Ill m MEMOFJAiA 
 
 ill 
 . I Prof. E.J.Wickson 
 
 j MA,; i UIBRARY. AGRICULTURE DEPT. 
 
WITH COMPLIMENTS FROM 
 JAMES H. McCOLL. 
 
 Agriculture 
 
 ^^ AND #^3b 
 
 Irrigation 
 
 INFORMATION COLLECTED BY— 
 
 Hon. J. H. McColl, MP. 
 
 DURING HIS RECENT TRIP THROUGH AMERICA. 
 
 JGcnMgo : 
 T. Cainbridi'e, Printer, Bookhinder, Publisher, 
 
 £-(■., BcnJf'O. 
 
 ma 
 

 MAIN 
 
 HCi^ r - ' AGRICULTURE DEPT. 
 
 I 
 
 \ 
 
Jntrobuction. 
 
 EFORE leaving for Europe in Februar}', 1905, Mr. Swinburne, 
 ^>^ the Minister of Agriculture, requested that, while returning 
 through the United States, I would get any information I 
 could re water matters and agriculture. 
 
 The short time at xay disposal prevented me making such a full enquiry 
 as I would have desired, but I tried to use my time to the best advantage, 
 and the following reports embody some of the information I was able to 
 obtain. 
 
 There is a magnificent field in the United States for investigation had 
 one the time and means to prosecute it, and the sending of some of our able 
 young engineers to do so would be of great benefit, I believe, to this State. 
 
 The Americans are most courteous and obliging, sparing no time or 
 trouble to give an enquiring strangei all the information they can To the 
 many friends who assisted me in my enquiries I return my sincere thanks, 
 especially to Dr. EUvood Mead, Washington, and Professor Fortier, Berkeley. 
 Td further particularise where all were so kind would be invidious, so I 
 group all others in ray grateful acknodgment. To the proprietors of the 
 Bendi^o Adverliser for publishing the reports in full and for kindly assistance in 
 issuing them in group form, I desire to express my obligations. 
 
 These notes are not intended to teach, but rather to stimulate inquiry on 
 the part of the cultivators in the Northern areas, whom for the past twenty- 
 one years I have represented, and who.se friend.ship and confidence I have 
 enjoyed. 
 
 JAMES H. McCOEE, 
 
 Quarry Hill, Bendigo, 20th May, 1906, 
 
 ^•70 
 
DRY FARMING. 
 
 Report by MR. J. H M'COLL, M.P. 
 
 Tho teirn "dry" farming is ouc often 
 heard in the I'nited States, but in rcgaid 
 to what it denotes, "wet" farming nnglt 
 be a more appropriate phrase. It iiuans 
 successful farming with a limited rainfall 
 and no artiticuil water suppiy. To yrasp ime'- 
 ligently the vai;ied conditions ot Jgriou!- 
 ture ill the United States, an apprcoiati(,a 
 of the physical character of that country 
 and its topography is leciuired. The area is 
 80 vast, and the climatic and physical con 
 ditions differ so much, that a reference to 
 that country and. its agricultvre in a gene- 
 ral way may be quite misloaninii-. The 
 United States cover an area ^OW miles 
 iiroad, and 160L miles in depth, con^ainini^ 
 about 3,200,000 square miles. Australia is 
 2200 miles wide, with a mean dej^th cf 
 ab-mt 1100 miles. Its area is about 
 3,000,000 square miles. From the east of 
 the United States to the Missouri or the 
 97th meridian, about one-half the area or 
 the States, there is a mean rainfall cf 
 about 40in. per annum. Then the arid bell 
 is struck, running west some 550 miles by 
 about 1100 miles north and south, an area 
 of nearly half a million square miles. Tiien 
 for 1000 miles to the west coast intervene 
 tho Eockies, beyond them a semi-arid re- 
 gion, and next the Sierras near the coast. 
 The 'great central arid area stretches from 
 thft ranadiai. boundai-y to Mexico, and iti- 
 cludes parts A North and Soiith Dakota, 
 Nebraska, Kansas, and Texa.s, and east 
 part of Colorado, or about one-seventh <;;' 
 the United States, with an average rain- 
 fall of about l.^in. laired \<y an occasional 
 Eeason of good rainfall, much of this land 
 has been occupied by settlers several times, 
 all in their turn driver, away by the fatal 
 recu..'rin<T seasons of drought. Won -en go 
 mad in it, and men, battling as long as -t 
 is possible, at last leave broken in heart, 
 body and pocket, their physical a>id men- 
 tal 'energy frone, wrecks whom no one will 
 employ, "useless cumberers of the ground. 
 Ijftjxd forfeited is again taken up by railroad 
 
 companies and sjjcculators, and they, on 
 a rainfall again recurring, temjjt settlers, 
 who, fondly hoping t.'ie days of drought are 
 pa.st, court ruin, and find it, as their pre 
 decossors have done. The desire for land 
 is so great, and it is so difficult to get. 
 that men take the ritk. How like is this 
 to our Australian experience, and how oftev. 
 have we seen it here, and not so long ago. 
 For some years past the atteation of the 
 Federal and State Governments has been 
 given to this country and its failures, and 
 inquiry has been made, and mothod.s 
 tried to cope with the drought, and r«nd?r 
 eettlement less precarious. Attempts are 
 b;'ing made to store water in wet &easoM^, 
 and give settlers enough to irrigate four 
 or five acres of laiid, and so enable 
 iiim to grow sh.ade trees, vegetables, 
 fruit and fodder for hfiisea and cows. 
 At tention was also given to tho character 
 of the seed used, and importations were 
 made, first in 1900, of tried drought-resist- 
 ing wheat, oats, rye, and millet from Si- 
 beria, Southern Russia, and Alg<?ria. Ex 
 periments have also be3n made by varying 
 the system of tillage, to make more use 
 of the scanty rainfall, liy conserving it in 
 tlio tiround, storing it up for use 
 by capillary attraction when needed 
 fo7 plant growth. At the State 
 '/.xix-riment stations, trials have and are 
 now being made to grow not only several 
 crops, but fruits and vegotabL^s with a rain- 
 fall of 12 inches or lc«s; but before thes«> 
 attempts were made others were at work on 
 ihe same problem, and it is now claimed 
 tliey have succeeded. The foremost inves- 
 tigator in thi-i line has been Professor 11. 
 N. Campbell, of Ijncoln, Ntibraska, who for 
 ?0 years has been patiently testing various 
 methods, and claims an abs>liite succc-'S. I 
 was unable, owing to distance and the short- 
 ness of time, to visit him, but wrote to him, 
 and in his reply he write* as follows: — 
 "That 1 have r-^ached a higli degree of sue 
 cess in devising and outlining ways and 
 
mc<:hod3 for auccossfuUy guarding- against 
 the ill-eifects of drouglit and for increasinj:^ 
 the quantity, quality, and ceitainty of all 
 crops is evidenced by the marvellous results 
 already obtained, and the int*»nso interest 
 manifested by those who have investigated 
 and know most about it." He has issued a 
 book called the 'Campbell Soil Culture 
 Manual," explaining his methods of tillage. 
 I endeavored to get this, but the booksel- 
 lers had BolU out, and two copies 1 ordered 
 did not reach me before I left San Francisco, 
 but should be here shortly. 
 
 In the north-west, Dr. Cook, of Portland, 
 Oregon, who has been cattle ranching, has 
 for 15 years been also experimenting in cul- 
 tivation with light rainfall, and has been 
 for some time engaged by one of the public 
 bodies of Oree;on to lecture on the subject. 
 I was fortunate enough to meet him, and 
 he spoke quite triumphantly of the victory 
 over drought by the use of new methods of 
 tillage. He assured me that with a 12 inch 
 rainfall a go(sd cron could be assured. He 
 was, he said, disposing of his estate, and 
 was preaching the gospel of "Dry Farming" 
 more from a desire to benefit the cultivators 
 than from any desire of gain. I believe a 
 very slight inducement would cause him to 
 visit Australia and pursue the subject here. 
 So far as I could gather, he was working on 
 similar lines to Professtr Campbell, though 
 unknown to each other, and l.e showKl me 
 ilocuments leaving no possibility of doubt 
 that he had tho confidence of some of the 
 best men in Oregon, under whose au'^piees 
 he was prosecuting the work. Profea'^or 
 Campbell's, as well as Dr. Cook's, system 
 demands deep ploughing, thorough pulveris- 
 ing, and packing the soil at the bottom. 
 For the latter there is an implement made 
 called a "subsoil packer." The object is to 
 save the natural moisture and make a stor- 
 age reservoir in the soil instead of on the 
 surface, and he hag not merely solved the 
 difficulty theoretically, but has in numer- 
 ous instances j'racticiUy demonstrated it 
 successfully. Like most problems, the ele- 
 ments are very simple, and the solution 
 was wrought out by careful md minute ob- 
 servation of facts which have been known 
 for ages, but the les-;ons they have taught 
 have been unheeded, or reg'arded as of no 
 imjiortance. 
 
 In a dry country like ours the soil Is 
 robbed of its moisture by evaporation, ti:<» 
 moisture creeping to the surface by capillary 
 attraction, and escaping into the atmospiiere, 
 leaving the soil dry. Any object, a log of 
 stone, or bushes will ohock this evaporation, 
 ond assist in retaining moisture in the .soil. 
 Rainfall beats the .surface close, preventing 
 penetration, and (uusing the moisture to run 
 
 (•ff. Later-the heat cracks the ground, tacili 
 fating the escape of tho moisture therein, 
 I'lid the solidifying of tlie ground 
 accelerates capillary attraction. What has 
 to be done is to secure the penetration into 
 the ground of all the moisture that is pre- 
 cipitated, and having go", it there to lock it 
 vp till required lor stimulating plant life. 
 
