Education defined, XIH. 12.
Buckham, M. H. English Language in Society and
School, XIV. 343. Plan of Study, XVI. 595.
Buckingham, J. T. Schools as they were, XIH. 129.
Bulkley, J. W. Teachers' Associations, XV. 185.
Burgess, George. Thoughts on Religion and Public
Schools, H. 562.
Burke, Edmund. Education defined, XL 17.
Bnrrowes, T. H. Reports on Pennsylvania Schools,
VI. 114, 556. History of Normal Schools in Penn-
sylvania, XVI. 195.
Burton, W. District-school as it was, HI. 456. Me-
moir, XVI. 330.
Bushne!l, Horace. Early Training, XHI. 79. Pas-
times, Plays, and Holidays, XIH. 93. Homespun
Era of Common Schools, XIH. 142. The State
and Education, XHI. 723.
Buss, J., and Pestalozzianism, VI. 293.
Byron, Lady. Girls' Reformatory School, HI. 785.
Cody, L. F. Classical Instruction, XH. 561.
Caldwell, Charles. Education in North Carolina,
XVI. 109.
Calhoun, W. B. Memorial on Nor. Sch., XVI. 86.
Calkins, N. A. Object Teaching, XH. 633.
Carlyle, T. Education defined, XHI. 13. The
State and Education, XIV. 406. Reading, XVI.
191. University Studies, XVII.
Carpenter, Mary. Reformatory Education, HI. 10,
785.
Carpenter, VV. B. Physical Science and Modern Lan-
guages in Schools, XVII.
Carter, J. G. Life and Services, V. 409. Essay on
Teachers' Seminaries, XVI. 71. Memorial, XVI.
80.
Cecil, Sir William. Advice to his Son, IX. 161.
Channing, W. E. Teachers and their Education,
XH. 453. End of Education, XHI. 15.
Chauveau, P. J. O. Education in Lower Canada,
H. 728.
Cheever, Ezekiel. Memoir and Educational Labors,
XII. 531.
Cheke, Sir John. HI. 24.
Chesterfield, Lord. Advice to his Son, XVH.
Choate, Rufus. The Peabody Institute, I. 239.
Christian Brothers, System of. HI. 347.
Cicero. Cited, VHI. 13, 14, 43, 79; X. 133, 151,
167, 194-196; XH. 409.
Clajus, and the German Language. XI. 408.
Clark, H. G. On Ventilation, XV. 787.
Clark, T. M. Education for the Times, H. 376.
Claxton, T. First Manufacturer of School Apparatus,
VIH. 253.
Clay, John. Juvenile Criminals, HI. 773.
Clerc, Laurent. HI. 349.
Clinton, DeWitt. Education of Teachers, XHI. 341
Cocker, E. Methods of Arithmetic, XVII.
Coggesholl, W. J. Ohio System of Public Schools
VI. 81, 532.
Colburn, Dana P. Memoir and Educational Work
XI. 289.
Colhurn, Warren. Educational Work, H. 194.
Cole, David. On Classical Education, I. 67.
Coleridge, D. St. Marks' Normal College, X. 531.
Coleridge, S. T. The Teacher's Graces, H. 102.
Colet, John. Educational Views and Influence,
XVI. 657.
Collis, J. D. Endowed Grammar Schools of England,
VHI. 256.
Colrnan, Henry. Agricultural School at Grignon
VHI. 555.
Comenius, Amos. Educational Labors, V. 257-298.
Orbis Pictus, VI. 585.
Confucius. Cited, VHI. 10, 11 ; X. 132, 167.
CLASSIFIED INDEX OF BARNARD S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION.
21
Coote, Edward. The English Schoolmaster, I. 309.
Courteilles, Viscount de, and the Home Reformatory,
HI. 572, 647, 704.
Cousin, V. School System of Holland, VLLT. 598.
School Law of Prussia, IX. 382. Normal Schools,
XIII. 2s-j.
Coutts, Miss Burdett. Prize Scheme for Teaching
Common Things, LI. 708.
Cowdery. M. F. Moral Training, XVI. 323.
Cowley, A. Plan of Philosophical College, XLT. 651.
Cowper, William. The Tirocinium, or Review of
Schools, VLTI. 469. Discipline, VIII. 489.
Crahbe, George. Schools of the Borough, IV. 582;
m. 46i.
Crosby, Alpheus. Massachusetts Schools, LT. 508.
Currie, James. Methods of Early Education, IX,
229-293.
Curtin, A. G. Schools of Pennsylvania, LT. 541.
Cuvier, Baron. Schools of Holland, VIII. 597, 607.
Dana, J. D. Science and Scientific Schools, LI. 349.
Dante, and the Revival of Education in Italy, VLT.
418.
Darlington, W. Schools as they were, XLTL 741.
Dawson, J. W. Natural History in its Educational
Aspects, LLT. 428.
Day, Henry N. English Composition, XVI. 641.
Duy, Jeremiah. On Schools as they were, XVI. 126.
Degerando, Baron. Monitorial Methods, X. 465.
De La Salle, Abbe. Memoir, and System of Chris-
tian Schools, HI. 437.
De Laspe. Method and Motive of Instruction, VLLT.
180.
Delille, James. The Village Schoolmaster, LLT. 153.
Demetz, M. Agricultural Colonies, I. 611 ; LLT. 572,
667.
De Morgan. Arithmetics and the ; r Authors, XVLT.
Dick. Bequest, I. 392.
Diesterweg. Methods of Teaching, TV. 233, 505.
School Discipline and Plans of Instruction, VLTI.
616. Intuitional and Speaking Exercises, XLT.
411.
Dinter, G. F. Memoir and Educational Labors, VII.
]53; XIV. 738. Defense of Catechetical Method,
IX. 377.
D'Israeli, I. Influence of Books and Authors, LT. 226.
Doane, G. W. The State and Education, XV. 5.
Dole, Isaiah. Requirements in an English Lexicogra-
pher, LTI. 161. Mary Lyon, X. 649.
Donaldson, J. W. University Teaching, XVI.
Competition Tests, XVII. German and English
Scholarship compared, XVLT.
Ducpetiaux, M. Reports on Reform Schools, LLT.
677, 597, 599, 604, 716, 749.
Dnffield, D. B. Education a State Duty, HI. 81.
Dunn, FI. Organization and Instruction of the Bor-
ough Road Schools, X. 381-459.
Dunnell, M. H. Report on the Schools of Maine, LT.
495.
Dwight, Edmund. Memoir TV ">
Dwight, Francis. Educational Labors. V. 803
Dwight, Mary. Art Education, LT. 409, 587; TIT.
467; IV. 171; V. 305.
Dwight, Timothy, as an Educator, V. 567.
Eaton, H. School-houses of Vermont, XL 510.
Eberhard. J. J. Rural Reformatory School at Casa,
LTI. 599.
Edgeworth, Maria. Extract from Practical Educa-
tion, XII. 602.
Edson, T. Warren Colburn and his System of Arith-
metic, LT. 294.
Edwards, N. W. Report on Schools of Illinois, LT.
479.
Edwards, Richard. Memoir of Tillinghast, LT. 568.
Normal Schools, XVI. 271.
Elgin, Lord. Education m the United States and
Canada, LTI. 239.
Eliot, Samuel. Arnold as a Teacher, IV. 535.
Eliot, S. A. Educational Benefactions of Boston,
VLLT. 522; IX. 606. History of Harvard College,
IX, 129.
Elyot, Sir Thomas. The Governour, XVI. 483.
Emerson, G. B. Educational Labors, V. 417. Me-
morial on State Superintendent, V. 652. Memorial
on Normal Schools, XVI. 93. Life of Felton, X.
265. Plan of School-houses, IX. 542.
Epictetus. Cited, VLLT. 11, 42; X. 132, 168.
Erasmus. Educational Views, IV. 729; XVI, 68],
Euclid, and the Method of Geometry, VLTI. 155.
Everett, Alexander H. Normal Schools, XVI. 89.
Everett, Edward. Uses of Astronomy, LT. 604. John
Lowell and the Lowell Lectures, V. 437. Influence
of Harvard, V. 531. Boston Library, VLT. 266,
365. Female Education, IX. 635 ; XII. 721. Ex-
tracts from Addresses Public Schools Fifty Years
Ago College Life Common Schools and Colleges
Conditions of a Good School Science and Popu-
lar Education Moral Education Popular Educa-
tion VLT. 343; XV. 14. Life of Thomas Dowse,
IX. 355.
Faraday, M. Claims of Natural Science in a Liberal
Education. XVLT.
Feibiger, J. I. Educational Labors in Austria, IX,
600.
Fellenberg. Principles of Education, ILL 594; X.
81 ; XILT. 11, 523.
Felton, C. C. Characteristics of American Colleges,
IX. 112. Memoir and Extracts, X. 265.
Fenelon. Memoir and Educational Views, XILT. 477.
Feuerbach, L. Intuition and Thinking in Education,
XLT. 4-J2.
Fichte. On Learning by Heart, XLT. 416. Physical
Culture, VLTI. 192. Cited, VLLT. 29, 620.
Fletcher, J. Borough Rood Normal School, X. 435-
465.
Fliedner. Institution for Deaconesses at Kaiserswerth,
LTI. 487.
Follenius, Karl. Relations to Karl Ludvvig Sand,
VL 111, 125.
Forbes, E. Educational Uses of Museums. IV. 788
22 CLASSIFIED INDEX OF BARNARD'S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION.
Fowle, W. B. Memoir and School Improvements,
X. 600.
Francke, A. H. His Views and Labors, V. 441.
Franklin, B. His Interest in Higher Education, VII,
268; Vm.251; X, 283.
Friesen, F., and the German Gymnastics, VHt, 197-
Froebel, and the Kindergarten System, H, 449 ; IV,
257, 793.
Fuller, Thomas. The Good Schoolmaster, m. 155.
Gallaudet, T. H. Life and Services, I. 425. Educa-
tion of Teachers, X. 16.
Galloway, Samuel. Teachers' Institute, XV, 401.
Memoir, XVI. 583.
Gammell, W. Memoir of Nicholas Brown, m. 291.
Gardner, Francis. Boston Latin School, XII. 553.
Garfield, J. A. Department of Education, XVII.
Gerard-Groote, and the Hieronymians, IV. 623.
Gesner, J. M. Educational Views, V. 741 ; VI. 583.
Gibbs, J. W. Philological Contributions, H. 198;
HI. 101-124.
Gilfillan. The Scotch School-dame, HI. 456.
Gillespie, W. M. Mathematical Methods of the Ecole
Polytechnique, I. 533; II. 177.
Gilman, D. C. Scientific Schools of Europe, I. 315.
Higher Special Schools of France, H. 93.
Gladstone, W. E. The Classics in a Liberal Educa-
tion, XVII.
Goethe. Educational Views, VEX 20, 619, 648 ; X.
51, 161, 199, 225, 617, 621.
Goldsmith. Essay on Education, XHI, 347. The
Village Schoolmaster, m. 158.
Goodrich, S. G. Schools as they were, Xm. 134.
Goodwin, F. J. Norwich Free Academy, TTT. 195.
Gordon, John. Normal Schools of Scotland, X. 583.
Gottsched, J. C. German Grammar, XI. 447.
Gould, B. A. An American University, H. 265-293.
Graser. System of Instruction, VI. 575.
Gray, Thomas. Alliance of Education and Govern-
ment, VIII. 287. Ode on Eton College, VH[. 285.
Green, L. W. Normal Schools for Kentucky, m.
217.
Green, S. S. Educational Duties of the Hour, XVI.
229. Object Teaching, XVI. 245.
Gregory, J. M. The Problem of Education, XIV.
431-5. Memoir, XV. 643.
Grimke, T. S. Plan of Study, H. 230.
Grimm, the Brothers. XI. 454.
Grimshhaw, A. H. Schools of Delaware, 11. 474.
Griscom, John. Memoir and Educational Labors,
Vm. 324.
Grote, J. Education defined, XI. 18.
Guilford, Nathan. Educational Labors, VIII. 289,
Guizot. Ministry of Public Instruction in France, XI.
254, 357. The State and Education, XIII. 718.
Gulliver, J. P. Norwich Free Academy, H. 665.
Guts-Muths. System of Physical Truining, VHI. 191.
Training of the Senses, VIII. 207.
Haddock, C. B. School-houses in New Hampshire,
IX. 512.
Hale, R. Continental Reformatories, HI. 642, 744.
Hale, Sir Matthew. Plan of Study, XVII.
Hall, E. E. Life of Edward Everett, VII, 325.
Hall, S. R. Educational Labors, V. 373. Teachers'
Seminary nt Andover V. 386.
Hall, W. On Schools as hey were, XVI. 127.
Halsey, L. J. Life of Philip Lindsley, VII. 9.
Hamann, J. G. Educational Views, VI. 247.
Hamilton, J., and the Hamiltonian Method. VI. 5B6.
Hamilton, Sir W. Education defined, XI. 18;
XIII. 13. On Mathematics, XVII.
Hammill, S. M. School Government, I, 123.
Hammond, C. On N. England Academies, XVI. 403.
Harnisch. Cited, VIII, 58. Plan of Instruction fo:
Annaberg Orphan House, VEX 437.
Harris, James. Education a Growth, XI. 16.
Hart, J. S. Study of the Anglo-Saxon, I. 33-66.
Memoir and Views, V. 91.
Hartlib. Plan of College of Husbandry in 1681, XI.
191, 649. Memoir, XII. 649.
Haskins, G. F. Reformatory School at Rome, HI.
580.
Haupt. The Burschenschaften of the German Uni-
versities, VH, 161.
Haiiy, V., and the Instruction of the Blind, HI. 477;
IV. 130.
Haven, Joseph. Mental Science as a Study, HI. 125.
Hawley, Gideon. Memoir and Labors, XI. 94.
Hedge, N. On Schools as they were, XVI. 738.
Hedge. On University Reform, XVII.
Hegius. Educational Views, IV, 723.
Helps, Arthur. Learning and Doing, XI. 18.
Henfrey, A. Study of Botany, XVII.
Henry, Joseph. Philosophy of Education, I. 17.
Hentschel, E. Singing, VIII. 633 ; Drawing, X. 59.
Herbert, J. F. Pedagogical Views, XVH.
Herder. Life and Educational Views, VI. 195.
Herschel, Sir J. F. W. On Reading, XVII.
Heyder, W. Address at Jena in 1607, VI. 56.
Hickson, E. H. The State and Education, XHL
718.
Hill, M. D. Preventive Treatment of Crime, HI. 766.
Hill, Thomas. True Order of Studies, VI. 180, 449;
VII. 273, 491. Powers to be Educated, XIV. 81.
Didactics in Colleges, XV. 177.
Hillard, G. S. Public Library of Boston, H. 203.
The State and Education, XV. 14.
Hillhouse, James A. Education and Literature in a
Republic, XVII.
Hintz, E. Natural History, IV. 241.
Hobbs, Thomas. Knowledge and Experience, XI. 14.
Hodgins, J. G. Popular Education in Canada, I. 186
Holbrook, J^osiah. The Lyceum System, XIV. 535
Educational Labors, VIH. 229.
Holls, G. C. Family Reform ntories, IV. 824.
Honcamp. Instruction in Rending, IV. 234; Lan-
guage, XII. 482.
Hood, Thomas. ' The Irish Schoolmaster, IV. 183.
Hooker, J. Study of Botany in Schools, XVI, 403.
Hooker, Richard. Knowledge of and Obedience to
Law, XT 13
CLASSIFIED INDEX OF BARNARD'S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION.
23
Hoole, C., and Object Teaching in 1658, XII. 647.
Old Art of Teaching, XVII.
Hopkins, Mark. Memoir and Educational Publica-
tions, XI. 225. Extracts Education Self-educa-
tion Female Education Academies Medical Sci-
ence Theological Education Objections to Col-
legesTaste and Morals XI. 225-231.
Hornberg, T. Thoughts on the Education of Girls,
vin. 319.
Hovey, C. E. Memoir and Labors, VILT. 94.
Howe, S. G. Laura Bridgman's Education, IV. 383.
Summary of Labors, XI. 389.
Hubbs, P. K. Schools of California, II. 467.
Hubbard, J. O. Normal Schools in New York,
XIII. 345.
Humphrey, Heman. Normal Schools, XH. 655.
Schools as they were, XIII. 125.
Huntington, F. D. Unconscious Tuition, I. 141.
Public Prayers in Colleges, IV. 22.
Ickelsamer, V., and the German Language, XI. 402.
Ingraham, J. Plan of Primary School-house, X,
719.
Jackson, W. L. Schools of Virginia, H. 557.
Jacobs, F. Method of Teaching Latin, VI. 612.
Jacotot, I., and his Method, VI. 295 ; XII. 604.
Jahn, F. L. German Turning System and Physical
Education, VII. 19G; XV. 229.
Jameson, Mrs. Social Position and Occupations of
Woman, HI. 495.
Jarvis, E. Misdirected Education and Insanity, IV.
591.
Jay, John. Education and the State, XV. 13.
Jefferson, T. The State and Education, XV. 12.
Jerome, St. On Female Education, V. 593.
Jewell, F. S. Teaching as a Profession, XV. 579.
John of Ravenna. Educational Views, VH. 435.
Johnson, Samuel. Thoughts on Education and Con-
duct, Xm. 359.
Johnson, W. R. Educational Labors, V. 799.
Julius, Dr. Normal Schools in Prussia, XVI. 89.
Kant. Cited, V. 504; Vm. 28, 48; X. 135, 137,
191, 641 ; XIII. 13.
Kay, J. P. Training of Parochial Schoolmasters, IX.
170.
Kay, Joseph. Subjects and Methods of Primary In-
struction, VIII. 416. Position of Prussian Teach-
ers, XI. 169. Normal Schools in Saxony, XIII.
524.
Keenan, P. J. Monitorial System in Ireland, X. 462;
Xm. 150. School Organization, XIH. 145.
Kepler. Estimate of Euclid, VHI. 159.
Kingsbury, John. Young Ladies' High School at
Providence, V, 16.
Kingsley, J. L. Discourse on Yale College, V. 541.
Kliipfel. History of Tiibingen University, IX. 57.
Knight, Charles. Economical Science, IX. 105.
Knighton, W. Educational Lectures, X. 573.
Krug. Cited, Vm. 23, 60 ; X. 122, 123, 133.
Kriisi. Life and Educational Labors, V. 161-186.
Kuratli, M. Reform School at Bachtelen, ITT. 596.
Lactantius. Cited, X, 168.
Lalor, J. Nature and Objects of Education, XVI.
33-64.
Lancaster, Joseph, and Monitorial Schools, X. 355.
Landor, W, S. Roger Ascham and Lady Jane Grey,
in. 39.
Lange, R. Educational Labors, IV. 726.
Lathrop, J. Boston Association of Teachers, XV.
530.
Leach, Daniel. Public Schools of Providence, I. 46S.
Plan of School-houses, IX. 563.
Leibnitz. Cited, VIH. 57; X. 133, 134, 168.
Leigh, Lord. Reformatory Results of Mettray, HI.
731.
Lewis, Dio. The New Gymnastics, XI. 531 ; XII.
665.
Lewis, Tayler. Methods of Teaching Greek and
Latin, I. 285, 489.
Lieber, F. The Cooper Institute, I, 652. History of
Atheneums, H. 735.
Lindsley, Philip. Memoir and Views of Education,
vn.26.
Ling, H., and the Swedish Gymnastics, XV. 236.
Lloyd, Robert. The School Usher, HI. 160.
Locke, John. Views on Education, VI. 209.
Thoughts on Education, XL 461; XILT. 548;
XIV. 305. School of Labor, TTT. 577.
Locke, W. Ragged Schools, HI. 779.
Longstreet. School Scene in Georgia, XVI. 121.
Lord, A. D. Plan of School-house, IX. 562. Edu-
cational Labors, XVI. 607.
Lothrop, S, K. W. Lawrence and the Academies of
New England, H. 33.
Lovell, John. Eulogy on Peter Faneuil, IX. 604.
Loyola, and his Society and System, V. 213 ; XIV.
455.
Lubinus. Grammatical Instruction, VT. 581.
Luther. Views on Education, IV. 421-449. Physical
Culture, VIII. 190. Cited, Vm. 15, 78, 356; X.
137, 141, 151, 163, 183, 191.
Lycurgus, and Education among the Spartans, XIV.
611.
Lyell, Sir Charles. Physical Science in a Liberal
Education, XVII.
Lyon, Mary. Principles of Mt. Holyoke Seminary,
X.670.
Lytton, Sir E. B. Address at School Festival, HI.
259.
Macaulay, Lord T. B. The State and Education,
XIII. 721; XIV. 403. Competitive Examina-
tions for East India Service, XVII.
Madison, James. The Stnte and Education, XV. 12.
Mansfield, E. D. The Military Academj at West
Point, XTTT 17-48.
Marcel^ C. Conversational Method, XI. 21, 330.
March, F. A. Study of English Language, XVI. 599
Marion, General. On Free Schools, XVI. 119.
24 CLASSIFIED INDEX OF BARNARD'S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION.
Mann, Horace. Teachers'. Motives, XIV. 277. Col-
lege Government, HI, 65. Special Training a Pre-
requisite to Teaching, XIII. 507. Methods of Ed-
ucation in Germany, VHI. 382. Results of Normal
Schools in Prussia, VIII. 361. Analysis of Reports,
V. 623. Plan of District School-house, IX 642.
Estimate of S. G. Howe, XL 389. Education de-
fined, XIII. 16. The State and Education, XIII.
724 ; XV. 13. Normal Schools, XVI. 100.
Mason, S. W. Physical Exercise in Schools, XIV. 61.
Masson, D. College and Self-education, IV. 262.
Milton's Home, School, and College Training, XIV.
159-190.
Mathews, J. D. Report on Schools of Kentucky, H.
493.
Mny, S. J. Life and Views of Cyrus Peirce, IV. 275.
Educational Labors, XVI. 141.
Mayhew, Ira. School-houses of Michigan, IX. 515.
Educational Labors, XV. 651.
McElligott, J. N. Debating as a Means of Educa-
tional Discipline, I. 495.
Meierotto. Method of Teaching Latin, VI. 609.
Physical Culture, VIII. 191.
Meiring. On the Hamiltonian System, VI. 592.
Melancthon. Life and Educational Services, IV.
741-764.
Memminger, C. G. Schools of South Carolina, n.
553.
Mill, John Stuart. State and Education, XIH. 721.
University Education, XVII.
Mills, Caleb. Report on Schools of Indiana, H. 480.
Milton. Treatise on Education, H. 61. Education
defined, XI. 12. The State and Education, X]H.
719. His Home, School, and College Training,
XIV. 159.
Molineux, E. L. Physical and Military Exercises in
Schools a National Necessity, XI. 513.
Montaigne. On Learning and Education, IV. 461.
Montucla. Elements of Euclid, VHI. 156.
More, Sir Thomas. The State and Education, XIIE.
719. Education of his Children, XVII.
Morrison, T. Manual of School Management, IX,
294. Oral Lessons, IX. 321.
Moscherosch. Cited, VIII. 71 ; X. 190, 198.
Moseley, Canon. Tripartite System of Instruction,
IX. 316. English Training Colleges, X. 543-670;
Mulcaster, R. Positions, XVII.
Muller, Max. French and German in Public Schools,
XVII.
Neander, Michel. Educational Labors, V. 599.
Niebuhr, B. S. Letter to a Student, XVI. 215.
Niebuhr, J., and Pestalozzi, VII. 289.
Niemeyer. Cited, VILE. 52, 56, 61, 67, 71 ; X. 118.
Nieuvenhuysen, and the Society for the Public Good
in Holland, XIV. 641.
Nissen, H. Public Schools in Norway, VIII. 295.
Oberlin, John Friedrich. The Practical Educator,
V. 505 ; XVH.
Oelinger, Albert, and the Study of German, XI. 406.
Olmsted, Dennison. Democratic Tendencies of Sci-
ence, 1. 1G4. Ideal of a Teacher ; Timothy Dwight
V. 567.
Osgood, S. G. Address at Dedication of School-
house, Xm. 848.
Overberg, B. Educational Views, X]H. 365.
Oven, R. Natural History in Public Schools, XVII,
Page, D. P. Memoir and Processes of Teaching, V.
819. Education defined, XIH. 14.
Paget, J. Physiology, XVII. 119.
Paley, Dr. Education defined, XI. 15.
Palmerston, Lord. Popular Education, H. 712.
Park, Prof. The School of Locality, XVI. 331.
Memoir of B. B. Edwards, XIV. 381.
Parr, Samuel. Principles of Education, XI. 17.
Partridge, Alden. Educational Views, XIII. 54, f>83.
Pattison. On Prussian Normal Schools, XVI. 395.
Paulet. System of Monitorial Instruction, X. 464.
Payson, T. Boston Association of Teachers, XV,
533; X.464.
Peabody, George. Public Library of Baltimore, TTT,
Peel, Sir R. Study of Classics, XVII.
226. Educational Benefactions, XVII,
Peet, H. P. New York Institution for the Deaf and
Dumb, HI. 347. Memoir, III. 366.
Peirce, B. K. Reformatory for Girls, XVI. 652.
Peirce, Cyrus. Ideal of Education, IV. 285. Normal
Schools, IV. 306.
Perkins, G. R. Labors in Normal Schools, XTTT,
544.
Perry, Gardner. On School-houses, IX. 520.
Perry, W. F. Schools of Alabama, n. 465.
Pestalozzi. Life and Educational System, m. 401 ;
IV. 65. Pestalozzi and the Schools of Germany,
IX. 343. Pestaloz/i, Fellenberg, and Wehrli, X.
81. Poor School at Neuhof, III. 585. His Assist-
ants and Disciples, VII. 285. Hundredth Birthday,
V. 503. Publications by and relating to, VII. 513.
Selections from his Publications, VII. 519-722.
Evening Hours of a Hermit, VI. 169. Leonhard
and Gertrude, VII. 519. Christopher and Alice,
VII. 665. His Account of his Educational Expe-
rience and Methods, VII. 671.
Petrarch, and Education in Italy, VIE. 424.
Petty, Sir W. Plan of a Trades School, 1647, XI. 199.
Peurbach, G. Method of Arithmetic, VIII. 170.
Phelps, W. F. Normal Schools, HI. 417. Educa-
tional Labors, V. 7.
Philbrick, J. D. On the National Teachers' Associa-
tion, XIV. 49. Extracts from Reports, H. 261.
Report on Schools of Connecticut, H. 469. Plans
of School-houses, X. 740; XVI. 701.
Phillips, J. H. Schools of New Jersey, H. 517.
Picket, A. Teachers' Association, XV. 493.
Pierce, Benjamin. On a National University, H, 88.
Pierpont, J. Public High School for Girls, XIII. 244.
Pitt, Earl of Chatham. Studies and Conduct, XVII.
Plato. Cited, IV. 166; VHI. 11, 43, 76-78; X.
141, 157, 162, 167, 170, 194; XI. 101, 105; XII.
409; XIII. 8.
CLASSIFIED INDEX OF BARNARD'S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION. 25
Plutarch. Views of Education, XI. 99-110. Cited,
Vm, 77; X. 118-195.
Poggius, and Education in Italy, VII. 442.
Porter, J. A. Plan of an Agricultural School, I. 329.
Porter, Noah. Essay oil Educational Reform in Con-
necticut, XIV. 244. Norwich Free Academy, HI.
200.
Potter, Alonzo. Consolidation, &c., of American
Colleges, I, 471. Moral and Religious Instruction,
II. 169. School Houses in New York, IX. 507.
Normal Schools, XIH. 344. What and How to
Read, H. 215. Memoir, XVI. 599.
Pullicino, and Education in Italy, H. 721.
Pythagoras. Cited, VHI, 11, 12, 38, 43; X. 132,
1(52, 166 ; XI. 109 ; XIII. 8, 81.
Quincy, Josiah. Girls' High School in Boston, X]H.
297. Phillips' Academy in 1778, XIII. 740.
ftuincy, Josiah, Jr. School Policy of Boston, XH.
706.
Quintilian. Views of Education, XI. 3.
Rabelais, and his Educational Views, XIV. 147.
Ramstiuer. Memoir, VII. 301. Life at Hofwyl, IV.
84, 119.
Ramsden. The Heart of a Nation, XI. 17.
Rumusat. Circular to Teachers, adopted by Guizot,
XI. 278.
Randall, S. S. On Francis Dwight, V. 809. Josiah
Holbrook. Educational Labors, XIII. 227. New
York Normal School, XIII. 532.
Rnphall, H. L. Education among the Hebrews, I.
243.
Ratich. Life and Educational Methods, V. 229; XL
418. On Teaching Latin, VI. 586.
Raumer, Karl von. History of Education, q. v. under
SECTION I. German Universities, VI. 9 ; VH. 47,
160. Essays on University Reform, VII. 200.
Raumer, Rudolf. Instruction in the German Lan-
guage, XI. 155, 419-429 ; XH. 460-527.
Ravaisson, F. Instruction in Drawing, H. 319.
Reid, D. B. College of Architecture, n. 029.
Reisch, Gregorius. Margarita Philosophica, XVH.
, Roman System of Measures, XVII.
Rendu, Eugen. Public Instruction in France and
Prussia, II. 337.
Reuchlin, and German Educators of the Fifteenth
Century, V. 65.
Rice, V. M. Schools of New York, n. 518.
Richard, W. F. Methods in the National Schools of
England, X. 501-540.
Richards, Z. Discipline, I. 107. The Teacher an
Artist, XIV. 69.
Richter, J. P. Cited, VHC. 27, 50, 618; X. 119-
199.
Rickoff, A. J. National Bureau of Education, XVI.
299.
Rider, Captain. On System of Navigation Schools,
XV. 67.
Rosenkrantz. Present Age to the Educator, XII* 425.
Rosmini, A. Philosophy of Pedagogy, IV. 491.
Ross, William. Cathechetical Method, IX. 368.
Ross, W. P. Education among the Cherokees, I. 120
Rousseau, and his Educational Views, V. 459-486
Education defined, XlH. 11.
Rush, Benjamin. The State and Education, XV. 13
Ruskin, John. Material of Education, XL 19.
Russell, William. Principles and Methods of Intel-
lectual Education, H. 113, 3]7; III. 47, 311; IV.
199. Moral Education, IX. 19-48. National Or-
ganization of Teachers, XIV. 7. Educational La-
bors of Lowell Mason, IV. 141. Recollections of
Josiah Holbrook, VIII. 339. Legal Recognition
of Teaching as a Profession, X. 297.
Russell, W. H. Plan of Gymnasium, IX. 534.
Ruthardt, J. C. Method of Teaching Latin and
Greek, VI, 600.
Sarmiento, D. F. The Schoolmaster's Work, XVI.
65. Basis of U. S. prosperity, XVI. 533. Educa-
tional Labors, XVI. 593.
Schmid, Joseph, and Peetalozzi, VH. 297.
Schmidt. Definition of Education, X]H. 9.
Schottelius, J. G. Philological Labors, XI. 429.
Schwartz. Cited, VHI. 34, 53 ; X. 164.
Sears, Barnas. Schools of Massachusetts, H. 498.
Sears, E. I. Henry Lord Brougham, V. 467. Memoir.
Sedgwick, C. M. What and How to Read, H. 215.
Seguin,E. Treatment and Training of Idiots, H. 145.
Seneca. Cited, VHI. 12-68 ; X. 135-196 ; XII. 409.
Seton, S. S. Extracts from Manual, XIII. 858.
Shea, J. G. Catholic Institutions in the U. S., 435.
Shearman, F. W. Schools in Michigan, H. 510.
Sheldon, E. A. Object Teaching, XIV. 93.
Shenstone, William. The Schoolmistress, with An-
notations. TTT. 449.
Shurtleff, N. B. Boston Latin School, XII. 559.
Shuttleworth, Sir J. K. Educational Progress in En
gland, HI. 245. Vehrli, HI. 392. Training
Schools, IX. 171-200.
Sidney, Sir H. On Conduct, XV, 378.
Simonson, L. Cadet System in Switzerland, XlLt,
693.
Simpson, J. Education defined, XIH. 13.
Slade, William. Education at the West, XV. 274.
