OF THE UNIVEBSITY EDDCATIOH LIBH, ^ ^. < ns ^ k A COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC FOR HIGHER SCHOOLS BY SARA E. H. LOCKWOOD Author of " Lessons in English " AND MARY ALICE EMERSON, B.A. Hbad of the Department of English in the State Normal School Bridgewater, Massachusetts BOSTON, U.S.A. GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS 1902 '•■f: Copyright, 1901 By GINN & COMPANY ALL RIGHTS RESERVED TO OUR PUPILS WHOSE APPRECIATIVE SYMPATHY HAS MADE OF OUR SCHOOLROOM DAYS A DELIGHTFUL EXPERIENCE IDDCAITIOI llBB. ^?7 U2l 7 PREFACE Certain demands may fairly be made of any text- book that purposes to serve the cause of good teaching and aims to win an honorable place in the classroom. Two of these demands take the form of the categorical imperative : the book must be practical, and it must be adequate in scope and content. To these two should be added a third — the book must be interesting ; for to sen- tence students to the use of a dull and lifeless text-book is, often, to condemn them to a lifelong distaste for the subject of that particular book. Then, in these days of many books, the newcomer may fairly be asked to show some traits of its own such as stamp personality on a man or a woman, — traits which will mark it out at once from other books in its class. Two of the important characteristics which give this book its distinct individuality are : (1) The cumulative method of treatment shown in the text^ in the illustrative examples^ and especially in the exercises ; and (2) The con- stant emphasis laid on the pupiVs own thinking and writing. These features are particularly well illustrated in the treatment of the paragraph. In the early part of the book the single paragraph is made the unit of writing ; then, naturally and gradually, related paragraphs are introduced; and, finally, these develop into the longer theme. The student at first gains a clear understanding of the meaning of the paragraph by observing its use in V mRI 5S22 VI PREFACE the selections given for retelling another person's thought ; next by the study of its relation to his own notes and outlines ; and then by using it in his own writing. Still later in the course the pupil takes up the analytical and detailed study of the paragraph and its essential quali- ties — unity, coherence, and emphasis. Throughout the work on the paragraph, as in all other subjects treated, the student is led to develop for himself a simple and natural theory and practice of writing. The book is divided into four parts to mark the natural stages in the development of the subject, and to aid teachers in the arrangement of their work. Part I begins with reviews of Grammar and Punctuation. The exer- cises in these reviews are so arranged as to furnish valu- able written work ; but if it is desired, the chapters may be used primarily for reference. This Part also includes the necessary instruction for retelling another person's thought, and for the expression of the pupil's own thought in simple description from observation and in simple nar- ration from experience. Part II treats description and narration in a more advanced way, emphasizing the use of the imagination in producing certain desired impressions. There is also a thorough discussion of the theme and its preparation. Part III deals with the parts of the completed theme — the paragraph, the sentence, and the word. The pupil's critical and analytical view of his own work is appro- priate at this stage of his writing, and correlates well with his work in the college requirements. Part IV treats the prose forms of composition, espe- cially the oration and the debate, with considerable PREFACE Vll detail. It also furnishes interesting composition work in connection with the analysis of a typical novel and drama, and with the study of poetic forms. Chapter XIX on Figures of Speech is a reference chapter, to be used whenever needed. Other less prominent but particularly helpful features of the book are : the sections on translating into English, on note-taking, on making outlines, on the writing of examination papers, on the use of the library, and on the use of the dictionary. Topical headings, summaries at the close of chapters, cross-references, pictures, and the index are also important. In giving the work to the public we desire to express grateful appreciation of the encouragement and help rendered by various teachers. For valuable suggestions and critical supervision while these pages were going through the press, we are especially indebted to Mr. Frederick D. Nichols, recently in charge of the Depart- ment of English in the Academy of the University of Chicago, Morgan Park, Illinois ; Dr. Laura E. Lockwood, Instructor in Literature and English in Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass. ; Mrs. Emily Meader Easton, recently Head of the English Department of the Classical High School, Providence, Rhode Island; and Mr. Frank M. Bronson, Academy Assistant Professor in the University of Chicago. THE AUTHORS. August 15, 1901. SPECIAL MARKS OF CORRECTION In connection with the use of the dictionary, the