 Not having Profeasor Campbell's manual 
 yet, I cannot quote from it, but liopo to do 
 so later on. 'niose interested can obtain it 
 from tiie address I have given, the cost i:)e- 
 ing half a dollar and postage. Experimentn 
 aie being made at several of the e.vperimen- 
 tal stations, and the importance of the ques- 
 tion is shown by the fact that the following 
 lailroad ccmpanics are subsidising the coat 
 of the experiments:- Great Northern, 
 Northern Pacific, Union Pacific, Chicago, 
 Burlington and Quiiicy, Colorado and 
 Southern, Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific, 
 Chicago, Milwaukie and St. Paul. The mat- 
 ter of thus assisting farmers might well be made 
 a greater feature of Australian railway man- 
 agement than it is. In some places similar 
 crops are Ijeing planted in adjoining areas, 
 i'lid ploughing to the depth of 14, eight and 
 six inches deep, is performed, and the results 
 watched. At tlje experimental station, 
 Cheyenne, Wyoming, which I visited, some 
 interest ing experiments are being c<arried on. 
 Mr. Herrmann, the director, was away, but 
 Mr. D. G. Ra.sbaeher, his assistant, kindly 
 cliove me out to the farm, some three miles 
 from the town. It is under the control of 
 Mr. J. 11. Gordon, a successful practical far- 
 mer, wlio has livjd ni the semi-arid west for 
 35 years. He is a cousin of the late Rev. D. 
 Gordon, of Brighton, and left Belfast, Irn 
 land, for the United States when a youth. 
 Tlie faim contains 70 acres, and 27 acres arc 
 being devoted to competitive experiments by 
 irrigation, also <he ordinary and the dry" 
 farm metliods. The irrigation is provided 
 from a well, the pump being worked by a 
 double windmill, the wheels working reverse 
 ways, tlio. only oru- I have seen. There are 
 10 plots, of half nn acre each, ploug'hed eight 
 inches deep, and subsoiled. These will be 
 iirigated, and wore to be sown with Durum 
 wheat, potatoes, held pea.-^, sugar beets, corn 
 (maize). East Oregon alfalfa, Brome grass, 
 beardless barley, lye, and oats. 
 
 Tlie ])lo's to be cultivated in the ordinary 
 way wero each one aero in extent, and to 
 be sown with tlie same seed as the other 
 plots. The plots to bo cultivated by thc» 
 "dry" fai'ming nioihod, constant cultivation, 
 were 'lalf an acre each in extent, and sown 
 with the same seeds as the rest. Thene will 
 therefore he tests tinder irrigation, also by 
 ordinaiy farming, and oy constant cultiva- 
 tion, and the results are to be sent out to 
 
ine. The aunnal average rainfall liore is 13 
 inches. Tha ground is a light friable soil, 
 containing a good deal of gravel, and siniiku' 
 to most ot the Prairie country round aboni. 
 This experiment is being carried on under 
 the supervision of a conimittec of wKcli Mr. 
 C. T. Johnston, State engineer, is Ino chair- 
 jran, and 5000 cic. liars have been given to 
 cover the cost, the contributorics being th=> 
 United States Department of Agriculture, 
 the Union Pacific, Burlington, and Coloradcj 
 and Southern railways, the State Agricul- 
 tural College and the State of Wyoming. The 
 cxpcrim(!nt will be carefully carried out and 
 keenly watched, aud the results must be of 
 groat interest to tliose who live in semi-arid 
 legions. 
 
 That the Campbell inethod of soil culture 
 is attracting attention was very obvious, ns 
 in the Agricultural Bureau at ^^'ashington, 
 in xhif irrigation, cere.il and power branches, 
 the ofrici;ils all talked of it, and at most of 
 the places in the west it was a leading topic. 
 Some there ware who affected to treat it 
 lightly, saying, "Oh, we knew all about this 
 long ago; everyone knows if you till fine 
 and deep you will get better crops, but as 
 in the case of juany other well-known facts, 
 they pass unheeded lill some inquiring 
 mind grasps the;n, and shows (heir potency 
 and value 
 
 This system of soil culture docs not only 
 mean storing the moisture in the ground, 
 but it explains the princi]3lc of the move- 
 ment of nioisturc so that plant food for tlic 
 crops may be obtainod by fillowiiig a 
 scientific system of cultivation, thus con- 
 trolling conditions, and eliminating the ele- 
 ment of chance in large measure. The trou- 
 ble in our northern court-try has been, not 
 so much the want of rain, but tho evapora- 
 tion caused by the sun's heat and hot 
 winds, and the fact that the rain does not 
 always come when tlie plants need it. 
 
 Professor Cairpbell, in an address to the 
 Colorado State Ecalty Association towaids 
 the end of 1901, says: — "Ey a careful study 
 of the available worka as brought out and 
 compiled by soientific r^searcii in the past. 
 coupled with over 25 years of observation 
 and practical experiments with the soils of 
 the more arid portions of ihe Dakotas, 
 Nebraska, ]{^ansas, and Colorado, wo have 
 been able to prove beyond question of dou})t 
 by practical tests and results that vsature 
 has provided every necessary moMns for 
 transfering these bleak prairie* into a 
 
 verdant garden of plenty." After explain- 
 ing the physical or jnechauical conditio! 
 of the soil, he goes on to say: — 'AVe conu 
 to the all-important question — -our suppK 
 of moisture. Rei>eated experiments by 
 ;.£iany scientific investigators have fthown 
 tiiai fevcn inches of water, if all utilis- 
 ed, will grow a good crop, mind you, 
 a good crop— ot i>nj kind of grain. Hero 
 We have 14 inches annually. Our plan under 
 llicso conditions is to got our seven inche.^. 
 of necessary water from two years 
 of rainfall, or from 28 to 32 
 ir.ches of water. How? By storing 
 one year's rainfall in the soil by a system of 
 summer culture, carry it through the win- 
 ter as a reserve to start our crop with in 
 tlie spring, as well as to carry us through 
 the periods when we cannot get the needed 
 rains while the crop ig growing." 
 
 "The statement that w% can store the 
 greater part of the season's rainfall (cuu'r' 
 when it ]nay) hi the soil, and hold it on 
 tiirough another year, Js what staggers most 
 luen who have not seen it done. But we can 
 do it; you can do it.*" 
 
 Tn his closing remarks ho saye: — '•Tlie;-o 
 is no patent in the process to be sold out by 
 counties. There are no proposed secrets. 
 Thcie is no monopoly. The whole questioi 
 is oi:e ot education . It is a broad, deep sub- 
 ject. For 1-1. years we have been stoadiiy 
 working if out, and every year tells us somc- 
 tliing more. The most gratifying feature \s 
 tliat every new development }x>i3its to evf.>i 
 greater possibilities, and my greatest ambi- 
 tion to-day is that I may bo spared just a 
 few years longer, and again have the privi- 
 It go of meeting you, for I shall so delight in 
 telling you, 'I tcld you so.' " 
 
 Instances caji bo given of results obtain<-d. 
 but space will not iDornat it at present. 
 
 I saw ill Denver wheat and oats of the 
 finest character grown, I was assured, un- 
 der a light rainfall, and by the Campbell 
 system. If this can be done, what is it not 
 possible to do if we can turn the surplus 
 winter waters of the aoullnirn and our othor 
 rivers on to the parched land of the West, 
 and storing it there with siuh rainfall as 
 we have, utilise it fov the yielding of oor- 
 iain harvoi-ts, where under pregont cw,ditions 
 larnung results arc no. more secure tlinn the 
 cast of a g.^n.iblcr's die? llie matter of the 
 drought-resisting cereah, sorghum, millet 
 and grasses, I must leave for another paper. 
 
Drought Resistant Farm Crops. 
 
 "In the United States of America the de- 
 mand for land by intending- settlors for 
 jnany years past has been very great. The 
 greater part of the jrood land th<'re, nh 
 in Australia, was prodigally squandered iu 
 tlie early days, and attention had to be 
 turned to the onormons semi-arid areas. 
 With the methods of farming then eiv- 
 ployed, and the cultivation of the kinds oj 
 crops grown in more humid region;-, the 
 attempts at scttloment ended in failure. 
 It was decided to charge the varieties of 
 seeds, and procure fron\ countries similc'r 
 in climate and nhysical conditions the seeds 
 successfully grown there. Impoitatioiis 
 
 wea-o made from the dry sections ol' Eus- 
 sia, Siberia and Algiers, of wheat, oats, 
 sorgliums and grasses, ond these have been 
 successfully cultivated. I was informed by 
 Professor Carlton, the head of the cereal 
 branch of the Bureau of Agriculture at 
 Washington, that by the use of the imp«i t- 
 ed seed the Avheat-growiug area has been 
 extended two hundred miles further west. 
 The wlieats are called macaroni wheats, as 
 tlioy are used in the making of that food. 
 The first trial Avas made in 1900, and so 
 rapidly has its cultivation progressed that 
 a yield of ten million bushels was anticipa- 
 ted this year. It is also called Durum 
 wheat, because of its hardness. It comes 
 from Russia, where it is grown on the 
 great steppes and semi-arid plains of the 
 Volga River. It is said to grow in the 
 West with a lOin. rainfall, and yields 8 to 
 10 bushels per acre with ordinary farm- 
 ing, while with better cultivation under 
 tl'e' Campbell system it will yield over 30 
 bushels per acre. It is a hard wheat, 
 
 creamy in color, with more gluten in it 
 than the ordinary wheat. It retains mois- 
 ture in bread longer than ordinary wheat, 
 and will keep it pIx or seven days sweet and 
 moist. 
 
 "At first the millers had a prejudice 
 against it, as it was hard, and took more 
 time and power to work than the ordinary 
 wheat. This feeling has now died out. and 
 
 the vvlieat readily commands the marked 
 price. It is said to yield in the dry dis 
 tricts 25 to 100 per cent, larger erojjs tlian 
 the ordinary wlieats. It is grown with a 
 rotation of oats, corn (maize) and barley, 
 aud does best whjn stubbled in on ecru 
 laud by the di&fc. After two seasons of 
 wheat, then rotate the crop. The Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture urges its cultivation. 
 The varieties grown are Black Don, Yellow 
 GhauKiska am. Kubanka. The lastnamed 
 is said to bo the best. There are al-io some 
 Algerian wheats, said to be siucessfuUy 
 grown, called Pelissier and Richi, of which 
 the former is highly spoken of. The ordi 
 nary wheats grown, whicli, liowe\er_^ do 
 not yield so well as the macaroni wheats, 
 arc Blue Stems and Fyfe. Tuoso are con- 
 sidered the best of the ordinary wheats for 
 tiie dry country. 
 
 "Of oats, tlio Swedish Select is said to 
 be the best so far jis reganls tlie yield, but 
 it is not recommended to put in too much. 
 The sixty-daj oat is earlv and good, ripens 
 quickly, and escapes rust if t!ie seSson it- 
 wet. It holds the grain, and stands up 
 better than the Swedish Select, but docs 
 not yield so well. The Texas Rustproof is 
 also a good oat. T'lere is a kind of whca^ 
 like a barley, called 'Emmer' '■; it is not 
 good for milling, but is very good for 
 feed. Two kinds of barley — a two row and 
 a six row — were also spoken of as being 
 drought resistant. Thctre is a broomcorn 
 millet called Proso, v-fhich yields a large 
 amount of hay, and also 25 to 30 Imshels 
 of seed per aci'e. It is good for feeding 
 liogs or sheep, and the seed is the best 
 feed for poultry. It gives good crops iu 
 dry seasons 
 
 "A dwarf milo maize is grown reported 
 to yield 40 to 60 l)ushels per acre, and 
 two crops per year. It equals corn (maize') 
 for feeding purposes, and is considered a 
 highly valuabl'i crop, yielding a groat profit 
 inidei- the Campbell system of culture. 
 There is a Mexican corn, a ^int variety, 
 
licli ir protein, which produces good fed 
 t'er, and always some corn. 
 