Smith, Adam. The State and Education, Xm. 720
Smith, B. B. Visit to Radleigh School, IV. 803.
Smith, Elbridge. Norwich Free Academy, ]H. 208.
Smith, Goldwin. History, XVII. 119.
Smith, H. B. The Dutch Universities, I. 387.
Smyth, Sidney. Objects of Education, XIII. 12.
Snell, E. S. The Gyroscope, H. 701.
Socrates, Cited, IV. 156; VIII. 77; X. 167, 187;
XL 61, 62, 103, 107. Methods of Philosophy, X.
375.
South, R. Educational Views, XVII.
Southey, Robert. The State and Education, XIII.
719. Views of Home Education, XVI. 433. Con-
duct and Knowledge, XVI. 223.
Spencer, Herbert. Thoughts on Education, XL 485-
512 ; XIII. 372-400.
Spencer, J. C. Education of Teachers, XIII. 342
26 CLASSIFIED INDEX OF BARNARD'S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION.
Sprague, W. B. Influence of Yale College, X. 681.
Spurzheim. Mutual Instruction, X, 611. Education
defined, XIII. 11.
Stanley, Lord. Lyceums and Popular Edu., HI. 241.
Stephens, L. Normal Schools of Prussia, VIII. 368.
Stewart, Dugald. Objects of Education, XIII. 13.
Stifler, Michael, and Algebraic Signs, XVI.
Stiles, VV. H. Education in Georgia, II. 477.
Stow, David. Gallery Training Lessons, IX. 413.
Stowe, C. E. Life and Labors, V. 586. Educational
Wants of Ohio, V. 588. Primary Instruction in
Germany, VIII. 371. Teachers' Seminary, XV. 688.
Sturm, J. Life and Educational Labors, IV. 167, 401.
Sullivan, O. Teaching the Alphabet, XII. 601.
Premiums for Knowledge in Com. Things, X. 93.
Swett, John. Educations! 1 Labors, XVI. 625, 790.
Swift, J. On Manners, XVH,
Tafel, L. The Hamiltonian System, VI. 591.
Tappan, H. P. Educational Development in Europe,
I. 247-268. Educational Labors, XIII, 452.
Tarbox, I. N. Statistics of New England Colleges,
I, 405. American Education Society, XIV. 367.
Tasso. Memoir and Educational Views, XVII.
Temple, F. Literature and Science, XVII.
Tenney, Jonathan. Schools of New Hampshire, H.
511. Memoir, XVI. "61.
Teutleben, K. von, and Society of Usefulness, XI. 424.
Timer, August, and Gymnastics, VIII. 197.
Thayer, G. F. Letters to a Young Teacher, I. 357;
II, 103, 391, 657; III. 71, 313; IV. 219, 450; VI.
435 ; VIII. 81. Chauncey Hall School, XIII. 851.
Thayer, S. Competitive Examination, XV. 58.
Thibaut. On Purity in Music, X. 635.
Thompson, A. Industrial School, III. 780.
Tice, J. H. Public Schools of St. Louis, I. 348.
Tillinghast, Nicholas. As an Educator, H. 568. On
Normal Schools, XVI. 453.
Timbs, John. Endowed Schools of England, VIII.
261. The Hornbook, XII. 687.
Tixier, J. School Dialogues, XVI. 445.
Tobler, J. G. Methods of Teaching, V. 210.
Town, Salem. Schools as they were, XIII. 737.
Trask, A. B. Town School of Dorchester, XVI. 105.
Trench, R. English Language, XVII.
Trotzendorf, V. F. Educational Views, V. 107.
Turk, R. C. W. von. V. 155.
Turner, Sydney. Reformatory Schools, HI. 772.
Tyndall. Study of Physics, XVII.
Vail, T. H. Methods of Using Books, H. 215.
Vassar, M. Plan of Vassur Female College, XL 55.
Vehrli. Hofwyl and Kruitzlingen, LTI. 389; X. 81.
Verplanck, J. C. Memoir of D. H. Barnes, XIV. 513.
Scientific Knowledge and Business, V. 116.
Vinci, Leonardo di. Drawing, H. 425.
Wayland, Francis. Objects and Methods of Intellect-
ual Education, XILI. 801. Dedicatory Address at
Pawtucket, VHX 843. Educational Labors and
Publications, XIII. 771. Extracts on Method of
Recitation System of University Education Sys-
tem of Public Schools for a City The Library in
Popular Education Theological Education Moses
Stuart Dr. Nott Thomas K. Arnold XHJ. 776.
Webster, Noah. School* as they were, XIII. 123.
Weld, Theodore D., and Manual Labor, XV. 234.
Wells, W. H. Life and Educational Labors, VIII.
529. Teachers' Conferences, Xm. 272. Teach-
ing English Grammar, XV. 241. Exercises on Re-
tiring from Chicago High School, XIV. 811.
Wessel, John. Educational Views, IV. 714.
VVhately, Archbishop. Annotations on Bacon, XHI.
103. Education defined, XI. 18.
Whewell, W. Education denned, XI. 11. School
Studies and University Examinations, XVH.
White, E. E. National Bureau of Edu.. XVI. 177.
White, H. R. The Village Matron, HI. 460.
White, S. H. National Bureau of Edu., XV. 180.
Wichern, T. H. Reformatory Education, ITT. 5, 603.
Wickersham, J. P. Education as an Element of Re-
construction of the Union, XVI. 283.
Wilbur, H. B. On Object Teaching, XV. 189.
Wilderspin, S. Infant School, IX. 531 ; XHJ. 163.
Wiley, C. H. Schools of North Carolina, H. 527.
Willurd, Mrs. Emma. Female Education, VI. 125.
Female Association, XV. 612.
Willm, J. The Monitorial System, X. 466. Teach-
ers' Libraries, XIII. 293, 298.
Wimmer, H. Public Instruction in Saxony, V. 350;
IX. 201. Educational Intelligence, HI. 272; IV.
243, 793. On Real Schools of Austria, HJ. 275.
Winthrop, R. C. Free Schools, I. 645.
Wise, Henry A. Schools of Virginia, U. 557.
W'iseman, Cardinal. Education of the Poor, XVII.
Wohlfarth, J. F. F. Pedagogical Treasure Casket,
VLTI. 8-80; X. 116-290.
Wolf, T. A. Educational Views, VI. 260.
Wolsey, Cardinal. Plan forGrammar School, VU. 487.
Woodbridge, W. Suggestions on School Improve-
ments, XV. 609. Reminiscences of Female Educa-
tion prior to 1801, XVI. 137.
Woodbridge, W. C. Life and Educational Labors,
V. 51. Education defined, XIU. 16.
Woolsey, T. D. Historical Discourse on Yale Col-
lege, V. 546. Norwich Free Academy, HJ. 197.
Wordsworth, W. State and Education, XILT. 719.
Wotton, Sir Henry. Survey of Educa., XV. 123-143.
Wyatt, Sir T. On Conduct. XV. 37C.
Wykeham, and Winchester College, VTTT. 261.
Young, Samuel. Schools of New York, IX. 505.
Young, T. U. Infant School Teaching, XII. 155.
Wadsworth, James. Labors of Education, V. 395. Zeller, C, H. Teachings of Experience for Christian
Watts, Isanc. Improvement of the Mind, H. 215. Schools, HJ. 386. Memoir, VH. 305.
Webster, Daniel. Normal Schools, I. 590. Free Zoroaster. Cited, X. 167.
Schools, I. 591. Education defined, XHJ. 14. Zschokke. Cited, VHI. 21, 30, 51 ; X. 142-198.
CLASSIFIED INDEX OF BARNARD'S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION.
III. STUDIES AND METHODS ; SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND DISCIPLINE.
A B C-shooters, V. 90, 603 ; books, XII, 593.
Absence, II. 444, 504 ; V. 631 ; XV. 293.
Academy, plan for, XVI. 403.
Accuracy, XHI. 515.
Acquisition, XHT. 512.
Acting plays, IV. 175 ; VH.. 503 ; XIV. 474.
Activity, independent, VIII. 617 ; XLII. 13, 376.
Adult education, I, 634 ; VIE. 230; XVI. 343.
Advice to Students on Studies and Conduct, XIII.
193; XV. 377; XVI. 186, 216, 223. Lord Bacon,
XVI. 186; Sir Thomas Bodleigh, XV. 381; Lord
Brougham, XVI. 186; Carlyle, XVI. 191; Sir
Matthew Hale, XVLT; Niebuhr, XVI. 216; Sir
H.Sidney, XV. 379; Southey, XVI. 233; Vail,
H. 215 ; Whately, XHI, 106 ; Wyatt, XV. 377.
Algebra, II. 177.
Alphabet, Modes of Teaching. XII. 593.
Amusements, HI. 42; V. 449 ; X, 256 ; XILt, 93 ;
XIV. 474.
Analysis and Analytic Method, H. 122, 133 ; IV.
505 ; Vm. 169 ; IX. 205.
Anger, XI, 482, 504.
Anglo Saxon Language, I. 33 ; XVI. 568.
Anthropology, XIII. 327.
Aphorisms on Studies and Conduct, XV. 376; Sub-
jects of Instruction, X. 141 ; Discipline X, 187 ;
Early Training, XIII. 79.
Appetites, X. 137 ; XIH 512, 578; XVI. 53.
Aptness to teach, XLTI. 762.
Archery, IH. 41 ; XVI. 496.
Architectural Game, XI. 27.
Arithmetic, Currie, IX. 247; Hill. VI. 454; Gilles-
pie, I. 539 ; Raumer, VEH. 170 ; Richards, X. 534.
Art-as a Study, by Miss A. M. D wight, H. 409, 587 ;
HI. 467 ; IV. 191 ; V. 305.
Art and Science, by Dana, II. 349; Raumer, X, 218.
Attendance, Burnard, XV. 293.
Ball-frame, IX, 255 ; XI. 24.
Basedow's Methods, V. 487.
Beans in Arithmetic, VI, 454.
Beating of Children, IV. 156, 165 ; V. 509; XI. 479.
Bible, EC. 613 ; Arnold, IV. 443 ; Locke, XII. 471 ;
XIV. 308 ; Luther, IV. 443 ; Raumer, VH. 402 ;
VIII. 104 ; Whately, XIII. 108.
Bifurcation, XII. 47.
Biographical Method in History, IV. 514, 577.
Biology, Xm. 392.
Bipartite Organization, XHI. 150.
Birch, TTT, 462 ; V. 509.
Blackboard or surface, V. 499; X. 600; XII. 648;
xm. 32.
Blocks in Geometry, VI. 451.
Books, Value of, H. 205,215; X. 158; XHL 788;
XVI. 191.
Book-learning, H. 561 ; VII. 267, 366; XIH 837.
Borough-road School Methods, X. 381.
Botany, VH. 296 ; VHJ. 126 ; IX. 77, J09 ; X. 640 ;
XI. 46.
Boy-tutors, XVI, 227.
Burgher, or Citizens' School, VTTT, 414 ; IX. 210,
384 ; XI. 248 ; XII. 520.
Benschenschaft', VII, 80, 91, 165.
Calisthenics, H, 405.
Catechism on Methods, from Diesterweg, IV. 233, 505.
Catechetical Method, W. Ross, IX, 367.
Character, X. 129 ; XIH. 571.
Chemistry, V. 712 ; VH. 277 ; VIII. 665 ; XI. 210;
Xm. 391.
Childhood, IV. 424 ; V. 467 ; VH. 382 ; XI. 483 ;
XII. 629 ; XVI, 193.
Chiding, XIH. 559.
Church-cross row, XVH. 195.
Christianity in Schools, I, 251; H, 567, 693; IV.
527, 572 ; V. 77 ; XIII. 118, 287, 325.
Christmas Festival, X, 260 ; XHI. 95.
Chronological Method, IV. 515.
City Influence, HI, 323 . VII. 33, 240; VTTT 143;
XV. 309.
Classical Instruction, by Ascham, XI. 70; I. Cady,
XTJ. 561 ; David Cole, I. 67 : Erasmus, IV. 729 ;
T. Lewis, I. 285 ; Raumer, VIE. 471 ; Sturm, IV.
169; Woolsey, VJJ. 487.
Collective Teaching, X. 395.
Common Things, by Lord Ashburton, I. 629; Morri-
son, IX. 321; Stow, IX. 413; Specimen Lessons,
X. 105, 575 ; IX. 349.
Competitive Examination, by Barnard, XIV. 108;
Booth, HJ. 267.
Common Sense, V. 476; XIII. 599.
Composition, HJ. 331 ; VIII. 387 ; X. 415 ; XI.
122 ; XH. 494 ; XIV. 363: XVI. 641.
Compulsion in attendance, XI. 266 ; in study, VJJ.
213 ; XTJI. 373.
Conduct, IV. 161 ; X. 141 ; XIJJ, 79 ; XV. 123,
378; XVI. 191.
Conversation, XI. 106, 339; XTJI, 556; XIV. 360;
XV. 152 ; XVI. 682. '
Conversational Method, by Marcel, XI. 106, 339.
Constructive Method, by Abbenrode, IV. 507.
Corpornl Punishment, Bell, X. 486; Diesterweg,
XHJ. 619; Erasmus, XVI. 680; Goldsmith,
XTH, 352 ; Johnson, XHJ. 363 ; Locke, XHJ.
563 ; Austria, XVI. 614, 690 ; England, HJ. 157.
Country Training, HI, 323 : V. 472; X. 644 ; XTTT.
141 ; XV. 303.
Counters, VHI. 182
Courage, IX. 41 ; X. 57 ; XHI. 584 ; XVI. 57.
Crime and Education, IV. 579 ; VI, 311, 494 ; XI.
77.
Curiosity, H. 118; V. 477; XHJ. 112,572.
Debating, by J. M. Elligott, I. 495.
Discipline, by Diesterweg, VHJ. 619; Locke, XHI,
557; Hamill, I. 122; Spencer, XI. 498; Thayer,
VI. 435 ; XIH. 831 ; Dorchester School in 1645,
XVI. 106; Hopkins Grammar School, 1684, IV. 710.
Drawing, by Hentschel, X. 59 ; Ravaison, H. 419.
28 CLASSIFIED INDEX OF BARNARD'S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION.
English Language and Literature, by Buckham,
XIV. 343 ; XVI. 556 ; Day, XVI. 641 ; Gibbs,
II. 193; III. 101; Hart, I. 33; Felton, X. 284 ;
March, XVI. 562; Wells, XV. 145.
Fagging in English Schools, IV. 569 ; V. 80 ; XV. 107.
French Language, XV. 772.
German Language, XI. 155, 400 ; XII. 460.
Geography Methods of Teaching, by Abbenrode,
IV. 505; Currie. IX. 269; Dunn, X. 421; Hill,
VII. 275 ; Key, IX. 186 ; Mann, VTLT. 390; Mar-
cel, XI. 35 ; Pestnlozzi, X. 150 ; Phelps, IX. 62.;
Raumer, VIH. 3 ; Thayer, VHL 81.
Geometry, Basedow, V, 512 ; Diesterweg, IV. 239 ;
Euclid, Vm. 155; GillespieJ. 541; Hill, VI. 191,
449 ; Ra tuner, VIII. 155 ; Spencer, XTTT, 383.
Geology IV. 7H5 ; VI. 238; VII. 71, 203; VLLT.
241 ; XI. 46.
Gradation of Schools. H. 455.
Greek Language, XII. 561 ; I. 284, 482.
Grouping Method in History, IV. 515.
Gymnastics, Lewis' System, XI. 531 : XII. 665.
History, Method in, by Abbenrode, IV. 51% XII.
665; Arnold, IV. 565; Basedow, V. 503; Hill,
VI. 184; VII. 490; Marcel, XI. 41; Niemeyer,
X. 156 ; Raumer, VELL 101 ; X. 641 ; Richter,
X. 154 ; Whately, XH[. 119-
Intellectual Training, by Eliot, XVI. 488; Fellen-
berg, III. 594; Goldsmith, XIII. 347; Hill, VI.
180; Kriisi, V. 187; Lalor, XVI. 40; Locke,
XIV. 305; Milton, H. 79; Montaigne, IV. 161;
Pestalozzi, VII. 512 ; tiuintilian, XI. 3 ; Raumer,
Vni. 81; Rousseau, V. 459; Russell, n. 112:
Spencer, XI. 484 : XIII. 372 ; Wayland, XIII.
801.
Infant Schools and Instruction, Currie, IX. 228;
Froebel, n. 449 ; IV. 237 ; Home and Colonial So-
ciety, XIII. 78 ; Marcel, XI. 21 ; Prussian
Schools, Vni. 371 ; Raumer, VLT. 381 ; Young,
XIV. 165.
Intuitional Instruction, IV. 233; XII. 411.
Italian Language, VIE. 434, 459.
Itinerating Schools, Vm. 296.
Jesuit System of Schools, V. 212 ; XIV. 455.
Kindergarten, IV. 257.
Lacedamonian System, ITT, 85; XIV. 612.
Lancasterian System, X. 402.
Latin Language, by Acquaviva, XIV. 462 ; Arnold,
IV. 564 ; Asham, XI. 70 ; Bates, XV. 155 ; Co-
menius, VI. 585; Erasmus, IV. 729; Gesner, V.
744 ; VI. 583 ; Hamilton, VI. 586 ; Herder, VI.
207 ; Hoole, XVU. 225 ; Jacotot, VI. 595 ; Ja-
cobs, VI. 612: Locke, XIV. 3J1 ; Luther, IV. 44;
Melancthon, IV. 755, 764; Meierotto, VI. 583, 609;
Meiring, VI. 592 ; Milton, TJ. 79: Montaigne, IV.
473 ; VI. 584 ; Ratich, V. 234 ; VI. 586 ; Raumer,
VI. 581 ; VII. 471 ; Rousseau, V. 473'; Ruthardt,
VI. 600 ; Sturm, IV. 169 ; VI. 581 ; Tafel, VI.
591 ; Textor, XV. 444 ; Trapp, VI. 261 ; Vossius,
VI. 582 ; Woif VI. 268 ; Woolsey, VII. 487.
Latin Pronunciation. XV. 171.
Lectures and University Teaching, Barnard, V. 775 :
Johnson, XIII. 363 ; Masson, IV. 271 ; Raumer,
VTJ. 201, 213 ; Vaughn, IV. 271 ; Wolf, VII. 487.
Liberal Education and Studies, Butes, XV. 155 ; Ev-
erett, VHJ. 364 ; Felton, X. 281.
Madras System, X. 467.
Manners, Hopkins, XI. 930; Locke, VI. 213 ; XIII.
551; Montaigne, IV. 469; Thayer, TJ. 103; 1 lu-
tarch, XI, 106.
Mathematics, French Polytechnic system, I. 533.
Memory, IL 385; IV. 171, 201, 721; V. 678'; VI.
464,602; VII. 279; X- 126; XH. 416; XIV.
87, 321, 469 ; XVII. 280.
Mental Arithmetic, JJ. 301 ; VIII. 385, 459.
Mental Science, by J. Haven, HI. 125.
Methods, Essays on, by Currie, IX. 229 : Diesterweg,
IV- 233, 505; Dunn, X. 391; Morrison, IX. 294;
Raumer, VHJ. 101 ; Richards-, X. 505 ; Ross, IX.
367; Spencer, XUI. 372 ; Thayer, HI. 3]3 ; IV.
219, 450.
Military Exercises in School, by Molineux, XI. 513.
Monitorial System, English National Schools, X. 503;
Irish National Schgols, XIII. 150.
Moral Education, Brooks, I. 336; Cowdery, XVI.
323; Fellenberg, HI. 595 ; Lalor, XVI. 48; Locke,
XL 473; XIH. 548; Russell, IX. 19; Spencer,
XI. 496.
Music, or Singing, VHL 633 ; IX. 267 ; XVI. 38.
Mutual Instruction, Bell, X. 4!)l ; De Gerando, X.
465; Fowle, X. 611 ; Keenan, X. 402; Lancaster,
X. 402.
Mother Tongue, HI. 327 ; IV. 473 ; V. 235, 246, 253 ;
VI. 197, 201 ; VH. 375 ; XI. 458 ; XII. 464 ;
XIV. 343; XVI. 340.
Motives to Study, Lyton, HI. 295 ; Mann, XIH. 518 ;
XVI. 279 ; Rousseau, V. 477 ; Spencer, XHI.
377 ; Thayer, VI. 435.
Natural Science, IV. 445; VHL 123; X. 145; XV.
95 ; XVI. 528.
Number, Early Sessions In, H. 132 ; V. .188 ; VH.
698 ; IX. 247, 467 : XI. 24.
Natural History, Dawson, HI. 428.
Natural Consequences of Actions, the Law of Disci-
pline, Spencer, XI. 498.
New Gymnastics, XI. 531 ; XH. 665.
Object Teaching, Bacon, V. 674, 680 ; Calkins, XH.
633; Comenius, V. 680 ; Halm, V. 696 ; Hecker,
V. 693, 696; Henzky, V. 694 ; Hoole, XII. 647;
Gesner, V. 748 ; Greene, X. 245 ; Locke, VI. 220 ;
Marcel, XI. 21 ; Oswego System, XII. 604 ; XIV.
93; Pestalozzi, V. 76; Ratich, V. 689; Semler,
V. 691; Sheldon, XIV. 93; Spencer, XIH. 378;
Wilbur, XV. 189.
Oral Teaching, Barnard, V. 777; Currie, IV. 104;
Masson, V. 270; Marcel, XL 31, 330; Morrison,
IX. 303, 321 ; Wolf. VI. 272 ; Vaugh, IV. 271.
Penmanship, Everett, LV. 452 ; XH. 556; Mulhau-
sen, X. 524: Niebuhr, XVI. 207; Raumer, X.
626 ; Thayer, IV. 450.
Perception and Perceptive Faculties, Bacon, XH. 42;
Hill, XIV. $6; Marcel, XI. 21; Raumer, VIII.
207 ; Russell, H. 113, 316 ; Spencer, XIH. 396.
CLASSIFIED INDEX OF BARNARD S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION.
29
Physical Education, Aphorisms, VlII. 75 ; Aristotle,
XIV. 140; Ascham, HI. 41 ; Bandow, V. 510;
Beecher, II. 399; Comeiiius, V. 281 ; Currie, XI. *
233 ; Elyot, XVI. 490, Fellenlferg, HI. 596 ; Guts-
muths, VLTI. 191; Jahn,VIII. 196; Lalor, XVI.
34 ; Locke, XI. 462; Lorinser, VLtt. 187; Luther,
IV. 448 ; VIII. 190 ; Lycurgus, XIV. 620 ; Mann,
Mason, XIV. 01 ; Milton, II. 83; Montaigne, IV.
465; Pestalozzi, VLII. 192; Plutarch, XI. 105;
Quintilian, XI. 118; Rabelais, XIV. 149; Rau-
mer, VIII. 185; Rousseau, V. 475, VEH. 185;
Spencer, XI. 485; Trotzendorf, V. 112; Vehrli,
III. 390, 394 ; English Public Schools, XV. 105.
Pictures in School-books, IV. 509 ; V. 506, 512 ; VI.
585 ; XIE. C47.
Picturing-out Method. IX. 413, 424.
Pleasure in Study and Work, VI. 464 ; XLTI. 386,
488, -587.
Pleasure-grounds of Knowledge, XLTI. 121; XVI.
438.
Play-state of Childhood, XLTI. 93.
Physiology, V. 499, 512 ; XI. 49; XVI. 44.
Plays and Pastimes, V. 284; X. 259; XI. 490;
XLTI. 93, 539, 594 ; XIV. 474.
Poetry, Study of, LT. 82 ; TTT 329 ; VI. 220, 226, 467,
517 ; VLTI. 226 ; X. 161 ; XI. 509 ; XLTI. 117 ;
XVI. 47.
. Political Science, LT. 82 ; HI. 82 ; V. 513 ; IX. 105 ;
XL 214 ; XIV. 135, 326.
Posture in Devotion, IV. 29 ; VLTI. 631.
Pouring-in Method. V. 819.
Powers to be Educated, Hill, XIV. 84.
Reading, Methods of Instruction, Currie, IX. 273,
277; Dunn, X. 399; Harwich, VIII. 436; Hon-
camp, IV. 234; Lloyd, IV. 225; Locke, VI. 219,
XIV. 304; Morrison, IX- 307; Olivier, V. 508;
Prinsen, VLTI. 612; Quintiliim, XL 120 ; Raumer,
X. 624 ; XII. 473 ; Thayer, IV. 218 ; Wilbur,
XV. 201.
Reasoning with Children, V. 471 ; XLTI. 562.
Reflection and Reflective Faculties, Marcel, XI. 33;
Russell, IV. 198, 309.
Religion and Religious Instruction, Acquaviva, XIV.
471; Arnold, IV. 559 ; Bible, X. 167; Basedow,
V. 501, 513; Brooks, I, 336; Burgess, LT. 562;
Currie, IX. 284; Cousin, XILT. 287; Comenius,
V. 226 ; Cowdery, XVI. 323 ; Dunn, X. 427; Fel-
lenberg, XLTI. 325; Fisher, X. 180; Hegel, X.
171; Hoole, XVLT. 238; Huntington, IV. 23;
Kriisi, V. 195; Lalor, XVL 49; Lindsley, VLT.
35; Locke, XIV. 308; Luther, X. 183; Nie-
meyer, X. 132, -173, 177, 184 ; Plato, X. 170 ; Pes-
talo/.zi, X. 175, 182; Potter, LT. 154, 162; Pytha-
goras^ X. 167; Randall, LT. 156; Raumer, VLT.
401; X. 241; Richards, X. 512; Socrates, X. 169;
Thayer, ILT. 71 ; Zchokke, X. 169, 176.
Religion in Public Schools of Baden, X. 206; Bava-
ria, VI. 281 : VLTL 501 ; England, IV. 559, 573 ;
X. 513; XV. 101); XVI. 670; Greece, XLT.574;
Holland, XIV. 642, 693; Hanover, XV- 426, 769;
Ireland, XI. 137, 152 ; Jesuit Schools, XIV. 471 ;
Prussia, VLU. 420 ; Scotland, IX. 222.
Requisitions and Prohibitions, XLTI. 851,
Rewards in School, VI. 212, 435 ; XI. 480.
Practicality, IV. 477 ; V. 480 ; X. 129, 414 ; XTTT Rote-learning, V. 247, 474; VI. 465; VLT. 405;
13, 103, 812.
Praise, VLTI. 618 ; XVI. 62.
Prayers in Colleges, LT. 662 ; IV. 23 ; V. 515.
Precocity, V. 473, 749 ; XL 492, 508.
Prize Schemes, 1.629; LT. 708; LLT. 249, 255; V.
226; VI. 287.
Printing-press, uses of to Boys, IX. 636.
Private Schools, LT. 719 ; VI. 213 ; XLTI. 553.
Progression, XVI. 643.
Progressives of the 16th Century, VI. 463.
Promotion by merit, XLTI. 667 ; XV. 92.
Pronunciation of English, IV. 226 ; XTV. 354; of
Greek and Latin, IV. 226; XV. 171.
Public Schools in England, VEIL 257 ; XV. 81 ;
XVI. 501, 567.
Public Schools and Private Schools, XL 114 ; XTTT
361 ; XV. 323.
Punctuality, LT. 659 ; V 520.
Pupil-Teachers, IV. 191 ; X. 385, 504.
Puzzling Pupils, XIV. 313.
Quadriennium, XIV. 172.
Quadrivium, I. 254 ; VI. 21.
Quick-wits, XI. 58.
Questions for Examining a School, I. 686 ; X, 449.
Ratio Studiorum, of the Jesuits, XTV. 462.
Reaction, Law of, XI. 493, 502.
XLT. 416 ; XLH. 113, 373.
Rules for School Attendance, XIV. 816 ; Good Be-
havior, VLTI. 613 ; X. 438 ; XLLT. 171, 549, 851 ;
Hopkins' Grammar School, IV. 710; Dorchester
School, XVI. 106.
Science in Schools, I. 164, 514; LT. 66, 81, 349, 447;
LLT. 147, 265 ; IV. 757 ; V. 671, 779 ; VI. 233,
448 ; XLTI. 399.
Science and Art, I. 102, 315, 388 ; LT. 715 ; X, 218.
Simultaneous Method, IX. 299.
Socratic Method, IX. 375 ; Currie, IX. 283.
Spelling, Dunn, X. 409 ; Richards, X. 517; Thayer,
LTI. 312.
Studies, True Order of, Hill, VI. 180, 449; VI. 273,
491 ; Spencer, XLTI. 374.
Synthetical Method, IV. 504.
Synchronistical Method in History, IV. 515.
Text-books, Catalogue of American, XLTI. 208, 401,
627 ; XIV. 601, 753.
Topical Method in Geography, VLTI. 82.
Tripartite Organization, IX. 316 ; XLTI. 149.
Turners and Turning System, VLT. 92 ; VIII. 189.
Unconscious Tuition, I. 141.
Utility of Studies, LT. 386 ; V. 479; XV. 101.
Virtue, V. 494; VLH. 10; X. 167; VTLT. 550.
Will, V. 511, 671 ; IX. 37 ; V. 137 ; XTV. 472, 617.
Real Schools,.VI. 248 ; V. 661, 674, 691 ; VLTI. 508 ; Writing and Reading, IV. 234 ; VLT. 694 ; XLT. 477.
IX. 247 ; XIV. 425 ; XV. 440, 767.
Writing and Drawing, VLU. 388.
30 CLASSIFIED INDEX OF BARNARD'S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION.
IV. TEACHERS ; NORMAL AND MODEL SCHOOLS ; TEACHERS' INSTITUTES.
The School and the Teacher in English Literature,
HI. 155, 449 ; IV. 183 ; VLLT. 283 ; XVI. 432.
Legal Recognition of Teaching as a Profession ; Me-
morial, X. 297-308.
The Teacher as an Artist, by Z. Richards, XIV. 69.
The Teacher's Motives, by Horace Mann, XIV. 277.
Essentials to Success in Teaching, I. 561.
Letters to a Young Teacher, by G. F. Thayer, I. 357 ;
H. 103, 391, 657 ; ILL 71, 313 ; IV. 219, 450 ; VI.
435; TILT. 81.
Lectures to Young Teachers ; Intellectual Education,
by W. Russell, LT. 113, 317; HI. 47, 321; IV.
199, 309. Moral Education, IX. 19.
Special Training a Pre-requisite to Teaching, by H.
Mann, XIH. 507.
Teachers and their Education, by W. E. Channing,
XH. 453.
Professional Training of Teachers, XHI. 269.
Didactics as a Department in Colleges, by T. Hill,
XV. 177.
German Views upon Female Teachers, IV. 795.
Teachers' Conferences and other Modes of Profession-
al Improvement, XHI. 273.
Teachers' Institutes in Wisconsin, VIH. 673. In
Different States Historical Development, XV. 387.
Connecticut, 387 ; New York, 395 ; Ohio, 401 ;
Rhode Island, 405 ; Massachusetts, 412.
School for Teachers, by W. R. Johnson, V. 799.
Teachers' Seminaries, by C. E. Stowe, XV. 688.
Relation of Normal Schools to other Institutions, by
W. F. Phelps, HI. 417.
Historical Development of Normal Schools in Europe
and America, XHI. 753-770.
Germany and other European States Number, Loca-
tion and Results of Normal Schools, VLLT. 360 ;
Professional Training of Teachers in Anhalt, XV.
345 ; Austria, XVI. 345 ; Baden, X. 212 ; Bavarin,
VI. 289; Belgium, VLH. 593; Brunswick, XV.
453; France, XHI. 281 ; Greece, XH. 579 ; Han-
over, XV. 419; Hesse-Cussel, XV. 439; Hesse
Darmstadt, XIV. 416 ; Holland, XIV. 501, 647 ;
Holland. Normal School at Haarlem, XIV. 501.
Prussia. Provisions for Education and Support of
Teachers, XI. 165-190. System of Normal Schools,
XIV. 191-240. Seminary School at Weissenfels,
VIH. 455 ; XIV. 219. Dr. Julius on, XVI. 89.
Regulations of 1854, XVI. 395.