marks of correction used by proof readers (see § 228, 11) are recommended for use in the criticism of themes. The following list of abbreviations provides other marks of correction commonly used : Amb ambiguity. Awk awkwardness. Brb barbarism. Cd need of condensation. C lack of coherence. Em lack of emphasis. Euph lack of euphony. Exp need of expansion. Fig faulty figure. Gram. " poor grammar. Imp impropriety. Obs obscurity. P poor punctuation. Red redundancy. Sp poor spelling. Taut tautology. Tr need of transposition. U lack of unity. Var lack of variety. Verb verbosity. ^ ? false or doubtful statement. ! I pretentious language. viii CONTENTS Part I CHAPTER PAGE I. Review of English Grammar 1 II. Review of Punctuation 47 III. Retelling Another Person's Thought ... 80 IV. Expression of the Pupil's Own Thoughts . . 104 V. Letter-Writing 129 Part II VI. Imagination in Description 151 VII. Imagination in Narration 166 VTII. Collection of Material for a Theme . . . 179 tX. Development of the Outline and the Thkmk . 195 X. Essential Qualities of the Theme 204 Part III XI. The Paragraph 222 XII. Development of the Isolated Paragraph . . 240 XIII. Related Paragraphs 261 XIV. The Sentence 272 XV. Words 302 Part IV XVI. Important Forms of Prose 345 XVII. Critical Study of the Novel and the Dhama as Literary Forms 393 XVm. Poetic Forms 412 XIX. Figures of Speech 424 ix COMPOSITION AND EHETORIC Part I CHAPTER I A REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR " Grammar is the humble, oft-despised, but truly loyal handmaid of thought's best expression." I. INTRODUCTION 1. Language. The word " language " is derived from the Latin lingua^ meaning tongue. Its first meaning is, there- fore, the expression of thought by the use of the tongue. But there are other ways by which thought may be com- municated. For example, some of the North American Indians have a method of conversing by gestures, without speaking at all ; sea captains often "• wig-wag," i.e. talk with one another at a distance by signals ; the Egyptians exchanged ideas by means of '-'- hieroglyphics " ; and all civilized people use written signs. In its broadest sense, therefore, language means all the ways in which men make known their thoughts. In the common use of the term, language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or written words. 1 ^ COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 2. Words. When we speak or write the word '^ horse," we as truly make a sign, as a deaf-mute does when he expresses the idea *' horse " by his fingers. Our sign for horse cannot be understood by any one who does not know the English language; for different languages have differ- ent words — i.e. signs — for the same idea. Words are signs of ideas. Many words suggest distinct ideas. Ex. Farmer, cat, dog, house, rose, call up to our minds pictures ot persons, animals, or things. Walk, write, sing, suggest kinds of action. " Yellow, blue, tall, beautiful, suggest qualities belonging to persons or things. If, however, we wish to say ''A boy is in the tree," we cannot express our idea perfectly by saying "boy . . . tree," still less by saying " boy . . . is . . . tree." That is, it is not enough to use simply words which express distinct ideas. We need also certain other words, — a, in^ the^ — to call up a clear picture to the mind. So we see that words which connect or limit other words and show their relations are needed in the expression of complete thoughts. 3. Sentences. Words may be joined to form statements or sentences. A sentence is a combination of words that expresses a thought and that contains a subject and a predicate. The subject is that part of the sentence which represents the person or the thing of which something is said. The predicate is that part of the sentence which represents what is said of a person or a thing. The subject is usually a name, or it contains a name with other modifying words. The predicate must contain a word that has the power of asserting or stating something. In the sentence, " The boy ran away," ran is the asserting . A REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 3 word. In the sentence, **The apple is red," is is the word that has the asserting power, but red represents the idea that is to be asserted. This is sometimes called the "predicate idea," or attribute, and red is called the "predicate term," or attribute of the sentence. 4. Construction. The relations of words to each other in sentences are shown in three ways: (1) by their form ; (2) by their arrangement ; (3) by the use of connectiny words like and^ ivhen^ in, for^ etc. In the expression "John's T^ook," the form of the word "John's" shows the relation of " John " to the book ; that is, it shows that he is the possessor of the book. In the sentence "James struck Thomas," the order of the words helps to show that "James" performed the action and that "Thomas" received it. In the expression "The ambition of a soldier," the relation of " ambition " to " soldier " is shown by the word "of." The relation in which a word stands to other words in connected speech is called its construction. 