 "The sorgliuiiis are also :^ai.l to make 
 a paying crop in Eastern and North-east- 
 ern Colorado, but do not ripen seed well. 
 They are saceHarinc, and non-saccharine; of 
 the sweet, the best for quality, quantity 
 and producing seed is Early Amber. EarW 
 Orange and Kansas Orange yield well, and 
 are of good quality, but give little seed. 
 Of the non-saccharine varieties, the Red 
 and White Kaffir corn are of good quality, 
 and yield fairly, but give little seed. Jeru 
 palem and Brown Diirra. give abundant sood. 
 but are small and poor in quality. The 
 yellow and white niilo maize are poor in 
 seed, but cf good quality, and yield a me- 
 dium quantitiy. In Central and Eastern 
 Kansas and parts of Nebraska, Oklalioma 
 and Texas, alfalfa (lucerne^ is said to do 
 well and resist drought fairly. Austrian 
 brome grass is also strongly recommended, 
 and can be cut for hay or seeded down 
 for pasture. If cultivated for seed, it 
 will Yield 150 to 500 tons per acre. 
 
 "T inquired as to where the drought-re- 
 sistant wheat and oats could be got, and 
 Professor J. 11. Shepherd, of North Da- 
 kota Agricultural College, replied that the 
 superintendent of the Edgeley Sub-ftation 
 could supply a limited quantity cf maca- 
 roni wheat at a dollar and a quarter per 
 bushel. Emmer and Sixty-day oats, which 
 Professor Shepherd recommended, could be 
 supplied at one dollar per bushel. I do 
 not know the value of the other seeds. 
 
 "Secretary ^Yilson, of the Bureau of Ag- 
 riculture, Washington, will no dou)-t bo. 
 glad to arrange for a shipment for trial, 
 but no time should be lost in applying, as 
 there is a good demand for drought-re&ist- 
 ins: seed. 
 
 "There will likely be other varieties whioli 
 might be sent, a.nd instructions ay to treat- 
 ment should also be obtained. I see no 
 reason why the success that has foi!owcil 
 the cultivation of these drought-resistant 
 crops in the semi-arid districts of the Uni- 
 ted States should -lot also be obtaimd in 
 eimilar counti-y in xVustralia." 
 
 y^^\. 
 
Inoculating the Soil 
 
 With Nitrogen^ Fixing Bacteria. 
 
 Sir, I was requested by several friends to make 
 RoniS inquiry while in America into this matter 
 with a view of increasing the pro<lucti Jn of our 
 soils in the north, and tliough notable to per- 
 8ue the inquiry loany greatextont, now submit 
 such information as 1 obt<ir.ed. I he impor- 
 tance of nitrogen in the produceion of plant 
 life (from which all animal life is sustained) is 
 paramount, and any process that will repair 
 ani return the loss of nitrogen continually 
 going on beconies of the very first importance. 
 
 The wonilerful part that bacteria playa in 
 creation is well known, and of all these minute, 
 yet mighty organisms, the work of the nitrogen- 
 fixing bacteria is the most important, and the 
 most beneficent. Their work absorbs from 
 the atmosphere and returns to the soil the most 
 essential element of plant life, and too much 
 attention, both from scientists and practical 
 men, caiinot be given to the problem of main- 
 taining the supply of nitrogen, and thus retain 
 the fertility of our soils. I do nit propose to 
 write a treatise on the subject— that is beyond 
 me — but merely to relate the information 1 
 gained recently in United States. The (juestion 
 of supplying the soil with nitrogen by its 
 inoculation with nitrogen-fixing bacteria 
 through leguminous plants, is but of recent 
 origin, aiid the first distribution of cultures, I 
 believe, by tne Uepartnieiit of Agriculture, in 
 America was in 1904. To prevent any mon- 
 opoly of the manufactures of these cultures, 
 the department secured the patent, and Dr. 
 (ieorge T. iNloore developed and perfected the 
 method of their production This distribution 
 seems to have been successful, for the demand 
 made on the department for inoculation 
 material last spring was very large, and the 
 supply was early exhausted, A furteer distiri- 
 bution was made in the fall of the year, and 
 more will be distributed next spring. In 
 application for future distribution the appli- 
 cants are repuested to state what legume is to 
 
 be sown, the time of sowing, and quantity of 
 laud to be treated. I'iie dcpirtment furnishes 
 to all applicants the necessary information, and 
 as far as possible, Stirling, ur foundation cul- 
 tures to bactcrinlogirtts of expei imental stations, 
 anJ commercial cjiicerns propwrly equipped fer 
 carrying out the inc'ustry, but gives no guar- 
 antee of their value. The understanding is 
 that any cultures furnished are to be treated 
 according to the directions laid down by the 
 department Applicants are reijuested to 
 thoroughly study the soil conditions where it 
 is proposed lu use the cultures. 
 
 1 think the bulk of the cultjures obtained 
 must hai'e gone to the humid Mates, for mj 
 inquiries showed that in the West many did 
 not know of them, and but few had iried them, 
 though where tried the results were successful. 
 So far as I could learn, the methods had been 
 practiced in the West in the following places : 
 — In Texas, some experiments have been tried 
 with marked results : also in Montebello, Los 
 Angelos, in Cheyenne, with success in gardens, 
 and in Modesta, wiih good results. In some 
 places, the experiments had just begun, and no 
 results are yet forthcoming, and in other places 
 ic was said they were not needed. Out of 
 about 10 replies received, only five places had 
 results, but these were favourable and the rest 
 were either waiting results or had not tried the 
 .system. The replies came from nearly all the 
 States west of the Missouri. 
 
 The great demand made on the Department 
 of Agriculture shows that in many places the 
 experiments must have been succefsful, and 
 the fol'owing information, abbreviated from a 
 bulletin issued by the department in May last, 
 may be of interest :— It states that inoculation 
 is necessary for soil low in organic matter, 
 where leguminous crops have not previously 
 been grown, or if the legumes grown were 
 devoid of nodules, or " nittogen knots," show- 
 ing the need of nodule-forming bacteria; or when 
 
the legume sown belongs to a species different 
 to Uioee pieviously pow n in the same t^uil. 
 
 Iruioculatioii may prove advantageous w lien 
 the growth of legumes is siakly ; even if the 
 roots show eonie nodule?, a more vigorous 
 growth M ill often result, or when a leguminous 
 crop already sown shows signs of failing, due 
 to tiio absence of root nodules Iiioculaiion is 
 not required where the leguminous crops ai e 
 up to the aveiage, and roots show nodules in 
 normal quantity. Tiie cultures of nitrogen- 
 fixing bacteria are not fertilisers, nor do they 
 contain nitrogen, hut the bacteria aids the le- 
 gumes to secure nitrogen from the air through 
 the formation nodules. If the soil is alreat'y 
 rich in nitrogen, they are not needed. 
 
 Failure maj' be expected in soil that is acid 
 and in need of lime. Lime is needed to correct 
 acidity, and also far the proper activity of 
 the bacteria, i>s well as for the growth of the 
 plants, where the soil responds in a marked 
 way to fertilisers, such as | otash, phospheric 
 acid, or lime. The activity of the bacteria in 
 securing nitrogen from the air, and rendering it 
 available to the legumes, does not do away 
 with the nec'i of fertilising elements like { ot- 
 ash and phosplioius, Inoculation will not 
 ovtrcome results due to adveise AMather or 
 climate b;.d seed or improper cultivation. 
 Dtiections must be carefully studied find 
 intelligently followed. The value of pure- 
 bred bacteria cannot be predicttd in anj- soil 
 without trial. The department, however, 
 anticipates that, unlike fertilisers, bacteria 
 will in time be cheap enough for each farmer 
 to try in each leguminous crop he may have. 
 The method of distributing in dried foini, and 
 the easy methods of multiplying on the farm in 
 Bullicient qunntitiis to inocula'.e fields, \\ill 
 make it possible to have all fields inoculated at 
 all times. 
 
 The Cost of the Cultmes. 
 
 This cannot be yet estimated, as the expense 
 of runnirg a commercial concern, with all the 
 various changes, cannot be compsired with the ex- 
 pense of a depaitment, and makes compariion 
 difficult or impossible. Natural competition, it 
 is anticipatetl, will shortly reduce the pre.sent 
 values, and the wisdom of the department 
 securing the patent has already b;en demon- 
 strated. 
 
 Inct easing Cultures. 
 
 Many inquiries come as to the production of 
 a large quantity of liquid culture from the 
 dry culture secured for a start, that 
 is, how to make an acre culture do for 
 25 or 100 acres. These methods only 
 
 yield good results when special precautions are 
 taken, and are not generally recommended. 
 Contaminations such as yeasts, molds, etc., are 
 apt to take possession of the culture solution 
 in which the bacteria are being multiplied, and 
 unless great care is used in sterilising all 
 
 utensils, failure may result. The time re- 
 quired to reproduce a large quantity of bacteria 
 from a small one makes the risk of contamin- 
 ation greater than where the dry culture is 
 proportioned to the amount of the solution. 
 Preparing and Using the iSolution. 
 
 Directions to make ten gallons of liquid cul- 
 ture, sufficient to inoculate "20 bushels of seed, 
 are given, and by computation may be adopted 
 to five gallons or intermediate quantities. To 
 prepare the culture solution, first select the 
 tub, bucket or other vessel in which to grow 
 th(j bacterid Clean and S3ald it out thoroughly. 
 Good drinking water will answer, but rain 
 water boiled and allowed to cool is best. Add 
 to 10 gallons of water 12ozs. of brown or gran- 
 ulated sugar (preferably granulated), l^oz. of 
 potassium phosphate (monobasic), and 1-16 of 
 an oz. (30 grains) of magnesium sulphate. Stir 
 uiitd dissoh-ed, then drop the bacteria-laden 
 cotton in the solution. Cover the tub with a 
 moist, clean cloth. Keep warm, but not above 
 blood heat. After 24 hours add 6ozs of am- 
 monium phosphate and allow the mixture to 
 stand for 24 hours. The liijuid should now be 
 cloudy and ready to use. If not cloudy allow 
 further time. 
 
 To Inoculate Seed. 
 
 Moisten seed thoroug'dy, using about half a 
 gallon per b'^sl^e-L -It may be done in a tub or 
 trou>;l) or on a clean floor. After inoculation 
 spread out in a clean shady place, till dry 
 enough to hiindle. If not to bo used at once, the 
 seed must be thoroughly dried, to prevent 
 moulding. The inoculated seed if thoroughly 
 dried may be kept without deterioration for 
 several months. 
 
 To Inoculate Soil. 
 