Normal Schools in Switzerland, XHI. 313-440.
Normal and Model Schools of Upper Canada, XIV.
483.
United States Documentary History of Normal
Schools Adams, I. 589 ; Bache, VLH. 360 ; Bar-
nard, X. 24, 40 ; Bates, XVI. 453 : Brooks,!. 587;
Barrowes, XVI. 195; Calhoun, XVI. 86; Carter,
XVI. 77; Channing, XH. 453; Clinton, XTTT,
341 ; Dwight, IV. 16 : Edwards, XVI. 271 ; Em-
erson, XVI. 93 : Everett, XLH. 758; Gallaudet^
X. 16 ; Hall, V. 386 ; XVI. 75 ; Humphrey, XH.
655 ; Julius, XVI. 89 ; Johnson, V. 798 ; Lindsley,
VH. 35 ; Mann, V. 646 ; VHI. 360 ; Olmsted, V.
369 ; Peirce, IV. 305 ; Phelps, TTT. 417 ; Putnam, I.
588 ; Sears, XVI. 471 ; Stephens, VLH. 368 ;
Stowe, XV. 688; Tillmglmst, I. 67 ; Webster, I.
590 ; Wickersham, XV. 221.
Chapter in the History of Normal Schools in New
England ; Charles Brooks, I. 587.
California. State Normal School, XVI. 628.
Connecticut. History of State Normal School, X.
15-58. History of Teachers' Institutes, XV, 387.
Illinois. State Normal University at Bloomington,
IV. 774.
Kentucky. State Normal School, HI. 217.
Maine. State Normal School, XVH.
Maryland. State Normal School, XVH.
Massachusetts. State Normal School at Bridgewater,
V. 646 ; XVI. 595. At Barre ; Everett's Address,
XHI. 758. At Westfield, XH. 652. Teachers'
Seminary at Andover, V. 386. History of Teach-
ers' Institutes, XV. 387.
New Jersey. State Normal School, HI. 221. Its
Aims, by D. Cole, V. 835. Faruum Preparatory
School, HI. 397.
Lippe Detmold, XV. 475; Mecklenburg, XV. 464, New York. State Normal School at Albany, XLTI.
472; Nassau, LT. 444; Prussia, XI. 165; Russia, 341, 531. History of Teachers' Institutes, XV.
395.
XH. 727; Sardinia, HI. 517; Saxony, V. 353;
Switzerland, XHI. 313.
Great Britain. Training Colleges in England and
Wales, X. 349. Normal Schools of the British and
Foreign School Society, X. 435. Normal and
Model Schools of the Home and Colonial Society,
IX. 449. St. Mark's Training College for Masters
of the National Society, X. 531. Battersea Train-
ing School for Parochial Schoolmasters, IX. 170.
Chester Diocesan Training College, X. 553. Nor-
mal Schools for Training Schoolmistresses, X. 571 ;
Normal Schools at Edinburgh and Glasgow, X. 583.
Irish System of Training Teachers, XL 136.
France. Normal Schools and Training, XLH. 281.
Normal Schools of the Christian Brothers, HI. 437.
Training School at Oswego, XVI. 230. Nor-
mal School at Brock port, XVII.
Ohio. History of Teachers' Institutes, XV. 401.
Normal Schools in, XVH.
Pennsylvania. Professional Training of Teachers,
XIV. 721. Normal School at Millersville, XV.
221. Philadelphia Normal School for Female
Teachers, XIV. 727. XVI. 195. Normal School
at Mansfield, XVH.
Rhode Island. Education of Teachers, XL 282.
History of Teachers' Institutes, XV. 405.
Vermont. Teachers' Seminary in 1823, XVI. 146.
State Normal Schools, XVH.
Wisconsin. Teachers' Institutes, VHI. 673. Normal
Schools, XVH.
CLASSIFIED INDEX OF BARNARD'S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION. 3!
V. STATE AXD NATIONAL SYSTEMS.
Educational Statistics, I. G40-G51.
Anhalt. System of Public Instruction, XV. 344.
Austria. System of Public Instruction, IX. 589.
Educational Statistics, TTT 275 ; IV. 257 ; XVI,
5, 337, G09 ; XVLT. 127.
Baden. System of Public Instruction ; Primary, X.
201. Secondary, XI. 233. Seminary for Orphans
at Beuggen, TTT, 383.
Bavaria. System of Public Instruction, VI. 273, 571 ;
VLTI. 491. Educational Statistics, I. 625.
Belgium. System of Public Instruction, VJJI. 581.
Brunswick. System of Public Instruction, XV. 447.
Canada. History and System of Public Instruction in
Upper Canada, by J. G. Hodgins, I, 186. Statistics
of Education in Upper Canada, XLtl. 649- Edu-
cational Institutions in U. and L. Canada, U. 728.
Denmark. System of Public Instruction, XIV. 625.
England. Historical Sketch of Elementary Instruc-
tion, X. 323. British and Foreign School Society
and Borough Road Schools, X. 371-459. National
Society for Promoting the Education of the Poor,
X. 499-574. Home and Colonial Infant and Juve-
nile Society, IX, 449. Lord John Russell's Scheme
of National Education, I. 638. Ashburton Prizes
for Teaching Common Things, I. 629; X. 93. Miss
Coutts' Prizes, U. 708. Public Endowed or Found-
ation Schools, IV. 807 ; VIII. 257; XV. 81-117.
Appropriations to Education, Science, and Art, I.
385 ; H. 348 ; X. 347.
France. System of Public Instruction, VI. 293 ; IX.
481-412. Guizot's Ministry of Public Instruction,
XI. 254, 357. Statistics of Education, IV. 257.
Expenditures for Public Instruction, U. 337, 717.
Free Cities ; Frankfort, Hamburg, Bremen, and Lii-
beck. System of Public Instruction, XV. 333.
Germany. History and Course of Primary Instruction,
VLTJ. 348-402. Real Schools, V. 689-714. Edu-
cational Intelligence, ITJ. 273 ; IV. 245.
Greece. System of Public Instruction, XU. 571-592.
Statistics of Education, I, 628.
Hanover. System of Public Instruction, IV. 250 ;
XV. 415, 752.
Hesse 'Cassel. System of Public Instruction, XV. 431.
Hesse Darmstadt. Public Instruction, XIV. 409-430.
Holland. System of Public Instruction, IV. 801;
VLTI. 595 ; XIV. 495, 641-720. Proposed Revis-
ion of System, U. 719. Statistics of Public Schools,
I. 401. Scheme of Christian Education adopted at
Dort, 1618, V. 77.
Honduras. Condition of Education, U. 236.
Jndia. Prepress of Education, TJ- 727.
Ireland. Elementary Education, XL 133-154. Sys-
tem of National Education, HI. 272 ; IV. 363.
National Schools, XHJ. 145. Educational Appro-
priations, I. 390 ; TJ. 348, 716. Endowed Grammar
and English Schools, XV. 721.
Italy. Institutions for Public Instruction, U. 721.
History of Education, VII. 413.
Lippe-Detmold and Schaumburg Lippe. System of
Public Instruction, XV. 473, 576.
Luxemburg and Limberg. System of Public Instruc-
tion, XIV. 664.
Mecklenburg. System of Public Instruction, XV.
459. Ignorance in, LTJ. 278.
Nassau. System of Public Instruction, U. 444.
New South Wales. Statistics of Education, I. 639.
Norway. System of Public Instruction, Vill. 295.
Portugal. System of Public Instruction, XVII.
Prussia. History and Statistics of Public Instruction,
IV. 245; VUI. 403-434 ; IX. 569. Expenditures
for Public Instruction in Prussia and France, TJ.
337. Public Schools of Berlin, VUI. 440. Fred-
eric William Gymnasium and Real Schools of Ber-
lin, V. 699. Burgher School at Halle, VUI. 434.
Higher Burgher School of Potsdam, VILT. 457.
Russia. National Education, XIX 725
Sardinia. System of Public Instruction, JJI. 513;
IV. 37, 479.
Saxony. System of Public Instruction, V. 350. Sec-
ondary Instruction, TV. 251. Burgher School, IX,
201 Early School Code, VI. 432.
Scotland. Elementary Education, IX. 215. Paro-
chial School System, TJ. 716 ; VIJ. 319.
Spain. Public Instruction, XVII.
Sweden. Public Instruction, H. 720 ; XVI. 639.
Turkey. System of Education, U. 725.
Wurtemburg. Early School Code, VI. 426. System
of Public Instruction, XVIJ.
UNITED STATES. Official Exposition of Common
Schools, U. 257, 465-561. School Funds and Pub-
lie Instruction in the several States, I. 371, 447.
Statistics of Population, Area, and Education in
1850, I. 364. Statistics of Public Instruction in
Cities and large Towns, I. 458. Educational
Movements in the several States, I. 234, 641 ; U.
257, 452, 734 ; IV. 824. Plan of Central Agency
for Advancement of Education, by H. Barnard, I.
134. National Bureau of Education, XV. 180.
Lord Elgin on the American School System, m.
239. Education among the Cherokees, by W. P.
Ross, I. 120. Schools as they were Sixty Years
ago, XIU. 123, 737 ; XVI. National Department
of Education, XVII. 49. Constitutional Provision,
XVU. 81. Educational Land Policy, XVLI. 65.
Alabama. School Statistics, I. 368, 371 ; U. 464.
Constitutional Provision, XVU.
Arkansas. Statistics, I. 368, 371.
California. XVI. 625. Statistics, I. 372 ; TJ. 467.
Connecticut. History of Common Schools, by H
Barnard, IV. 657; V.1 14; XUL 725; XIV. 244;
XV. 275 ; XVI. 333. History of the School Fund,
VI. 367-415. Henry Barnard's Labors,- I. 669.
Public Schools and other Educational Institutions,
XI. 305. Free Academy and School Movements
in Norwich, U. 665 ; UJ. 191. Statistics, I, 372;
U, 469. Constitutional Provision, XVU.
32 CLASSIFIED INDEX OF BARNARD S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION.
Delaware. Statistics, I. 368, 373 ; n. 474.
Florida. Statistics, I. 367, 374.
Georgia. I. 368, 374 ; H. 477.
Illinois. 1.368,375; H. 479,
Indiana. I. 368, 375 ; n. 480.
Iowa. I. 368, 374 ; n.
Kansas. XVII.
Kentucky. I. 368, 377; H. 488.
Louisiana. I. 368, 377 ; n. 473.
Mil inc. I. 368, 378 ; n. 495.
Maryland. I. 368, 378.
Massachusetts. Doctrine of Free Schools, XV. 15.
Analysis of Horace Mann's Reports, V. 623. School
Superintendence ; Memorial of American Institute
of Instruction, V. 653: Legal Recognition of
Teaching as a Profession ; Memorial of Worcester
County Teachers' Association, X, 297. I. 368,
379 ; n. 499.
Michigan. I. 368, 447; H. 510.
Minnesota. 1.368.
Mississippi. I. 368,447.
Missouri. 1.368,448.
Nebraska. XVII.
Nevada. XVII.
New Hampshire. I. 368, '448 ; H. 510.
New Jersey*. I. 368, 449 ; H. 517.
New York. I. 368, 449 ; n. 518
North Carolina. I. 368, 451 ; n. 527. Schools as
they were in 1794, XVI. 1-
Ohio. System of Common Schools, by W.T. Cogge-
shall, VI. 81, 532; I. 368, 451 ; H. 531.
Oregon. I. 368 ; XVII,
Pennsylvania. History of Common Schools, VI. 107,
555 ; I. 368, 452 ; n. 541.
Rhode Island. I. 368, 454 ; H. 544. Labors of Henry
Barnard, I. 723.
South Carolina. I. 368, 455 ; n. 553. Marion on
Free Schools for, XVI. 119.
Tennessee. I. 368, 455.
Texas. 1.368,445.
Vermont. I. 368, 466.
Virginia. I. 368, 457 ; Gov. Wise on Education, H.
557.
West Virginia. XVII.
Wisconsin. I. 368, 457.
District of Columbia. XVII.
Cities. Statistics of Population, I. 479. Gradation
of Schools for, XV. 316, 309. Reports on, I. 458.
Boston : Edward Everett and the Boston Schools, I.
64-2. Latin Grammar School of Boston, XII. 529.
Girls in the Public Schools of Boston, XIII. 243.
Dedication of the Everett School House, IX. 633.
Report of N. Bishop, I. 458. School Houses in,
XVI. 701.
Chicago High School, by W. H. Wells, m. 531.
Retirement of Mr. Wells, XTV. 811.
Cincinnati ; Woodward High School, IV. 520.
New York City. Public School Society, XV. 489.'
Philadelphia High School, by J. S. Hart, I. 93. Report
on Public Schools, I. 465.
Providence : Report on, I. 468.
St. Louis System of Public Instruction, I. 348.
VI. SECONDARY, INTERMEDIATE AND ACADEMICAL SCHOOLS.
Anhalt. Gymnasiums and Higher Schools, XV. 346.
Austria. System and Statistics of Secondary Instruc-
tion, IX. 598. XVI. 465. XVH. 127.
Baden. System of Sec. instruction, XI. 233-253.
Bavaria. Secondary Schools, VIII. 491-521.
Belgium. Secondary Schools, VIII. 587.
Brunswick. Classical Schools, XV. 456.
Canada. Secondary Schools, XIII. 649.
Denmark. Outline of System and Statistics, XIV.
625.
England. Public or Foundation Schools, Vm. 257 ;
XV. 81. Mr. Sewall's School at Radleigh, IV.
803. St. Mary's College at Winchester, XVI. 501.
St. Paul's School in London, XVI. 667. Eton
College, XVir
France. Lyceums and Secondary Schools, VI, 294.
Statistics of Secondary Education in 1843, IX. 400.
Secondary Instruction under Guizot's Ministry, XL
357. Schools of Preparation for the Polytechnic
School, XII. 47.
Free Cities. Gymnasiums and Secondary Institutions,
XV. 339.
Greece. Secondary Schools, Gymnasiums, &c., XII.
581.
Hanover. Real Schools and Girls' High School, IV.
250. Secondary Instruction, XV. 753-781.
Hesse-Cassel. Secondary Institutions, XV. 435.
Hesse-Darmstadt. Classical, Real, Trades, and Higher
Femnle School Systems, XIV. 419.
Holland. Secondary Schools, XIV. 654.
Ireland. Endowed Grammar and English Schools,
XV. 721.
Mecklenburg. Secondary Schools, XV. 465.
Nassau. Secondary Education, H. 445.
Norway. Burgher, Real, and Learned Schools, VHI.
301.
Prussia. Statistics of Secondary Instruction, H. 341 ;
IV. 247. Higher Institutions of Berlin, V. 699.
Secondary Education, IX. 569.
Sardinia. Secondary Instruction, HI. 518; IV. 37.
Saxony. ' Real and Classical Schools, V. 354 ; IV.
251. Secondary Education, IX. 201.
United States. Historical Development of Incorpora-
ted Academies, XVI. 403. Stntisties of Acade-
mies, &c. in 1850, I. 368; Lawrence Academy,
Groton, Mass., I. 49. Williston Seminary, East-
hampton, Mass., H. 173. Norwich Free Academy,
Norwich, Conn., H. 665 ; HI. 190. Public High
School in Chicago, III. 531. Woodward High
School in Cincinnati, IV. 520. Phillips Academy,
Andover, Mass., VI, 73. Phillips Academy, Exe-
ter, N. H., VI. 76. Boston Latin School, XII. 529.
Public Grammar Schools of Philadelphia, XIII.
818.
CLASSIFIED INDEX OF BARNARD'S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION.
33
VII. UNIVERSITY AND
Signification of the term University, IX, 49-56.
University Honors, VIII. 313.
University Studies und Teaching, Rnumer, VII- 201.
Classical Education. Erasmus' Views, IV. 729. Da-
vid Cole upon, I. 67. Discussion before the Amer-
ican Association, I. 86. S. P. Bates, XV. 155.
Speaking and Writing Latin, Rnumer, VII. 471.
College Education and Self-Education, IV. 2(>2.
Prayers in Colleges, by F. D. Huntington, IV. 23.
College Code of Honor, by Horace Mann, HI, 65.
Authorities upon the History of Universities, and
Academical Degrees, H. 747; VII. 49; IX. 56.
Canada. University nnd Colleges of Upper and
Lower Canada, n. 728 ; VII. 188 ; XLLT. 649.
England. Government Grants in 1856, H. 348. Ox-
. ford Commemoration, H. 234. Expenses in Eton
College in 1560, IV. 259. University for Legal
Education, I. 386. Working Men's College, I. 389.
France. University and Colleges, VI. 296.
Germany. German Universities in the Sixteenth Cen-
tury, from Raumer, V. 535. History of German
Universities, from Raumer, VI. 9-65; VII. 47-152.
Student Societies in German Universities, VH. 160.
Essays on the Improvement of German Universities,
from Raumer, VLT. 200-251. Statistics, I. 401.
Greece. The Otho University, XLT. 591.
Holland. Condition of the Universities. I. 397.
Ireland. Queen's Colleges and University,' IX. 579-
Prussia. Receipts and Expend, of Universities, H. 338.
Russia. Universities, I. 38J.
COLLEGE EDUCATION.
Sardinia. University Education, IV. 43.
Saxony. University of Leipsic, V. 362.
Scotland. University of Edinburg, IV. 821.
Wurtemburg. University of Tubingen, IX. 57.
United States. Characteristics of American Colleges,
by C. C. Felton, LX. 122.
Improvements Practicable in American Colleges, by
F. A. P. Barnard, I. 175, 269.
Consolidation and other Modifications of American
Colleges, by Alonzo Potter, I. 471.
An American University, by B. A. Gould, H, 265-
293. By A. D. Bache, I. 477. By an Alabumian,
m. 213. Discussion, I. 86.
Society for the Promotion of Collegiate and Theolog-
ical Education at the West, I. 235 ; XV- 201.
Statistics of New England Colleges in 1855-6, I. 405.
Harvard University. History, IX. 129. Grants and
Donations to, IX. 139-165. Progress under Pres.
Felton, X. 293. Museum of Zoology, IX. 613.
Yale College. History, V. 541-566. Elihu Yale, V.
715. List of Deceased Benefactors, X. 61)3. De-
partment of Philosophy and the Arts, I. 459, In-
fluence of, -by F. A. P. Barnard, V. 723; by W.
B. Sprague, X. 681.
Illinois College. History, I. 225.
Transylvania University, Kentucky, HI. 217.
Cumberland University, Tennessee; History, IV. 765.
University Convocation of New York, XV. 502.
St. John's College, Maryland, Charter, XVI. 549.
Report on Reorganization, XVI. 539.
VIII. SCHOOLS OF SCIENCE AND ARTS; MUSEUiMS, &C.
Democratic Tendencies of Science, D. Olmsted, I. 164.
Progress of Science in the United States, I. 641.
Science and Scientific Schools, by J. D. Dana, LI. 349.
Schools of Science and Art, X. 216.
Physical Science. By H. J. Anderson, I. 515-532.
Scientific Schools in Europe, by D. C. Gilman, I. 315.
Department of Science and Art, Eng., LI. 233, 715.
Higher Special Schools of Science and Literature in
France, by D. C. Gilman, LT. 93.
Special Instruction in Science and Art in France,
IX. 405.
Polytechnic Schools. At Paris, VLTI. 661 ; XLT.
51-130. Le Verrier's Report upon Mathematical
Study preparatory to the Polytechnic School of
Paris, I. 533-550; LI, 177-192. Conditions for
Admission, XHI. 678. Polytechnic Institute at
Vienna, VLH. 670. Polytechnic School at Carls-
ruhe, XI- 209. Polytechnic School at Zurich, XI.
218. Polytechnic Schools of Bavaria, VLTI. 510.
Russia. Schools of Special Instruction, I, 382.
Lawrence Scientific School at Cambridge, I. 216.
Scientific Department in Yale College, I. 359.
Cooper Scientific Union, New York, I. 652; IV- 526.
Industrial School at Chemnitz, HI. 252 ; IV- 798.
School of Mines at Freyburg, Saxony, LX. 167.
Drawing ; Report of a French Commission, H. 419.
Art Education, by Miss M. A. Dwight, H. 409-587;
HE. 467 ; IV. 191 ; V. 305.
On a College of Architecture, by D. B. Reid, H. 629.
Dudley Observatory, H. 593. Uses of Astronomy,
by E. Everett, H, 605-628.
United States CoasfSurvey, I. 103.
Geological Hall and Agricultural Rooms of New
York, IV. 785.
British Museum, VHI. 314. British Museum of
Practical Geology, VI. 239. Museum of Compara-
tive Zoology at Harvard, IX. 613. Educational
Uses of Museums, by Prof. E. Forbes, IV. 785.
Institute of Agriculture and Forestry at llohenheim,
VLTI. 564. At Tharand, Saxony, IV. 797.
Agricultural Education in France, VHI. 545-563.
In Ireland, VHI. 567-580.
Plan of Agricultural School, by J. A. Porter. I, 329.
Hartlib's Plan of a College of Husbandry, XI. 191.
Mechanics' Institutes in England, I, 388 ; H. 712.
Plan of a Trade School, by Sir W. Pelty, 1647, XI. 199.
Industrial Training of Poor, X. 81. Industrial Schools
in England, I. 653. Ireland, I, 545. Belgium, I.
384 ; VOL. 588. Bavaria, VLH. 510. Nassau, H.
446. Saxony, IV. 252, 798. Wurtemburg, IV, 799.
34 CLASSIFIED INDEX OF BARNARD'S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION.
IX. MILITARY AND NAVAL EDUCATION.
Physical and Military Exercises in Public Schools a
National Necessity, by E. L. Molineux, XI. 513.
Military Schools and Education in England, IV. 808 ;
XIV. 523. France, I. 626; XII. 7-274. Hol-
land, XIV. 241. Prussia, XII. 275-399 ; Vm.
437. Russia, I, 383; XIV. 503. Switzerland,
XIII, 689-710. Sardinia, XIII. 455. Austria,
XIII. 409-446, 711. Persia, II. 727.
United States; Military Academy at West Point,
17-48. Regulations for Admission, XIII.
659. Report of Visitors, 1863, XLTI. 661 ; XV.
51. On the Conditions for Admission, by H. Bar-
nard, XIV, 103-127. Military Acndemy at Nor-
wich, Vt., Xm. 65. Eagleswo .d Military Acad-
emy, at Perth Amboy, N. J., XIII. 471.
Naval and Navigation Schools in England, XTV.
627 ; XV. 65.
French Naval School at Brest, XLT. 263.
United Stntes Naval Academy; Report of Visitors,
1864, XV. 17-50.
X. PREVENTIVE AND REFORMATORY EDUCATION.
Education a Preventive of Misery and Crime, by E.
C. Tainsch, XI- 77.
Crimes of Children and their Prevention, I, 345.
Publications on Reformatory Education, HI, 812.
Family Training and Agricultural Labor in Reforma-
tory Education, I. 609-624.
Crime, Pauperism, and Education in G. Brit., VI. 311.
Preventive and Reformatory Education, TTT, 561-818.
Reform Schools in England, HI. 753. In Ireland,
HI. 807. In Scotland, HI. 801. In France, HI,
653. In Holland, HI. 619. In Italy, TTT, 580.
In Switzerland, HI, 591.
Reformatory Establishment of Dusselthal Abbey,
Prussia, H. 231.
Prison for Juvenile Criminals, Isle of Wight, TTT, 19.
Wichern and the Rauhe Haus, TTT, 5, 10, 603 ; IV.
824.
XI. EDUCATION FOR DEAF-
Statistics of tlie Deaf, Dumb, Blind, Insane, and
Idiotic in the U. S. in 1850, 1. 650.
Statistics of the Deaf and Dumb Institutions in the
United States, I. 444.
American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, I, 440.
N. Y. Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, HI. 347.
Institutions and Instruction for the. Blind, by L. P.
Brockett, IV. 127.
Valentine Flaiiy and the Instruction of the Blind, HI.
177 ; IV. 130.
Agricultural Reform Schools in Belgium and France,
TTT. 621-736.
Agricultural Colonies of France, particularly Mettray,
I, 609 ; TTT 653.
Reformatory Education in the United States, IV. 824;
Statistics of State and City Reform Schools in the
United States, HI. 811 ; VHI. 339.
State Induslrinl School for Grrls, at Lancaster, Mass.,
IV. 359; XVI. 652.
Mode of Improving Factory Population, VIH.
305.
Special Training of Women for Social Employments,
HI, 485.
International Philanthropic Congress at Brussels, H.
236 ; HI. 231.
Industrial Trnining of the Poor, I. 384, 635 ; H, 446;
HI. 585; IV, 252, 798; X, 81.
MUTES, HLIMI AND IDIOTS.
Account of Laura Bridgman, by S. G. Howe, IV, 383.
Idiots and Institutions for their Training, by L. P.
Brockett. I, 593.
Origin of Treatment and Training of Idiots, by E.
Seguin, H. 145.
New York Asylum for Imbeciles at Syracuse, IV, 416.
Butler Hospital for the Insane, at Providence, R. I.,
HI. 309.
Insanity as the Result of Misdirected Education, by
E. Jarvis, IV. 591.
XII. MORAL AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION; DENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS.
Thoughts on Religion and Public Schools, by George
Burgess, H. 562.
Christianity in Education, from Raumer, VHI. 216.
Religious Instruction, from Raumer, VH. 401.
Religious and Moral Instruction in Public Schools ;
Discussion by the American Association, H, 153.
Importance and Methods of Moral Training, by G. F.
Thayer, HI. 71.
Best Methods of Moral Teaching, by C. Brooks, I. 336.
Moral and Mental Discipline, by Z. Richards, I,
107.
Formation of Moral Character, the Main Object of
Schools, by M. F. Cowdery, XVI, 353.
Moral Education, by W. Russell, IX. 19-48 ; Fellen-
berg, HI. 595 ; Kriisi, V. 193 ; Lalor, XVI. 48 ;
Locke, XI. 473 ; XHI. 548; Spencer, XI. 496.
Aphorisms on Religious and Moral Training, X 166;
XH. 407.
Prayers in Colleges, by F. D. Huntington, IV. 23.
Catholic Educational Establishments in the United
States, H. 435.
The Hieronymians; from Raumer, IV. 622.
Jesuits and their Schools, XTV, 455-482. From
Raumer, V. 213 ; VI. 615.
The Christian Brothers, (Freres Chretiens,) HI.
437.
CLASSIFIED INDEX OF BARNARD S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION. 35
XIII. EDUCATION AND SCHOOLS FOR FEMALES.
Aphorisms upon Femule Education, XITT, 232.
Views of German Authorities, XHL 495.
St. Jerome Letter to Lseta oil the Education of her
Daughter, V, 593.
E. Everett, Female Education, IX. 635 ; XII. 721.
Educiition of Girls, from Raumer, X. 227, 613.
Mental Education of Women, by C. McKeen, I. 567.
Training of Women for Social Employments, ITT, 485.
Sisters of Charity Mrs. Jameson. TTT, 495.
Female Adult Education in Ireland,!. 634.
School for Girls in Paris, I. 394.
Girls in the Public Schools of Boston, XJH. 243.
Female Colleges in the State of Ohio, XTTT. 267.
New York Grammar School for Girls, I, 408. Packer
Collegiate Institute for Girls, I. 579. Young Ladies'
High School, Providence, R. I., V. 14. Troy Fe-
male Seminary, VI. 145. Mt. Holyoke Female
Seminary, X. 670. Bailey's Young Ladies' High
School, Boston, XII. 435. Ohio Female College,
College Hill, XIH. 503. Girls' High School,
Charleston, S. C., XTTT 620. Vassar College, XI.
55. xvn.
XIV. PHYSICAL EDUCATION.
Aphorisms and Suggestions upon Physical Training,
vni. 75.
Physical Education; by Raumer, VUI. 185. By
Locke, XI, 462. By Lalor, XVI. 34. By Spen-
cer, XI. 485.
Health of Teachers, by Miss C. E. Beecher, TJ. 399.
Physical Exercises, by S. W. Mason, XTV. 61.
New Gymnastics, by Dio Lewis, XI. 531 ; XII. 665.
Physical and Military Exercises in Schools a National
Necessity, by E. L. Molineux, XI. 513.
Plays, Pastimes, and Holidays of Children, by Horace
Bushnell, XTTT 93.
Progressive Development of Physical Culture in the
United States, XV. 231.
Military Gymnastic School at Vincennes, France,
XH. 265.
XV. SUPPLEMENTARY, SELF AND HOME EDUCATION.
Hints on Reading; Selections from Authors, by T. H.
Vail, TJ. 215.
Advice to Students and Young Men on Education,
Studies, and Conduct, XV. 377 ; XVI. 187, 216,
223.
Pestalozzi Address on Christmas Eve, VH. 701. On
New Year's, VII. 712. Paternal Instructions,
VIJ. 722.
Home Education ; Labors of Rev. W. Burton, H. 333.
College and Self-education, by D. Masson, IV. 262.
Lowell Lectures, V. 439.
Mechanics' Institutes. VTTT, 250.
Origin of Lyceums, VTTT, 249. The American Ly-
ceum, XTV. 535-558.
Lyceums, Mechanics' Institutes and Libraries in Eng-
land, L 388 ; II. 712 ; TTT 241-272.
Statistics of Libraries in Europe, I. 370 ; TJ. 214. In
the United States in 1850, I. 369.
Libraries for Teachers in France, XTTT, 293. Econ-
omic Library, England, III, 271.
Astor Library, I, 648. Boston Public Library, TJ.
203; VH, 252. Baltimore Public Library, ITJ.
226. Worcester Free Public Library, XTTT, 606.
Providence Atheneum, ILL, 308. Lawrence Li-
brary for Factory Operatives, I. 649.
Management of Libraries Edward's Library Manual,
TJ. 210.
Books of Reference, YJLli. 315.
XVI. EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS.
Association for Educational Purposes, by H. Barnard,
XIV. 366 ; XV. 819.
American Association for the Advancement of Edu-
cation, I. 3-136, 234 ; XV. 267.
American Association for the Advancement of Sci-
ence, ITJ, 147.
American Association for the Supply of Teachers,
XV. 237.
American Common School Society, XV, 247.
American Education Society, XTV. 367.
American Institute of Instruction, H. 19,234. Index
to Lecturers and Subjects, U. 241. Memorial on
State School Superintendence, V. 653. Biographi-
cal Sketches of Presidents, XV, 211.
American Lyceum, XTV. 535.
American School Society, XV. 118.
American Social Science Association, XVI. 391.
American Sunday School Union, XV. 705
American Women's Educational Asso., XV, 273.
Baltimore County and City Association, XVI. 377.
Board of National Popular Education, XV. 271.
Boston Associated Instructors of Youth, XV. 527.
British and Foreign School Society, X. 371-459.
College Delegates (New England) Association, XVU.
Guild of Schoolmasters, XV. 337.
Home and Colonial Infant and Juvenile Society, IX.
449-486.
Literary and Scientific Convention ; New York, 1830,
XV, 221.
National Associations, XV. 237, 823.
National Association (England) for Promotion of
Social Science, IV, 818.
National Convention and Association of Superintend-
ents of Schools, XVI. 389.
36
CLASSIFIED INDEX OF BARNARD'S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION.
National Organization of Teachers, by W. Russell,
XIV. 7.
National Teachers' Association ; Proceedings, XIV.
5-92, 593. Its Nature and Objects, by J. D. Phil-
brick, XTV. 49.
National Society (England) for Promoting the Educa-
tion of the Poor, X. 499-474.
National Society of Science, Literature, and Arts,
XV. 61.
New York (City) Society of Teachers, XIV. 807;
XV. 491. Teachers' Associations, XV. 495.
New York University Convocation, XV. 502.
North-Western Educational Society, XV. 275.
Public School Society of New York, XV. 489.
Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, XV.
239.
Society for Promoting Manual Labor in Literary In-
stitutions, XV. 231.
Society for the Promotion of Collegiate and Theolog-
ical Education at the West, I. 235; XV. 261.
State Convention of County Superintendents ; New
York, XV. 505.
TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS in France, XIH, 293.
General Assembly of German Teachers, IV. 258.