5. Grammar. Some words change their form to express different ideas, and the same word may have different constructions in different expressions. The study that treats of the forms and the constructions of words and sentences is called grammar. Grammar does not make the laws of a language ; it only states them in an orderly way. 6. Value of the study of grammar. Grammar does not accomplish its full purpose unless it becomes a practical aid to writing. While it is possible to use the English language correctly without studying grammar, still such 4 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC study ought to hasten the process of acquiring skill in composition. The following review is intended to empha- size the most important usages of the English language now approved by the best writers and speakers. XL CLASSIFICATION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 7. Number and names of the parts of speech. There are eight parts of speech, or classes into which words are divided according to their use. * These parts of speech are called nouns, pro- nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunc- tions, and interjections. 8. A noun is the name of a person, a place, or a thing. 1. A proper noun is the name by which we distinguish a particular person, place, or thing from others of the same kind. Ex. Henry, Shakespeare, Boston, Declaration of Independ- ence, Central Park, the Mayflower. 2. A common noun is usually the name which may be applied to any one of a whole class of persons, places, or things. Ex. Boy, city, bird, pencil. Some kinds of common nouns are given special names. 1. Names of qualities and general ideas are called abstract nouns. Ex. Beauty, goodness, truth, anger, success. 2. Names of groups of persons, animals, or things are called collective nouns. y Ex. Crowd, class, school, army, congregation; flock, herd; fleet, cluster. A REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR b 3. Nouns formed from verbs are called verbal nouns. Ex. Skating is good exercise. To run is fine sport. 9. A pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun. It stands for, but does not name, the person or thing that the noun names. 1. A personal pronoun distinguishes the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or tiling spoken of. Ex. I, you, he, she, it. 2. A relative pronoun refere to some noun or pronoun called an antecedent, and connects the clause introduced by the relative with that antecedent. The most common rela- tive pronouns are who, which, that, what, whoever, ivhichever, and whatever. Who and whoever relate to persons ; ivhich and whichever, to things ; that, to either persons or things. Ex. Sir Walter Scott, who was a famous novelist, was also the author of several notable poems. Water, which is composed of oxygen and hydrogen, is necessary to life. • The book that you want is on tlie table. 3. Who, ivhich, and ivhat, when used to ask questions, are called interrogative pronouns. Ex. Who is there? Which will you have? What do you want? 4. An adjective pronoun is a pronoun whicli can be used as an adjective. The most important adjective pronouns, this and that, are called demonstrative pronouns because they point out. Certain other adjective pronouns are called numeral pronouns. Each is a distributive pronoun. Kx. This is my book. Those are my apples. ^'Many are called, but few are chosen." Each of the debaters is honest in his views. 6 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 10. An adjective is a w-"»rd that describes or limits a noun or pronoun. 1. A descriptive adjective assigns a quality. Ex. A large apple was given me by a H/it/ farmer. 2. The definite article the and the indefinite article a (or any are adjectives, because they are used to limit nouns. Ex. The captain praised his men. A captain was killed in battle. 3. A pronomhial adjective is an adjective that can be used as a pronoun. The most important pronominal adjectives are the demonstrative^ distributive^ and numeral adjectives. Ex. That teacher has given several oranges to each boy in his class. Every man in both armies may be a true patriot. 4. A proper adjective is an adjective formed from a proper noun. Ex. Scottish, Roman. 11. A verb is a word that asserts something concerning a per- son, place, or thing. Alone or together with other words it may form the predicate of a sentence. Ex. Go, runs. A group of words w^hich performs this office is called a verb phrase. Ex. May do, might have been seen. 1 An is used before words beginning with a vowel or a silent h ; a before other words, including those beginning with the consonant sound ot y ov w. A REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 7 1. A weak (or regular) verb is a verb which forms its past and past participle by adding ed, d, or t to the present. Ex. Present Past Past Participle fill filled filled compare compared compared dwell dwelt dwelt 2. A strong (or irregular) verb is a verb which forms its past and past participle by changing the stem vowel of the present tense without adding any ending. Ex. Present, sing : past, sang ; past participle, sung. 3. A transitive verb expresses action and usually needs to be followed by some noun or pronoun in order to com- plete its meaning. This noun or pronoun is the direct object of the verb. Ex. The boy learned his lesson. 