 Take enough dry earth or sand so that the 
 solution will merely moisten it. Get soil from 
 the field to be inoculated, to prevent spreading 
 diseases or weeds. Mix thoroughly, so that 
 all the particles are moistened. Thoroughly 
 mix this earth with four or five times as much. 
 Spread the inoculated soil thinly and evenly 
 over the prepared ground, as if spreading ferti- 
 lizer, and harrow in immediately, to protect 
 the bacteria from sunlight. In using this 
 method allow one gallon of the liquid culture 
 to four acres or less. 
 
 Keeping Cultures for Future Use, 
 
 The question is asked as to the farmer keep- 
 ing culture over from one year to another by 
 soaking some liquid culture in cotton, and dry- 
 ing it. This practice is strongly condemned, 
 as contaminations take place and spread so 
 readily that results can only be expected by 
 starting with a pure culture prepared by a 
 trained bacteriologist in the laboratorj'. These 
 cultures will keep from six months to a year. 
 Li(juid cultures, it kept lose in etl'ectivenei-s. 
 Any large investment is deprecateil without 
 previously experimenting in a small way. 
 
Danger of Inoculating by Soil Transfer. 
 
 In some cases this has proved successful, but 
 the danger of transferring diseases, which ia 
 readily done, in the soil, is so great that it is 
 not adviseable Animal and plant parasites 
 live in the soil for years, and are readily trans- 
 mitted, and might become a seriousj menace if 
 transferred to clean localities. Several cases 
 have been reported to the department, which 
 warns farmers against such haphazard methods. 
 Pure Culture Inoculation. 
 
 The extensive experimentp carried on by the 
 department in lt)D4 have demonstrated that by 
 the proper use of pure cultures the nodule 
 bacteria are carried into the soil, in such a 
 way as to form root nodules, and brought about 
 the growth of each legume in soils where it had 
 previously fa led from lack of bacteria 
 
 The Dapxrtniint of Agriculture is developing 
 types of the bacteria associated with legum- 
 inous plants which will have greater activity, 
 collecting from the air more nitrogen per acre 
 than forms now common in niture or available 
 from laboratories. Farther investigations are 
 being made, but the large demand for cultures 
 
 for leguminous crops has taken up much time, 
 and seriously retard-^d these inquiries. The 
 limited area of our Victorian soils and the 
 waste of productive power going on makes this 
 subject one of great importance, and worthy of 
 the most careful inquiries and investigations of 
 our department here. It is fortunate in having 
 as Director Dr. Cherry, who is so well qualified 
 to instruct in this brancli of science, and the 
 United States department, if referred to will 
 always forward the latest results obtained 
 there. 
 
 It is noticeable that in some replies to my 
 inquiries it was stated that these cultures were 
 not needed, as the land could always be brough 
 back to fertility by laying it down ii alfalfa 
 after cropping with other plants for a f^vv years. 
 This, I was frequently :nf<)rmed at Greeley, 
 after four or five yeirs cropping with wheat 
 sugar beet, or potatoss, they sow alfalfa and 
 feed it down for three or four jears, when the 
 land recovers its lost nitrogen, and is fit for any 
 crop again. But little manure or fertilizers 
 were used, the above being the universal 
 practice. 
 
 -^r 
 
II 
 
 Dry Farming. 
 
 (FURTHER REPORT). 
 
 I lately sent a report on " Dry 
 Farming," thi- repriut ol which haa oause'l 
 Fonie interost to bo taken in that suV)ject. 
 Since doing so, the ''Soil Cnllnre Mamial" of 
 Profos&or Campbell, of Lincoln. Nebraska, 
 has come to hand, and I jn-opose. to give a 
 digest of its main features, in the hope that 
 it will lead to iurlh..n- inqniry and exi>erinient, 
 on the lines on which Mr. Campbell works. 
 Those interested should, liowever, obtain the 
 manual it.seli, as it ii only possible to indi- 
 cate in bavo outline the niatier of a volume 
 of 95 pages in a brief report. The i>erusal of 
 the manual cxeitos 3, keen interest in the sub- 
 ject, and impressos one with the great impor- 
 tance its teachings have for those vho are so 
 strenuously l)atLliug to developo the drier 
 areas r>f 'vhia great continent. 
 
 Proliminaiy. 
 
 Tliiee years J.go Mr. Carapb<!il'& fust 
 niauiiyl was prepurcd, in which he stated "the 
 vield.i of tho. cultivated areas in the semi- 
 arid belt wore not one-half what they should 
 be." 
 
 The additional experience and obsei-vation 
 since gained Uad bim to state In this year's 
 U'anual, without l:esitation, "that the aver- 
 age ^ield of the Western Prairies is not one- 
 fourth of what it might be ii our farmers 
 would only grasp the principles involved in 
 properly handling the noil and its relation to 
 Iho plant, including the part that water, air, 
 heat, and light pLy .^;ei)arately and collec- 
 tively in tho" growth and development of all 
 plants; aho hov these elements are regulated 
 by the physical condition of the soil, and 
 the j'lethods by which these proper physical 
 conditions may bo .seemed tind retained 
 through a simjile system of cultivation." Th'^ 
 manual, it is stated, does not "lay down a 
 code of iraperati.'o rules to govern the far- 
 jner in every act of soil culture, but by ex- 
 planatory illustrations presents as clearly as 
 possible Ihe fuuiamcntal principles which 
 govern the movement of nioistruo in the soil, 
 the development of plant life, and the quan- 
 tity ; nd quality of tlie crop. In the great 
 senu-arid area a. general rule may bo applied, 
 and if followed diligontly, tho resulting stor 
 
 age and conservation of the natural rainfall 
 in thi .soil, together with careful preparation 
 and such after culti^1Qtion as shall admit of 
 the proper quantities of air, will produce J-i 
 averaofe vears a-s good ciops of cereals and 
 pU of° the vegetables that are commonly 
 grown, as c;in be produced in the humid cen- 
 tral ]vu-tions of \:he United Stotes. Storagt; 
 and conservation of the rain waters, and •« 
 careful observation of tho necessary physicii 
 condition of the soil, is Ihe basis of all this 
 fruitful r)roductioD." 
 
 The Object Aimed At. 
 This is the profitable production of grain, 
 trees and vegetables, in regions known as 
 semi-arid, where the annual rainfall will 
 average from 12 to 14 inches, and where the 
 soil is of such a character that only the 
 proper application of moisture and culti- 
 vation is required to cause it to be fruit- 
 ful. 
 
 The Factors Necessary for the Attain- 
 ment of This Object. 
 The main factors are the storage and con- 
 servation of the natural rainfall in the 
 roil, and a careful observation of the neoes- 
 sai*y physical conditions of the soil in the 
 seed and root bed. By physical condition 
 is meant the proper preparation or condi 
 tion of the soil that will produce tho best 
 j)OSsible crop results, the processes of tillage 
 to secure abundant yields. 
 
 Mr. ('am])bell states his wish is "to prove 
 that nature has provided all necessary ele- 
 ments on these broad level prairies of the 
 semi-arid belt to grow cereals, vegetables, 
 forag;e, and fruit, in such ciuantilies and of 
 such quality to make the most sanguine 
 minds marvel. To do this the tiller must 
 learn what to do, when to do it, how to do 
 it, and why he works the soil by this me- 
 thod, which enables nature to reveal all the 
 ^possibilities she stores in tliis workshop 
 for an unlimited supply of crop material. 
 It does not require a vast amount of hard 
 and expensive labor to get large results, but 
 it does require effort, with knowledge and 
 judgment.'* 
 
 The factors are cultivation, to induce per- 
 colation of moisture, the retention of guch 
 
moisture in the soil by the checking of eva- 
 poration, the proper making of a seetl and 
 root bed. When moisture leaves the soil it 
 becomes dead. 
 
 "To secure the best possible physical con- 
 ditions, the greatest otire should be exer- 
 cised to do the ploughing, packing and cul- 
 tivation while the soil is moist. When the 
 soil is moist, as all observing farmers know, 
 the soil grains more readily separate one 
 from the other. The real object of plough- 
 ing is not simply to turn the soil over, but 
 in addition to turning the soil over is the 
 pulverising. The more thoroughly this is 
 done the better opportunity the heat, air 
 and moisture have to combine all the pro- 
 perties into plant foods, so that they may 
 be assimilated by the plant." 
 
 The Way the Factors are Manipulated. 
 The Disc Harrow. 
 
 Mr. Campbell's first reference to imple 
 nients is to the diso harrow, in a chapter 
 on its use and abuse. It is, he says, the 
 most important implement to the Western 
 farmer, but from its conception its useful- 
 /less has been more or less misunderstood. 
 Thousands of acres have been put in by it, 
 resulting in total loss of labor and seed. 
 The great value of the disc harrow "lies in 
 its adaptability to the protection_of mois- 
 ture, Ihe preparation of the surface soil 
 for the encouragement of rapid percolation 
 of the rain water, and in thoroughly pul- 
 verising a somewhat cloddy ploughed field, 
 and getting an improved physical or me- 
 chanical condition of the soil. It has been 
 used on thousands of acres instead of 
 ploughing, when it should have been used 
 to precede the plough.'^ 
 
 Instances are quoted where its usl for 
 pi'eventing evaporation and preparing the 
 surface to receive moisture has increased 
 the yield of corn (maize) 20 bushels per 
 acre. He strongly urges its use early in 
 the spring in all stubble ground. "For 
 best results double-disc the ground by lap- 
 ping one half, the obje<:;t being to thoroughly 
 pulverise and loosen the surface for a two- 
 fold purpose. To loo^ieTi the surface and 
 form a f.oii mulch to prevent the loss of 
 moisture by evaporation, as well as to break 
 the hard, crusted surface, to promote a 
 more rapid and complete percolation or 
 soaking into the soil below of the early 
 spring rains, and it is of equal value to u.se 
 immediately after the small grain or any 
 other crop is removed. It is advised when- 
 ever possible to fallow behind the harvester, 
 and not allow the soil to be exposed a single 
 day to the suns rays after the crop is 
 gathered." 
 
 He says it is difficult to explain in strong 
 enough terms the full force and meaning 
 
 of this, and gives the reasons, which, ab- 
 breviated, are as follow: — 
 
 First. — ^There is no time in the year when 
 water, held in the soil near the surface in 
 sufficient quantities, will bring about so 
 many valuable chemical changes as durin/j; 
 the months of July and August. (Here 
 January and February). And these changes 
 moan additional bushels to the next crop. 
 But they will not take place unless the sur 
 fact- is loose and the soil is moist. 
 
 Second. — If there is any moisture in 
 the soil below, by preparing this fine mulch 
 of a liberal thickness this m.oisture will ac- 
 cumulate in the firm soil ju5t beneath. If 
 no more rams come, the giound is in per- 
 fect condition to plough, because of this 
 moisture. 
 