United Association of Schoolmasters, Eng., TTT t 262.
Teachers' Conferences and other Modes of Profes-
sional Improvement, XIH. 273.
Western Literary Institute and College of Professional
Teachers, XIV. 739.
Middlesex County (Conn.) School Association, XIV,
397 : XV.
State Teachers' Associations, Educational Societies
and Conventions Alabama, XVI, 375. Arkansas,
XVI. 381. California, XVI. 785. Connecticut,
XV. 393. Delaware, XVI. 369. Florida, XVI,
381. Georgia, XVI. 358. Illinois, XVI. 149.
Indiana, XVI, 7(55. Iowa, XVI, 745. Kansas,
XVI. 385. Kentucky, XVI. 352. Louisiana,
XVI. 382. Maine, XVI. 777. Maryland, XVI.
377. Massachusetts, XV. 507. Michigan, XV,
633. Minnesota, XVLT. Mississippi, XVI. 381.
Missouri, XVI. 365. New Hampshire, XVI. 751.
New Jersey, XVI. 729. New York, XVI, 349,
477. North Carolina, XVI. 361. Ohio, VI. 532.
Oregon, XVI. 383. Pennsylvania, XV. 47.
Rhode Island, XIV. 559. South Carolina, XVI.
364. Tennessee, XVI. 357. Texns, XVI. 373.
Vermont, XV. 617. Virginia, XVI- 172. Wis-
consin, XIV. 583 ; XVII. District of Columbia,
XVI. 380. West Virginia, XVI. 383.
XVII. PHILOLOGY AIVD BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Philological Contributions, by J. W. Gibbs, n. 198 ;
TTT, 101-124.
English Language in Society and the School,, by M.
H. Buckham, XIV. 343.
Study of the Anglo-Saxon, or the Relation of the
English to other Languages, by J. S. Hart, I. 33.
Dictionary of the English Language; Requirements
in a Lexicographer, by Isaiah Dole, Hi. 161.
Modern Greek Language, by S. G. Howe, n. 193.
Latin Language, from Raumer, VII. 471.
Early Illustrated School Books, XIII. 205. Primers
and Hornbooks, VHI. 310. ABC Books and
Primers, XII, 593.
Books of Reference, VH[. 315.
American Text Books Catalogue of Authors and
Books, XH[, 209, 401, 626; XIV. 601, 751 ; XV.
539.
Educational Literature Book Notices, I. 415; H.
256, 737, 739 ; IV. 261, 272, 831 ; V. 318 ; IX,
351 ; XI. 319 ; XIH, 223, 652 ; XIV. 400.
Statistics of Newspapers nnd Periodicals in the
United States in 1850, 1. 651.
Educational Periodicals of America, I, 413, 656.
Complete List, XV. 383.
English Educational Journals, I, 414. French, I.
413. German, I. 413. Italian, IV. 802.
XVIII. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
Defects in School Constructions, IX, 487.
Principles and Practical Illustrations of School Archi-
tecture, by Henry Barnard, IX. 487 ; X. 695; XI.
563 ; XH. 701 ; XIH. 817 ; XTV. 778 ; XV.
782 ; XVI. 701.
District Schools, or for Children of every nge. Plan
by H. Mann, IX. 540 ; by G. B. Emerson, 542,
548 ; by H. Barnard, 550, 553, 555 ; by R. S. Burt,
556; by T. A. Teft, 559; by A. D. Lord, 562 ; by
D. Leach, 563.
Primary and Infant Schools. General Principles, X,
695. Playground and Appliances, X, 697. School-
room, by Wllderspein, X, 699 ; by Chambers, 702 ;
by British and Foreign School Society, 705: by
National Society, 706 ; by Committee of Council
on Education, 710 ; by Dr. Dick, 714 ; by J. Ken-
dal, 715 ; by J. W. Ingraham, for Boston Primary
Schools, 718; by J. D. Philbrick, 740 ; by New York
Public School Society, 750 ; in Providence, XI.
583.
Baltimore Female High School, V. 198 ; Cincinnati
Hughes High School, XHI. 623; Boston Latin
School, XII. 551 ; Woodward High School, IV.
522 ; Chicago High School, HE. 537 ; High School,
Hartford, XI. 606; Public High School, Middle-
town, XI. 612 ; New York Free Academy, XIV.
788; Providence Public High School, XI. 597;
Norwich Free Academy, n. 696 ; St. Louis High
School, I. 348.
Seminaries for Girls. Packer Collegiate Institute,
Brooklyn, I. 581 ; Richmond Female College, I.
231; Public Grammar School for Girls in New
York, I. 408; Providence Young Ladies' High
School, V. 14 ; Vassar College, XVLT.
CLASSIFIED INDEX OF BARNARD'S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION.
37
Union and Graded Schools Plans, Elevations, &c.,
X. 503-612; XLT. 701. Union School, Ann Ar
bor, Mich., VIII. 91. Public Floating School,
Baltimore, V. 201. Haven School Building, Chi-
cago, XIII. 610. Nevvberry Public School, Chi-
cago, VI. 515. Putnam Free School, Newburyport,
Mass., XILI. 616. Public Schools No. 20 and No.
33, New York City, VI. 524. School Houses in
Philadelphia, XIH. 817. Graded School, Simcoe,
U. C., VIH. 67U. Union Public School, Ypsilanti,
Mich., IV. 780. Norwich Central School, TJ. 699.
Grammar Schools Plans. Lincoln Grammar School,
Boston, VI. 518. Dwight Grammar School, Bos-
ton, IV. 709. Fifteenth Ward (N. Y.) Public
Grammar School for Girls, I. 409. Central High
School, Philadelphia, I. i)2 ; XLTI. 831. Grammar,
Providence, XI. 5e8, 594. Prescott Grammar,
XVI. 7 11.
Normal Schools Plans, Elevations, &c. Illinois State
Normal School, IV. 774. New Jersey State Nor-
mal School, TIT. 220. Massachusetts State Normal
School at Westfield, XII. 653. New York State
Normal School, XLU. 539. Philadelphia City
Normal Schools, XIV. 737. Girls' High Normal
School, Charleston, S. C., XTTT, 620. Normal and
Model Schools at Toronto, U. C., XTV. 488. Os-
wego Training School, XVI. 213. New Britain, X.
51. Bridgewater Normal School, XVI. 466. Fra-
mingham, XVI. 469. Salem, XVI. 470.
Public Library, Boston, VLT. 252. Cooper Scientific
Union, N. Y., I. 652. Dudley Observatory, Albany,
I. 594. Yule College in 1764, V. 722. American
Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, PJartford, Ct.. I.
440. New York Institution for the Deaf and Dumb,
III. 340. New York Asylum for Imbeciles, Syra-
cuse, IV. 416. N. Y. State Geological Hall, IV. 781.
Harvard Hall, V. 530. Yale College, 1764, V. 722.
Apparatus for Physical Exercise, IX. 530 ; XI. 539 ;
XLT. 677 ; for illustration, XIV. 569.
Blackboard and wall-surface, IX. 546, 563 ; X
739 ; XVI. 575.
Crayons, how made, XVI. 574.
Dedicatory Exercises and Addresses, HI. 193 ; IX.
633 ; XTTT. 836 ; V. 648 ; XLT. 655 ; XTTT, 532 ;
XVI. 453 ; I. 645, 647.
Drawing-room and Desks, X, 554 ; XIV. 795 ; XVI.
722.
Furniture for Schools, IX. 551 ; X. 754 ; XIJ. 687 ;
Defective Construction, IX. 492, 518 ; XI. 537 ;
Chase's Adjustable Desk, XHL 656; Mott's Re-
volving Seat, X. 563.
Library of Reference, I. 739 ; IX. 545.
Location and Playground, IX. 492, 503, 507, 510,
527,542; X. 731.
Privies and Facilities for Cleanliness, IX. 520, 539 ;
X. 728; XI. 607; XHL 853.
Worming, IX. 546, 552 ; X. 705, 727 ; Xlt 584, 598 ;
XH. 832 ; XVI. 579. 713.
Ventilation in American Dwellings, V. 35. In School
Houses, IX. 563, 547, 568; X. 724; XIII. 612,
832, 858 ; XIV. 801 ; XV. 782 ; XVI. 716, 727.
Ornamentation, X. 731 ; Mrs. Sigourney on, 732 ;
Salem High School, XTV. 804 ; IX. 543.
Specifications, Terms of, X. 733 ; XIJ. 708.
Seats and Desks, Arrangement of, IX. 551 ; XI. 583;
Xm. 656 ; Octagonal Plan, XVI. 728 ; Barnard's
plan, with division, X. 760, 761.
Size of building, XVI. 716.
Stand, movable, for blackboard, XVI. 709.
Furnaces, XVI. 579, 582; Hot-water apparatus,
XVI. 713.
Rules for Care of School-house, XIIL 851, 857 ; for
use of Furnaces, XV. 803 ; setting furnace, XVI.
584.
XIX. EDUCATIONAL ENDOWMENTS AND BENEFACTORS.
Land Grants of the Federal Government for Educa-
tional Purposes, to 1854, I. 202 ; XVU. 65.
List of Benefactions to Harvard University, IX. 139.
List of Deceased Benefactors of Yale College, X. 693.
Boston Educational Charities, VUI. 528 ; IX. 606.
Individual Benefactors. Samuel Appleton, XH. 403.
J. J. and W. B. Astor, I. 638. Joshua Bates, VIJ.
270. John Bromfield, V. 521. Nicholas Brown,
HI. 289. Peter Cooper, IV. 526. Thomas Dowse, .
LTJ. 284; IX. 355. Mrs. Blandina Dudley, U.
593. Edmund Dwight, IV. 5. Peter Faneuil, IX.
603. Paul Farnum, IJJ. 397. John Green, XIJJ.
600. John Harvard, V. 523. Edward Hopkins,
IV. 668. John Hughes, IV. 520. William Law--
rence, JJ. 33. John Lowell, V. 427. Theodore
Lyman, X, 5. James McGill, VLT. 188. S. J.
North, VI. 104. George Peabody, I. 237 ; TJ. 642 ;
HJ. 226. T. H. Perkins, I. 551. Miss Caroline
Plummer, XILT. 73. John and Samuel Phillips,
VI. 66. Henry Todd, IV. 711. Stephen Van
Rensselaer, VI. 223. Matthew Vassar, XI. 53.
James Wads worth, V. 389. David Watkinson, IV.
837. Samuel Williston, JJ. 173. William Wood-
ward, IV. 520. Elihu Yale, V. 715.
XX. MISCELLANEOUS.
The Gyroscope, or Mechanical Paradox, II. 238. Ex-
planation of the Gyroscope, by E. S. Snell, U. 701.
Treatise upon the Gyroscope, by Maj. J. G. Barnard,
HI. 537 ; IV. 529 ; V. 299.
Lowe's Printing Press, LX. 636.
Stereoscope. Educational Uses of, IX. 632.
Museum of Zoology, IX. 61.
Indexes. Vol. I. ix.-xix. ; TJ. 749 ; IJJ. 819 ; IV.
839; V. 851 ; VI. 317, 623; VIJ. 723 ; VUJ. 681 ;
IX. 637; X. 763; XI. 613 ; XU.731; XHJ.
865 ; XIV. 817 ; XV. 829 ; XVI. 791.
General Index to Vols. I. to V., V. 857.
Classified Index to Vols. I. to XVI.. XVU. 17-
40.
38 CLASSIFIED INDEX OF BARNARD'S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION.
XXI. EDUCATIONAL BIOGRAPHY AND LIST OF PORTRAITS.
Abbot, Benjamin, VI. 80.
Abbott, Gorham D., XVI. 600.
Agricola, Rudolph, IV. 717.
Adelung, J. C., XI. 451.
Alcott, W. A , IV. 629.
Alcott, A. B., XVI. 130.
Allen, C. H., XIV. 396.
Allen, F. A., XV. 681.
Allen, W., X. 365.
Alexander, de Villa Dgi, IV. 726.
Andrews, I. W., XVI. 605.
Acquaviva, Claudius, XIV. 462.
Andrews, L., XVI. 604.
Appleton, Samuel, XLT, 403.
Aristotle, XIV. 131.
Arey, OHver, XV. 484.
Arnold, Thomas K., IV. 545.
Astley, J., IV. 165.
Ascham, Roger, HE. 23.
Aventinus, XI. 163.
Bailey, Ebenezer, XII. 429.
Baker, W. M., XVI. 166.
Baker, W. S., X. 592.
Baldwin, Theron, XV. 261.
Barnard, F. A. P., V. 753.
Barnard, Henry, I. 659,
Barnard, John, I. 307.
Barnes, D. H., XTV. 513.
Bnsol, Marquise de, LU. 510.
Basedow, T. B., V. 487.
Basedow, Emile, V. 491.
Bateman, Newton, XVI. 165.
Bates, J., VII, 270.
Bates, S. P., XV. 682.
Beck, T. Romeyn, I. 654.
Beecher, Miss C. E ., XV. 250.
Benton, A. R., XVI. 775.
Bell, Andrew, X. 467.
Bild, V. 66.
Bingham, Caleb, V. 325.
Bishop, Nathan, XVI.
Blewett, B. T., XVI. 431.
Bodiker, J., XI. 437.
Boccaccio, VII. 422.
Boyd, E. J., XV. 645.
Braidwood, J , HI. 348.
Bridgman, Laurn, IV. 383
Brainerd, J., XVI. 331.
Borgi, Jean, I. 583.
Bromfield, John, V. 521.
Brooks, Charles, I. 581.
Brougham, Lord, VI. 467.
Brown, J. Horace, XV. 764.
Brown, Nicholas, HI. 291.
Buckingham, J. T., XLU. 129.
Buckley, J. W, XIV. 28.
Burrowes, T. H., VI. 107, 555.
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES.
Burtt. Andrew, XV, 679.
Burton, Warren, H. 333.
Busch, V. 727.
Butler, Caleb, LT. 54.
Butler, J. D., XVII.
Butler, Cyrus, III. 310.
Buss, Johannes, V. 293.
Caldwell, C., XVI. 109.
Calhoun, W. B., XV. 212.
Csesarius, J., IV. 2 5.
Carlton, Oliver. XV. 523.
Carter, James, V. 337.
Carter, J. G., V. 407.
Cecil, Sir W., IV. 161.
Cheever, Ezekid, 1. 297 ; XH. 530.
Cheke, Sir John, IV. 163.
Chrysoloras, Emanuel, VH. 440.
Clajus, Johannes, XI. 412.
Claxton, Timothy, VIH. 253.
Clerc, Laurent, HE. 349.
Coburn, C. R.. XV. 679.
Coclenius, C.,IV. 2 5.
Coffin, J. H., XVI. 784.
Colburn, Dana P., XI. 289.
Colburn, Warren, H. 294.
Colet, John, VIII. 291 ; XVI. 405.
Comenius, V. 25.
Cosmo de Medici, VH. 445.
Conover, A. M.. XIV. 393.
Cowley, A., XII. < 51.
Courteilles, M.de, HI. 704.
Corston, William, X. 363.
Corfe,P. A., IV. 4!H.
Cowdrey, M. F., XVI. 589.
Craig, A. J., XIV. 394.
Crato. V.
Cross, M. K., XVI. 751.
Cruikshank, J., XV. 485.
Crozet. Claude, XHL 31.
Curtis, Joseph, I. 655.
Curtis, T. W. T., XV. 607.
Dante, VH. 418.
Davies, Charles, XV. 479.
Davis, Wm. Van L., XV. 675.
Day. J., XVI. 126.
Dentnan, XV. 395.
Denzel, B. G., VLT. 315.
Delillee, J., HE. 158.
Dewey, Chester, XV. 477.
Dewitt, G. A.. V. 17.
Diesterweg, VII. 312.
Dick, James, I. 392.
Dinter, VLT. 153.
Donatus, XVLT.
Dowse, Thomas, m. 284 ; IX. 355.
Dringenberg, Louis, V. 65
Dudley, Mrs. E., H. 598.
Dunnell, M. H., XVI. 783.
Duncan, Alexander, III. 311.
Dwight, Edmund, IV. 5.
Dwight, F., V. 803.
Dwight, Theodore, XIV. 558.
Dwight, Timothy, V. 507.
Eaton, Theophilus, I. 298 ; V. 30.
Ebrardt, U., XI. 160.
Edson, H. K., XVI. 750.
Edwards, B. B , XIV. 381.
Edwards, Richard, XVI. 169.
Elyott, Sir Thomas, XVI. 483.
Emerson, G. B., V. 417.
Erasmus, IV. 729.
Ernesti, I. A., V. 750.
Everett, Edwurd, VII. 325.
Faneuil, P., XI. 603.
Farnum, Paul, HI. 397.
Farnham, G. L., XV. 483.
Faville, O., XVI. 750.
Fellenberg, E., HI. 591.
Felton, C. C., X. 265.
Fenelon, XILT.477.
Fisk, Wilbur, VI. 297.
Fliedner, T., I. ; HI. 487.
Ford, Jonathan, XIV. 395.
Froebel, F., IV. 792 ,
Fowle, X. 597.
Franklin, B., I. 45 ; VHE. 251.
Fuller, Thomas, HI. 155.
Fox, X. 363.
Fry, Elizabeth, HI. 508.
Frangk, Fabian, XI. 163.
Franke, V., 441.
Frisch, J. L., XL 439.
Gall, James, IV.
Gallaudet, T. H., I. 417.
Gottsched, J. C., XL 448.
Galloway, S., XVI. 601.
Geneintz, Christian, XL 426.
George of Trebizond, VH. 440.
Gesner, J. M., V. 741.
Gerard, IV. 622.
Goodnow, I. T., XVI. 386.
Goodrich, S. G., XLH. 134.
Green, John, XLU. G06.
Grant, Miss, X. 656.
Gubert, John, XL 42.
Greene, S. S., XIV. 600.
Grimm, J., XL 454.
Gregory. J. M., XV,
Goswin, IV. 715.
Griscom, John, VIH. 325.
Guarino, VH. 436.
Guilford, Nathan, VIH. 289.
Guizot, XI. 254.
Hagar, D. B., XV. 217.
CLASSIFIED INDEX OF BARNARD'S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION. 39
Hadden, IV. 164.
Hall, S. K .. V. 373.
Hall, W., XV. 127.
Halm, V. <32f>.
Hamann, J. G., VI. 247.
Hancock, J., XVI. 602.
Harnisch, Wilhelm, VII. 317.
Hart, J. S., V. 91.
Harvard, John, V. 523.
Harvey, T. H., XVI. 608.
Hauberle, V. 509.
Haiiy, V., m. 477.
Hawley, G, XI. 94.
Hazeltiue, L., XV, 481.
Hecker, V. 695.
Hedges, Nathan, XVI. 737.
Hegius, Alexander, IV. 723.
Henkle, XVI.
Herder, VI. 195.
Higginson, John, XTTT, 724.
Hillhouse, James, VI. 325.
Holbrook, J.,VHI. 229; XIV. 558.
Hopkins, Mark. XI. 219
Hovey, C. E., VIII. 95.
Howe, S. G., XI. 389.
Hoole, C., XII. W?.
Hopkins, E , IV. 668.
Hoss, G. VV., XVI. 775.
Hubbard, F., XV.
Hubbard, R., V. 316.
Huntingtun, XV. 606.
Hurty, J., XVI. 776.
Ickelsamer. XI. 402.
Ives, M. B., V. 311.
John of Ravenna, VII. 435.
Johnson. Samuel, VII. 461.
Johnson, Walter R., V. 781.
Jones, R. D., XV. 481.
Kelly, Robert, I. 655 ; X. 313.
Kempis, Thomas a, IV. 626.
Kingsbury, John, V. 9.
Kneeland, John, XV. 526.
Krachenberger, V. 79.
Kriisi, Hermann, V. 161.
Kyrle, John, the "Man of Ross,'
IT. 654.
Ladd, J. J., XIV. 592.
Lancaster, Joseph, X. 355.
Lange, Rudolph, IV. 726.
Lawrence. Abbot, I. 205.
Leo X., VH. 454.
Lewis, Samuel, V. 727.
Lindsley, Philip. VII. 9.
Locke, John, VI. 209.
Long, W., XVI. 497.
Lord, A. D., XVI. 607.
Lowell, John, V. 427.
Loyola, Ignatius, XTV. 455.
Lycurgus, XTV. 611.
Lyman Theodore, X. 5.
"Lyon, Mary, X. 649.
Lawrence, Amos, XVII.
Lawrence, William. H. 33.
May, Samuel J., XVI. 141.
McDonough, John, H. 736.
McGill, James, VII. 188.
McJilton, J. N., XVII.
McKeen, Joseph, I. 655.
McMynn, XIV. 391.
Mann, Horace, V. 611.
Marks, D., V. 64.
Marvin, J. G., XVI. 626.
Mason, Lowell, IV. 141.
Mayhew, Ira, XV. 641.
Medici, Lorenzo di, VII. 445.
Melancthon, Philip, IV. 741.
Micyllus, IV. 464.
Mildmny, Sir W., IV. 164.
Mirandola, Picus di, VIE. 449.
Milton, John, XTV. 159.
Morhof, XI. 43(i.
Morse, Augustus, XV. 608.
Mowry, William A., XIV. 592.
Nagali, VIE. 300.
Neander, V. 599.
Niederer, VEI. 289.
North, Ed ward. XV. 486.
North, S. J., VI. 104.
Northend, C , XV. 220.
Oberiin, XVH
Oelinger, XI. 406.
Olivier, V. 508.
Olmsted, Denison, V. 367.
Orbilius, m. 157.
Orcutt, XV. 630.
Overberg, XIII. 365.
Page, D. P., V. 811.
Parish, A., XV. 523.
Partridge, A., XTTT 49, 683.
Peabody, George, I. 328 ; XVII.
Peabody, S. H., XIV. 395.
Pease, Calvin, XV. 631.
Peckham, J., XVI. 743.
Peers, B. O., XVI. 147.
Peet, H. P., HI. 365.
Peirce, C., IV. 275.
Pelton, J. C., XVI. 626.
Perkins, T. H., I. 551.
Pestalozzi, m. 401.
Phelps, W. F., V. 827.
Petrarch, VH. 424.
Philbrick, J. D , XIV. 32.
Philelphus, VII. 441.
Phillips, John, VI. 75.
Phillips, S., VI. 06.
Pickarcl, J. L., XIV. 392.
Picket, Aaron, XTV. 393.
Picket, Albert. XVII.
Picus, J , VII. 449.
Pierce, J. D.. XV. 640.
Plamann. VII. 309.
Platter, Thomas, V. 79.
Plummer, Caroline, XTTT, 73.
Poggius, VH. 442.
Politian, VU. 445.
Pomeroy, E. C., XV. 486.
Potter, Alonzo, XVI. 599.
Powell, W. H., XVI. 167.
Pradt, J. B., XTV. 394.
Putnam, D., XV. 646.
Radwin, Florentius, IV. 623.
Ramsauer, J., VU. 301.
Randall, S. S., XTTT 227.
Ratich, V. 229.
Ray, J., XVI. 603.
Raumer, IV. 149.
Red field. W. C., IV. 833.
Reuchlin, V. 67.
Rice, V. M., XV. 391.
Jlichards. Z., XIV. 23.
Richard, C. S., XVI. 764.
Richardson, M., XV. 605.
Rickoff, A. J., XIV. 24.
Ripley, E. L., XV. 645.
Rohbins, T., HJ. 219.
Rousseau, V. 459.
Russell, W., TH. 139.
Rytwise, J., XVI. 682.
Sams, XVI. 602.
Sanborn, E. D., XVI. 762.
Sandinus, VII.
Sapidus, V. 66.
Sarmiento, XVI. 593.
Sargano, VII. 435.
Sawyer, H. E., XVI. 763.
Scheurl, C., XI. 161.
Schmidt, VU. 297.
Seymour, D., X. 321.
Sheldon, E. A., XV. 484.
Sheldon, W. E., XV. 525.
Sherwin. T., VIII, 461.
Shotteiius, XI. 429.
Sill, D. M. B , XV. 645.
Slade, W., XV. 250.
Simler, V. 66.
Smith, Sir Thomas, IV. 165.
Spicer. A. C., XIV. 392.
Stundish, J. V. N., XVI. 165.
Steamy XV. 524.
Sticler, XI. 435.
Stoddard, J. V., XV. 480.
Stone, A. P., XV. 219.
Stowe, C. E., V. 586.
Strong, E. F., XV. 607.
Sturm, IV. 167.
Swett, J., XVI. 790.
Tappan, H. P., XIH. 451.
Taylor, J. O., XV. 248.
Thayer, G. F.. IV. 613,
Tenney, J., XVI. 7fil.
Thayej, Sylvan us, XVJJ.
Thomasius, J., V. 742.
Thompson, J. B., XV. 487.
40 CLASSIFIED INDEX OF BARNARD'S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION.
Thompson, Z., I, 654.
Tillinghast, N., I. 655.
Tobler, J. G., V. 205.
Todd, Henry, IV. 711.
Trotzendorf, V. 107.
Valentine, T. W., XV. 482.
Valla, VII. 443.
Van Rensselner, VI. 223.
Vassar, M., XI. 53.
Vehrli, HI. 389.
Vetrier, XVI. 665.
Vitellius, XVI. 669.
Vittorino, VII. 436.
Von Turk, V. 155
Wads worth, J., V. 389.
Warton, J., XVI. 511.
Wayland, F., XLTI. 771.
Watkinson, D., IV. 837.
Welch, A. S., XV. 642.
Weld, T., XV. 234.
Wells. F. D., XVI-
Wells, W. H., VTTT, 529.
Werner, G., IV. 799!
Wessel, IV. 714.
Weston, E. P., XVI. 784.
White, E. E., XVI. 606.
Wickersham, J. P., XVI. 282.
Wichern, IH. 5.
Willard, Mrs. Emma, VI. 125.
Wimpheling, V. 05.
Wines, E. C., IX. 9.
Wolf, F. A., VI. 260.
Woodbridge, W. C., V. 51.
Woodbridge, W., XVI 136.
Woodman, J. S., XVI. 761.
Woolworth, S. B., XV. 498.
Wotton, Sir Henry, XV. 123.
Wright, L., n. 176.
Wykeham, William of, XVI. 497.
Yale, Elihu, V. 715.
Zeller, VLI. 305.
Zerbolt, Gerard, IV. 625.
Abbott, Gorham D., XVI. 600.
Alcott, W. A., IV. 629.
Allen, F. A., XV. 682.
Andrews, I. W., XVI. 605.
Appleton, Samuel, XLT. 1.
Arnold, Thomtis, IV. 545.
Bailey, Ebenezer, XLT, 401.
Saker, W. S., XIV. 401.
Baldwin, Theron, XV. 269.
Barnard, F. A. P., V. 753.
Barnard, Henry, I. 1.
Bateman, N., XVI. 166.
Bates, S. P., XV. 1-
Bishop, N., XVH
Blewett, B. G., XVI. 432.
Brooks, Charles, I. 587.
Brown, Nicholas, LU. 291.
Bulkley, J. W., XIV. 28.
Burrowes, T. H., VI. 107.
Camp, D. N., XV. 605.
Carter, J. G., V. 407.
Coburn, C. R., XV. 679.
Colburn, D. P., XI. 289.
Colburn, Warren, LT. 294.
Davies, Charles, XV. 479.
Dowse, Thomas, IX. 355.
Dwight, Edmund, IV. 1-
Dwight, Francis, V. 803.
Edwards, Richard, XVI. 167.
Emerson, G. B., V. 417.
Everett, E., VLT. 325.
Farnum, Paul, HI, 397.
Faville, O., XVI. 759.
Felton, C. C., X. 265.
Fisk, Wilbur, VI. 297.
Fowle, W. B., X. 597.
Gallaudet, T. H., I. 417.
Galloway, S., XVI. 601.
Garfield, James A.. XVLT. 1-
Goodnow, I. T., XVI. 387.
Green, John, XILT. 606.
Greene, S.S., XIV. 609.
Gregory, J. M., XV. 643.
PORTRAITS.
Qriscom, John, VLTI. 325.
Ilngar, D. B., XV. 517.
Hall, S. R., XV. 5.
Hart, J. S., V. 91.
Hauy, V., HI. 477.
Hazeltine, L , XV. 481.
Henkle, William D., XVI. 432
Hillhouse, James, VI. 325.
Holbrook, Josiah, VLH. 1.
Hopkins, Mark, XL 219.
Hovey, C. E., XLH. 94.
Howe, S. G., XL 321.
Johnson, W. R., V. 781.
Kelley, Robert, X. 313.
Kingsbury, John, V. 9.
Lawrence, Abbott, I. 137.
Lawrence, William, H. 1.
Lewis, Samuel, V. 727.
Lindsley, Philip, VH. 9.
Lord, A. D., XVI. *i07.
Lyman. Theodore, X. !
Lyon, Mary, X. 609.
McCarty, H. D., XVI. 388.
McGill, James, VH. 188.
McJilton, J. N., XVH.
McMynn, J. G., XIV. 391.
Mann, Horace, V. 611.
Mason, Lowell, IV. 141.
Mayhew, Ira, XV. 641.
North, E, XVH.
North, S. J.. VI. 104.
Northend, Charles?, XVI. 510.
Olmsted, Denison, V. 367.
Orcutt, Hiram, XV. 630.
Page, D. P., V. 811.
Parish, A., XV. 523.
Partridge, Alden, XLH. 657.
Peabody, George, H. 642.
Peckham, Isaiah, XVI. 743.
Peet, H. P., LH. 366.
Peirce, Cyrus, IV. 275.
Perkins, T. H., I. 551.
Pestalozzi, IV, 65.
Phelps, Mrs. A. Lincoln, XVLT.
Phelps, W. F., V. 827.
Philbrick, J. D., XIV. 32.
Phillips,. Samuel. VI. 66.
Pickard, J. L., XIV. 129.
Potter, Alonzo, XVI. 1-
Randall, S. S., XTTT, 227.
Ray. L, XVI. 603.
Richards, Z., XIV. 23.
Rickotf, A. J., XIV. 24.
Russell, William. LH. 139.
Ryerson, E., XVLT.
Sarmiento, D. F., XVI. 593.
Sawyer, H. E., XVI. 763.
Scammon, Jos. T., XVLT.
Sears, B., XVLT.
Sheldon, E. A., XV. 484.
Sheldon, W. E., XV. 525.
Sherwin, Thomas, VLLT. 461.
Silliman, Benjamin, XVLT.
Standish, J. V. N., XVI. 165.
Stoddard, J. F., XV. 675.
Stone, A. P., XV. 519.
Stowe, C. E , V. 586.
Swett, John, XVI. 790.
Tappan, H. P., XLTI. 449.
Thayer, Sylvnmis. XVLT,
Thayer, G. F., IV. 613.
Tillinghast, N., LT. 568.
Van Rensselaer, Stephen, VI. 223.
Vassar, Matthew, XL 1.
Wadsworth, James, V. 389.
Watkinson, David, XVLT.
Wayland, Francis, XLTI. L
Wells, D. F., XVI. 749.
Welb, W. H., VHI. 529.
Weston, E. P., XVI. 783.
Whftford, W. C., XVH.
Wichern, J. H., LtE. 1.
Wickersham, J. P., XV. 677
Willard, Mrs. Emma, VI. 1.
Wines, E. C., IX. 9.
Woolworth, S. B., XV. 385.
Stutrent life.
Studies and Conduct : Letters, Essays, and Thoughts, on the relative value of Studies
and the right Ordering of Life by Men Eminent in Literature and Affairs : Edited by
HENRY BARNARD, LL. D., 416 pages : Special Edition, 544 pages. 1873.
INDEX
SPECIAL EDITION.
Abstract Thought, 149, 447, 457.
Abstract and Relative Truths, 457, 470.
Academy, equivalent to College, 154.
Accomplishments, 379, 392.
Accuracy, difficulty in reaching, 447, 501.
Action and Knowledge, 514.
ACKLAND, HENRY W., 479,
Physiology, Physics, and Chemistry, 479.
Activity, self-determined, 15,
Law of growth, 20.
ADDISON, JOSEPH, 16, 133, 184.
Advice, respecting studies and conduct, 67, 81, 123,
165,193,205,231.