4. An intransitive verb cannot have a dii'ect object. Ex. The boy came to school on his bicycle. 6. An auxiliary verb is a verb that helps another verb to assert action. The most common auxiliary verbs are be^ have, do, shall, will, may, might, should, etc. is ) Ex. The lesson V well learned. was ) The pupils have gone home. I shall go to the concert to-night. O COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 6. A copulative^ verb is a verb which connects an attribute or predicate term with the subject ; as, " God 18 good," " The apple seems mellow." Be is the usual copulative verb; but seem, become, and a few other verbs are similarly used. 7. A defective verb is a verb which lacks many of the usual verb forms. Ex. Ought, must, and most auxiharies. 8. An impersonal verb is a verb which has no definite subject. It usually stands as the subject. Ex. It rains. It seems. 12. An adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. The most common kinds of adverbs are those of time, place, manner, and degree. Adverbs of time, place, and manner usually modify verbs ; adverbs of degree usually modify adjectives or other adverbs. Ex. The books are now on the shelves. (Time.) There is the man you want. (Place.) The ship sailed slowly away. (Manner.) This apple is very large. (Degree.) 13. A preposition is a word which shows the relation between a noun or pronoun and some other word or words in the sentence. Ex. The boy ran away from school, and caught five trout in a brook on his father's farm. 1 In distinction from copulative verbs, all other verbs are called by some grammarians attributive verbs. A REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 9 14. A conjunction is a word which connects words, phrases, or clauses. 1. A coordinate conjuiictioii connects words or groups of words of the same rank. Ex. Mr. Brown and Mr. Smith are neighbors. It seems easy for some people to say one thing and to mean another. William went to the seashore, but his sister went to the mountains. 2. A subordinate conjunction connects groups of words of unequal rank ; usually a subordinate clause with a principal clause (see § 39, 2). Ex. We missed the train because he was late. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. If you see Margaret to-day, please give her this book. 3. Correlative conjunctions are conjunctions that are used in pairs. The correlatives most often used are either . . . or; neither . . . 7ior. In a similar way a few conjunctions are paired with other words. Ex. Both . . . and ; not only . . . but also. Note. — For the position of correlatives in the sentence, see § 209. Ex. Both the President and the Vice-President of the United States are hard-working men. Neither Harry nor Richard has translated his Latin lesson. Either you must take back what you have just said, or we can no longer be friends. Not only his duty, hut also his inclination, prompts him to be kind to his mother. 10 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 15. An interjection is a word which expresses surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other strong feeling. Ex. Pshaw I why did you do that? Hurrah for John Grey ! Alas ! you have done him a greater injustice than you know. EXERCISE In the following quotations, tell to what part of speech each word belongs : 1. At my coming back, I shot at a great bird, which I saw upon a tree on the side of a great wood. I believe mine was the first gun that had been fired there since the creation of the world. — Defoe. • 2. Sweet are the uses of adversity, Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous. Wears yet a precious jewel in his head ; And this our life, exempt from public haunt, Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, Sermons in stones, and good in everything. Shakespeare. II Write a sentence in which you use five or more parts of speech. Tell what parts of speech you have illustrated. Ill Write out the following exercises : 1. A sentence in which you use a collective noun, a descriptive adjective, a transitive verb, and an adverb of place. 2. A sentence in which you use a proper noun, a numeral adjective, and a personal pronoun. 3. A sentence in which you use an abstract noun, a relative pro- noun, and a subordinate conjunction. A REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 11 IV In each blank space supply a conjunction, state what kind it is, and tell what it connects; 1. Every man woijld live long ; no man would be old. 2. Iron, lead, ' vgold are metals. 3. ^"; T \ • JVIary ^^4^— Jane was at school yesterday. 