 Thiid. — If no ploughing is to be done in 
 the fall, this moisture can be carried over 
 till next spring, when in case of a dry 
 spring the soil, if properly handled, can Ve 
 planted, and the seed will immediately ger- 
 minate and grow, while your neighbor is 
 worrying about a dry country. 
 
 Fourth. — If you wish to fall-plough for 
 spring crops. If the soil is dry it is folly 
 to plough, but if the moistur'^ is held it is 
 wise, provided the plough is followed by 
 the sub-surface packer, firming the lower 
 portion of the furrow slice while the soil 
 is stili moist, holding the moisture below 
 instead of allowing the furrow to di'y out, 
 as it will if left loose bj the plough. 
 
 Fifth.— If fall wheat is to be sown, this 
 early discing may mean 10 to 20 bushels more 
 per acre. If the moisture is held, any sub- 
 sequent rain will percolate deeper and 
 quicker. If the rain be heavy, so as to pack 
 thj surface, use the harrow thoroughly 
 as soon as possible. Tlien you are ready to 
 plough for fall wheat; the soU i« moist. 
 Follow the plough with the packer, and th? 
 packer with the Acme harrow. Tliere will 
 be a firm moist seed bed, the wheat will 
 come up stout and grow rapidly, and there 
 will be no fear of winter killing. 
 
 Mr. Campbell deprecates using lar^e discs, 
 and strongly prefers a disc of 1-iin. diame- 
 ter, because of its increased pulverising ef- 
 fect. He advisea: — 
 
 "Don't buy a disc too large in diameter 
 Always double-disc by lapping one half." 
 
 This leaves the surface level if you drive 
 so the outside disc will just fill the furrow 
 left by the centre of the disc just preceding 
 "Keep the disc sharp. It pays. Buy as 
 broad a disc as you have horses to draw it. 
 Time is money. Always precede your plough- 
 i"f? l>y tlioroughly discing. It helps ma- 
 terially in obtaining a fine, firm root bed." 
 
 C:-oss-discing is not approved, as it leaves 
 the surface uneven, and assists evaporation. 
 
13 
 
 So much stress is laid by Mr. Campboll in 
 disciiif? that I have quoted &o fully from 
 his i-emarks ou it. 
 
 Ploughing. 
 
 In the chapter on ploughing, a cioss-sec- 
 tion of furrows ploughed in the ordinasy 
 way is given, showing a cavity under the 
 furrow, and the Btuhble and weeds lying 
 against tlie next furrow from the bottom 
 to the surface, these conveyingthe moisture 
 away, and assisting evaporation. If the 
 ploughin/r Ixi shallow, the harrow will work 
 the ground fairly down, but if bIx or more 
 inches dee]> the carities will remain, and 
 have a serious effect. They cut off the seed 
 or root bed from the subsoil, preventing 
 the movement of moisture upward. It 
 forms air spaces, virhich aid in drying out 
 the adjacent soil. It also prevents the la- 
 teral roots or feoders from permeating this 
 poi-tion of tile soil, and generally prejudices 
 the growing crop. Had this land been 
 double-disL-ed before ploughing, the stubble, 
 weeds or manure would have been scattere/l 
 Ihrough the lower part of the furrow, 
 and the soil would have been finer. 
 
 After the ploughing the flub-paclcer i.s 
 used. This implement has 10 wedge faced 
 wheels, which have both a downward and 
 lateral pressure on the soil in the spacer 
 between them, aud the use of this impl.^- 
 nient leaves a firm and evenly-packed 
 stratum at i he lower part of the furrow. 
 After the packer has been used, the ordi- 
 nary smoothing harrow, or the Acme har- 
 row, if employed, will pulverise and make 
 firm the surf;;ce. This also makes firm the 
 part under the surface, givino; a perfect seed 
 bed, while the portion packed underneath 
 forms tho main root bed. 
 
 Mr. Campbell presses the importance of 
 attaining such a physical condition of the 
 soil favorable to holding the largest .?.mount 
 of moisture to the squave inch to the 
 ryipid jnovoiuent of moisture by capillary 
 attraetion, and to the prolific growth and 
 dovelojHueut of the lateral roots with their 
 thousanils of little feoders. This, he says, 
 cannot bo obtained without thoroughly 
 ploug'hing, pulverising, and packing the 
 soil every year. Water is held not in 
 spaces, but in the forms of films or cover- 
 ings around each diminutive soil piirticlo, 
 consequently the greater number of small 
 particles of soil the greater the amount 
 of water held. Professor Campbell gives 
 two illustrations to show this. If a cube 
 lin. square bo cut into eight squares, tho 
 surfrco area is increased from six to twelve 
 square inches, and further cutting will in 
 crease it still more. Take a pound of 
 coarso buckshot and put it in one glasH, 
 
 and a pound of the vevj finest bii'?! shot 
 in another. Then measure carefully an 
 ounce of v/ater into each glass, shake it 
 well, CO that the shot moistened all over: 
 then tip the water out, and measure it, 
 and it will bo found the fine shot has re- 
 tained nearly 13 times as much water as 
 tho coarse shot, so it is with coarse and 
 small particles in the soil. 
 
 The depth of ploughing must be go- 
 verned by tho condition of the soil, the 
 time of tho year th-i ploughing is done, 
 and the time it is to be seeded or planted, 
 also the tools available. For average 
 prairie soil plough fully 7in. deep, if it is 
 to bo seeded soon after. The soil must be 
 moist, and not wet. The surface must be 
 disced before ploughing, and the sub-sur- 
 face packer follow close to the plougli. Tl!-.> 
 iplou^hing done before noon should be 
 packed before going to dinner, and that 
 done in the afternoon before leaving th-? 
 field at night. The Acme harrow should 
 then follow to get the surface in good con- 
 dition before the clods get too dry. If 
 the farmer has no packer, then plough .5in 
 deep, and use the common harrow with 
 teeth slightly slai'ting, and vcight'^d, the 
 object being to pulverise and firm the 
 under portion of tho furrow." These ob- 
 servations are very important. 
 
 Breaking New Prairie Lands., 
 
 "Use the regular breaking jilough, cutting 
 about 2in. deep. It is best to bi-eak as 
 shallow as it may be possible, in order to 
 turn the sod completely over, and have it 
 hold logether. It should be done as soon 
 as the grass begins to grow rapidly in tho 
 spring, turning it as flat as possible. Roll 
 it to make it lie firmly against tho sub- 
 soil. Follow with the Acme or common har 
 row, going over a suffioient number of times 
 to loosen the soil from the sod, in order to 
 fill all cracks and crevices with loose earth 
 to form a perfect blanket. This will pro 
 vent the loss of moisture, holding it as far 
 as it may be possible beneath the blanket, 
 aud in case of heavy rain it will be well to 
 harrow again. With this blanket properly 
 provided during June and July (here Decem- 
 ber and January), the sod itself will not 
 only be found to be well rotted, but the 
 top of the subsoil to a depth of 1 to .3in. 
 also. 
 
 In August (here February) or as soon as 
 the soil beneath the blanket is rotted, it 
 should be ploughed again, this time with 
 the stirring or stubble plonorh. cutting 
 about 2.Jin. deeper, and following with th«. 
 ^^b-flu^face packer, the s:ime fl.s outlined for 
 ordinary stubhle ])1oughing. The harrow- 
 ing should l)e very thorough. If rare be 
 
14 
 
 taken to conserve the rain waters, and the 
 work well done, the ground rnay ht planted 
 to fall wheat, or spring cro^K, the loliow- 
 inof spring;. There is no eeononiy, but great 
 waste, in trying to economise or minimise 
 the amount of labor required to thoroughly 
 ])reparfe the soil foi the sowing or planting 
 of grain, for the work of thorough prepara- 
 tion is easily and quickly done, and when 
 once done a successful harvest is assured. 
 A very interesting chapter on 
 
 Sub-surface Packing 
 is given with illustrations, showing the 
 growth of plants in packed and unpacked 
 soil; also the rapid germination in packed 
 soil. Among other instances is the follow- 
 ing: — On Kilpatnck Bros.' lanch, in Chase 
 County, i!^el?f.'aska, where Mr. Campbell had 
 directed operations for fall wheat in 1903, 
 the wheat was sown 14th September, and 
 in four days the field could be discerned 
 green from the town of Champion, two and 
 a half miles away. In the locality hun- 
 dreds of acr«s were sown, but not one 
 showed green that season. From lOtli Sep- 
 tember no rain fell for seven months, and 
 the Kilpatrick wheat, yielding over 30 
 bushels to the acre, was all thpt was har 
 vested in the country, the rest being a to- 
 tal failure. The chapter winds up by re- 
 stating ''that the process of packing the 
 under portion of furrow or ploughed land 
 creates three conditions to aid in carrying 
 the growing crop over long dry periods, 
 namely: — 
 
 "(1) More water in the soil; (2) a stronger 
 capilinry movement of water; (3) more pro- 
 lific-growth of roots. 
 
 'TDon"t pack the surface; it increases the 
 lo83 of moistuTe by evajjoration. Less seed 
 is needed in packed soil than in loose soil 
 for the same crop result. Pack the lower 
 portion of your ploughing the same day you 
 plough, to save the moisture.*' 
 Summer Culture. 
 