Adults, education, 193.
Esthetics, science of the beautiful, 512.
Agriculture, 80, 155, 394.
Age for Study, 73, 77, 154, 158, 435.
Augustine, St., 384.
Affectation, 103.
AIKEN, JOHN, 239,
Eyes or No Eyes Art of Seeing, 239.
Air, pure, importance of, 35.
AIRY, GEORGE B., 448,
Scientific Studies, 448.
Ambition, as a motive,
Carlyle, 528. Chesterfield, 124.
Chatham, 142,
Amusements, from books, 121, 205.
Children, 320
Girls, 320, 324.
Analysis of a book, 112, 225, 230.
Anatomy, 79, 474.
Anaxageras, a teacher of Pericles, 135.
Anaxarchus, 100.
Ancient Geography. History, and Ideas, 426, 521.
Anger, 73, 137, 319.'
Annotations by Whately, 103, 178.
Antipathies, 148, 315.
Appetites in children, 53, 321.
Aristotle, 78,117,502.
Aristippus, 100.
Arithmetic, 156, 460.
Argumentation, 128, 282.
Art, 512, 394,
Open to women, 394.
Arts in the University curriculum, 153,
Defective method of teaching, 153.
Ashburton, Lord, 442.
Ascham, R.,12,
Lady Jane Grey, 377.
Associations, early, 40, 443.
Astronomy, 138, 156.
Athens, estimation of Teachers in, 64.
University of, 529, 543.
Athletic Sports, 38, 169.
Attention, to business in hand, 126.
Soul of memory, 126.
Habits of, should be attained, 460.
Austin, Sarah, 20.
Authors, influence of, 205, 226.
Authority, method of, in teaching, 489.
Aversion to school text books, 444.
Bach, method on piano, 352.
BACON, FRANCIS, 71, 92,
Essay on Discourse, 177.
Essay on Riches, 255.
Essay on Studies, 103.
Essay on Travel, 235.
Bacon, Nathaniel, 140.
Basil, St., of Cappadocia, at Athens, 539, 543.
BARROW, ISAAC, 13, 93, 94.
Beauty, sense of, 47, 393,
In age, 397.
Beguines, hospital Sisters, 403.
Behavior, in children, 316.
Benevolence in trifles, 136.
Bent, the Natural, 148, 107.
Bequeathing property, 263.
Beza, remarkable memory, 90.
BIBLE, Estimate of,
Humbolt , 273. Sedgwick , 228 .
Jerome, 293. Southey, 101.
Newman, 274. Taylor, 286.
Raumer, 309. Whately, 108. '
Bible, influence on nations, 274.
Biblical History, 157, 361.
Biographies, 50, 229.
Biology, 470, 473.
Birth-day festivals, 331.
Boarding-schools for girls, 364.
BODLEIGH, SIR THOMAS, 71,
Letter to Francis Bacon, 71.
Body, 14,44.
Boethius, 372.
Bolingbroke, 12, 139.
Book and Voice, as a teacher, 22, 529, 544.
Books, value and use, 205.
Bacon, 108, 110, 205. Herschel, 205.
Barrow, 94. Hillhouse, 208.
Burleigh. 74. Locke, 222.
Carlyle, 203. Macaulay, 206.
Channing , 207 . Masson , 27.
Choate, 206. Milton, 205, 223.
Cicero, 209. Moon, 208.
Cowley, 208. Newman, 530.
DeQuincey, 193. Potter, 215.
Everett, 211. Rice, 210.
Fuller, 91. Sedgwick, 228. "
Franklin, 213. Verplanck, 219.
Grimke, 230. Watts, 216.
Hall, 82, 84. 210. Whately, 104.
Heincius, 215. Winthrop, 209.
Book education, 28.
Book-learning, 212.
Books, care of, 229.
Books, difficulty of recommending, 31, 203, 370
Botany, as a school study, 359, 491.
Henfrey , 469. Wilson , 49.
Hooker, 472.
Boyle, Sir Robert, 227-
Boy- training, Greek idea of, 436.
Brothers and Sisters, 312.
BROUGHAM, HENRY, 163,
Letter to Z. Macaulay, 161.
546
TRUE STUDENT LIFE.
Training 'for public speaking, 162.
Appeal for human advancement, 164.
Teachers of mankind, 164.
Buffon, style, or manner, 302.
BURLEIGH, LORD, 74,
Advice to his Son, 75.
BURNS, ROBERT, 95.
Advice to a Friend, 95.
Burke, Edmund, 17, 162, 187,
Model for English Student, in oratory, 162.
Conversational Power, 187.
Burnet's History, 139.
Business of life, 104.
Business Men, Value of books to, 216.
Butler, Bishop, 16.
Byron, Aversion to school associations, 443. '
Calling to a pursuit. 79.
Camelford, Lord, 129.
CARLYLE, THOMAS, 524.
Letters to a Young Man, 203.
Address as Rector of Edinburgh University, 524.
Diligence and h,onesty in Study, 524.
Books should be made more available, 524.
Writers the true Peers of nations, 526.
Wisdom Endowments Silence, 527.
Ambition avoided Modesty Wealth, 528.
Catechism, 309.
Catholic Church, 289, 399.
Female Education ,289.
Female Employments, 401.
Sisterhoods, 402.
Cecil, Sir William, 74.
Ceremonial behavior, 245.
CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERT, 207.
Education and the Teacher, 22.
Books and Reading, 207.
Charity, 94, 371.
Charity, Sisters of, 403.
CHATHAM, Earl of, '129.
Letters to his Nephew, 130.
Chemistry, 470, 476, 490.
CHESTERFIELD, Earl of, 123.
Letters to his Son, 125.
Choate, Rufus, books and reading. 206.
Christianity in education, 309.
Choice of books, 219,388.
Choice of paths, 78, 88, 97.
Christmas holidays, 328.
Church festivals, 330.
Civilization, modern, 434.
Cicero, cited, 74, 209,
Professional and oratorical training, 166, 538.
Clarendon, Lord, 140.
Classification of the sciences, 469.
Classical, origin of term, 200.
Classical studies, opinions respecting,
Byron, 443. Macaulay, 440.
Chatham, 130. Martineau, 445.
Donaldson, 435. Mill, 501.
DeQuincey, 200. Milton, 152.
Froude, 520, 521. Niebuhr, 171.
Gladstone, 433. Southey, 443.
Herschel, 457. Temple, 417.
Hodgson 444. Tyndall, 481.
Locke, 146. Vaughan, 446.
Lowe, 421. Whewell, 458.
Class-reading of books, 223.
Cleanliness, 36, 70, 322.
Cleanthes at Rome, 537.
Clear and precise ideas of any subject, 454.
Clepsydra, water time-piece, 191.
Clothes, and dress, 323, 362.
Clulow, W. B.,16.
Coleridge, S. T. 189, 194.
College, or associated education, 23, 31.
Colleges, 31.
COLLINGWOOD, LORD ADMIRAL, 379,
Letters on education of his daughter, 379.
Colored spectacles, reading with, 110.
Commands, should be few, 318.
Commentators, 145, 176.
Common-place book, 73, 90, 224.
Commencing Master of Art, 154.
Common-sense, 393.
Competition, 441.
Composition in ancient tongues, 152, 171, 425.
Composition in vernacular, 158, 173,
Learned by translating from other languages, 165.
Promoted by writing out notes of lectures, 495.
Conciliation, 397.
Condiments and dainties, 321.
Conduct, suggestions respecting points of
Ambition, 124, 523. Industry, 71.
Attention, 126. Inferiors,' 76, 137, 327.
Behavior, 124, 137, 243. Kindred, 76.
Borrowing, 76, 353. Law suits. 76.
Charity , 94. Lending, 237 , 266.
Companions, 75. Manners, 243.
Confidence, 76. Marriage, 305.
Conscience, 96. Modesty, 70,293,322,370.
Conversation, 76, 127, Motives, 67, 96, 128,370.
Courtesy, 70. [177. Money, 249.
Diet, 83. Objects in life, 147.
Discretion, 178. Occupation, 79, 107.
Diversions, 80. Order, 90, 247.
Dress, 81. Profanity, 70.
Drinking, 80. Profession, 79, 97.
Devotions, 69, 73, 82. Profligacy, 134.
Expenditures, 75, 86. Quarreling, 236.
Early rising, 397, 398. Religion, 74, 134, 370.
Endorsing, 76. Reverence, 67.
Exercise, 37. Sarcasm, 128.
Familiarity, 182. Self-control. 96.
Filial duty, 75. Sensuality, 95. 97.
Friends. 76, 80. Silence, 80, 134, 528.
Gaiety, 70. Sleep, 81.
Health, 82, 528. Sunday, 84.
Honesty, 174, 525. Superiors, 70, 76, 137.
Hospitality, 76. Travel, 71, 75, 231.
Humility, 321, 456. Truthfulness, 70, 318.
Independant, 95. Wife, 75.
Conference, with others, in reading, 112, 223, 225.
Confession of faults, 317.
Confirmation, 309.
Conscious manner, 179.
Consequences, pondered over, 285.
Contents and analysis of book read, 225, 230.
Conversation, value and method, 177.
Addison, 184. Steele, 184.
Bacon,177. Swift, 179.
Burleigh, 76. Taylor, 88.
Chesterfield, 127. Temple, 184.
DeQuincey, 185. Whately, 178.
Mackintosh, 368.
Conversation, common faults in, 180.
Conversation and reading, 103, 112, 150, 223, 229.
Conversers, examples of good, 187, 190.
Convent life for girls, 293.
Cotta, 168.
Country, education for children in, 363.
Courage, 37, 60-
Course or plan of life, 97, 339, 398.
Course of reading,. 221.
Course of study, 133, 169, 195.
Courtesy, 70, 136, 185.
Court manners, 246.
Cowardice, 315.
Cowley, A., Value of a library, 208.
Cox, W., Scope of Education, 19.
Cramming, 480, 491.
Crates, cited, 100.
Crying and whining, 319.
Curiosity, 14, 112.
Custom, or habit, 16.
Cuvier, Logical advantages of Natural History, 477.
Dacier, Madame, 336.
Dainties, 321.
Dames Hospitalieres, 402.
Dancing, 136.
Dante, cited, 397,
Value of morning hours, 397.
Darkness, fear of,
Day, the ordering of a, 81, 338, 396.
Death, 277, 311.
Debt, 236, 266.
Defoe, 227.
Demosthenes, 144, 163, 528.
TRUE STUDENT LIFE.
547
DeMaistre, on education of Girls, 381, 398.
Denny, Letter to, 388.
DEMORGAN, 446.
Thorough mastery of One Subject, 446.
DeQuincey, Thomas, 185,
Conversation as an Art, 185.
Letter to a person of neglected education, 193.
Descartes, Method of investigation, 469.
Devotional exercises, 73, 82, 83, 292.
Dialectics, 167.
Diary, 395.
Dictionaries, 228.
D'Israeli, 227.
Diet, 160, 321.
Diligence, 524.
Discovery, Pleasures of, 492.
Discretion, Age of, 87, 93.
Discretion in speech, 178.
Disputation, 145, 192.
Dissertations, 172.
Distrust, self, 149.
Diversions, 80, 86.
Docendo discimus, 342, 495.
Dolland and the Telescope, 218.
Dolls, for girls, 321.
Domestic life, 399.
DONALDSON, JOHN WILLIAM, 435,
Classical Learning, and Competitive Tests, 435.
Education, Information, Knowledge, Science, 456.
English and German Scholarships, 437.
Comparative value of Knowledge, 440.
Drawing, 358, 391. Dress, 81.
Drudgery of details, 418.
DuBartas,99,101.
Dunces, will exist, can diminish, not extirpat, 154
496.
DUPANLOUP, BISHOP OF ORLEANS, 381,
Studious Women, 381.
Duty, 280, 284.
Earliest moral influence, 148.
Earliest reading, 117, 227.
Early impressions, 291.
Early rising, 81, 139, 376, 397.
Easter festival, 328.
Eating, 83, 321.
Economics, 156.
Edgeworth, Maria, 57, 118.
Edinburgh Review, 129.
Education, denned and described, 11.
Addison, 16. Jacobs, 437.
Ascham, 12. Johnson, 15.
Austin, 20. Lalor, 20, 34.
Bacon, 12 123. Locke, 14, 145.
Barrow, 13, 93. Lowe, 121.
Brown, 21. Martineau, 445.
Burke, 17. Masson,23.
Butler, 16. Mill, 497.
Carlyle, 21, 204, 525. Milton, 12, 152.
Channing, 22. Newman, 529.
Clulow,16. Paley,15.
Cox, 19. Parr, 17.
Doderlin, 436. Pope, 11, 421.
Donaldson, 435. Raumer, 335.
Faraday, 450. Ramsden 17, 19.
Froude, 515. Ruskin, 19.
Gladstone, 433. Shakspeare, 11.
Grote, 18. Short, 13.
Hamilton, 15, 18, 21,441. Simpson, 21.
Harris, 16. South, 13, 92.
Helps, 18. Stewart, 21.
Henfrey, 469. Wayland, 22.
Herschel, 457. Whately, 18,124.
Hobbs, 14. Whewell, 11,458.
Hooker, 13. Whichote, 13.
Huxley, 474. Wotton, 12.
Educare, Educere, 11.
Education, designed, formal, 498,
Accidental, of life, 497, 514.
Mutual, 529.
Eloquence, 164, 168, 544.
Employments, 79, 399.
Emulation, generous ardor, 126, 155.
Encouragement, 78, 290.
Endorsing, surety, 76, 236.
Endowments, 430, 528.
English Bible, 274.
English Classical Scholarships. 437.
English Language, 208, 423, 429.
English Literature, 208.
English and Scotish Universities, 499, 516.
Ennui, 382.
Envy, and covetousness, 313.
Erasmus, 223, 373.
Esteem of others, 67, 125, 142, 370.
Ethics, 511.
Euclid, 198, 461,
Repugnance to, 490.
Eunapius, at Athens, 538.
Evening reading, 365.
EVERETT, EDWARD, 211.
Books, Libraries, Reading, 212.
Example, 53.
Excursions, 159.
Exercise, 37.
Experimental Sciences, 420, 469, 490, 507.
Experience and Knowledge, 14, 89.
Extempore speaking, 162, 165,
Perfected into Oratory, 163.
Eyes or No Eyes, or Seeing, 239, 486.
Facts, the basis of scientific induction, 491.
Faculties, culture, 418, 421.
Limitations, 150.
Fairness, 318.
Faith, 275.
Fagging, 37.
Familiarity, not accuracy, 501.
Family Government, 295.
Family Life, 295, 331.
Family Reading, 223.
Family, School of, 23, 295,369.
FARADAY, MICHAEL, 449,
Existing education does not train the judgment,
Natural science develops laws, 452. [450.
Fancies, 94.
Fasting, rule, 293.
Father, duty in education, 306, 342.
Fear of the Lord, 67,101, 135, 283, 290.
Fear, or Cowardice, 59, 311.
Fear, as a Motive, 59, 96, 101.
Feltham, 223.
Female Education, 30, 289.
Belongs to the Family. 307.
Female Employments, 399.
Fencing, 136, 158.
Fenelon, 297, 307, 323, 332, 340, 344.
Fiction, Works of. 229,
Raumer, 304, 338. Whately, 118.
Field Sports and Excursions, 158.
Flowers, studied with an artist's eye, 359, 491,
Botanical or scientific aspect, 491.
Fliedner, Pastor, 399.
Fluency in speaking, 468.
Food, 35, 319, 321.
Foreign languages, important to a knowledge of na-
Foresig-ht, 277, 286. [tive, 501.
Forms, ignorance of, 247.
Foundations, 430, 527.
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN, 212, 249,
Poor Richard or the Way to Wealth, 249.
Indebtedness to Books, 213.
Fraternal feelings, 313.
Free services, 209.
French Language, 138.
Freshmen, at Athens University, 539.
Friendship, School of, 27.
Frivolity, and Ignorance, 384.
FROUDE, JAMES ANTHONY, 515,
Address to Students of St. Andrews, 515.
Ancient English and Scotch Universities, 516.
Object of Modern Schools High and Low, 518.
Education should prepare for occupations, 519.
Higher education should be less classical and or-
namental, 5fil.
Literature as a profession , 523.
Fry, Elizabeth, 411.
FULLER, THOMAS, 89,
Memory Books Travel, 90.
548
TRUE STUDENT LIFE.
Galleries of Art, 235, 513.
Games, of chance, 321,
In-door, 321.
Gardening, 394.
General Culture, 161.
Genius, without wisdom, 284.
Geography, 487.
Geometry, scientific and practical, 459, 490.
Geology, 496.
German Language and Literature, 202, 480.
German Bible, 274.
German Scholarship, 437.
Girls, Education of, 289,
General aims and defects, 297. 386.
Music French Dancing ,,298, 391.
Multiplicity of studies Superficialty, 303.
Fiction Romances Frivolity , 304.
Religious and moral culture, 309.
Household duties and occupations, 332.
Higher moral culture, 335.
Home and school education compared, 341.
Globes, 43, 138, 155.
God, in Life and Education, 49. 81, 86, 281.
Instruction respecting, 50, 3$0.
Reverence of, 68, 75, 81, 243, 528.
Old and New Testament teaching of, 274.
Goethe, 300, 308, 336, 340.
Domestic work of Girls, 340.
Good-humor, 184.
Good-breeding, 185, 243, 247.
Good-manners, 185, 243, 247.
Government of Family, 75.
Grammar, 155.
Grafting, and Education, 18.
Gratitude, 135.
Gravitation, Law of, defied by Tableturners, 451.
Greediness, 321.
Gregory, of Nazianson, at Athens, 538.
Greece, the University of ancient, 542.
Greek Language and Literature, 465, 501.
Historical development in school, 465.
Pedagogical estimate, 501. Chatham, 133.
CICERO, 167. Gladstone, 434.
DeQuincey. 200. Lowe, 424.
Froude, 620. Niebuhr, 174.
Grimke, Thomas, 230.
Grote, J., 15.
Grey, Lady Jane, 377.
Conversation with Ascham, 376.
Grey Sisters, 402.
Growth, principle of, in education, 33.
Gymnastics, 38.
Habit of Mind, 446.
Habits, personal, 12, 16, 53.
HALE, SIR MATHEW, 77.
Advice to his grandsons, 77.
HALL, JOSEPH, 81.
Letter to Lord Denny ordering of a Day, 81.
Advice for all sorts of men, 86.
Letter to Mr. Milman Study and Meditation, 84
HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM, 461.
Education defined, 15, 18, 21.
Mathematics as mental discipline, 461.
Hand-writing, 380.
Hardwicke, Lord, 238.
Hardening the Body, 37.
Happiness, 102, 147, 277.
Harris, James, 16.
Health, 82, 147, 376, 528.
Overtasked in school, 480.
Heart-knowledge, 113, 204.
Heart-wisdom. 102, 188, 285.
Heart-bearing', 480.
Heat, latent study of, 494.
Helps, Arthur, 18. '
HENFREY, ARTHUR, 469.
Claims of Botanical Science, 469.
Hercules, 53, 73, 77.
Choice, 97.
Herode's Atticas, 543.
HERSCHEL, SIR JOHN F. W., 457.
Mathematics in school curriculum, 457.
Taste for reading, 205.
Hilda, 383.
lillhouse, James, 208.
lints on reading, 215.
History, subject of Reading and Study, 500.
Bacon, 103. Locke, 150.
Carlyle, 525. Lalor, 43.
Chatham, 143. Mill, 501.
Dupanloup, 393. Raumer, 360.
Johnson, 15, 543. Sedgwick, 228.
Macaulay, 544. Whately, 113.
iobbs, Thomas, 14.
HODGSON, W. B.,442.
Classical Instruction : its Use and Abuse, 442.
Holidays for Children, 327.
Home Education for Girls, 340.
Home School of Sir Thomas More, 369.
lomer, 160.
Homes of Studious Women, 390.
Sonesty, 67, 173.
HOOKER, JOHN, Study of Botany, 472.
Hooker, Richard, 13.
Hortensius, as an Orator, 168.
Horace, 131, 137, 139, 174, 538.
Hospital work for Women, 401, 408.
Houghton, Lord, use of Translations, 468.
Hotel-Dieu, 402.
House-keeping, 383.
Household Ordering and Expenses, 332.
HUXLEY, T. H.,473.
Study of Zoology, 474.
Hufeland, Counsels for Mothers, 311.
Humanizing influence of Letters, 418, 521.
Humility, a lesson of science, 456.
Husbandry, 79, 155.
Hymns and Bible texts, 315.
Hypatia, 382.
Idleness, 132.
Ignorance, courage to own, 199.
Knowledge of our own, 106.
Imagination, 48, 120, 422.
Impatience, 379.
Impulse, wisdom by, 284.
Independence, 95, 268.
Information, not education. 435.
Ingratitude, 134.
Instinctive opinions, 117.
Intellectual education, 40, 474.
Inclination and Incredulity 453
Industrial element, 79, 107. "~
Investigation, faculty of, 489.
JAMESON, MRS., 399.
Woman's Work, 399.
Jean, Paul, 297.311.
JEROME, ST., 289.
Letter to Laeta, 290.
Jest, subjects exempt from, 177.
Jester, in Society, 181.
Job, Book of, 286.
Johnson, Samuel, 15, 187, 202.
Travel, History, Printing, 542.
Conversational power, 187.
Joubert, common sense defined, 393.
Judgment, want of, in educated men, 450.
Trained by natural science, 452, 456.
Jukes, Prof., accidental bias to Geology, 4
Julian, Emperor at Athens, 543.
Juvenal, 175.
Kant, Emanuel, 25.
Knitting, and Needlework, 292, 362.
Knowledge, love of, 15.
Knowledge, is not science or education, 480.
Knowledge, and Wisdom, 15, 100, 279.
Kyrle, John, the Man of Ross, 256.
Labor, 80, 83, 204, 525.
Laboratory work, 496.
Laborissiere, Hospital of, 407.
LaBruyere, 127.
Lady Jane Grey, 377.
Laeta, education of Daughter, 290.
LALOR, JOHN, 20, 33.
TRUE STUDENT LIFE.
549
Prize Essay Nature of Education, 33.
LANDOR, WALTER S., 397.
Imaginary Conversation, 377.
Language, command of, how got. 124.
Chatham, 144. More, 372.
Brougham, 163. Niebuhr, 175.
Pitt, 165.
Languages, 198. 445, 446.
Ancient, 152, 461, 483.
Modern, 201, 500.
Labor of mastering, 153, 198.
Faculties exercised, 198, 446.
Latin Language and Literature, 501.
Chatham, 5UO. Milton, 154.
DeQuincey, 201. Niebuhr, 171.
Hale, 77. Parker, 465.
Lavater, 184.
Laughter, 136.
Laws of Nature, 450.
Law, Trade or Profession of, 153, 161.
Law, Universe of, 13.
Learn, by teaching, 342, 495.
Learner, object of education to make a good, 447.
Learning and Experience, 447.
Learning, 152, 370.
Learned Women, 336.
Lecture, and the Book, compared, 32, 193, 472.
Value for accurate knowledge, 193, 497.
Lending, and suretyship, 263.
Lent, 372.
Lesson on Botany, 491.
Letter- writing, 141, 368, 372.
Mackintosh, 368.
Madame de Sevigne, 368.
More, 372.
Levanna, 332.
Liberal education, different aspects, 103, 417-
Bacon, 103. Lowe, 421.
Carlyle, 524. Masson, 23.
Chatham, 129. Macaulay, 543.
Doderlin, 436. Mill, 499.
Donaldson, 435. Milton, 151.
DeQuincey, 193. Newman, 529.
Gladstone, 433. Niebuhr, 169.
Faraday, 450. Owen, 476.
Froude, 515. Temple, 417.
Hamilton, 18. Tyndall. 481.
Hale, 77. Whately, 105.
Huxley , 473. Whewell , 458 .
Jacobs, 437. Wilson, 483.
Locke, 145.
Libraries, origin of, 539.
Library, 205, 209, 215.
Lie, and Lying, 318.
Life, 147, 278, 396.
Literature, as a vocation, 194.
Open to Woman, 394.
Literature, of knowledge and power, 199.
Literature, part of liberal culture, 419, 500.
Literary character, 227.
Listener, 134.
Locality, school of, 23, 535.
Logical Faculty, 488.
Logic, 195, 508.
Lord's Prayer, for children, 309.
Loving heart, 204.
Love, a motive to study, 000.
Lunatic Asylums, 410.
LTELL, SIR CHARLES, 475.
Claims of physical science, 475.
LTTTON, LORD EDWARD BULWER, 272.
Management of money, 265.
MACAULAY, THOMAS B., 206.
Travel and History, 544.
University of Athens, 543.
MACKINTOSH, SIR JAMES, Familiar Letters, 368.
Man of Ross, Pope's picture. 257.
The original, 258.
Mandeville, 107.
Manly exercises, 87, 159.
Manners, defined and value, 136, 185, 243.
Buffon , 302. Newman , 531 .
Chatham, 136. Raumer, 323.
Chesterfield, 124. Hale, 243.
Emerson, 243. Swift, 244.
Landor, 243.
Maps, and map drawing, 43.
[arcus, Emperor of Rome, at Athens, 538.
[argaret More, 374.
lartha, Sisters of St., 403.
[artineau, James, 445-
Manual labor, 362.
Manufacturers, value of books to, 216.
Masson, David, 33.
College and self-education, 23.
Mathematics, subject of study, 457, 486.
Hamilton, 461. Herschel, 457.
DeQuincey, 197. Whewell, 458.
Hale, 78. Mill, 506.
Temple, 488.
lathematics versus Philosophy, 461.
Mathematical reasoning, 114, 197, 463, 486.
Dangers and difficulties, 464.
Marriage, 305.
Manual labor, 107, 292.
Mary, the Mother, 400.
Meals, 53, 83,321.
Means and Ends, 229.
leaeures, 43.
lechanics, value of books to, 216.
Meditation. 83. 150. Menippus, 167.
Memory, 89, 112. Metropolitan City, 533.
Method of Studying, 110, 225, 226, 230.
Mental Science, 46.
Mensuration, 460.
Mental Training, 488, 498.
Mind, the basis of Academical polity, 542.
MILTON, JOHN, 151, 207.
Letter to Samuel Hartlib, 151.
Military Art and Tactics, 154, 159.
MILL, JOHN STUART, 497.
Education, in its larger and narrower senee, 497-
Proper function of a University, 498.
Scotch and English Universities compared, 499.
General School Education, scientific and lib., 500.
Modern languages, History, Geography, 500.
Greek and Latin languages, and literature, 501,
Limitations to classical studies science, 504.
Mathematics, pure and applied experiments, 507.
Logic, Physiology, and Psychology, 609.
Politics, History, Economics, Jurisprudence, 510.
International Law, Religion, Ethics, 511.
Art and Esthetic culture, Poetry, 513.
Discipline of active life, 514.
Modesty, 70, 293, 322, 370.
Monologe, not conversation, 191.
Money , its acquisition and management, 249.
Bacon, 255. Lytton, 265.
Burleigh, 75. Pope, 357.
Franklin, 249. Taylor, 260.
Montesquieu, 126.
Moral Philosophy, 150.
Moral Science Tripos, 499.
Moon, G. W.,208.
Moral education, 22, 48.
Moral sense, 62.
More, Sir Thomas, 369.
Letters on the education of his children, 370.
Morning hours, 398.
Mothers, 48, 341.
Motives for study, 78, 155.
Music, 39, 349, 351.
Music, in education, 159.
Lalor, 39. Raumer, 248, 298.
Milton, 159.
Much, not Many, rule for reading, 230, 544.
Miscellaneous reading, 176.
Nations, University division at Athens, 542.
National Anniversaries, 331.
Nation, education of a, 17.
Nature, 274, 284, 450.
Naturalist, 473.
Natural History, 473, 476.
Natural Philosophy, 44, 78.
Natural Sciences, 359, 456, 484-
Natural Scenery, 514.
Needlework, 292, 362.
Necker, Madame, 297, 298, 340, 346.
550
TRUE STUDENT LIFE.
Neglected education, remedies for, 193.
NEWMAN, JOHN H., 529.
English Protestant Bible, 274.
University of Life and Affairs, 529.
University of Athens, 535, 545.
New Testament, 50, 273, 274.
NIEBUHR, GEORGE B., 169.
Letter on study of Philosophy, 170.
Non multa sed multum, 91. 521.
Note Book, 73, 90.
Number, 42.
Nuns for Hospital service, 401.
Nursery -maids, 325.
Oaths, vulgarity of, 70.
Obedience, 57, 318.
Object Teaching, 41.
Observation, habits of, 40.
Occupation, choice of, 77, 107.
Education, training for, 436, 519.
Manual, 362.
Old age, 170.
Old and the Young, 28.
Old Testament, 274.
One-sidedness of mind, 486.
Order and punctuality, 90, 322.
Oral method, 29, 31, 32, 529.
Ornamentation of home, 362.
Oratory, training for, 158, 161, 165.
Reading, writing, and meditation, 167.
Brougham, 161. Cicero, 166.
Pitt, 165.
Ovid, cited, 177.
Owen, Richard, 476.
Claims of Natural History, 476.
Pagan views, 384.
PAGET, GEORGE E., 478.
Physiology, 478.
Pain, Physical, 35. Painting, 394, 512.
Paley, William, 15. Pardon asking, 316.
Parr, Thomas, 17. Partiality of Parents, 313.
Patriotism, 32, 141. Patience of thought, 455.
Paula, 382, 401.
PARKER, CHARLES STUART, 465.
Historical development of Greek and Latin, 465.
Peace and War, education for, 154, 158.
Pedantry, 18, 246.
Penmanship, 176, 369. Perseus, 135.
Pericles, 135, 541, 544. Perception, 469.
Perseverance, 279, 286. Pestalozzi, 295, 305.
Phidias, 544.
Philology and Philological studies, 170.
Philosophy, 99, 461. 489.
Philosophical Sciences, 461.
Physiology, 44, 478, 479, 496.
Phocion, Science of. 528.
Piano, abuse of, 391. Picture Bible, 309.
Piety, culture of, 70.
Pitt, Thomas, Letters to, 139.
Pitt, W., the Great Commoner, 129.
Pitt, William, training as an Orator, 165.
Pysical Education, 34.
Physics, how taught, 479, 481, 495.
Physical Geography, 472.
Physical Sciences, claims assented by,
Ackland 479. Faraday, 450.
Airy, 448. Henfrey, 469.
Cuvier, 577. Hooker, 472.
Huxley, 473. Ly ell, 475.
Lowe, 429. Tyndall, 481.
Owen, 476. *Wilson, 483.
Paget, 478. Vaughan, 445.
Plato, 503.
Pocket-money, 333.
Poetry, in higher education, 165, 174.
Mill, 513. Milton, 157. Lalor, 47.
Politics and Political economy, 184, 510.
Politeness, 136, 243.
Poor Richard, or the Way to Wealth, 249.
POPE, ALEXANDER, 14, 104.
Man of Ross, or the true Use of Wealth, 227.
POTTER, ALONZO, 215.
Hand Book for Reading, 221.
Advantages of Science, 215, 222.
Praise, 61, 128, 370.
Prayers, 113, 309. Preconceptions, 110.
Preface and Contents of a Book, 225.
Prejudices and Misconcertions, 149.
Pride, 62, 371.
Printing, civilization before, 543.
Priestly, 217.
Private or Home Education for Girls, 363.
Private tutor, 344, 369.
Prizes, 62.
Probabilities, Proximate judgment in, 452.
Proaeresius at Athens, 539.
Proairesis, 156.
Prodicus, 97.
Choice of Hercules, 97.
Profanity, 70.
Professional Teaching, 32, 64.
Professors at Athens, 642.
Endowed by the State, 542.
Pronunciation of Latin, 154, 290.
Proportionate Judgment, 455, 485.
Prytanes at Athens, 544.
Punctuality, 247.
Public School Commission, Report, 483.
Pursuits of Literature quoted, 199, 221.
Puzzled state of mind, 114, 148.
Pythagorean Letter, 291.
Pythagorean silence, 134.
Quantity, science of, 462.