4. ' ■- one — — the other of us must give way. 5. '^'^ she had told the truth, .all would have been well. 6. He continued his story, -;> — his listeners were singularly pre- occupied thoughtful. III. CHANGES IK THE FORMS OF PARTS OF SPEECH 16. Inflection. Inflection is the change in the forms of words usually made by adding terminations to the stem or root. Greek, Latin, and most European tongues have many inflections. The same was true of Old English ; but the language has long since dropped most of the inflec- tions, their place being largely supplied for nouns and pronouns by prepositions, and for verbs by auxiliaries. The names of the old inflectional forms are sometimes conveniently used to designate words which have lost their real inflection, but which retain a certain agreement with other words. For instance, the objective case of nouns is as truly gone from the language as the dative. Yet because pronouns have an objective case, nouns to which they refer still have a certain agreement that it is convenient to call the objective case. Again, the relative who has no personal forms ; yet if its antecedent is a 12 COMPOSITION AND BHETORIC personal pronoun its agreement with that determines the person of the verb of which it is the subject ; as, " I who speak," " He who speaks." Except in such instances, it is well to avoid the use of terms which belong more properly to the grammar of the highly inflected Old English. Changes in Nouns and Pronouns 17. Almost all personal forms remaining in the English lan- guage belong to personal pronouns and to their agreement with other words. A verb is said to be in the same person as the noun which is its subject, or a personal pronoun with the noun with which it is in apposition; but the noun seldom changes its form to denote person. The pronoun of thejirst person denotes the speaker. Ex. I, my, me; we, our, us. The pronoun of the second person denotes the person spoken to. Ex. Thou, thy, thee ; you, your. The pronoun of the third person denotes the person spoken of. Ex. He, she, it ; they. 18. Number is the form of a noun or a pronoun which shows whether one or more than one is meant. There are two num- bers, singular and plural. The singular number means but one. Ex. Boy, child, ox ; I, thou, he, she, it ; this, that. . The plural means more than one. Ex. Boys, children, oxen; we, you, they; these, those. Nu.mber belongs to nouns, a few pronouns, the demon- stratives this and that^ and a few verbal forms. A REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 13 19. Some important facts about the plurals of nouns. 1. Most nouns form their plurals by adding 8 to the singular. Singular Plural girl girls book books chair chairs 2. Most nouns ending in s, sA, cA, :r, or » form their plurals by adding es pronounced as another syllable. Singular Plural dress dresses thrush thrushes church churches box boxes adz adzes 3. Most nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant^ form their plurals by changing y to i and adding es. Singular Plural lady ladies baby babies city cities 4. A few nouns ending in ^ — - Prepositions, Con.junctions, and Interjections 33. Prepositions, co}iju7ietions, and interjections do not change their form. 34. Summary of important grammatical principles. After this review of the names of the parts of speech and the changes in their forms, the following summary will aid in correcting the examples of common errors which follow on page 33. 1 . The subject of a verb is in the nominative case ; the subject of an infinitive is in the objective case. 2. A predicate noun or pronoun after the verb he, or any other copulative verb, is in the same case as the subject of that verb. 3. Pronouns agree with their antecedents ifl person, number, and gender. 4. Predicate adjectives should be carefully distinguished from adverbs. 5. Verbs agree with their subjects in person and number. Do not use any word that has no definite or necessary value in a sentence. Use every word that is needed to make clear the con- struction of the other words in a sentence. A REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 33 EXERCISE I Correct the following sentences by the rules which have just been summarized, using common sense where no special rules seem to apply : 1. Your 48 look just like 7s. 2. That style of warfare is of all others most barbarous. 3. A placid river winds between the old and new plantation. 4. Many a farewell tear were shed. 5. The sum of these angles are 180 degrees. 6. This sentence sounds rather queerly, don't it ? 7. They look something alike, to. 8. Take the three first examples in percentage. 9. Teacher, can I please speak to Mary ? 10. Who did the youngest of your two cousins marry? 11. What did you say was the capital of Kansas ? 12. That seems to be the most universal opinion. 13. Among our saddest losses we count friendships which we once believed would never have grown cold. 14. The indulgent father promised that he should think over the plan. 15. I have heard that story of her's no less than a dozen times. 16. Of these four captains, neither showed any litness for the place. 17. Three propositions were made, either of which would have suited me. 18. Either you or I are in the wrong, 19. Let's you and I look over these books. 20. The poet has his faults, which any one professing to give a critical estimate of his works are bound to point out. 21. Some public man was mentioned; I forget whom. 22. Every one was dressed alike. 