 Summer fallow practised in fhc East was 
 iricd in the somi-aiid region, but the results 
 were rot euconraging, and it gave place to 
 .summer cultu-;e wii'h marked success. Tlv 
 v.ork is begun as early in the spring as pos- 
 sible, with th> disc harrow. If i-ain com.^s 
 a second discing 's needed. Tlie surface mu.st 
 rot Vccomc crusted, nor must weeds be al- 
 lowed to grow. Plough in June or early 
 July (hero December or January), .-.nd pack 
 the Si'.mo day, following it with the Acmo 
 harrow, going overthe entire day's ploughing. 
 In case of extreme heat more cultivation Is 
 necessary. Watch the firm soil just below 
 the mulch; if it is moist it is all right; if 
 it shows dry, cultivate again. The chapter 
 on summer culture is most interesting, but 
 can onb- be alluded to. The following pas- 
 
 sages arc extracted • —"Een ember it in not 
 Ihc object 01 suinmiKr culture to give the iand 
 a rest, but rathec tLo reverse. *Tlio object 
 is to keep the land alive and actively en- 
 ga.gcd in ci;e manufacture of plant foods, and 
 to improve the phj^sicv.l condition of the soil 
 by every part of the work done, either direct- 
 ly or indirectly." The following passage 
 r'jads somewhat strangoly to ua : — ''It is alio 
 gether too common an idea tliat the quan- 
 tity and quality oi the crop depends upon 
 climatic conditions. This does not apply to 
 the semi-arid belt. The success of the far- 
 mer dep;»nds in a great measure upon the 
 quantity and "uality of the grains and vege- 
 taoi'.s he raises. Under the ordinary plan 
 of fanning the expense of preparing, plant- 
 ing and cultivating is just the same whether 
 we get 50 bushels of corn or five bushels, or 
 none at all. If wo proceed properly, the 
 iicces.sai'y labor may be 50 per cent, more, 
 but oven if it wore double, and we succeed 
 in getting 30 or 40 bushels of wheat in sea- 
 son, when our neighbors under ordinal^ con- 
 ditions get -vc or 10, does it pay? If we are 
 able, to get SO bushels of com when cur neigh- 
 bor gets 30, does it pay? At Pomeroy model 
 farm, Kansas, with summer culture in four 
 successive years, 11)01 to 1904, the wheat 
 cropped 40 oushels per acre, while the yield 
 ill tlic same locality for tlie same vears aver- 
 aged less than 10 busliels. Three other fields 
 in >,cster)?. Kansas and Nebraska are aii- 
 tlicntically reported in 1C04 in localities re- 
 mote from each other, each summer tilled, 
 cropped 31, 36^, and 41 bushels respectn;.- 
 an acrcj whilo fields in the same locality 
 planted by the common method were from 60 
 to 90 per cent, total failure, and the best 
 yields did not exceed one-fourth of the above 
 quantity. ' .. nnmbcr of other similar re- 
 sults are given, the result of carrying over 
 in the soil the rainfall of irOo to tiie dry sea- 
 sou of 1!;'J4. Tlie chapter ends w'th the fol- 
 lowing: — "Slimmer culture for the storing 
 ot the ram waters in tho soil, although com- 
 p-uaLively new as outlined, is a most impor- 
 tant adjunct to fanning in the ^Vest. Be- 
 gin your summer culture as early in th'.> 
 sjiring as tho conditionb will let you on the 
 ground with your disc harrow. Don't let th? 
 A'/eeds grow, thinking they arc valuable as 
 a lertiliser to turn under. Tlie moisture 
 tl:ey take from tho ground is worth far more 
 10 you in growing thonext crop." 
 
 Chapters well worth studying are those on 
 ];ercolation, capillai-y attraction, and eva- 
 ]K)raticn, but can only be alluded to. 
 
 Instructions are given as to the growth 
 of all kinds of crops and trees, and illus- 
 trations shown as to the results obtained 
 under tlie Campbell system of culture. I 
 liavo only space t« refer to the chapter on 
 
15 
 
 \Viiii:er Wheat 
 
 as most interestiug tu our people. "Mr. 
 Campbell states wJieii tlie ianiier in tbc 
 Avinter wheat belt (ours is all winter wheat) 
 has learned the value of summer culture, 
 aad how it will not only greatly increase 
 the average yield, but make a failure, so 
 far as drought is concerned an impossi- 
 bility, a larger acreage will be treated." 
 The experience on the Pomeroy mod-^.l 
 farin^ as well as nnxny other fields in West- 
 ern Kansas and Nebraska, from 1901 to 
 1904, are certainly evidence that our ideas, 
 "drawn from years of experience and ob- 
 servation, are something more than a 
 theory." 
 
 "They are strong evidence as to the 
 value of this class of work, whereby- tliii 
 very thorough and careful preparing of tlie 
 soil (as described) a fine, firm, and moist 
 seed bed was formed. Under these- con 
 ditions, ]2 quarts of seed were found to 
 be ample. Tlic germination was quick, and 
 the deVelopment of the roots in the favor- 
 able soil caused liberal stooling, and in 
 30 days after seeding the jrround was near- 
 ly, or quite, covered with the wheat. The 
 advantages of a fine, firm, seed bed are 
 many. One-third only of the seed is neces- 
 sary. The growth of the plant is mucli 
 more rapid. The devdopnient of roots i.s 
 much greater, so that moi'^ture and plant 
 food is^ Irawn from a much larger percen- 
 tage of the soil, and last, there is a con- 
 dition of soil that will hold a much greater 
 per cent. ' f mcisture, as woll as greater 
 power of caiDillary attraction, enabling the 
 supply of moisture to be kept uv> from 
 below, where, by careful work, raucli of 
 the rain waters are stored, that nnder or- 
 dinary conditions would have been lost 
 by evaporation or run off." 
 
 "No farmer shoxdd be content k) call 20 
 bushels of wheat a good crop. Our prairies 
 of tile semi- arid belt are capable of produc- 
 ing 4,0 and 50 bushels with the conditions 
 nature has provided." 
 
 Mr. Campbell recommends the following 
 implements in addition to planters, drills 
 and harvesters required for the crop, for t'tie 
 treatment of a hundred acres on his plan of 
 the high level prairies of the more arid 
 ))orticns of the semi-arid belt, where the 
 soils are of the usual sandy loam forma- 
 tion: — One gang plough, two 14in., one 
 four-horse disc harrow, one four-horse com- 
 bination weeder, one four-horse Campbell 
 buopaoker, one two-row cultivator and one 
 horse cultivator. 
 
 How far this system of cultivation can be 
 i;iade as successful oii, our norUiern plains 
 a).ci the Mallee a.s it lias been in the sem* 
 arid portions of the United States, only a 
 trial will provs. Some of oar soils may be 
 somewhat heavier Than the soii if the west- 
 ern prairies, but much of it i-! just .<« fr^-e 
 ai d more fertile by nature. Our c iiditi..rjs 
 ar? so nearly akin that I lie lesson taught 
 should come home to us, for .'f tiio s.u.ie -ut- 
 ce:c can be attained, vliat a vi.-,'a o,' ) r. g 
 prriLV does it optn up for tim iuturo, net 
 only for us, but for all Australia! I can 
 but point tlie matter out; it must be elabo- 
 rated by others wiser and more experienced 
 tlian myself, but to my mind the field is 
 promising enough for the best attention of 
 your department to be given to it, and a 
 thorough trial made of the system. Tlie 
 cost will be but small, and any tnal made 
 sliunld pay for itself. It has been difficult 
 to compress the information into a reason- 
 able length, so as to clearly define the sys- 
 tem, and of course there is nothing original 
 in tlie paper. In this and my former papei 
 I merely state what I^have seen, and read 
 a -ml been told. 
 
 ^^5?^- 
 
 
Irrigation. 
 
 THK DUTY OF WATER 
 
 TMPOllTANCE OF THE SUBJECT. 
 Among vM the facts thai need to be as- 
 certained in connection with imgatJon, the 
 lundai7iental one is Iho duty of water, the 
 moaning of which term is concisely put by 
 lilwool Mead, as follc-wa : — "The duty of 
 \vatcr in irrigation is tho area of crop which 
 tan be matured with a given volume."' To 
 the constructor of works, the investor who 
 finds the money, and to the user of water 
 who ii'oks to its use for a subsistence, the 
 true iijjpreciation of what an allotted volume 
 of water can do is all import.uit. And yet 
 vital :'..■■ this question is, it is most difficult 
 to dc'erniiue, because to got a uniform re- 
 sult there must he uniformity in the factors, 
 :ud Ihis is impo^sib^ to obtain. Any 
 
 variation in soil, crops, rainfall, toniijera- 
 lure, seasons, alters the result. Tlie duty 
 for ouo crop differs largely ^rom the duty 
 for another, and one tiller may get a duty 
 twice as high as another, becanse of mor;* 
 tliorough cultivation. In soils, even in the 
 Si' me locality, thei'o may be a variation ot 
 t uf iiundixd or two liundred per cent., and 
 therefore any attempt to fix or even ai> 
 jaoximate an arbitrary duty of water from 
 American experience will be more or less 
 unreliable. One fact does stand ;)iit from 
 luiiversal experience, that the duty of water 
 incroafles the longer it is used, and that 
 tho same volume may after a few 
 yc>ar» double the area it will serve. 
 In the early stages of irrigation, 
 in any district too much water is usually 
 used, and only time and experience give 
 the true duty for the locality. In Victoria 
 (here is not the same variation in either 
 soil, temperature, rainfcill, or altitude that 
 tlierc is in the irrigation States of America, 
 and if a careful system of record is main- 
 tained, in time we will, no doubt, b© able 
 to arrive at a fairly con-ect approximation 
 to the true duty. The principles on which 
 
 the new Water Act (as it applies to irriga^ 
 tiou) is based renders this qu«»tion of thp 
 duty of water of the first importance. The 
 higher tho duty attained the greater will 
 be the value of the water sujjply, the mor« 
 prohtable the works, the larger the area that 
 will be supplied, and the cheaper the water 
 to the irrigating cultivator. 
 
 HOW LITTLE BONE TO ASCERTAIN 
 
 THE DUTY. 
 Iri tl;« course of my inquiries, I founrl 
 that in the greater number of places n© at- 
 tempts to ascertain the duty had been made; 
 in others, I was referred to the bulletiut? of 
 tho Department of Agriculture, and other 
 gentlemen kindly sent me the i-esults of 
 their experience. In some cases, the dut^ 
 is stated at pel cubic foot per second ; in 
 others the depth of water put on the land 
 i» ^iven. The latter is the better way to 
 put it, as it corresponds with the way rain- 
 fall is measured. In the first case, a con- 
 tinuous flow per second is meant, but the 
 exact depth put on the land cannot be given 
 unless the length of the irrigation season, 
 a/so, is stated. This, in America, may vary 
 from two months to nearly the whole year, 
 so that an acre foot per second in the 
 former case means but a small part of the 
 water used in the latter. Where possible, I 
 will state the result in inches or feet, and 
 this will mean 3630 cubic feet for an acre 
 inch, and 43,560 cubic feet for an acre foot. 
 A. eul)i:r foot per second fiow-iug for 24 liours 
 equals two aero feet. As the length of the 
 irrigating season in Victoria is known, and 
 is probably for the same classes of crops, of 
 uuifonn !er;gth, a com2>arisou can be made by 
 those desiring to make it in whichever way 
 tho duty is put. An im))ortant point to be 
 (onsid-red is the rainfall, which has to be 
 added to the iirigating duty in determining 
 the amount of water used. 
 
 At the Twelfth National Irrigation Con- 
 
17 
 
 gress, held in November, 1904., attended by 
 468 d'jleg'ates tHough scores of valuable ad- 
 dresses were ijiven, a close pcnisal of tiic 
 recoi-is of ijroccodings shows tliat tlie impor 
 tant question of the duty of water was Icfr, 
 almor,t unt.iuchod. 
 
 This shews that private irrigators liave not 
 wiveu the matter much attention, and that 
 where results were obtained tliry could not 
 be of general application, or they would hav^. 
 been :jtated. Where information has been 
 obtainei it has been principally by the offi- 
 cers oi the expevimcutal stations, under the 
 guidance c>f tbe chief ^^r. Mejid). 
 