Questions on a Book or Lesson, 112. ,
Preliminary, or Socratic, 112.
Quarreling, 236, 314.
Quintilian, 155.
Raillery, 128, 182. Ramsden, 17, 19.
RAUMER, KARL VON, 295.
Education of Girls, 295.
heading, the art of, 343. , ,
Reading, hints respecting, 215.
Ascham 377. Johnson. 203.
Bacon, 103. Landor, 378.
Carlyle, 203, 525. Potter, 220, 226.1
.Collingwood, 320. Sedgwick, 2^7. *
DeQuincey, 193. Watts, 215.
D'Israeli, 227. Whately, 104.
Dupanloup, 383. Raumer, 337.
Grimke, 230. Vail, 215.
Reading and Discourse or Conference, 150
Reading and Reflection, 150, 222, 230, 277.
Reading and Writing, 224.
Reading for Girls, 228, 338
Ready man, 103, 186.
leal objects, in early instruction, 41.
Reaibning, different kinds, 116, 485.
Mathematical, 463,
Problematical, 455, 464, 485.
Philosophical, 464.
leceptive Faculty, 489.
lecreations of the Family, 365.
Reformatories, 414.
Reflection, 22i 229. 277.
Religion, 49, 134, 512.
leligious Culture and Work, 134, 309, 395.
Rewards and encouragements, 290.
Reverence, 67, 96, 135.
Reviews of lessons and books, 158, 176.
Rhetoric, 162.
RICE, A. H., 211.
Riches, uses and abuse, 257.
Riding, 136, 159.
Rivalry, 312.
lomance reading, 338.
lote memory, 113.
Ruskin, 19. f . . ;
Sainte-Beauve on Chesterfield's Letters, 125.
Sarcasm and severity. 76, 174, 177.
Schools, variety and office, 23, 230, 531.
Sculpture and education , 16.
Science in School Curriculum, 477, 532.
General neglect, 476, 485.
Sciences, classification of, 469, 473, 476.
Scientific information. 487.
Scientific Training, 487, 497.
TRUE STUDENT LIFE.
551
Science defined, 436, 490.
Exactness and power, 485.
Scheme, or plan of study, 150, 17.
Scholarship,delights of, 85, 230.
Scotland, and education, 499.
Scott, Sir Walter, 443.
Scriptures, how to study, 108.
Sedgwick, Catharine M., 229.
Reading for Girls, 227.
Seeing, art of, 239.
Self, and Selfishness, 95, 178, 180, 184.
Self-activity, 15, 233.
Self-education, helps to, 23, 28.
Books, 28, 35, 215. Work, 218.
Examples, 29, 217. Dangers of. 31.
Self-knowledge, 96, 128, 150, 286.
Self-love and Wisdom, 282.
Self-examination, 150, 452.
Seneca, 225.
Senses, Culture of, 40, 481.
Sevigne, Letters by, 368.
Sex, 55, 325, 370.
Sensuality, 97.
Shaftsbury, 225.
Shakspeare, 11, 92, 236, 380.
Shyness, 179.
Sherman, Roger, 219.
Short, Bishop, 13.
SIDNEY, SIB HENRY,
Letter to his Son, 69.
SIDNEY, SIR PHILIP, 231.
Letter on Travel, 232.
Silence, time for, 134, 528.
Seldom repented of, 86.
Simpson, J., 21.
Simplicity, 90.
Singing, 89, 356.
Sisterhoods, 401.
Beguines, 402. St. Elizabeth, 403, 408.
Grey Sisters, 402. St. Martha, 403.
Hospital, 402. Charity, 405, 407.
Skill, Manuel, 292.
Site of a University typified at Athens, 538.
Sleep, 81, 147, 158, 397, 365.
Slow development, 41.
Smattering of knowledge, 104, 107, 392.
Smart, but ill natured words; 128.
Smith, Goldwin, 468.
Smith, Sidney, too much Latin and Greek, 442.
Smith, Southwood, Health, 45.
Socrates, 25, 97.
Social Reading, 228.
Social Sciences, 470.
Solitude, experience'of, 185, 195, 276.
Songs of childhood, 40.
SOUTH, ROBERT, 13, 92.
SOCTHEY, ROBERT, 99, 443.
Knowledge and Wisdom, 100.
Space and Time, 462.
Sparta, 158.
Species, 471.
Speaking, fluency in, how acquired, 162.
Speculations, useless 147.
Sports and Pastimes, 38.
ST. JEROME, 289.
Letter to Laeta, 290.
Steele, Sir Richard, 184.
Story-tellers in society, 133.
Statesmanship , school of, 532.
Stanhope, Son of Earl Chesterfield, 125.
Stewart, Dugald, 21.
Staupitius, 90.
STRAFFORD, LORD,
Letters to his Son, 73.
Studium Generale, defined, 529.
Study, Objects, Limits, and Methods, 145.
Student Life at Athens, 537.
Studies, Characteristic of different, 103.
STUDIES, ELEMENTARY, LIBERAL, AMD SPECIAL,
Agriculture, 80, 155. Mensuration, 459.
Anatomy , 474. Modern Languages , 476 ,
Arithmetic, 45, 334, 348. 500.
Art, or asthetics, 512. MilitaTy tactics, 159.
Astronomy, 380, 484. Moral Duty, 156-
Biology, 470, 471. Moral Philosophy, 150.
Book-keeping, 448.
Botany, 469.
Chemistry, 476, 479.
Classical, 445.
Civil economy, 510.
Economics, 156.
Ethics, 103, 155, 511.
Experimental Sciences,
494, 507.
Drawing, 356.
French, 346, 138, 202.
German, 480.
Greek, 133, 200, 465.
Geometry, 460, 490.
Geography, 138, 500.
Geology, 477, 484, 496.
Grammar, 154.
Globes, 43, 138, 155.
Hebrew, 157.
Hydrostatics, 494.
History, 103, 176, 346,
500, 510.
Hamanitics, 418.
Hand-writing, 176, 380.
International Law, 510.
Italian, 156.
Jurisprudence, 510.
Medicine, 156.
Music, 159, 356.
Natural History, 476,
456.
Natural Philosophy ,103,
135,156.
Natural Sciences, 359,
456, 477.
Oratory, 151, 157, 161,
168.
Painting, 394, 512.
Penmanship, 176, 379.
Physical Sciences, 445,
467, 480.
Philosophy, 78, 461.
Philosophical Sciences,
461.
Phy sicalGeography ,472 ,
Pneumatics, 494.
Philology, 170, 176.
Physiology, 156, 479,
508.
Physics, 256, 479, 481,
Piano, 351. [494.
Psychology, 509.
Politics, 157, 510.
Language , 198 , 445 , 446 , Political Economy , 510 .
500. Poetry, 157, 513.
Logic, 103, 153, 157, 197, Rhetoric, 103.
508. Reading, 343.
Latin , 152 , 201 , 466 , 502. Religion , 51.
Mathematics, Pure, 103, Science generally, 487.
153, 156, 198,506. Singing, 348.
Mathematics,Mixed,156, Theology, 157.
457, 507. Trigonometry, 156.
Mechanics, 494. Zoology, 473.
Studious manner, 369, 381.
Style, 146, 173, 178.
Sunday, 83.
Subjects, Reading by 221.
Swetchine, Madame, 398.
Swimming, 38.
SWIFT, JONATHAN, 179,
Conversation , 179 , Manners , 244 .
Sword, use of, 136.
Table-turning, 451.
Taxonomy, 471.
TAYLOR, HENRY, 281, 286,
Money, its management, 291.
Wisdom in conduct, 281.
TAYLOR, JEREMY, 87,
Manly Element in Education, 87.
Teaching, 495, 500.
Teachers, special training, 64, 170.
Teachers of Mankind, 164, 170.
Telescope, 218.
Temper, 56, 137.
Temple, Sir William, 184.
TEMPLE, FRED., 417,
Languages, Mathematics, Science, 418.
Tenderness,
Tonnele on Female Culture, 389.
Tennyson, 401.
Terror, Impulse of, 59, 315.
Text-book, 495.
Tents and Hymns, 315.
Theresia, 382.
Things, Knowledge of, 41, ? 422.
Thinking, Faculty of, 186,' 447, 485.
Theophrastus, at Athens, 542.
Theology, 157.
Thibaut, on Purity in Music, 354.
Time, 250, 462.
Timidity, 315.
Timing speakers, in conversation, 191.
Tractate on Education, by Milton, 151.
Translations, oral and written, 165, 175.
Training, 17, 488.
Training to Think, 495.
Travel, Advice respecting, 235,
Aiken, 239. Littleton, 237.
Bacon, 27, 235- Macaulay, 239.
Bodleigh, 71. Masson, 37.
552
TRUE STUDENT LIFE.
Fuller, 91. Milton, 160, 237.
Hardwicke, 238. Shakspeare, 236.
Johnson, 238.
Travel, Objects of Attention, 231.
Administration of Cities and States, 71, 233.
Art, 235, 238, 512.
Church Affairs, 71,235.
Government, 72, 233.
Geography, 72.
Judiciary, 72, 235.
l^rade and Traffic, 72, 234.
Languages, 91, 235.
Comparative estimate, 232.
Travel, how made profitable, 73, 91, 232.
Maturity of Mind and Character , 237.
Previous knowledge from books, 91, 235.
Access to best society, 234, 236, 237.
Separate from countrymen, 236.
Kemove prejudices, 73, 237, 239.
Avoid foreign vices. 71, 91, 236.
Travels, Books of, 119.
Trifles, in Training, 308.
Truth, Law of Education and Science, 51, 148,173,
Love of, 128, 168.
Truths, Classification of, 470.
TYNDALL, JOHN, 481,
Physics, 481.
Physics, 481.
Tutor, 77, 344.
Type and Voice, injteaching, 32, 529.
Ulysses' bow, 160.
University, lectures, not for uneducated men, 193.
Unconscious manner, 323.
Uneducated mind, 488.
University, defined, 529, 534,
Site, 535.
Student life at Athens, 537, 543.
Proper function, 498, 529.
English and Scotish, 499, 516.
University studies,
Carlyle, 524. Milton, 151.
Froude, 515. Mill, 495.
Lowe, 421. Newman, 528.
University, and the great Public Schools, 458.
University Men, deficiencies in, 428.
Unlearning, necessity for, 113.
VAIL, THOMAS H., 215,
Hints respecting Books and Reading, 215.
Valor, 204.
Vanity, 61, 371, 389.
VAUGHAN, H., 11,82,
Oral Teaching, 32.
Exclusion of physical science, 446.
Relative value of languages 446.
Veracity, in dealing with children, 52.
Ventilation, 35.
Verplanck, Gulian C., Reading, 219.
Versification in a dead language, 152, 440, 425.
Vincent de Paul, 405.
Virgil, 131.
Virtue in Education, 14, 97..
Address to Hercules, 98.
Voice, Power of the living, 32, 39, 187.
Universal cultivation, 39. , ''
Cicero's culture, 167.
War, too much in education, 75, 146, 152.
Warrior, The Happy, 97.
Watching children, 390.
Watt, James, 218.
Watts, Isaac, 215, 223.
Wedge wood, Josiah, 218.
Weights and Measures, 43.
WHATELY, RICHARD, 18, 178,
Annotations on Bacon's Studies, 104.
WHEWELL, WILLIAM, 11,458,
Mathematics in Liberal Education, 458.
Whitaker, Rules in reading, 230.
Whithcote, 13.
Whickiff, Huss, and Luther, 226.
Whittier, Treatment of the Insane, 410.
Wife, Choice of, 69, 75, 270.
Will, Force and control of, 57.
Will, Coffee House, 181.
WILSON, J. M., Rugby School, 483,
Natural Science in Schools, 483.
Failure of Latin and Greek in discipline, 483.
Intrinsic Dignity and Power of Science, 485.
Subjects and Methods. 487.
Specimen Lesson Botany, 491.
Experimental Physics, 494.
Winemon, 223.
WINTHROP, ROBERT C., 209.
Books and Reading, 209.
Wisdom, in Conduct, 93, 281,
Barrow, 93. Southey, 99.
Bible, 101, 102. Taylor, 881.
Carlyle, 527.
Humboldt, 237. Wordsworth. 279.
Wise men, in word and deed, 279, 282.
Wise men of Greece, characteristics, 99.
Wits, proferred in company, 141.
Woman, her Aim and Merit, 381,
Pagan and Christian view, 384.
Dangers of mental culture, 388.
Home of studious women, 389.
Pursuits open to, 373, 401.
Necessity of method to Morning hours, 398.
Exclusion from society, influence of, 183.
Words, Study of, 153, 423.
WORDSWORTH, WILLIAM. 279,
The Happy Warrior, 279.
Work, cure of all maladies, 204, 525.
Working-day World, 399.
World, Knowledge of, 94, 204.
Wrestling, and other athletic sports, 158.
Wotton, Sir Henry, 12.
Writing, or Penmanship, 176, 379.
Writing and Speaking, 112, 163, 165, 168.
Writing with Reading, 112, 224, 225.
WYATT, SIR THOMAS, 67,
Letter to his son at school, 67.
Honesty, Reverence, Goodness, 68.
Wyttenbach, on daily reading, 225.
Y. Pythagorean Symbol, 291.
Yorke Philip, 238.
Young Children, 33, 299.
Young Ladies, 382.
Zenophon, Prodicus' choice of Hercules, 97.
Zoology, Study in Schools, 473.
36nrttflrii's JJntinitnl <torntintt.
INDEX
TO
ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY.
A. B. C. Tablets, 528, 541.
Abecedarians, 780, 865.
Abroad, scholars from, 506.
Absence from School, valid excuses for, 687, 887.
How dealt with, 128. See Attendance.
Academic (university) study, preparation for, 242.
Account-book, Teachers in Brunswick, 213.
Agricola, George, 535.
Administrative authorities, 755.
See State, Provincial, Municipal, Authorities.
Adults, schools and classes for, 56, 419,434, 807.
jEpinus. John, in 1525, 372.
Aisop's fables, 536, 537.
Age for school attendance,
Hesse-Darmstadt, 281.
Mecklenberg, 312, 319.
Prussia, 434.
Saxe-Coburg, 895.
Saxony, 550.
Wurtemberg, 361.
Austria, 55, 887.
Baden, 128.
Bavaria, 160.
Brunswick, 210.
Hanover, 227.
Hesse-Cassel, 267.
Agriculture, in common schools, 50, 590.
Agriculture, special schools of, 196, 85J.
Afra, church and school, 531, 539.
Altenzelle, convent school, 533.
Aix-la-Chapelle, 859.
Albert, of Brandenburg. 449.
Alt.enberg, Teachers' Seminary, 569.
Altenstein, minister of public in, 411, 441.
Letter to Pestalozzi in 1808, 363.
Letter to Plamann in 1822, 413.
Normal school system for Gymnasia, 441.
Altona, school system, 647.
Amelia Institute, 567.
AN HALT, Principality, 17, 744, 845.
Dessau-Cothen, 17.
1. Primary Schools, 17.
2. Secondary, 19.
3. Special schools, 19.
Bermberg, 20.
Public schools, 20, 744.
Anthropology, 145, 443, 896.
Apparatus, 52, 201, 610.
Apprentices, schools for, 105.
Appointment of teachers,
Provisional, 174, 602. 612, 897.
Definitive, 593, 888, tf!)7.
Revocable, 696, 889.
Aquaviva, author of Jesuit plan of studies, 67.
Architecture, special schools of, 599, 850.
Arch-Gymnasium, 109.
Arithmetic, extent and methods of teaching.
Austria, 54, 103. Nassau, 324.
Baden, 130, 144. Prussia, 419, 781.
Bavaria, 169, 189. Saxe-Weimar, 628.
Hanover, 255. Wurtemberg, 685.
Assistant teachers, 83.
Associate teachers, 83.
Association of teachers, 214, 695, 702.
Astronomy, rudiments in 1580, 547.
Attendance, law respecting in
Arihalt 18. Nassau, 324.
Austria, 55, 42, 63, 887. Oldenburg, 327.
Bnden, 123. Prussia, 380, 433, 339.
Bavaria, 161. Saxony, 555.
Hanover, 227. Saxe-Coburg. 592, 895.
Hesse-Cassel, 267. Saxe-Meiningen, 609.
Hesse-Darmstadt, 281. Wurtemberg, 661.
Mecklenburg, 312.
Augsburg, school organization, 168, 859.
Institute of English Ladies, 176.
Augustiues, 522, 531.
Augustus, of Brunswick, 208.
Augustus I., of Saxony, 549.
Order for Schools, in'l580, 540.
AUSTRIA, Empire, 9.
Area, population, religion, 23, 120.
Public instruction historical, 26.
1. Elementary schools, 26.
Organization, administration, studies, 40.
Statistics, 61, 68, 120, 744.
2. Secondary schools classical, 67.
Historical development in detail, 67.
Present organization, studies, 82.
Statistics, 78, 120, 845.
3. Real schools, 98.
History and organization, 101.
Statistics, 101, 105, J20, 845.
4. Superior Schools or Universities, 120.
Faculties, Professors, Students, 120, 846.
5. Special Schools, 120.
6. Hungary, Croatia, Slavonia,, 107.
General view of Educational institutions, 120.
School code of Maria Theresa, 1774,879.
School code of 1869, 885.
School ordinance abrogating Concordat, 892.
Bache, A. D. cited, 801.
BADEN, Duchy of, 121, 156.
Area. Population, History, 121, 744.
1. Elementary schools," 122.
Summary of laws and regulations, 127.
Statistics, 134. 744.
2. Secondary instruction, 135.
Classical schools, organization, studies, 135. 845.
3. Real schools, 149, 845.
4. Higher institutions, pupils, 152, 846.
v 5. Orphan and Rescue institutions, 153.
Universities, 846.
Law of 1864, 155.
Baden-Durlach, 121, 153.
Bathing, 718.
Barefooted schools, 735.
Barnard, Henry, National Education, 3.
German Pedagogy and Schools, 905.
German Educational Reformers, 903.
German Universities, 904.
Barth, town school in 1305, 373.
Basedow, 117.
906
ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN GERMANY.
Basle, university, 846.
Bassewitz, cited, 352, 357.
BAVARIA, kingdom of, 157, 206.
Area, population, religion, 157.
1. Primary or common schools, 158, 744.
History, law of 1802, 1808, 1811, 1836, 1848, 158.
Attendance, parishes, inspection, lb'0.
Schools, studies, methods, 106.
Teachers, school apprentices, seminaries, 172.
2. Secondary schools, 176, 845.
High school for girls, Classical schools, 176.
Latin school, gymnasium, 185.
Real schools, Technical schools, Polytec. schools, 195.
3. Rescue and Supplementary schools, 204.
General view of schools and their distribution, 156.
Benefactors of Education, early.
Saxony, 535.
Beck, A., Life of Ernest the Pious, 582.
Beck, Christian Daniel, 551.
Beckedorf, L. 387, 413, 345.
Bee raising in Silesia, 50.
Behavior, or Manners in school, 581,
Bensheim, Catholic seminary at, 286, 589.
Bergen, in 1662, Pomerania, 373.
Berlin, school system, 363.
Institute for girls, 359. Seminary, 848, 864.
Private schools, 427. University, 524, 526, 848
Statistics, 429, 586, 859.
Berner, instruction in music, 364.
Bernhardi, plan for gymnasium, 492.
Bible as a reading-book, 803, 866.
Bible History, treatment of, 418, 791.
Bible in schools, 418, 440, 682, 803.
Blocks in school, 781.
Blackboard, 376, 541,865.
Boarding, Gymnasiums, 562.
Blind, schools for, 206, 850.
Boarding round, 225, 294, 607, 802.
Bockh, Pedagogical seminary, 488.
Bodily Culture, 591.
Bohemia, 23, 41, 95, 99.
Bonitz, Hermann, in Vienna, 79.
Bonn, University, 459, 524, 846.
Book publication in Austria, 60.
Branch schools, 40.
Brandenberg, mark and electorate, 335, 336.
Brandenberg, Province of Prussia, 425.
Elementary schools, 425.
Secondary schools, 459, 515.
Braun, 416.
Ureslan, 345, 846, 859.
Bremen, school system, 739, 859.
Bromberg, 39L 397, 411.
Brotherhood of Christian Instruction, 26.
Brotherhood of Common Life, 235.
Bruggmann, Catholic gymnasium councilor, 447.
Brunn, school system, 859.
BRUNSWICK, Duchy of, 207.
Historical development of schools, 207.
1. Primary schools, 209.
2. Orphan and Rescue institutions, 216.
3. Classical schools, 216.
Brunswick, city, 208, 217, 859.
Buildings for school purposes, 44, 160.
Biidingen, gymnasium, 289, 859.
Bugenhagen, John, school reforms, 372 734.
Burgher schools in
Austria, 64, 100, 886., Mer,klen-Strelitz,321.
Baden, 149, 150, 845. Oldenburg, 329.
Bavaria, 150,845. Prussia, 501, 845.
Brunswick, 859. Reuss. 528.
Bremen, 719. 8.~>9. Suxony, 556.
Frankfort, 737. Saxe-Altenburg, 568.
Hamburg, 740. Snxe-Coburg ,568.
Hanover, 851). Suxe-Meineiigeii, 600.
Hesse-Cassol, 859. Hiixe Weirnur, 632.
Hesse-Darmstadt, 296. Tlmringian States, 815.
Lippe-Detmold, 3G6. Schleswig-Holstein, t (J47.
Lippe-Schaumburg, 307. Svvarzburg, 650.
Lubeck, 740. Waldeck, 652, 845.
Mecklenberg-Sch., 313. Wurtemberg, 721.
Biickeburg, Burgher schools, 307. ]
Gymnasium, 307.
Teachers' Seminary, 307.
Busch, Herman, 534.
Catholic and Protestant school attendance. '
Bavaria, 300. Wurtemburg, 726.
Catholic Church and schools,
Austria, 26, 39. Prussia, 347, 423, 869.
Bavaria, 165. Wurtemberg, 657.
Silesia, 869.
Calendar and Catechism, memorizing, 654.
Callenberg, Female Teachers' Seminary, 558.
Calligraphy, 103, 109, 151.
Cumeralisten, 847.
Campe, school books, 375.
Canisius, Catechism, 121.
Canton, 531.
Carinthia, 23, 61.
Carlsruhe, school statistics, 859.
Carlsbad gymnasium, 121.
Carniola, 23, 66.
Cassel, school statistics, 278, 859.
Catechisms, Carnisius, 23, 66.
Heidelberg, 121. Luther's, 541, 804.
Josephine, 121. Dinter, 802.
Catechists in Austria, 85.
Catechism, instruction in
Austria, 89. Wurtemberg, 547.
Baden, 121, 130. Hanover, 229.
Bavaria, 168.
Prussia, 341, 439, 791, 798, 804, 865.
Cathedral schools, 531, 732.
Mecklenberg, 315. Hanover, 234.
Chain-rule in Arithmetic, 169.
Charlemange,235,531.
Charles L, of Brunswick, 209.
Charles V., Interim, 237.
Chemnitz, 859.
Chemnitz, Martin, 216.
Cato, early school book, 536.
Chemistry, 103,197.
Church attendance of pupils on Sunday 867.
Chorister, 215.
Church and State in school, 227, 802.
Church in relation to school, ]59, 165.
Austria, 892, Prussia, 798, 800.
Baden, 125.
Saxe-Coburg, 902.
Wurtemberg, 654.
Bavaria, 165.
Brunswick, 209.
Church Convention, Wurtemherg, 724.
Chronological development of higher schools, 503,
Circle School Board in Austria, 32.
Ciphering, 807.
Cities, school system and statistics, 859.
Berlin, 427. Neustrelitz City, 321.
Dresden, g58. Newbrandenbnrg, 321.
Friedland, 32. Schoningen, 212.
City Constitution of Frederick II., 362, 461, 755.
Civil status of teachers, 240,
Baden, 147. Lippe-Detmold, 305.
Bavaria, 160. Prussia, 472.
Hanover, 240. Wurtemberg, 695, 723.
Classification of knowledge, 590.
Classification, 168, 757, 778.
Class and department organization, 146.
Class-book in discipline, 9J.
Class Professors, 469.
Class-record, 258.
Class system of organization, 212.
Class-teaching, 76, 292, 810.
Classes in Elementary school, 21, 51, 62.
Classes in Secondary schools, 146.
Classical studies, 135, 149, 564.
Clergy and public schools, 528, 708, 875.
Cloister schools, 208, 712.
Coburg, city schools, 896.
COBURO duchy, 896.
Code for schools,
Austria, 8, 881, 887. Saxony, 540.
Baden, 255. Saxe Gotha, 591, 897.
ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN GERMANY.
907
Code for Schools,
Prussia, 861, 564. Wurtemberg, 654, 659.
Colleague Teacher, 470, 564.
Comenius, cited, '230, 239, 579.
Commerce, schools of, 857,
Commerce, ministry of, 153.
Commercial Academy in, 1770, 98.
Common objects and phenomena, 579, 768.
Common School, origin of, 798.
Aim and objects, 158, 885.
Common Science, 304.
Commune, 24.
Communal school, 123, 801, 890, 894.
Concordat of 1855, in Austria, 3D, 892.
Conduct-List, 472.
Conferences of Teachers,
Austria, 51. 889. Prussia, 468, 836.
Baden, 132. Snxe-Coburg, 901.
Hanover, 174. Wurtemberg, 695.
Confessional schools, 41, 135, 553, 797.
Consistory, 226, 304.
Competitive Examination, 34, 710.
Composition, exercises in, 777, 783.
Compulsory attendance, 703. (See Attendance.)
Prussia, 381.
Concentration of teaching, 806.
Confirmation, 161, 554.
Convent schools, 531, 533.
Corporal punishment, 211, 320, 609.
Conversational method, 767, 780,784.
Country Schools, 170 669.
Council of studies, 136.
Cousin, on Prussian schools, 444.
Crime and Schools, 167.
Croatia and Slavonia, 23, 105, 107.
Crusius, Martin, Greek Grammar, 544.
Criminal Children, school for, 676.
Curriculum vitte, 242, 478.
Custodian, 861.
Daily Routine, 767.
Austria, 52. Prussia, 767, 864.
Baden, 131. Snxe-Gotha, 588.
Bavaria, 167 203. Wurtemberg, 767.
Dahnatia, 23, 35.
Gymnasiums, 95.
Dam man, on teachers' wages. 383.
Darmstadt, Gymnasium, 289.
Deaf-Mutes, 314, 850.
Decuria, or Section Master, 541, 542.
Definitely appointed teachers, 8U7.
Denominational character of schools, 552, 664, 798.
Wurtemberg, 664. Saxony. 552.
Department system of teaching, 77.
Deportment of pupils, 134.
Design, schools of, 671.
Dessau, Basedow's Philanthropinum, 17.
Female schools, 19. Real-classes, 19.
Gymnasium, 19. Trades-school, 19.
Detention after school, 506.
Detmold, 303.
Gymnasium, 306.
Higher Trade Seminary, 306.
Teachers' Seminary, 305.
Diary, school,
Baden, 133. Wurtemberg, 686.
Bavaria, 171. Hesse-Cassel, 269.
Dialectics and Rhetoric, 544.
Diaspora, 799.
Diesterweg, 387, 416.
Dismissal from Berlin Normal school, 415.
Guide for German teachers, 588.
Dietsch, Dr. R., author of article on Saxony, 530, 554.
Dinner, teachers' right to, 374.
Dinter, 369, 833.
Private training school at Dresden, 550.
Catechism, 802.
Director, 79, 84, 466.
Discipline, general principles,
Baden, 134. Hesse-Darmstadt, 292.
Bavaria, 171. Prussia, 506, 866.
Discipline, general principles.
Hesse-Cassel, 276. Wurtemberg, 717.
Discipline out of school
Baden, 146. Saxony in 1580, 546.
Dissenters in Germany, 425, 799.
Dissenters in Prussia, 799.
District in Austria defined, 25.
Doctrinale of Alexander, 235.
Domestic economy in schools, 222, 422.
Domestic training, 796.
Donatus, Latin Grammar, 536.
Dortmund petition, on Prussian Regulative, 416.
Drawing, instruction in
Austria, 54, 103. Hanover, 556.
Baden, 151. Prussia. 784,
Bavaria, 170. Wurtemberg, 685.
Dresden, schools, 859.
Holy Cross gymnasium, 535.
Poor-school, 550.
Burgher-school, 551.
Fletcher seminary, 551.
Du and sic, in school language, 191, 258.
Due to the school, children of certain age, 41, 555.
Duke, Christopher, of Wurtemberg, 709.
Grand Ecclesiastical order of 1559, 654, 709.
Duke Ernest, the Pious, 581.
Dwelling-house for teachers, 610, 697, 821.
Ecclesiastical authorities, and the public school.
Austria,44. Hanover, 226.
Baden. 126. Hesse-Cossel, 266.
Bavaria, 163. Prussia, 756.
Brunswick, 210. Wurtemberg, 709.
Ecclesiastics as teachers, 84, 95.
Educational Fund of Austria, 69.
Eichorn, J. A. P., ministry of, 414, 444.
Decree concerning aesthetic culture, 415.
Eilers, Dr., assistant of Eichorn, 414, 446.
Elberfeld, 859.
Elementary schools, 801. (See Primary schools.)
Elementary studies, limits of 805.
Concentration of teaching, 805.
Emerited teachers, 176, 410, 613.
Endowed Schools, 247, 759.
Ephori, in school administration, 136, 591, 617, G28.
Eppingen, Higher Burgher school, 151.
Equipment of schoolhouse, 779.
Erfurt, Normal school, 371.
Erlangen, university, 846.
Ernest, the Pious, of Saxe-Coburg, 572, 576.
Ernesti, John A , 548, 550.
Esslingen, Normal school, 691.
Evangelical sr hools, 530.
Ernest, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 894.
Evening schools, 105, 131.
Examination of Elementary schools, 55.
Austria, 54. Mecklenberg,311, 320.
Baden, 125. Nassau, 325.
Bavaria, 164. Prussia, 754.
Hanover, 230. Saxe-Meiningen, 618.
Hesse, 286. Wurtemberg, 694.
Examination of Secondary schools,
Austria, 91. Prussia, 474.
Baden, 141. Saxe-Meiningen, 624.
Hanover, 242. Wurtemberg, 722.
Examination of Elementary Teachers,
Austria, 47, 888. Hesse-Darmstadt, 287.
Bavaria, 174. Prussia, 835.
Brunswick, 213. Saxe-Coburg, 896,
Hanover, 231. Wurtemberg, 692, 721.
Examination of Secondary Teachers in
Austria, 93. Hesse, 276, 287.
Baden, 147. Mecklenburg, 316.
Bavaria, 173, Prussia, 474.
Brunswick, 217. Saxe-Meiningen. 634.
Hanover, 242. Wurtemberg, 785.
Example, teaching by, 585, 863.
Examination on leaving Gymnasium, 92, 724, 843.
Examen pro facultate docendi, 476,
Exclusion from school, 506, 593.
Exner, 78, 100.
908
ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN GERMANY.
Fabricius, Historic Sacrae, 545.
Faber, compendium Musical, 544.
Factory children and schools,
Austria, 43, 105, 55, 886, 890.
Baden, 131. Prussia, 434, 750.
Bavaria, 167. Saxony, 553.
Hanover, 229. Wurternberg, 671.
Facultas docendi, 478.
Faculties, in universities, 535.
Cameralisten, 747.
Jurisprudence, 84(5.
Medicine, 849, 846.
Pedagogy and Philosophy, 848.
Theology, Catholic, 848, 846.
Theology, Protestant, 848.
Family life of the peasant, 362.
Feeble-minded children, 233, 677.
Fees, rates of. (See Tuition.)
Difficulties in collecting obviated, 729.
Influence on attendance, 729.
Felbiger, John Ignaz Von, 347.
Female Education, 177, 540.
Female Industries, 64, 131.
Female teachers, Hesse, 288.
Baden, 127, 133. Saxony, 558,
Bavaria, 176. Saxe-Coburg, 599, 897.
Frankfort, 736. Wurtemberg, 701.
Feuchtersleben, Baron Von, 36, 78.
Real and Burgher schools, 99.