23. He thinks he knows more than anybody. 24. She watches me like a cat watches a mouse. 34 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC n Fill appropriately the blanks in the following sentences: 1. Here 's egg that by the speckled hen. it little ? 2. What made me think of William Tell was going by the statue of and son. 3. The pen just where he had it. 4. It was the ball we had lost. 5. Don't feel so ; it 's done enough for anybody. 6. How different this village is what I expected 1 7. I bring you a glass of water ? 8. On the table there neatly and handily arranged two long pipes. 9. " No," I, " T knew it was the minute I her." 10. should I see my old friend, Mr. Brown ? 11. You eat it with a spoon you would a custard. 12. eagle is emblem of our glorious Union. 13. A beautiful blue lake hid among the mountains. 14. I will get the prize by some means or . 15. No memoranda of the transaction kept. 16. Scarcely had he spoken the fairy disappeared. 17. T-i-o-n pronounced shun. 18. Where has your uncle ? He is Troy to-day. 19. Her eyes were positively blazing, she was angry. 20. We reached home and after all our misfortunes. 21. Mathematics very difficult for me. 22. The shed is built with twenty-two posts. 23. I am one of those who cannot describe what do not see. 24. The oldest son is a lad I think deserves encouragement. 25. Between you and , I do not like that man. 26. If any one does not know the reason, should ask. 27. I have no doubt he can help you. 28. you go to the post-office to-day ? 29. The man is in feeble state that he hardly stand up. 30. Try remember all these hints. y^ A REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 35 IV. PHRASES 35. We have been studying single words and their uses in sentences. Now we turn to various important groups of words, called phrases. A group of closely connected words that does not contain a subject and a predicate is called a phrase. It is often used as the equivalent of a single part of speech. Phrases are named from their form or from their use. The same phrase may have two names, one from its form and one from its use. 36. Kinds of phrases named from their form. The most important phrases named from their form are preposi- tional, participial, or infinitive phrases. 1. A prepositional phrase is a phrase introduced by a preposition. Ex. You are in the ivay. The ship is at the dock. The guests strolled throuyh the woods. 2. A participial phrase is a phrase introduced by a participle. Ex. !Mr. Carr, seeing his nephew in the room, reproached him bitterly. The man, having finished his work, went home. The work Just completed is very valuable. 3. An infinitive phrade is a phrase introduced by an infinitive. Ex. All that the policeman wants is to capture the thief. To hear his lectures on Democracy would make one think him a true patriot. He told the boy to shut the door. 36 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 37. Kinds of phrases named from their use. Phrases named from their use are noun, adjective, or adverbial phrases. 1. A phrase having the use of a noun is called a noun phrase. An infinitive phrase is often a noun phrase. Ex. To hear his lectures on Democracy would make one think him a true patriot. (Subject of a verb.) ^ All that the policeman wants is to capture the thief. (Predicate nominative.) He told the boy to shut the door. (Object of verb.) 2. A phrase having the use of an adjective is called an adjective phrase. Prepositional j^hrases and participial phrases may be used as adjective phrases. Ex. The keeper of the lighthouse will tell you some interesting stories. (Prepositional adjective phrase.) That large pear, ripening on the tree, looks very tempting. (Participial adjective phrase.) 3. A phrase having the use of an adverb is called an adverbial phrase. Prepositional phrases may be used as adverbial phrases. Ex. Many men risk their health by ocericorJc. (Preposi- tional adverbial phrase.) / EXERCISE ^^ I In the sentences below, (1) point out all the phrases ; (2) name them according to form and use ; (3) tell what each phrase limits : 1. This ring contains a diamond from Australia and a pearl from Persia. 2. The wife of the distinguished lecturer accompanied him to the city. A REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 37 3. After a good night's rest, lie rose in the morning with a mind more at ease. """^ "" 4. All strangers speak of the ferocity of the^uire's dog. 5. Under no consideration should you point the muzzle of a loaded gun at yourself or at any other pei»on. 6. Hearing the clock strike, he was reminded of the lateness of the hour. 7. The man running down the street looks like a foreigner in distress. 8. Sunu' men's sole ambition is to acquire wealth. 9. The general commanded his soldiers to advance. 10. Once to every man and nation comes the moment to decide In the strife of Truth with Falsehood for the good or evil side. LOWKLL. II Supply whatever is necessary to make five complete sentences containing various kinds of phrases : 1. Boy coasting hill bicycle stone threw head. 2. Yacht race Mv. Coughlin's " Triton " rudder rocks Boar's Head. 3. Girls Clover Club voted Riverside Park Lake Shawsheen picnic. 