 The instances of the duty of water 1 am 
 able to' give will be found to differ widely, 
 and must not be taken as the duty that will 
 obtain hevc, but merely as information to 
 lead to a careful study of the c^uestion, so 
 that eonomy in the use of our waters m.17 
 be practised, and the very best results ob- 
 tained fr-)m their use. 
 
 INSTANCES OF DUTY OF WATER. 
 At TuosoJi, Arizona, near where the experi- 
 ment station fann is situated, the rainfall 
 averages seven inches per year, and in soni'. 
 years is under five inches. There is no 
 storage, the supply from the Salt Eiver is 
 intermittent, and much attention has b'^en 
 given to iriigation investigations. The district 
 grows alfalfa, grain, fniits and vegetables, and 
 owing to the intermittent supply the stor- 
 ing of moisture in the soil is urged. Hence 
 the demand for winter and early spring 
 water is large, so as to get it when avail- 
 able, as it is not always to be obtained when 
 the crops need it. The soil is a clayey, 
 gravelly loam. In the growing period the 
 maximum shade temperature is 100 deg. 
 to 110 deg.; the mean is from 6(J deg. in 
 March to 90 deg. in July. The total water 
 applied on the land, for the whole year wag 
 6 acre feet. The amount just previous to 
 and during the growing sea.son was: — 
 Wheat sown in moist soil, 2.1 ft. ; in dry 
 soil, 2.5 ft.; potatoes, 2.4 ft.; Egyptian 
 cotton, 5.0 ft. At Bozeman, Montana 
 
 searching investigations to ascertain the 
 duty of water were made by the experiment 
 station under Dr. Mead's supervision. Tlie 
 average rainfall here is 14 to 15 inclies, the 
 fall being greatest from April to June, 
 when the crops need it. The season is 
 short, barely maturing in three and one 
 half months, beets taking a month longer. 
 Forty-six tests as to the duty of water were 
 made in Gallatin and Bitter Root valleys, 
 from which a number are selected. Tlie 
 depth of irrigation water is given, inolud 
 ing the rainfall during the growing 
 period : — 
 
 Crop and Soil. 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 m -P 
 
 
 
 ^,S 
 
 
 ^n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 c3 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 '^. 
 
 
 < 
 
 'a^ 
 
 Q^ 
 
 \^ 
 
 131] 211.02] 3 tons. 
 2|1.98|57bushel 
 1|0 98 j7.rDUslie] 
 1 1 1.03 |51 bushel 
 
 ^|1.98| 
 
 1 1 1.30 I 5 ton.->. 
 
 4|1.46j 
 
 2j6.0o i34 bushel 
 .'Jl 211.19 |43 bushel 
 2(l,4G|10 toils. 
 
 1: 
 66l 
 241 
 66j 
 
 .|53| 
 
 Clover, chiy loam 
 
 Grain, loam 
 
 Barley, Joam 
 
 Oats, clay loam . . 
 Clover, clav loam 
 Alfalfa, clay loam 
 Orchard, vegetable loam |40| 
 
 Oats gravelly |102 
 
 \\'lieav, loam 
 
 Sugar beet, clay loam ...f 3[ 
 
 Orchard, gravelly loam )4ol 4|l.56 | 
 
 In the above cases the length of the irriga- 
 ting season was 92 days. The water used 
 in the forgoing examples was from the later- 
 als or on individual farms. Under the canal 
 thero win be greater seepage and evapora- 
 tion, and tlie duty vrill be lower. 
 
 Frj-n llie Big Ditch, Yellowstone County, 
 for 1901, the irrigation reason was 110 days, 
 the area iri> gated 18,144 acres, and the aver- 
 figo dentil of water applied 2.56ft. In 1902 
 the season was 140 diays, area irrigated 20,03H 
 acres average depth of water supplied 3.6oit. 
 From 1i!c Republican Canal, Montana, the 
 area irrigated was 4850 acres, the average 
 dcptli of water supplied in 1902 was 3.GSft. 
 
 From the Hedge Canal, Montana, the area 
 iiTigated was 5420 acres, the average depth, of 
 v.ater applied was in 1901 3.97ft., and in 1902 
 5.76ft. From the Wood Canal 3985 acre.s 
 vcrc- watered, tli^i d<pth applied (lein" in 
 1901 2.41ft., and in 1902 2 49ft. Froin lb'' 
 North Gird Creok Oanal 1345 acres were 
 watered, the deptji of water aliQilied being 
 1.45ft. in 1901, au.l 3.50ft. in 1902. From 
 Middlj Creek Canal, Montana, the area irri- 
 gated for four years was about 4(X)(V to SOU'J 
 acres, and the water applied was. first y<'ar, 
 2.1()ft., afterwards 1.90it., 2. 3J.it., 1 15tt. 
 CONTRACTS FOR SUPPLY OF WATER. 
 In .America most of the water sunply js 
 owned by canal companies, who make con 
 tracts with the water users, Tlic follow 
 ing are examples: — In Arizona one company 
 sell.-; H pcrpi-lual li^lit f„r \-?, vn\nv feci. 
 per fieoond, to be used on 80 acres. Tliis 
 will give a dopth of over 7ft. Another com- 
 pany, one cubic foot per second for 120 acres, 
 or a depth 01 6lt.' Another agrees to 
 supply water to a depth of 2ft., and more it 
 needed, at the conipanyij option only. In 
 California the Gage Canal Company' allowa 
 
i8 
 
 ono I'ubic foot per second to 250 ticrea, which 
 gives u dcpt.li of 2.89 feet. In 'Joloradn 
 the law compels comnanics to .supply water 
 from let April to 1st November, Sxnl ihc 
 water rights arc generally for 8(i acres, 
 the volume allowed bein^ 1.44 cubic feet 
 per socond, giving a depth of over 5ft. In 
 Idaho, the contracts of the Phyllis canal 
 provide for a maximum of l^ft. in depth for 
 50 acres; the Boiee and Nampa canal sells 
 it at per second foot, with no limitation ou 
 the area. In Montana, the Minnesota and 
 Montana Company sells by the miners' incli, 
 the average supplied showing a duty of about 
 150 acres per cubic foot per second. In 
 Nebraska, the North Platte Irrigation and 
 Laud Company sells water rights for 1.44 
 cubic ft. per second, to be used on land 
 epccified by the company. The Interstate 
 Canal airrees to supply one cubic foot per 
 second for 50 acres for the legal season wf 
 200 days. This will give over 7ft. of water. 
 In New Mexico, the Pecos Irrigation Com- 
 pany agree to deliver one foot per acre to 
 be taJicn at such times as required. In 
 Texas, the T. C. Purdy Company contracts 
 allow one foot per acre to be delivered in 
 not more than five irrigations during the 
 year. In Wastunj^ioii, uic i aKHui Jiiii;a- 
 tion Company contracts to deliver one cubic 
 foot per second for 160 acres from 1st April 
 to 31st October. This gives a depth of '2.65 
 ft. In Wyoming, the canals do not run for 
 more than 60 days, and the companies al- 
 low 1.46it. during that time. 
 
 DUTY IN UTAH STATE 
 In Utah the rainfall is light, the average 
 fof 10 years at some 50 stations in the 
 State being 10.99 inches. The duty of 
 f/ater is generally low, but investigation 
 *howed there was much waste. The growtli 
 of the State, the demand for water in the 
 titles springing up for domestic use and for 
 power is depleting the supply, and how to 
 increase it is the most vital public question 
 there at present. There is no proper control, 
 and the authority of the Mormon Church, 
 formerly paramount, is being gradually 
 weakened. The outlook when I was there in 
 September last was, owing to the increas- 
 ing friction between the "Saints" and the 
 largo "Gentile" population, and morf, es 
 penally owing to the scarcity of water, not 
 reassuring. In the canals from the Jordan 
 River, which irrigate some 55,000 acres, 1 lie 
 depth of water tuna from 5.75ft. to about 
 nin. per acre, the average for the bulk of 
 the land being under a foot in depth. Un- 
 der the Provo River canals some 4000 acre? 
 are irrigated, the season lasting 17."? day.^; 
 the depth allowed is about 4ft. Under the 
 WeVer River the depth applied varied from 
 
 .82ft. to 5.59ft. in depth, and it is signi- 
 ficant that the greatest value of the crop 
 was i-ealised where the water was put on 
 light. Here, again, it is statud there was 
 great waste. 
 
 DUTY IN CALIFORNIA 
 In this State there has been a general 
 looseness and uncertainty both as to the 
 rights of water and the duty of water. In 
 parts no attempt has been made to ascer- 
 tain the latter. In Honey Lake Valley the 
 irrigation companies have no contracts in 
 definite terms, and merely agree to furnish 
 water ''sufficient to irrigate so many acres." 
 The officials try to distribute fairly, but 
 it is purely guesswork, and there can be no 
 fair division nor economical use. Brown's 
 Valley is in Yuba county, California, in the 
 Sierra foothills, 30Oft. above sea levcl. The 
 temperattire is high, and the evapcratiou 
 rapid. A duty of one inch p«^r acre con- 
 tinuous is considered the duty for alfalfa 
 and grass. Tliis will be equivalent to a 
 .'^ccou'l feet for 40 acres — a verv low duty. In 
 Salinas A^'aUcy, Monteroy City, the duty of 
 water of one cubic foot p-^r second varies from 
 270 to 1448 acres. In the aouthcrn part of 
 I lie Stato where water is scarce, a higher 
 duty ranges In Sweetwater, Pomona, and 
 Ontado the duty of ono foot per scconn is 
 -.ihoub 500 acres, while it is estimated that for 
 all California the same duty will average 
 about 200 acres. On the canals fed from the 
 San Joaq.iin River, the duty is estimated at 
 ono cubic foot per second to 160 acres. Tli-^re 
 is an enormous percolation however and tli^ 
 loss of water is reckoned at one-half the 
 flow. On the Los Angeles River, although 
 the irrigation from it lias been enormous, 
 no attempt to fix a dutv has been made 
 ^^atei,• is distributed in dav and night sup- 
 plies, what is called a "head" being allowd 
 lor every 10 acres of land. This head ij 
 •suppo.so.l t(; b^^ about 100 inche,-, lut it varies 
 from 50 to 150. In the Sweetwater Rivor sys- 
 tem, water is distributed for .-rrigation en- 
 tirely Irom pipes under pressure, and is main- 
 ly ussl for orchards. The duty when water 
 )s plentiful runs from J2 to 18 inches p<rr 
 acre per .-nnum. It is sometimes as low as 
 lour inches, but continuous and careful cul- 
 tivation 19 carried on, and it has been found 
 where thin is done the need of the water ha., 
 not been so .severely felt. The water con- 
 tract issiKd by the San Dieijo Land au 1 
 iown Co.iipai.y, the owner of "the water sys- 
 lem, provides for an aero foot of water w^i 
 r.nnum lor each aero of land 
 