Fichte, cited, 647, 657.
Finance, faculty, 847.
Fines on Parents, 134, 283, 592.
Firmian, Count, memorial of, 27.
Forest-culture, 621, 852.
Fort-bildungsschulen, or Supplementary schools, 434.
Austria, 56. Buvaria, 205.
Baden, 123. . Wurtemberg, 671.
Formula Concordise, 546.
Francis Joseph, Etnperor of Austria, 73.
School code of 1869, 885.
Inspection of schools and the church of 1808, 892.
Franke at Halle, 338, 369.
Frankfort, area, population, schools, 731, 737.
Collegiate Church schools, 732.
Gymnasium, Model school, 737.
Burgher High school, 737.
Fraternity of poor scholars, 733.
Frederick I., of Prussia, 338.
School regulation of 1715, 339.
Frederick II., 342, 861.
Regulations for village schools in 1760, 342.
General regulation for country schools, 343 861.
Reform of Secondary schools, 436.
Letter on Education, 437.
Regulations for Catholic schools, 869.
Normal schools in Silesia, 1869.
Frederick William I., 436.
Frederick William III , 353, 362.
Abolition of serfdom, 363.
School-section in Ministry of Interior, 361, 440.
Educational policy, 360, 438.
'" Letter to Wollner, 439.
Frederick William IV., 364.
Tribute to Pestiilozzi, 364.
FREE HANSEATIC cities, 731, 845. 859.
Bremen, 732, 739. Hamburg, 731, 740.
Frankfort, 731, 737. Lubeck, 732, 740.
Free, or Gratuitous instruction, 798.
Free lodgings for teachers, 897.
Frieburg, university, 846.
French language in
Austria, 86, 104. Hanover, 253.
Baden, 142. Prussia, 496.
Bavaria, 185. Wurtemberg, 720,
French System in Rhenish Provinces, 456.
Fruit-culture, 50.
Fulda, 234, 275.
Funds, for school expenses, 61, 69, 249.
Furstenberg, Count Bishop, 388.
Austria, 58, 887. .
Prussia, 425.
Galicia, 23, 29, 41, 61.
Gall, J. A., labors in Austria, 30.
Socratic system, 31. ;^'S
Gang-schools, in Pomerania, 351.
Gardens attached to schools, 226.
Garden-culture, for teachers. 226, 4] 5.
Gedike, 358.
Schools for Girls, 359.
Burgher school, 551.
Gelehrtenschulen, 135.
Gemund, Catholic Seminary for teachers, 691.
Geography in Elementary schools,
Austria, 52. Bavaria, 169.
Baden, 16. Prussia, 420.
Geography in Gymnasia.
Austria. 79, 88. Hanover, 189.
Baden, 143. Prussia, 786, 807.
Bavaria, 169. Wurtemberg, 715.
Geography in Real School in
Austria, 103. Prussia, 502.
Hanover, 255, 256. Wurtembeig, 720.
Geometry, 419.
Gera, public schools, 528.
Rutheneum Gymnasium, 528.
German language and literature.
Austria, 87. Prussia, 783, 806, 839.
Baden, 143. Wurtemberg, 683.
Hanover, 253.
German Pedagogy, Schools, and Teachers, 903, 904.
Barnard's publications respecting, 904.
Steiger's Contents of catalogue, 920.
German schools, why so called, 31, 653, 715, 798.
Saxony in 1580, 547. Hanover, 235.
Brunswick, 208. Prussia, 798, 801.
Bavaria, 159. Wurtemberg, 653.
Free Cities, 71.
German work Day schools, 159.
Germany, in 1815, general view, 15.
Organization area, population, 1867, 743.
Public instruction, summary and statistics, 743.
1. Elementary schools, 744.
Teachers' seminaries, 813.
2. Secondary schools, 845.
3. Superior schools or universities, 846.
4. Special schools, 850.
5. Higher instruction in 30 cities, 859.
6. School Codes old and new, 861.
Gertsner, plan for Real school, 99. ' vjg
Gesner, 239, 549.
Gewerbeschulen, 151, 850.
Geissen, Gymnasium, 289.
University, 846.
Gingst, German school at, 375.
Girls, Special and Higher schools for
Anhalt, 19. Lippe-Detmold, 306.
Austria, 122. Snxony, 560.
Baden, 152. Saxe-Altenberg, 571.
Bavaria, 176. Saxe-Coburg, 597.
Brunswick, 215. Saxe-Meiningen, 621.
Hanover, 232. Saxe- Weimar, 633.
Hesse-Cassel, 274. Wurtemberg, 669.
Hesse-Darmstadt, 298.
Glatz, in Silesia Regulations, 870.
Gotha, city schools, 572, 596.
Normal school, 385, 598, 896.
Technical school, 599. *
Gymnasium, 595.
Sunday school, 599.
Gottingen, Latin school, 237.
Seminary for Secondary teachers, 238, 245.
Mathematical and Physical Seminary, 246.
Scientific Committee of Examination, 245.
University, 238, 846.
Governesses, first school for, 359.
Gratz, university, 846.
Grammar, methods of teaching, 783, 806.
Greek language,
Austria, 87. Saxony, 543, 652.
Baden, 142. Prussia, 497,
Bavaria, 185. Wurtemberg, 709, 715.
Hanover, 1H7, 239, 252.
ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN GERMANY.
909
Grew, city schools. 528.
Griefswalde, normal school, 381.
University, 524, 846.
Guild, of teachers, 735.
Gustrow, school statistics, 315, 318.
Cathedral School, 316.
Gymnasium, details of organization, &c.,
Grades and classification, 82.
Administration and supervision, 82, 135, 714.
Teachers, grades, duties, 83, 136, 713, 148.
Training and appointment, 93, 721.
Salaries and pensions, 85.
Scholars, admission, promotion, 91, 138, 49(5.
Fees, 85, 94, 138, 714.
Discipline, 717.
Lesson tables, 715, 495, 496.
Hygiene, 717.
Gymnastics, 718, 500.
Leaving examination, 92, 317, 724, 843.
Confessional, 135.
Gymnasium, specimens of,
"Brunswick, 217, Lippe-Detmold, 306.
Cassel, 275. Tiibingen, 715.
Cothen, 19. Neustrelitz, 321.
Dessau, 19. Mayence, 290.
Hanover, 256. Schwerin, 315.
Gymnastics, Hanover, 256.
Austria, 54. Prussia, 422, 500.
Baden, 145. Wurtemberg, 685, 718.
Bavaria, 190.
IJulberstadt, teachers' seminary, 368.
Unloander, founder of Comments on Justiuinn, 635.
Half-day instruction. 62, 229, 284, 646, 862.
Hulle, university, 846,
Franke's labors, 369.
Pedagogic seminary, 479.
Hamilton, Sir William, 745.
Hamburg, city schools, 731, 740, 859.
Gymnasial academy, 740.
Hanau, 274.
Handel, labors in Neisse, 368.
Hanover, city school statistics, 858.
Real school, 157.
HANOVER, Kingdom, 219.
Area, population, 219.
1. Primary schools, 321, 228, 744.
2. Secondary schools, 234.
Classical, 242, 250.
Realistic, 257.
3. Superior, 846.
4. Special, 850.
Teachers' seminaries, 815.
Girls' school, Blind Mutes, 233.
Harnisch, cited, 366, 368, 371.
Hnynau, Baron, gift to schools, 113.
Head-master, Oberlehrer, 886.
Health of pupils in
Elementary schools, 767.
Gymnasiums, 494, 717.
Hebrew, in Gymnasium, 252, 270,290, 547.
Uecker, J. Julius, 343, 501, 799.
Hedge-schools, 227.
Hegel, Prof, of Philosophy at Berlin, 441.
Heinicke, Samuel, institution for deaf-mutes, 550.
Heidelberg, Catechism, 304.
University, 846.
Helmstadt University, 211, 237.
Helfert, Von, 40.
Herder, John Gottfried, 307.
Hermann, Geo., Philosophical seminary, Leipsic, 551.
Hess, Prof., gymnasia! reform, 70.
HESSE CASSEL, Electorate, 263.
Area, population, government, 263.
1. Elementary schools, 265, 744.
2. Higher schools, 282, 845.
Real schools, 272, 845.
Gymnasiums, 274, 945.
3. Special schools. 277, 866.
HESSE DARMSTADT, Grand Duchy, 279.
Area, population, government, 279.
HESSE DARMSTADT,
1. Primary or lower schools, 281, 744.
2. Classical school system, 289, 855.
3 Real and trade schools, 295, 850.
4. Female schools, 298.
Heyne, Christian G., schools in Gottingen., 241).
Higher Burgher schools, 503, 845, 859.
High school, 33, 41.
High Consistory, 345.
Hilburghausen, Teachers' seminary, 607, 611.
Hildesheim, 228.
Historical development of schools, (See Austria,
Baden, etc.)
History in Gymasiums. 38, 139, 143, 188, 496.
Hoch, ^Epinus, 372.
Hochegger, 81.
Hohenzollern, 425, 453, 518.
Holidays in,
Austria, 147. Hesse, 269, 286.
Baden, 128. Saxony, 556.
Bavaria, 168. Saxe-Altenburg, 570.
Brunswick, 210. Saxe-Meiningen, 609.
Hanover, 222, 259. Wurtemberg, 686.
Hollweg, minister of public instruction, 417.
Normal school regulation, 417.
Memorial on school regulations, 421.
HOLSTEIN, School system and statistics, 643.
Home and its surroundings, lessons in Geography, 707.
Home preparation of lessons, 171, 685.
Horn-book, 581.
History in common schools, 842.
HUNGARY, 23, 107, 113, 120.
Catholic, Jewish, Lutheran schools. 111.
Protestant schools and influence, 108.
Hygienic condition of schools, 492, 7(17,717.
Hymns, to be memorized, 304,418, 423.
School movement of 1848, 113.
Statistics of schools, 115, 121.
Part of religious instruction, 204, 683.
Regulations of Frederick II., 1763, 866.
Idiotic children, 676, 677.
Ilfeld gymnasium, 237.
Illiteracy.
Austria, 65. Prussia, 792.
Baden, 127. Wurtemberg, 679.
Bavaria, 167.
Incarceration, 146,506.
Industrial Schools, 131, 192, 550,560.
Industrial Schools in
Baden, 154. Prussia, 526,
Bavaria, 196, 205. Saxony, 560.
Brunswick, 215. Saxe-Altenburg, 571.
Hanover, 233. Saxe-Gotha, 599.
Hesse, 270, 277, 297. Saxe- Weimar, 633.
Lippe-Schaumburg, 307. Saxe-Meiningen, C20.
Oldenburg, 331. Wurtemberg, 671.
Industrial element in common schools.
Austria, 54. Bavaria, 170, 196.
Biulen, 131. Hesse-Cassel, 277.
Inspruck, University, 846.
Infant Schools and Kindergarten, 671, 648.
Informing of pupils, by each other, 687.
Inspectors and Inspection.
Austria, 44. Saxony, 553.
Baden, 127. Saxe-Gotha, 594, 899.
Bavaria, 162. Saxe-Weimar, 626.
Hanover, 228. Wurtemberg, 664.
Prussia, 753, 876.
Intermediate Schools, 135, 229, 669.
Itinerating students and teachers, 533.
%
Janitor in Gymnasium, 473.
Jena, university, 846.
Jesuits in, Austria, 28, 67, 69.
Bavaria, 179. Prussia, 343.
Hungary, 107.
Jewish Schools in,
Austria, 29, 31. Hesse-Cnssel, 371.
Bnden, 124. Lippe-Detmold, 304.
Bavaria, 166. Prussia, 348, 403, 425.
910
ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN GERMANY.
Jewish Schools, in
Hungary, 114. Wurtemberg, 667, 728.
Jeziorowsky, Joseph, 356.
Joachimsthal gymnasium, 460.
Journey, expense of school, 472.
Joseph I, of Austria, 68.
Joseph II, of Austria, 71.
Educational work, in Hungary, J09.
Josephine Catechism in Baden, 121.
Julius, Duke of Brunswick, 208, 237.
Julius, Dr., on Prussian schools as they were, 833.
Junker school, 735.
Jurisprudence, faculty and practice, 847.
Juliana, Princess of Lippe-Schaumburg, 307.
Jus Patronatus, 863.
Kamptz, Von, 442.
Mandate of 1824, 443.
Kay, Primary Schools in Germany, 748, 792.
Kellner. on Catholic Schools, 423.
Kiel, Public Schools, 646.
University, 846.
Kindergarten, 434.
Attached to Seminaries for female teachers, 887.
Teachers must be acquainted with system, 888.
Kohler's in Gotha, 598.
Kochly, gymnasial reform, 564.
Kindermunn, 29.
Kleemann, 80.
Klurnpp, F. W., and Real school, 718.
Koningsberg, university, 846.
Professorship and Seminary of History, 486.
Korturn, 446.
Krause, Private Gymnasium, 563.
Krunitz, Village School, 362.
Kreise, or Circle government, 25.
Kurtnark, neglect of schools, 345, 438.
Normal school in 1748, 342.
Krassow, Count, School of Pomerania, 378.
Change produced by Prussia, 380.
Lancasterian system in Germany, 760.
Land proprietors, duty to schools, 760.
JLang, J. F. Plan of reform, 73.
Language and Grammar, 774, 806.
Prussian Regulation, 806.
Language used in instruction, 53.
Austria, 53, 77, 81, 88, 101, 885.
[languages, time and method, to,
English, 253, 256, 717.
German, 87, 102, 185, 253, 290, 496, 502.
French, 139, 142, 150, 253. 496, 715.
Greek, 88, 139, 183, 252, 497, 715.
Hebrew, 252,291, 715.
Latin, 86, 139, 185, 261, 281, 483, 502, 715.
Latin conversation, 236.
Latin Grammar versus literature, 77.
Latin in Gymnasiums,
Austria, 86. Baden, 140.
Bavaria, 186. Hanover, 239.
Wurtemburg,709, 715. Prussia, 496.
Latin in Real Schools,
Austria, 107. Prussia, 502.
Latin Schools, of the 16th Century, 236, 709.
Wurtemberg, 709, 711. Bavaria, 181.
Hanover, 236.
LA.UENBURG, Duchy of, 645.
Lnw and Jurisprudence, 820.
Leibnitz, 548.
LKICHTENSTEIN, Principality, 301.
Leipsic, 533, 540,,846, 859.
St. Thomas Singing School, 532.
University 1409, 533, 547, 846.
Professorship of Pedagogy in 1815, 551.
First Real School in Saxony, 551, 559.
Lemgo, Gymnasium, 306.
Leopold II. and School Reform, 73.
Lesson, plans of Classical Gymnasium, 54, 96, 185
256, 270, 496, 552, 396, 643, 715.
Lesson, plans of Real School and Real Gymnasiums
196, 257, 295, 502, 644, 720.
Liberty of Instruction, 892.
Liberty of religious training, 30. "
Libraries in Gymnasiums, 145, 716.
Life-insurance for teachers, 319.
LIMBUR.G, Duchv of, 308.
LIPPE-DETMOLD, Principality of, 303, 306.
Area, Population, 303.
1. Primary Schools, 303.
2. Secondary Schools, 306.
LIPPE-SCH AUM BURG.
Primary schools, teachers' seminary, 307.
Gymnasium and Latin school, 307.
Burgher school Female High school, 307.
Littorale, Statistics and schools, 23, 62.
Limitation of subjects in Common Schools, 808.
Liturgies for Schools, 164,802, 899.
Local authorities in school administration.
Austria, 892. Mecklenburg, 311.
Baden, 127. Nassau. 325,
Bavaria, 161. Oldenburg, 327.
Hanover, 228. Prussia, 752.
Hesse-Darmstadt, 283. Saxe-Gotlm, 587, 899.
Hesse-Cassel, 26U. Wurtemberg, 665.
Lombnrdy, 35,61, 95.
Lorinzer, Health in Gymnnsia, 494.
Louisa, Queen of Prussia, 360.
Lubeck, School System, 732, 740.
Catharineum Gymnasium and Real School, 740.
Liulwigslnst, Deaf-mute School, 314.
Luther, Martin, 575, 621, 625.
Luther's Catechism, 541, 791, 804, 866.
Influence on Schools, 236, 535, 709.
Lutheran High Consistory, 342. '
LUXEMBURG, Duchy of, 308.
Public Instruction, 308.
Lyceum, 137, 181.
Madebach, Jacob, in Frankfort, 735.
Madgeburg, 369, 859.
Influence on School Reform, 368. ,
Order of Visitation, 463.
Magyars, 107, 110.
Major, George, Epitome, 544.
Management of Schools, 439, 577.
Mann, Horace, 756.
Account of Schools of Prussia, 773.
Prussian teachers and their training, 823.
Mannheim, Higher Burgher Schools, 150.
Manorial Schools, 319.
Marburg, University, 8-16.
Maria Institute at Gotha, 597.
Maria Theresa, 26, 30, 69.
General Law of Schools of Austria, 879.
Marine Schools, 526,
Marks, system of, in examination, 692, 165.
Martini, Gymnasium reform in Austria, 32, 72.
Marx, Gratian, System for Austria, 71.
Massow, Minister of Education, 354, 356.
Plan of School- Reform, 355.
Schools of Pomeranin, 350.
Maturity examination, 495, 724, 843.
Austria, 92. Prussia, 843.
Mecklenburg, 317. Wurtemberg, 724.
Mathematics in Gymnasium.
Austria, 88.
Baden, 144.
Bavaria, 185.
Prussia, 497.
Mathematics, professors of, 24(5, 818.
Early introduction, 534.
Maurice, Elector of Saxony, 539.
Mayence, 296,
Mechanics School in 1751, 98.
MECKLENBURG, Duchy of, 309.
1. Schwerin, 309, 310.
2. Strelitz, 318.
Medicine, Faculty of, 846, 849.
Meierotto, 437.
Meiningen, city Schools, 634, 855.
Gymnasium, of 1544, 633.
Meissen, Cathedral and Royal School, 531, 551.
ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN GERMANY.
911
Melunchthon,
Book of Visitations, 535.
Plan of Schools in 1528, 536.
Grammar and other text-books, 541.
Memorizing Psalms and Scripture, 417, 421.
Bavaria, 169.
Prussia, 804.
Wurtemberg, 655.
Memory, overburdening, 418.
Mensam cursoriam, 376.
Messmer, Joseph, 27;.
Methods of Instruction, 439, 557, 577, 583, 716.
Micyllus,735.
Mileage, for teachers on School visits, 473.
Middle Schools, 329, 359.
Migatzzi, Archbishop, 69.
Military Frontier in Austria, 23, 35. 46, 68.
Military system and schools, 583, 586, 834.
Mining, schools of, 858.
Ministries charged with supervision of schools,
Commerce and public works, 156.
Education and medical affairs, 411.
Interior, 127, 207.
Ecclesiastical affairs, 162.
Worship. 82, 228.
Public instruction, 162, 244.
Distribution of schools in Austria, 22.
Diagram of arrangement in Bavaria, 156.
Ministry of Public Instruction,
Austria, 32. Wurtemberg, 664, 704.
Baden, 127. Bavaria, 162, 184.
Hesse-Darmstadt, 283. Hanover, 244.
Prussia, 350, 361, 411. Saxony, 5.>1.
Minors, punishment of, G83.
Policeman, 688.
Teacher, 688.
Parent, 688.
Mirabeau, cited, 331.
Mirow, teachers' Seminary, 322.
Mixed Schools as to confessions, 109, 122, 400, 753.
Experience in Silesia, 800.
Mixed Schools as to Sex, 40.
Model or Normal Schools in Austria, 28, 41, 887.
Modern Language, 886.
Monitors in Prussian schools, 761.
Mother Tongue, see Native Language.
Monthly record book, 213, 230.
Morality in Austrian Schools, 71.
Moravia, 23, 61, 95.
Moravian brethren, 550, 597.
Morus, Samuel F., 551.
Mountain-blessing in Saxony, 531,
Motives to study and work, 589.
Munich, Schools, 859.
University, 846.
Munster, Schools, 859.
University, 846.
Muhler, Ministry of Public Instruction, 447.
Music, Instruction in Elementary Schools,
Austria, 34. Bnden, 130.
Bavaria, 170. Hanover, 239, 256.
Prussia, 792, 808. Saxony, 544.
Wurtemberg, 685.
Music in Normal School, 694, 808.
Music in Gymnasia, 694.
Music in Real School, 720.
Myconius, F., 574, 595, 715.
Gymnasium, at Gotha, 595.
Nagali, Method of teaching singing, 657, 685.
NASSAU, Duchy of, 323.
Public Instruction historical, 323.
Obligatory attendance in 1624, 323.
Teachers' Seminary in 1734, 324.
1. Elementary Schools, 324.
Parental and communal obligations, 324.
2. Secondary Education, 325.
Pedagogium Gymnasium, 326.
Nations, division of students into, 535.
Merged in Faculties, 535.
Native Language, how taught, 177.
Austria, 87.
Baden, 130, 139, 143, 150.
Bavaria, 169, 177, 185, 188, 196.
Hanover, 253, 256.
Hesse, 575, 292.
Mecklenburg, 321. . , ,
Oldenburg, 32S.
Prussia, 364, 434, 495, 772.
Saxony, 547, 552.
National holidays observed, 442.
Nationality, Austria, 25, 42, 95.
Nationality of Germany, 361.
Austria, 25, 42, 95. Prussia, 365.
Nature, common phenomena, 789.
Natural History.
Austria, 89. Baden, 144.
Prussia, 789. Saxony, 551.
Naval Schools.
Mecklenburg, 314.
Navigation Schools, 314, 331, 857.
Neander, 237.
Needle work, 229. Austria, 54, 886.
Prussia, 422. Baden, 131.
Saxe-Gotha, 589.
Neglected Children, School for,
Saxe-Meiningen 620. Baden, 153.
Neukloster, Teachers' Seminary, 314.
Neumark, 344.
Newspapers, 26. . : ,,
Niavis (Schneevoge!), 534.
Nicolovius, 440, 442.
Niemeyer, 369, 437.
Nitzsch, Prof. 639.
Noiine, Dr. Ludwick, 606.
Labors in Hildburghausen, 606.
Extraordinary, or Special course for teachers, 607.
Normal, meaning of, in Austria, 41, 880.
Established by Frederick II, 869.
Normal Schools, for elementary teachers,
Number and Statistics, 814.
Historical, 108, 338, 339, 869.
Authorities in administration, 173.
Condition and mode of Admission, 165, 693.
Subjects, course of studies, 887.
Examinations, 165, 693.
Model School, 692.
Teachers, 691.
Practice School, 887.
Normal School System in Prussia, 819.
Notaries, 435.
Nurlingen, Normal School, 691.
Nuremberg. School system, 170, 859.
Agricultural department, 198.
Official Position of Teachers, 147.
Object Lessons, 579, 590.
Object Teaching. 54.
Observation, habit of, 590, 768.
Observatores morum, or Street Monitors, 546.
Obligatory school attendance, C09, 656, 662, 703.
Date of introduction, 209, 222, 281, 319, 861, 882.
Results in Prussia, 381.
Legal limit, 661, 703.
OLDENBURG, Grand Duchy of, 327.
Public Instruction, 327.
1. Elementary Schools, 327, 744.
Supreme School Board, 327.
Parental Communal Duties, 327.
Programme of School of one and two classes, 328.
Middle Schools, Higher, Burgher, Private, Infant, 329
2. Secondary Schools, 330, 845.
Gymnasium' of Oldenburg, Vechta, 330.
3. Professional and Special Schools 331, 850.
Navigation School, Teachers' Seminary, 331.
Olivier of Dessau, 359.
Optional Studies, ](4.
Opening School with Prayer, 633, 804.
Discussion respecting, 812.
Oral Examination, 479.
912
ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN GERMANY.
Orchards, care of, taught, 54.
Ordinarius, or class teacher, 246, 563.
Osnabruck, Cathedra! School, 2-28.
Oral exercises in language, 87, 130.
Organ playing for teachers, 696.
Organists, as teachers, 391.
Orphans of teachers,
Austria, 51, 85. Mecklenburg, 317.
Baden, 135. Prussia, 432.
Bavaria, 175. Schleswig, 642.
Brunswick, 215. Snxon-Principalities,5GO,
Hanover, 23-2. 6J6, 620, 630.
Hesse, 264, 288. Wurtemberg, 701.
Lippe-Detinold, 335,
Orphans' Asylums, 216, 233, 567, 599, 620, 633,674.
Special Judges for, 153, 206,
Out of School hours an<l premises, pupils, 129, 146,
171,386,689.
Outside Occupation for the Teacher, 232, 699, 821.
Overberg, Normal School at Munster, 385.
Over-governing in Germany, 810.
Padagogik, 837, 841.
Parental rights and duties, 381, 749, 887, 895.
Law of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 89.3.
Fined fur neglect as to attendance, 895.
Laws of Austria, 887.
Parental rights and duties as to
Attendance of children at school, 42, 128, 227, 887,
895.
Religious instruction of children, 895.
Private, or family instruction, 896.
Interference with, or abuse of teachers, 896.
Labor of children, 131,887.
Appeal to committees, G'JIi.
Payment of fees, 890, 896.
Behavior and offenses out of school, 688.
Text-books and aids of instruction, 37, 887.
Parish in School organization,
Austria, 25, 42. Oldenburg, 328.
Baden, 124, 135. Prussia, 752, 799.
Bavaria, 161. Saxony, 551.
Hesse-Darmstadt, 282. Snxon Principalities, 623.
Hanover, 236. Wurtemberg, 708.
Mecklenburg, 311, 319.
Particular Schools, 546.
Pasturage for cow of teacher, 320, 372.
Pattison, Mark, Report on German Schools, 798.
Substance of Prussian Regulations. 837.
Payments in kind, 272, 697.
Pedagogical Seminaries and Professors, 848.
Berlin, 487. Breslau, 488.
Gottingen, 245. Hnlle, 48!.
Magdeburg, 489. Stettin, 488.
Vienna, 75, 93.
Pedagogium, 137, 325, 489.
Penmanship, 207, 784, 841.
Frederick II, regulations, 872.
Pensions for teacher,
Anhalt, 20. Mecklenburg, 317.
Austria, 51. Prussia, 410, 431, 474.
Baden, 133. Saxony, 554.
Bavaria, 175. Saxe-Altenburg, 569.
Hanover, 232. Saxe-Coburg, 898
Brunswick, 215. Saxe-Meiningen, 615.
Hesse-Cassel, 264. Saxe-Weimar, (MO.
Hesse-Darmstadt, 285. Wurtemberg, 711.
Lippe-Detmold, 305.
Perceptive faculties, end and measure of infant cul-
ture, 591.
Periodicals. School, 660; 830.
Pestalozzi, 367, 370.
Royal tribute to his principles. 364.
Official reaction against. 367, 657.
Religious teaching," 802.
Pestalozzianisrn in Germany, 356, 300, 804.
Wurtemberg, 657
Peter Von Dresden, 533.
Philology, instruction in, 479 848.
Philological Seminaries, 848.
Berlin, 484. Koningsberg, 485.
Philological Seminaries.
Heidelberg, 149. Tiibingen, 721.
Philosophy, in 6ymnasium.
Austria, 89. Bavaria, 189.
Baden, 145. Prussia, 408.
Philosophical classes and schools.
Austria, 75, 77, 78, 111.
Baden, 145.
Physics in Gymnasiums, Austria, 89.
Piarists, 26,68, 71,109.
Plan of Sessions, J30.
Playground to School, 758.
Plutarch, Instruction of Boys, read in 1580, 547.
Poland, Schools in, 449, 870.
Language in schools, 450.
Polytechnic Schools, 197, 853.
Poinerania, 371, 452.
Posen, Province, 390. 449.
Potsdam, Schools, 859.
Practice, School of, 887.
Prayer in School,
Austria, 130. Prussia, 802, 864.
Baden, 130. Hanover, 186.
Bavaria. 171. Wurtemberg, 683.
Praparanden, 160, 213, 841.
Poor parents, to be helped, 862.
Poor children, separate school, 166.
How supplied with books, 874.
Poor students, 546, 669.
Prague, school, 859.
University, 846.
Preceptor, 721.
Temporarily employed teacher in Thuringia. 607.
Prepariti, 34.
Primary Instruction, limits to, 706, 808.
Primary Schools in Anhalt, 17, 20, 744.
Austria, 26, 744.
Baden, 122, 744.
Bavaria, 158,744.
Brunswick, 219,744.
Free Cities, 744.
Hanover, 221, 744.
Hesse-Cassel, 265, 744.
Hesse-Darmstadt, 281, 744.
Leichtenstein, 302, 744.
Lippe-Detmold, 303, 744.
Lippe-Shaumburg, 307, 744.
Luxemburg and Lirnburg, 308, 744.
Mecklenburg Schwerin. 310, 744.
Mecklenburg Strelitz, 318, 744.
Nassau, 324, 744.
Oldenburg, 327, 744.
Prussia, 335, 744, 798.
Reuss, 527, 744.
Saxony, 554, 744.
Saxon-Principalities, 565, 744.
Saxe-Altenburg, 567, 744.
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 573, 744.
Saxe-Meiningen, 608, 744.
Saxe-Weimar, 627, 744,
Schleswig-Holstein, 640, 744.
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, 649, 744.
Shwarz-Sonderhausen, 650, 744.
Waldeck, 651, 744.
Wurtemberg, 653, 744.
Principia Regulativa, 340.
Provisions respecting schools, 340.
Printing, 534.
Printzen,436.
Privileges of gymnasial students, 506. ,
Professor, title of, 471.
Prussia, Duchy of, 333.
PRUSSIA. Kingdom of,
Area, Population, History, 333.
Public Instruction, 335, 462, 744.
1. Primary Schools, 335.
Historical development by reigns, 335.
Development by Provinces, 368.
Schools as they were, 362, 833.
Statistical, Resu'lts in 1819, 1861, 424, 744.
2. Secondary Schools, 435.
ELEMENTARY^AND SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN GERMANY.
953
RJSSIJA,
Development of Administration, 435.
Provincial Progress, 447.
Local Administration, 460.
Summary of School Organizntion, 462.
Teachers, Appointment, director, 463, 522.
Professions, Title, Grades, Salaries, 420.
Examination of Teachers, 474.
Seminaries for secondary school teachers, 484.
Studies, course, methods, 492.
Real Schools, and Higher Burgher Schools, 501, 522.
Review, chronological and provincinl, , 5(J8.
3. Subjects, courses and methods of Primary Schools,
745.
4. Teachers and their training, 819.
5. Universities, 525, 846.
6. Special schools, 526, 856.
Private Instruction and Schools in,
Austria, 92, 56, 891. Saxony, 552.
Baden, 145. Saxe-Coburg, 896.
Bavaria, 181. Wurtemberg, 724.
Prussia, 507, 757.
Prizes, 171, 191,717,203.
Programmes, gymnasia!, exchange of, 508.
Programme for schools in Saxe-Gotha, 588.
Promotion from class, 91.
Progymnasium,247, 516, 816, 845.
Protestant basis of Schools. 65, 76. 110, 798.
Protestant School Authorities, 166.
Provincial or District School Authorities,
Austria, 45, 83, 97, 892. Prussia, 753.
Baden, 127. Saxony, 564.
Bavaria, 163. Saxe-Coburg, 901.
Hesse, 267, 283. Wurtemburg. 665.
Public Schools denned, 209, 425, 885, 892.
Putfendorf, Samuel, 548.
Punishment, mode of,
Austria, 56. Prussia, 505.
.Baden, 129, 146. Saxe-Gotha, 580.
Bavaria, 171. Wurtemberg, 687.
Punishment, barbarous, prohibited, 171, 506, 546, 609.
Corporal, restrained, 129, 258, 320, 609.
Q,uadrivium, 531.
Qualities, inherent of a good teacher, 309, 383.
Qualifications of teachers acquired, 383.
Uuinlilian, text-book in Pedagogy in 1580, 546.
Rnbstein, plan of mechanics' school 1751, 98.
Rank of Teachers in civil service, 723.
Rank in class, 506. 717.
Ratich, 578.
Ratio Educationis, 109.
Ratio Studiorum, 67.
Ratzeburg, Principality of, 320.