4. Graduation high school Stanley Hall Tuesday evening Thornton Bulletin. 5. Sunnyside Golf Club victorious .close match club Greenwood. Y. CLAUSES 38. A clause is a part of a sentence which contains a subject and a predicate. A clause should be carefully distinguished from a phrase, which has no finite verb with its subject, and, therefore, asserts nothing. 38 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 39. Kinds of clauses named from their importance. Clauses are named from their rank in the sentence or from their use. Kinds of clauses named from their rank are prin- cipal (or independent) clauses and subordinate (or dependent) clauses. 1. A principal (or independent) clause is a clause that, taken by itself, makes a complete statement. Ex. The horse ran moay and the occupants of the carriage were throw7i out. When the horse ran away, the occupants of the carriage ivere thrown out. 2. A subordinate (or dependent) clause is a clause which does not make complete sense if separated from the clause on which it depends. Ex. If you expect to reach the State House by one o'clock, you will have to hurry. He that icill not work shall not eat. 40. Kinds of clauses named from their use. Subordinate clauses named from their use are noun, adjective, or adverbial clauses. 1. A noun clause may be used — As subject of a finite verb. Ex. That Mr. Swan committed the murder will be proved at the trial. In apposition with the subject or the object of a finite verb. Ex. The maxim, " Honesty is the best policy," is a very good one. (Appositive with subject.) Always heed the maxim, " Honesty is the best policy." (Appositive with object.) As object of a verb or preposition. Ex. He said, " What is that to you f " (Object of verb.) A REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 39 He lives on what he begs from his rich relatives. (Object of preposition.) As predicate nominative. Ex. The fact is that he has been shamefully imposed upon. 2. An adjective clause may be used restrictiyely or unrestrictively. A restrictive adjective clause limits the noun or pronoun which it modifies so closely that it cannot be omitted without chang- ing the meaning of the statement. A restrictive adjective clause is often introduced by the relative pronoun that. Ex. Water that is stagnant is unhealthy. An unrestrictive adjective clause is not so closely connected with the noun or pronoun which it modifies but that it may be changed to a principal clause, or sometimes omitted altogether from the statement. That cannot be used to introduce an unrestrictive clause. Ex. Water, which is composed of oxygen and hydrogen, is necessary to life. Mr. Brown, ivho has Just bought the house next door, has three daughters. 3. An adverbial clause may show time, place, cause, purpose, manner, degree, condition, or concession. Ex. When ijou are ready we shall start. (Time.) We shall go wherever you say. (Place.) Susan spent her vacation in Washington, because she unshed to see the President's inauguration. (Cause.) Albert has entered a Business College, that he may pre- pare himself to be his father' s bookkeeper. (Purpose.) As the twig is bent, the tree 's inclined. (Manner.) Always do your work as well as you possibly can. (Degree.) 40 COMPOSITION AND RnETORIC If you change your mind, please let me know. (Condition.) Although it looks like rain, we shall not defer our trip. (Concession.) EXERCISE (1- In the following sentences, tell to what class each Subordinate clause belongs and how it is used: 1. He was unhappy because he knew that people did not trust his word. 2. Death is a debt that all are bound to pay. 3. The teacher often says that " Knowledge is the wing where- with we fly to heaven." 4. A hero will do whatever duty demands. 5. When Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw, The line, too, labors, and the words move slow. 6. Where duty calls, or danger, Be never wanting there. 7. I have warned you now, lest you should make the mistake that John made yesterday. ^8. Although he had often heard the statement, " Whatever is is right," he had never believed it. 9. What is well begun is half done. 10. From what we already know of him we feel that we may safely trust him. 11. If you think we are going to wait for you all day, you are mistaken. 12. In order to increase your vocabulary, you should familiarize yourself with a few new words each week. 13. Mica, which is transparent and durable, is sometimes used in making lamp chimneys. 14. We must go to bed early to-night, for we are going to start to-morrow morning as soon as the sun rises. 15. As a man thinketh in his heart, so is he. A REVIEW OF ENaHSII GRAMMAR 41 II Write a sentence containinj^ a restrictive adjective clause, a noun clause used as appositive, and an adverbial clause uf concession. Ill Classify all the clauses in the poem on pages 90-92. IV In your own daily reading and writing, find illustra- tions of all the kinds of clauses you have just studied. VI. SENTENCES 41. A sentence is a statement in words of a complete thought. That statement may consist of but two words ; or, if it can be made intelligible, it may, like some of Milton's sentences, fill half a page. A sentence is to be carefully distinguished from a clause, which, although it contains a verb and its subject, is only a part of a sentence. Sen- tences are classified according to their /orm and their use. 42. Kinds of sentences according to form. Sentences are named from their form, simple, compound, and complex. 1. A simple sentence is a sentence that contains but one subject and one predicate. A sentence may contain, instead of a simple subject and a simple predicate, (1) a compound subject; (2) a compound predicate; or (3) a compound subject and a compound predicate. Ex. Mrs. Stamlish and her sister have gone to New York to live. (Compound subject.) 42 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC Helen has ]\\^i fallen on the ice and has sprained her ankle. (Compound predicate.) Washington and Hamilton were personal friends, hut some- times disagreed about political matters. (Compound subject and compound predicate.) 2. A compound sentence^ is a sentence that contains two or more principal clauses. Ex. They uttered no cry ; not a sound escaped them. 3. A complex sentence'^ is a sentence that contains one principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. Ex. The 7nan whom I wanted to see has gone. 43. Kinds of sentences according to use. Sentences are named from their use, declarative, interrogative, impera- tive, and exclamatory. A declarative sentence asserts something as a fact. Ex. A friend in need is a friend indeed. An interrogative sentence asks a question. Ex. Are you a Democrat? An imperative sentence gives a command. Ex. Give to the winds thy fears. An exclamatory sentence is a statement made under the influ- ence of strong feeling. It often begins with how or what. Ex. How bitterly you will rue this day ! What a terrible" mistake you have made ! lAny part of a compound sentence may itself be complex, Ex. The burglar that broke into my house escaped ; but his accomplice was caught as he loas entering the hack door. The subordinate part of a complex sentence may itself be compound, Ex. John ran away from home because his mother scolded and his father whipped him. A REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 43 EXERCISE I Write three simple sentences, one with a compound sub- ject, one with a compound predicate, and one witli both. n Write three compound sentences, using three different sets of correlatives. Ill Write a compound sentence of three parts, connecting the first and second parts by and, and the second and third parts by hut. IV Write a complex sentence in which the subordinate clause modifies the object of the verb of the principal clause. V Write a compound sentence, each part of which is com- plex. State the use of each subordinate clause. SUMMARY 44. This review of English grammar has given a prac- tical classification of the parts of speech, explained the changes in the parts of speech for different constructions, and distinguished the forms and uses of phrases, clauses, and sentences. It has shown something of the logic of the oral and written expressions of thought. The pupil has all the 44 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC time been writing, and has doubtless proved in his own experience that the study of English grammar is of ser- vice in learning to express his ideas. Below is given a table which will show at a glance the main facts of the chapter. Tabular View of Chapter I I. Introduction 11. Classification of the Parts of Speech Proper 1. Nouns. 2. Pronouns . 3. Adjectives 4. Yerbs Class names Common J Abstract nouns Collective nouns Verbal nouns Personal Relative Interrogative Adjective , Descriptive Articles . . Pronominal Demonstrative Distributive Numeral Definite Indefinite Demonstrative Distributive Numeral Proper Weak (or Regular) Strong (or Irregular) Transitive Intransitive Auxiliary Copulative Defective Impersonal A REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 45 5. Adverbs (Time Place Manner Degree 6. Prepositions 7. Conjunctions .... 8. Interjections III. Changes in the Parts of Speech Coordinate Subordinate ' ' First Person . . . • Second I Third Number . ( Singular ' 1 Plural 1. Nouns and Pronouns . Masculine Gender . . Feminine . Neuter ( Nominative Case . . . . < Possessive '^ ^ Objective " Voice Mood 2. Verbs < Tense Person Number 3. Adjectives and Adverbs. Comparison {Prepositions "^ Conjunctions > no change Interjections J IV. Classification of Phrases Prei)ositional 1. According to Form ^ Participial Infinitive 46 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC {Noun Adjective Adverbial V. Classification of Clauses according to Use • f Subject 1. Noun J ^PPositive I Predicate Nominative L Object of a verb or a preposition ( Restrictive \ Unrestrictive f Time Place Cause Purpose Manner Degree Condition Concession 2. Adjective 3. Adverbial VI. Classification of Sentences C Simple 1. According to Form .