Rnumer, minister of education, 446.
Regulations of 1854, 416.
Reader in Prussian Schools, 419, 806.
Wurtemberg, 683.
Reading, method of teaching, 590, 769, 779.
Real Commercial Adademy at Vienna, 98.
Real Schools, System of,
Anhalt, 19. Nassau, 326.
Austria, 98. Oldenburg, 329.
Baden, 149. Prussia, 501, 522.
Bavaria, 193. Reuss, 528.
Brunswick, 217. Saxony, 551, 558.
Free Cities, 740. Saxe-Altenburg.
Hanover, 247, 257. Saxe-Coburg, 596.
Hesse-Cassel, 272. Saxe-Meiningen. 625.
Hesse- Darmstadt, 295. Saxe-Weimar, 632.
Lippe-Detmold, 306. Schleswig-Hol., 644, 647.
Luxemburg, 308. Schwarzburg, 650.
Mecklnb'g-Shwerin, 318. Waldeck, 652.
Mecklenb'g-Stielitz,845. Wurtemburg, 718.
Real Schools, features of,
Grades, 101, 149.
Administration,, 101, 150, 718.
Teachers, grades, duties, 102, 719.
Studies, 102, 104, 149, 150, 502, 719.
Admission, 104, 150, 559.
Real Schools, features of,
Discipline, 104.
Examination, 104.
Graduation, 104, 724.
Expenses, 105, 149, 728.
Statistics, 101,726,845.
Libraries, 104.
Practical work, 105.
Directors, 150.
Central Study, 719.
Rank of teachers, 724.
Rector, or director, 84, 148, 224, 326, 466, . i J.
Rector Schools, 20, 229, 305.
Referee, in Austrian School Board, 34.
Reformation of 16th Century, and Schools, 663, 709.
Regencies in Prussian Organization, 515.
Register, or official list of children, 863, 873.
Regularity of attendance, 55, 380.
Regulativ, Prussian, of 1854, 802.
Rent Gymnasium, Examples of,
Cobu'rg, 600. Saalfield, 625.
Gotha, 596. Schleswig, 644.
Leipsic, 559. Stuttgard, 720.
Manheim, 151. Tubingen, 720.
Meiningen, 625. Weimar, 634.
Re igious Instruction,
Austria, 34, 39, 80, 89, Oldenburg, 328.
102, 885. Prussia, 498, 770, 791, 7
Baden, 130, 139. 803.
Bavaria, 68, 171. Saxe-Altenburg, 591.
Brunswick, 209. Saxe-Coburg, 602.
Free Cities, 737. Saxe Meiningen, 612.
Hanover, 250. Saxony, 545, 552.
Hesse-Cassel, 270. Saxe-Weimar, 631.
Hesse-Darmstadt, 291. Schleswig-Holstein, 643.
Mecklenb'g-Strelitz, 338. Schwazburg, 650.
Nassau, 325. Wurtemberg, 682, 770.
Religious life and the School, 167.
Repetition School, 66, 648, 670, 672, 882.
Rescue Institutions, 203, 216, 223, 277.
Retirement of teachers of Gymnasium, 85, 473.
REUSS, Principality of, area, population, 528.
Public Instruction, 528.
Reviews of lessons. 767.
Reyher, Andrew, 577.
Rhenish Provinces, 384, 425, 459.
Rich and poor educated together, 166. "~*
Riese, Adam, 540.
Ritter Academy, 238.
Rochow, 657, 865. -c :
Children's Friend, 655.
Examples of improved schools, 350.
Rod, indiscipline, 287,580.
Roman Catholics, 107, 428, 892.
Relations to Schools in Prussia, 346, 389, 800.
Romer, Martin, 535.
Rostock, Schools, 859.
University, 846.
Rote learning, 209, 809.
Rottenhann, Count, 32, 109.
Board of Educational Reform, 33.
Gymnasium Reform, 73.
Real Schools and Instruction, 98.
Royal Schools in Saxony, 546.
Rural Districts, 363, 604, 680.
Saalfield, Lyceum and real schools, 621, 625.
Sacristan, relations to schools, 378, 575, 698, 861.
Sagau, Normal School of Felbiger, 347. 869, 874.
Seat of Catholic School reform, 347.
Salzburg, 23, 61.
Salaries in,
Baden, 133. Prussia. 429.
Bavaria, 175. Saxe-Coburg, 593.
Hanover, 229. Wurtemberg, 628.
Salaries, insufficient. 382.
Salzman Institute at Schepfenthal, 597.
Saturday, half or entire holiday, 146.
Catechism-day, 545.
SAXONY, Kingdom, 531, 564.
Area, population, history, 530. --
914
ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN GERMANY.
SAXONY,
Historical development of Educnt.ion, 530.
Convent and Cathedral schools, 531.
School plan of 1528, 536.
School Order of the Electorate 1580, 540.
Studies, discipline, books, 546,
1. Common Schools, 554, 744.
2. Secondary schools, 562, 843.
3. Superior school, 562, 846.
4. Special school, 850.
SAXON PRINCIPALITIES, stntistics, 565.
ALTENBURG, area, population, 567.
Historical development, 567.
1. Schools for young children, 568.
2. Common schools and teachers, 569.
3. Classical gymnasium, 572.
4. Supplementary, 571.
COBURG-GOTHA, area, population, 572.
1. Elementary schools, 573, 588, 600, 894.
Historical, Myconius, Duke Ernest, 575,600.
2. Higher schools, 595.
Gymnasium, Ernestinum, 596.
Reiil school Schnepfenthnl Dietendorfer, 597.
Maria Institute Girls' High School, 599.
3. Special school for teachers, architects, etc., 599
MKININOKN, area, etc., 605.
1. Elementary system, 605, 608.
2. High schools, 621.
WKIMA.R, area, population, 627.
1. Elementary schools, 626.
2. Higher schools, 632.
Schirmer, in Frankfort, 736.
SCHLESWIG, Duchy of, 635.
Schleiz, early school in, 527.
Rutheneurn Gymnasium, 528.
Teachers' Seminary, 528.
SCHLESW1G-HOLSTEIN, Province of Prussia, 635.
Historical development of Schools, 636.
Organization and condition of system, 640.
1. Elementary schools, 640.
2. Secondary Schools, 642.
3. Real School, 644.
Schmid's method of drawing, 364, 777.
Schmid's Pedagogich Encyclopadie, 3.
Articles based on, 17, 135, 159, 207, 219, 264, 231,
310, 327, 333, 567, 731.
Schnepfenthal, Salzmans Institute, 597.
Scholasticus, 531, 734.
Scholars to a teacher, 51, 129, 166, 248, 595.
Schoningen, public schools, 212.
School Apprentices, 160.
School Architecture, 46, 160, 610, 796.
School Attendance. (See Attendance.)
School Committee, 125, 752.
School Codes, 89!. (See Codes.)
School Collegium, 443, 641.
School Diary, 171,269.
School Discourses, 862.
School Government, 54, 134, 171, 609, 704.
School Libraries, 53.
School-house, laws respecting,
Expenditures on, 380.
Frederick II, 393, 870.
Maria Theresa, 879.
School Management, 837.
School Manual of Ernest, 581.
School Methods, 577.
School Order for Chemnitz, 1547, 540.
School Plan, 536. (See Plan of Studies.)
School Register, 863.
Schubert, Ferdinand, 40.
Schulpforta, 562.
Schuckmann, 441.
Schulze, Dr. John, 441, 477.
Schulze, G. of Saxony, 554.
SCHWARZBURG, Principality, 649.
Area, population, division, 649.
Public Instruction, 649.
1. Rudolstadt, 649.
* 2. Sondershausen, 650. ~~
Schwerin, gymnasium, 315.
Scripture, Selections from, to be memorized, 41$.
Secondary Instruction, defined, 135, 709.
Secondary schools in Germany, 843.
Statistics, 846. (See Austria, c.)
Sectarian Schools. (See Confessional.)
Sectarian Instruction, 791, 800.
Secular Schools, 800, 801.
Semler, Charles, and Real Schools, 501.
Senses, training of, 778.
Serfdom, and Schools. 25, 368.
Sexes, separation of, 229, 304, 386.
Seven Years War, 549.
Seebeck, Prof., plan of gymnnsium, 623.
Sewing and knitting school, 305.
Schrotter, 356.
Shepherd Schools, in Lippe-Detmold, 304.
Sickness of Teacher, 473.
Siber, Adam, Nomenclature, 541.
Silk Culture, 353.
Silesia, in Austria, 23, 61.
Silesia, in Prussia, 3ti8, 428.
Regulations for Catholic Schools, 869.
Simultaneous method, 810.
Singing in Common Schools.
Austria, 31, 54. Himover, 256.
Bnvaria, 170. Prussia, 375, 808.
Baden, 130, 145. Saxe-Gotha, 591.
Wurtemberg, 685.
Singing Associations, 364, 696.
Sisters, teaching orders of, 176, 233.
Slavonia, 23, 61.
Slate and Pencil, early uses of, 779.
Schneider, founder of Rescue House, 620.
Spelling, 169, 683, 806.
Prussian Regulations of 1763. 871.
Special Schools in Germany, 850.
Spendou, in Austria, 34.
Spener, Jacob, 548.
St. Michaels Sunday, Discourse, 862,
Collections to be taken up, 862.
Stralsund, early schools in, 372.
Regulations for, 372, 376.
State and Schools, 27, 743. 799, 892.
State authorities, in Public Instruction.
Austria, 892. Hesse Darmstadt, 283.
Baden, 126. Prussia, 411,799.
Bavaria, 162. Saxony, 551.
Brunswick, 298. Snxe-Coburg, 901.
Hanover, 298. Wiirtemburg, 664, 705.
Statistics of Schools generally, 744, 846, 850.
Steiger, E., German Pedagogy, 904.
Stein, School Policy for Prussia, 361.
Steinmetz, 338, 302.
Labors in behalf of Normal School, 339.
Stenography, regular study in Gymnasium, 500.
Real schools, 104.
Stephens, Prof. L., on Normal schools, 836.
Stettin, School policy, 361, 859.
Stiehl, Frederick, 416, 422.
Needlework in girls' schools, 422.
Author of Prussian Regulations of 1854, 416.
Stowe, Calvin E., 745.
Strehl, John, 40.
Sturm, John, 237.
Stnttgardt schools, 859.
Burgher School, 721.
Pedagogium, 710.
Real Gymnasium, 720.
Styria, 23, 61.
Subjects of Elementary Instruction, 745, 767.
Too many and too diffuse, 158, 706.
Necessity of limitation and concentration, 808.
Subjects of Secondary Instruction, 85, 139, 185, 249,
492,715.
Subjects of Real School Instruction, 273, 501, 720.
Summer Schools, 269, 285.
Sunday Schools and Lessons, 161,670,862.
Austria, 105. Hanover, 229,
Baden, 131. Hesse-Cassel, 270. i
Bavaria, 161. Prussia, 357, 862.
Superannuated Teachers, 232, 305, 899. t
ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN GERMANY.
915
Superintendence,
(See State Authorities, Provincial, Municipal.)
Superintendents of Church, 867.
Supplementary Schools and Instruction, 633.
Support of Schools,
Austria, 43. Prussia, 528, 520, 758.
Baden, 134. Saxony, 552.
Bavaria, 166, 183. Saxon Principalities, 595,
Brunswick, 210. 630.
Hanover, 226, 229. Wurtemberg, 563, 727.
Suvern, School-Counsellor, 440.
Superior Primary school, 758.
Surgery, schools of, 526, 850.
Swedish influence in Pomerania, 380.
Tacitus, on Germany, cited, 375.
Tatel, or Blackboard, 865.
Taxation, teachers' exemption from, 133, 232.
Taxation for School purposes, 663.
Teacher, particulars respecting office^of,
Absence, leave of, 288, 472.
Account-book, 213.
Appointment, 174,465, 699.
Appointment document, 465.
As they were, 374, 833.
Associations, 695.
Certificates, grades of, 164.
Civil Status, 160, 696.
Commons, 320, 822.
Conferences, 174, 695.
Curriculum Vita;, 470.
Degrees, 481.
Designation, 192.
Dwelling, 320, 821.
Examination, 470.
Garden, 821.
House of Instruction, 471.
Installation, 231, 464.
Journey for School Inspection, 822.
Legal ideal, 173, 382, 464, 705,819.
Library, 888.
Life Insurance, 215.
Military Service, 464.
Misdemeanors, 472. .
Moral Power, 464, 465, 613.
Oath, 231,465.
Oath formula, 465.
Orphans, 432.
Outside occupations, 353, 699.
Pasturage, 632, 822.
Pensions, 51,474.
Permanent, 697.
Periodicals, 888.
Prize Essay, 696.
Qualifications, 813.
Rank, 471, 613, 723.
Salaries, 473, 697, 888.
Substitutes, 468, 889.
Title, 470.
Trial year, 489.
Widows, 432.
Teachers' Associations, 32, 174,695, 836.
Teachers' classification and designation.
Adjuncti, 564.
Apprentice, 236.
Assistants, 95, 175, 613. ,
Associates, 7J3.
Cantor, 172, 215.
Catechist, 47.
Choir-rector, 172.
Chorister, 215.
Colleague, 564, 470.
Custodian, 861.
Director, 47, 465.
German Teachers, 172.
Head master, 470.
Parish Clerk, 375.
Parish School Teacher, 215. ,
Practitioners, 274.
Professor, 47, 471, 552, 564.
Rector, 564, 470.
Teachers' classification and designation,
School-Teachers, 172.
Uiriversities of Germany,
Oberleherer, 470.
Ordinarius, 83, 471, 563.
Preceptor, 713.
Principal, 713.
Superior and Inferior, 470.
Under Teacher, 47, 470.
Teachers' Elementary, how trained, in
Anhalt, 18, 20. Nassau, 324.
Austria, 58, 61, 887. Oldenburg, 331.
Bnden, 514. Prussia, 433, 862,
Bavaria, 173. Saxony, 557.
Brunswick, 213. Saxe-Altenburg, 569.
Hanover, 223. Saxe-Coburg, 598.
Hesse-Cassel, 271. Saxe-Meiningen, 611.
Hesse-Darmstadt, 286. Saxe-Weimar, 630, 818.
Lippe-Detmold, 305. Schleswig-Holstein, 641.
Lippe-Schaumburg, 307. Schwazburg, 650.
Mecklenburg, 3 13. 322. Wurtemberg, 691.
Teachers' Secondary, how trained, 484, 843.
Teachers' Seminaries, 382, 814. (Sec Normal School,)
Technical Schools and Instruction, 195, 599, 853.
Frederick II regulation, 872.
Terence, as a Text-book, 542.
Terms and Vacation, 91.
Text-books.
Austria, 52, 60, 74, 886. Hanover, 252.
Bavaria, 201. Prussia, 504, 866.
Theology, faculties of, 840.
Course of Studies, 848.
Students, in School matters, 216, 240, 870.
Theresa Maria, 26, 69, 109.
Theresian Institutions, 109.
Thiersch, Professor, on Prussian Schools, 444.
Thilo, Professor, Author of Article, 335,423.
Thinking Exercises, 788, 809.
Thirty Years' War, 322, 549.
Thou, tn school parlance, 238, 293.
Thun Count, 37, 79.
Time Table.
Burgher Schools, 57, 150, 737.
Gymnasium, 90, 139, 185, 256, 290, 495, 496, 596,
715.
Primary Schools, 52, 128, 328.
Real Schools, 99, 257, 296, 502, 644.
Toga Monastica, 712.
Toleration Act in Austria, 30.
Town Schools, 372, 575, 755.
Trade Schools, 167, 270, 295, 853.
Training Schools for Teachers, 896.
Transylvania, 23, 66, 119.
Trapp, Professor of Pedagogics, 437.
Traveling Students, 533.
Traveling Teachers, 472, 719, 822.
Trieste, Schools, 859.
Trivial Schools in Austria, 28, 32, 40, 61.
Trial year, 94, 489.
Trotzendorf, at Goldberg, 451.
Tubingen University, 846.
Gymnasium, 715. Real school, 720.
Philological Seminary, 721.
Tuition in Elementary Gymnasial Real School,
Austria, 55 ' 90 104
Baden, 127 138 150
Bavaria, 175 183 200
Brunswick, 209 217
Hanover, 227 249
Hesse-Cassel, 268 275 273
Hesse-D'inst, 282 290 297
Prussia, 428 473 502
Snxe-Coburg, 592 596
Wurtemberg, 729 729 729
Turnastalten, 364, 483, 500.
Understanding of lessons, 130, 589.
Upper Austria, 62, 66, 95.
University of, 846.
Universities of Germany, 847
Foundation, faculties," professors, students, 846.
916
ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN GERMANY.
Vacations in schools.
Austria, 52. Hanover, 229, 259.
Buden, 128. Saxony, 558.
Bavaria, 1(58. Snxe-Altenberg, 371.
Brunswick, 269. Wurtemberg, 686.
Vechta, Normal school, 332.
Venice, 35, 75.
Vernacular, how taught in, 101, 131, 177.
Versification, Latin in 1580, 547.
Veterinary Schools, 853.
Village schools, 378.
Prussia, 403, 424, 809. Brunswick, 212.
Vienna, Statistics of schools, 37, 859.
Pingram of schools, and studies, 22.
Salaries of teachers, 50.
Seminary for secondary teachers, 75, 93.
Commercial Academy and Real school, 98, 8.57.
Physical Institute, 93.
University, 846.
Vine Culture, school for, 851.
Vitzhnm, gymnasium, 563.
Vogel, Dr., "557.
Vocalization, 769.
Volksschulen, 554, 798.
Voluntary principle in education, 703.
Vor Pomerania, 371.
Von Massow, 354.
Voss, visit to Pestalozzi, 356.
Wagner, Gymnasial Programmes. 179.
Wniblinger, training school for rescue teaching, 671.
WALDKCK, Principality, 651-2.
Area, population, history, 651.
Public instruction, 651.
War, influence on the virtues, as well as vices, 442.
Walther, system of school management, 21.
Weber. Tobias, 323.
Weidemann, 634.
Weimar, Schools in, 632.
Sophia Foundation, 633.
Weingarten, Orphan Home, 675.
Wiesbaden, Schools, 859.
Westphalia, Province, 454.
Weissenfels, Normal school at, 371.
Wimmer, Dr. H. on Schools of Saxony, 554.
Schools of Waldeck, 651.
Wendler, bequest for free school, 550.
Wettin, House of, 531.
Widows of teachers, provision for.
Austria, 51,85. Mecklenburg, 317.
Baden, 135. Nassau, 325.
Bavaria, 175, 193. Prussia. 410, 431, 474.
Brunswick, 215. Saxony, 554.
Hanover, 232, 261. Saxe-Altenburg, 569.
Lippe-Detmold, 305. Saxe-Coburg, 594, 898.
Lippe-Shaumberg, 307. Wurtemberg, 658, 700, 711.
Wiese, Dr. L., Prussia High school, 446. 501, 844.
Gymnasial counsellor, 446, 552.
William I., 606.
Winter schools, 862.
Wismar, higher city school, 316.
Wittenberg, University, 535.
Winrich von Kniprode, in 1351 449.
Wolf, Commercial academy, 98.
Wolf, F. A., 475, 484.
Wollner, 438, 799.
Religious edict, of 1788, 439.
Worship, Ministry of, 551.
Written examinations, 478.
Writing Schools, 208, 735.
Written Exercises, 87.
Writing, in schools of,
Austria, 58, 103. Brunswick, 208.
Baden, 131, 139. Prussia, 770, 777, 807.
Bavaria, 169, 185. Wurtemberg, 770.
Writing, ornamental, 777.
WURTEMBERO, Kingdom of, 653. , 3
Public instruction, historical, 654.
1. Elementary schools, 654.
School code of 1559, 654.
Teachers, salaries, training, 658, 690.
Statistics, 677, 744.
2. Secondary schools, 709.
Latin schools, Cloister schools, 709,845.
3. Special and Technical schools, 730,850.
Wurtzburg, university, 846.
Yard to Schoolhouse, 760.
Year, school in,
Austria, 103.
Baden, 147.
Bavaria, 191.
Prussia, 503. x
Saxony, 557.
Wurtemberg, 686.
Young Children, methods of teaching, 768, 778.
Arithmetic, 781. Natural Sciences, 789.
Common Things, 789. Observation, 778.
Drawing, 779, 784. Reading, 781.
Geography, 786. Religion, 771, 791, 802.
Language, 778. Thinking, 788.
Zedlitz. 351, 437.
Supreme School Board in 1787, 437.
Zeller, on Pestalozzi 's method, 657.
Zerbst, school for Girls, 19.
Gymnasium, 19.
Pedagium, 19.
Zerrener, 369.
Views of Pestalozzi, 370.
Westphalia Children's Friend, 369.
Zurich, university, 846.
SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION. 5
SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION : Contributions to the History of the Universi-
ties of Germany, with an account of the Systems and Institutions of
Superior Instruction in other countries. 912 pages. $5.50. Repub-
lished from Barnard's American Journal of Education, with additions.
CONTENTS.
I. GERMAN STATES.
PAG*.
iNTRODUCTrON , 3
I. THE GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. From the German of Karl von Raumer 9
I. Historical 9
1. Introduction. Universities of Salerno, Bologna, and Paris 9
2. List of German Universities, with date of their foundation 10
3. The German Universities in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth centuries 11
A. Charters, or Letters of Foundation 11
B. The Pope and the Universities 12
C. The Emperor and the Universities 16
D. Organization of the earliest German Universities 17
a. The Four Nations. Four Faculties. Rector. Chancellor. Endowments. 18
b. The Four Faculties 20
1. Faculty of Arts 20
2. Faculty of Theology 21
3. Faculty of Canon and Civil Law.. 24
4. Faculty of Medicine .{ 26
c. Customs and Discipline 27
4. University of Wittenberg and its relations to the earlier Universities 30
5. History of the Customs of the Universities in the Seventeenth Century 37
A. The Deposition 42
B. Pennalism 52
6. History of the Universities in the Eighteenth Century 52
A. Nationalism. National Societies 52
B. Students' orders 56
7. History of the Universities in the Nineteenth Century. 58
Introduction ; the author's academical experience 59
A. Entrance at Halle, 1799 ; a preliminary view 59
B. Gottingen; Easter 1801 to Easter 1803 59
C. Halle ; Easter 1803 to Sept. 1805 68
D. Breslau; 1810 to 1817 76
a. Establishment of the Jena Burschenschaft, July 18, 1816. Wartburg Festi
val, Oct. 18, 1817 80
b. Establishment of the general Burschenschaft, in 1818 91
E. Breslau, 1817 to 1819 92
a. Sand 102
b. The consequences of Sand's crime. Investigations. Breaking up of the
societies. Destruction of the Burschenschaft 124
F. Halle, 1819 to 1823 136
Conclusion 153
II. APPENDIX 155
I. Bull of Pius II., creating University of Ingoldstadt 157
II. List of Lectures in the Faculty of Arts in 1366 159
III. Bursaries 160
IV. The"Comment" of the National Societies 161
V. Statutes 165
A. Constitution of the General German Burschenschaft 165
B. The Jena Burschenschaft 168
VI. The Wartburg Letters 183
VII. Bahrdt with the iron forehead ' 186
VIII. Substance of Tubingen Statutes for organizing a students' committee 187
(J THE GERMAN UNIVERSITIES.
ftko*.
IX. Extract from an Address of Prof. Heyder, at Jena, in 1607 188
X. Synonyms of " Beanug" , .. 191
XL Meyfart's "rfretinua" or Student Life in the Sixteenth Century 191
XII. Grant of Privileges by Leopold 1. to the University of Halle 192
XIII. Work* referred to 253
XIV. The Universities in the summer of 1853 198
HI. ACADEMICAL TREATISES 201
1. Lecture system. Dialogic instruction ... 201
2. Examinations '. ; 206
3. Obligatory lectures. Optional attendance. Lyceums. Relations of the philo-
sophical faculty and their lectures, to those of the professional studies. 213
4. Personal relations of the professors and students 22t)
5. Small and large universities. Academies 236
G. University instruction in elementary natural history 241
7. Student songs 245
Conclusion 049
INDBX 255
II. THE GERMAN UNIVERSITIES COMPARED WITH THOSE OF FRANCK AND ENGLAND.
By Prof. H. Von Sybel, Bonn 259
French idea of Superior Instruction. Renan 260
Isolated courses and Lectures. College of France 260
English idea of Superior Instruction 260
Continuation of Subjects and Methods of Grammar Schools 2GO
German union of original Research and thorough Instruction 262
Relations of Universities to Gymnasia 262
Defects of German Universities 266
HI. UNIVERSITIES or THE MIDDLE AGES. By Prof. Charles Savigny, Berlin 271 330
INTRODUCTION. Influence on the civilization of Europe 273
1. UNIVERSITIES or ITALY. Origin and Peculiarities 275
(1.) Bologna. Earliest Statutes. Rector. Faculties. Nations. Degrees 275
(2.) Padua. (3) Pisa. (4.) Vicenza. (5.) Vicelli. (6.) Arezzo 275
(7.) Ferrara. (8.) Rome. (9.) Naples. (10.) Perugia. (11.) Modena, Pavia, 296
2. UNIVERSITIES or FRANCE 309
(1.) Paris. Oldest Documents. Peculiarities. Teachers. Colleges 309
(2.) Montpellier. (3.) Orleans. (4.) Other French Universities 31G
3. Universities of England, Scotland, Spain, Portugal 324
Remarks on the older universities 325
Name. Relations to the Church and State. Chancellor 327
Law Lectures. Subjects. Relation of Students to Teachers 327
IV. UNIVERSITIES PAST AND PRESENT, by Dr. DoIIinger, Munich 331
Meaning and origin of the University 333
Characteristic features of the ancient Schools of Italy and France 334
Late development of the German High School 335
Rapid Multiplication. Religious Agitation. Thirty Years' War 337
New University without territorial circumspection 343
Reorganization of the University of Vienna 345
Common bond of all Faculties and Sciences 347
University organization and Teaching in other European States 348
France Great Britain United States Italy 349
Spain Holland Scandinavia Russia 350
Universities the seed-beds and workshops of German thought 351
German Faculty of Historical Research .* 353
Quadruple Task of German High Schools 355
Contributions to Scientific and Literary Production 357
Chief acquisition of University Training in the Historical Sense 359
V. STATISTICS FACULTIES, PROFESSORS, STUDENTS 361
VI. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT or PARTICULAR INSTITUTIONS 385
SUPZI1IOR INSTRUCTION. f
II. ITALY.
I. HISTORICAL DEVKLOPMENT OF SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION 453
1. Higher Education in Ancient Greece 453
State policy The Sophists Public Life Attic Oratory 456
Schools of Athens Pluto, Socrates, Aristotle 462
Museum of Alexandria its Rector, Professors, Students 4G4
Rhodes Antioch Tarsus 466
2. Higher Education among the Romans 407
Teachers of Rhetoric and Grammar. Study of Greek 4G9
Personal Influence. Unconscious Tuition of Eminent Men. Etruvia 474
Athenaeum of the Capital. University of Athens T75
Professors, appointment, salaries and assistants 477
Sophists of the later Roman Empire. Mode of Instruction 481
3. Effects of Christianity on Academic study 486
Octagon or Tetradision of Constantine 487
Theological Seminaries Alexandria Constantinople 488
Roman Law at Rome and Berytus 489
Rule of the Ostrogoths German element 490
4. Differences between Ancient and Modern Academic Institutions 492
Corporate privileges Academic degrees 463
Faculty of Arts, associated with Theology and Law 495
Special Sciences Canon Law Medicine Roman Law 500
Influence of Byzantine Greeks Platonic element Arabic culture 505
Internal Economy of Ancient and Modern Academic life 506
Emancipation of the Faculty of Arts Classical Learning 507
Notes Museum of Alexandria Literary Clubs, or Symposia 510
II. CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS as distinguished from Pagan 513
St. Basil and St. Gregory of Nazianzus at Athens 515
Cassiodorus at Vivaria 517
St. Benedict and the Benedictines 519
Monte Cassino Summary of the Rule of St. Benedict 521
Confirmation of Rule Guarantees and Exemptions of Pope Gregory VII 524
Monasteries as Schools, and Repositories and Disseminators of Learning . . 525
Cathedra] Schools Training of Theological Students 527
Order of St.. Dominic Society of Jesus Council of Trent 529
III. REVIVAL OF THE LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES OF GREECE AND ROME 541
1. Literary studies of the Middle Ages Intellectual Life 545
Trivium, Qiiadrivium, Mathematics, Astronomy, Natural History 548
Roger Bacon Lay of Nibelungen 549
2. Dante and Boccaccio Use of the Vernacular 550
Petrarch precursor of Philological Poetry aversion to scholasticism 556
3. Growth of Classical Learning Florence 505
John of Ravenna and Chrysoloras Guarino and Vittorino di Feltre 567
Cosmo di Medici Lorenzo Pope Nicholas V. First printed books 570
Platonic Academy at Florence Marsilius, Ficinus, George of Trebezond 572
Francis Philelphus Poggius Laurentius Valla Bessarion Gaza 573
Lorenzo di Medici Landinus Politianus Pious, Count of Mirandola 577
Leo X. the dark side of his Pontificate Machiavelli and Ariosto 586
Retrospect Influence on Germany, France, and England 592
IV. SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION IN THE KINGDOM OF ITALY 595
I. HISTORICAL NOTICE OF EXISTING UNIVERSITIES 597
1. State Universities 598
Bologna, Cagliari, Catania, Genoa, Mnceralta, Messina, Modena, Naples, 603
Palermo, Puma, Padua, Pavia, Pisa, Sassari, Siena, Turin 609
2. Non-government Universities 616
Camerino, Ferrara, Perugia, Urbino 616
3. Superior Institutes 619
4. Higher Learning in the city of Rome 692
II. ADMINISTRATION, FACULTIES, PROFESSORS, STUDENTS, AND STATISTICS 621
III. TEACHING ORDERS OF THK CATHOLIC CHURCH... 641
8
SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION
III. THE NETHERLANDS.
I. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 673
1. Schools and Institutions of the Church 677
2. Instruction of Eminent Teachers 685
3. Universities 705
II. SUPERIOR AND PROFESSIONAL INSTRUCTION 713
I. HOLLAND. II. BELGIUM 713
IV. FRANCE.
T HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 723
1. Schools und Institutions of the Church 723
2. Universities and Colleges 729
3. Imperial University. 737
II. SUPERIOR AND PROFESSIONAL INSTRUCTION 745
1. Faculties (1.) Literature and Science. (2.) Theology. (3.) Law. (4.) Medicine. 745
2. Institutions outside of the Faculties. (1 ) College of France. (2.) Oriental Lan-
guages, &c 747
3. Practical School of Higher Studies 749
III. STATISTICS OF INSTITUTIONS AND EXPENDITURES 757
Guizot's Ministry of Superior Instruction 707
V. SWITZERLAND.
I. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT : 803
II. CANTONAL INSTITUTIONS OF SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION 805
VI. DENMARK, NORWAY, SWEDEN.
I. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 811
II. INSTITUTIONS OF SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION 812
I. DENMARK. It. NORWAY. III. SWEDEN 812
VII. RUSSIA.
I. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 819
II. INSTITUTIONS AND STATISTICS OF SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION 825
VIII GREECE AND TURKEY.
I. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 835
II. INSTITUTIONS AND STATISTICS OF SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION 835
I. GREECE. II. TURKEY 837
IX. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
I. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 843
1. Institutions of the Church 843
2. Arabic Culture 845
3. Universities 849
II. INSTITUTIONS AND STATISTICS OF SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION 853
I. SPAIN. II. PORTUGAL 859
X. GREAT BRITAIN.
I. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 867
II. INSTITUTIONS OF SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION 871
I. ENGLAND II. SCOTLAND. III. IRELAND 871
XI. AMERICAN STATES.
I. HISTORICAL NOTICE 883
II. INSTITUTIONS OF SUPERIOR AND PROFKSSIONAL INSTRUCTION 885
I. UNITED STATES. II. BRITISH DOMINION. III. OTHER AMERICAN STATES.... 885
1
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