 LATER RETURNS. 
 The foregoing illustration of the duty ol 
 »-Hter haa brvn taken from bulletins issued by 
 experimental statious, and from the invA,sti 
 
19 
 
 gation of llio irrigation branch of the De- 
 partniont of Agriculture. They were tabulated 
 from t\v.> to throe years ago. Last yeav 
 Professor Frank Adams, of the experiment 
 station, Berkeley, made inquiries as to the 
 duty of water in California, and the follow- 
 ing are some of the results a.scertaincd:-- 
 On the Gage Canal, Riverside, records have 
 been kept for six years, and in these, includ- 
 ing the rainfall, which is very light, tht- 
 water used has been from 2.62ft. to 2.93ft.; 
 an average of 2.74ft. In the Imperial dis- 
 trict, in the South of California, the aver- 
 age depth of water supplied was 3.59ft., but 
 this makes no allowance for seepage or 
 evaporation, so that the duty must have 
 been much higher than the figures shown. 
 At Yuma, with a light rainfall and no al- 
 lowance for losses, 5 acre feet were run. On 
 the Tule River, including rainfall, but al- 
 lowing for seepage, 2.75ft. were used. Under 
 four canals in the Santa Clara Valley, 3.09 
 ft. were supplied. In 1903 the data was ob- 
 tained from a large number of canals in 
 some of the Western States for the season, 
 and it was found in Northern Colorado 3.27 
 ft. were used; in Wyoming, with small indi- 
 vidual ditches, 8.52ft.; and in Nebraska 3.60 
 ft 
 
 These figures may not give the true duty, 
 as they include loss from seepage and 
 evaporation which in some places is as 
 high as 75 per cent, of the water sup- 
 plied. 
 
 INQUIRIES BY MR. M'COLL. 
 
 Inquiries made by myself elicited the fol- 
 lowing' replies: — Professor Little, of Mos- 
 cow, Idaho, states the Lewiston-Clarkston 
 Company expects the high duty of 200 
 acres per cubic foot per second. Professor 
 Knapp, of Houston, Texas, replied that tho 
 duty had only been tabulated lor rice, which 
 requires about 18in. of water. Mr. M'Pher- 
 son, the superintendent of Twin Falls Land 
 and Water Company, states they are 
 now engaged in a thorough in- 
 vestigation, and hope to get tangible results 
 Ibis year. The Hon. Calo'o Tanntr, Salt Lake 
 City, Utah, states that there the duty is put 
 at one culdc foot por Fetoud for 63 to 70 
 acres of lard. Profe8s.)r L. G. Carpenter, 
 Fort CoUiiiS, Colorado, replies that in a 
 general way 18 inches of water per annum 
 i^ appli?d to tho laud. Professor Gordon H. 
 True, ff T?cno Nevada, writes that on 3000 
 acres of land 7ft. were used, and ou a single 
 ranch 6.45 feet were used on a'falfa, and on 
 potatoes 7.43 feet. On two othor ranches 
 tho 'luty for alfalfa was 3.5 feet. At the ex- 
 periment slation the oxi>er!encc of two sea- 
 sons gavsj tho following obs'irvations : — ■ 
 
 Whjat, 1.73 feet; oats, 1.76 feet; corn, 2.66 
 
 feet; roots, 5.30 feet; potatoes, 3.55 feet; 
 alfalfa, 5.6 feet. 
 
 This alfalfa was in a very loose soil, and 
 of course, the character of the soil nas much 
 to do with the amount of water used. John 
 F. Boot'], distri:;t judge, Provo City, Utah, 
 <^stimatea that a second foot will irrigate irnm 
 GO to K/J acres. Prof's.sor O. L.^ Waller, 
 irrigation engineer. State College, Pullra.<n, 
 ^Vashi^gton, states they are now tabulating 
 lesulti (if Ijic duty of water on varions crops, 
 but they arc not sufficiently advanced to pub- 
 lisli. To the great number of inquiries made, 
 I'Owev.'i-, no definite information could bo 
 given. 
 
 DUTY DEFINED BY L4\V. 
 The last report of the State Engineer of 
 Wyoming, Mr. Clarence T. Johnston, recom 
 mends that to end the uncertainty in that 
 .''t-ate as to the duty of -vater, and the amount 
 growerB are entitled to, the law should de- 
 line tho volume of water that would be de- 
 livered by a continuous flow ot 
 one cubic foot per seoond during 
 an irrigatJou season of roasouablo length". 
 He recomm<>nds that the duty of water be 
 f;xed at one cubic foot jier second for 7i' 
 I'cros. In Canada tho North-west Irriga- 
 tion Act passed in 1894, fixed by regulations 
 under it the iuty of water at onj> cubic foot 
 flowing constantly during the irrigation £<a- 
 .son for 100 acres. I'n 1898 the matter was 
 leconsidored, and tho duty was changed to 
 one cubic foot for 150 acres. 
 
 Tlio precipitation in the north-west terri- 
 tories, which includes snow aa well as rain, 
 taken over a number of years, is, at Chap- 
 lin, -202 feet elevation, S.5 inches ; Sv/it'l 
 Curre-it, 2439 feet, 15.5 inches; Medicine 
 Hat, 2i6i feet, 14 inches. Calgary, 3406 
 feet, ;5 inches; and Matleod, 3O60 feet, 13.6 
 iuch««. 
 
 In the record of precoodiugs of the Twelfth 
 National Irrigation Congress, there is a pap''v 
 by Dr. John A. Widtsoe, dire<-tor of the 
 Utah Experiment Station, in which the 
 iolloiving are given ;is reliable results ob- 
 tained at the statioj) : — On a typ'cal w^'stern 
 a(,il live inches of water produced .33 bushels 
 of wheat per acre ; ten inches, 40 bushels, 
 15 inches, 48 bushels; and 20 inches, 4(^ 
 bushels. 
 
 H*3 found that up to 15 inches of water the 
 yield increased, but a further application 
 did not increase it. Oats were similar; five 
 inches yielded 58 bushels per acre; 10 inches 
 thi* same, but more straw; 15 inches gave 
 7(, bushels; 20 inches, 86 bushels; ancr 30 
 UK-hes, 82 bushels. Twenty inches water 
 gave the largest yield. Crops differ, and 
 the right quantity of water for each lias 
 to Ih) found- In most cases the nitio of 
 
\ield ooos not inci'oase with the water used , 
 tliat k:, the value of the first few inches ib 
 much giputor than tho later. 
 
 Potatoes differed, for with tliis crop 7} 
 inclies of water yielded 160 bushels, and 71 
 inches :U5 bushels, the intermodiate appli- 
 cations showing an increase up tc 3'i inchea 
 while after tliat the proportion grew smal- 
 ler. With all crops there is a practicable 
 limit of profitable application of water, 
 which should be ascertained. These p<unts 
 are most importaut, but may not l>e dwelt 
 on now. J. J. "Vernon, Professor of Agri- 
 culture, New Mexico Agricultural College, 
 in his pajjei, gave the following figures: — 
 Alfalfa, with 11 irrigations, rising 33 inelies 
 of water, yi(>lded 21, 0801b. per ncre; wheat, 
 four irrigations, using 24 inches, gave 
 28261b. per acre; corn (maize), four irriga- 
 
 tions, uting 12 inches; return not yet har- 
 vested. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 This paper has been extended beyond my 
 intention, though I have tried to abbrevi- 
 ate as much as possible. It mu*t be looked 
 upon more as suggestive than instructive, 
 bt'causo we cannot know that any of the in- 
 stances given will quite fit our conditions. 
 The great importance of ascertaining the 
 t.ue duty of water for each locality and 
 each kind of croX' cannot be overestimated. 
 With our large area of land to be supplied 
 and tho limit of our water it is only by its 
 application being made with a full know- 
 ledge of the time to apply it, the true 
 amount required and proper cultivation can 
 tlio individual eultivalot and the State 
 realise the full benefit they should receive 
 
 '^^^^^^^^ 
 
Irrigation 
 
 COST OF WAIBR IN AMERICA. 
 
 1 bffj to hand yoii some information 
 on the cost of irrigation water in tlie Unit- 
 ed States. The whole of the charges given 
 are from information obtained by myself 
 from the controllers of the various irriga- 
 tion districts, and not from piiblished re- 
 cords. In nearly all cases the water is con- 
 trolled cither by co-operative companies of 
 farmery, who have either oonstriuted their 
 own works or purchased them from the con- 
 .structing company, as is frequently done , 
 or are owned by water companies, who con- 
 tract with the us«rs to supply it. In sonii 
 cases these companies are purely water com- 
 panies; in others they are associated with 
 the land. 
 
 At Cheyenne, J. M. Carey and Brother 
 state the cost of a water right is from 25 
 to 30 dols. an acre. The amount supplied 
 is fixed by State law. A secondTeport from 
 tlie same State gives the perpetual right as 
 being sold at 25 dols. per acre for one cubic 
 foot per second for 70 acres, as fixed by 
 law. 
 
 Professor Linfield, of the Agricultural Col 
 lege and Experimental Farm, Bozeman, 
 Montana, a State on the north boundary, 
 says: — "Many canals are owned by farm- 
 ers. ITie charges are interest and mainten- 
 ance of oanals, the cost rarely exceeding a 
 dollar per acre per year. Private tvompanies 
 charge up to 2 dols. an acre per year.'' 
 
 In the Salt Rivor Valley Water Users' 
 Association, Arizona, the charge is 75 cents, 
 to 1 dol. per acre per annum. 
 
 Ai vhe harsLow Irrigation Dompany, lexaa 
 the price per aare for all lands for a water 
 right is 20 dols. The annual charge for 
 all crops is 2 dols. per acre; there is no 
 icstriction on. water used, but iestri(>tiou is 
 I d vised for the tcood of the fai-nier. 
 
 At Eaton, Colorado, the perpeLual right ii; 
 a ditch tor cany water costs ic(j;-(U dollars tor 
 60 aeree. This is for alfalfa, wheat, or 
 
 grain. Late water costs lOOW uollars for 
 ll.'o perpetual rig'ht for 20 acres uf crops, suea 
 US beets, potatoes, onions, or lai.bages. Tho 
 assessment on thrse rights for icaintcnanc '. 
 uianajL-ment, etc., will averagw about 20 
 dollars for right each year. 
 
 .\t the Chasse Nursery Company, River- 
 side, the irrigation is mainly confined to 
 '■Itrus fruits, and the cost of wat< i runs 
 liom G to 35 dollars ivn acre per annum. No 
 djffercnce is made in the charge lor difiertni, 
 quiilitiics of land or crops. 
 
 Mr. A. J. M'Cuiie, irrigalio;.' enginerr 
 ot Denver, states that prices have a wid'' 
 range. In many co-oporativo companies the 
 I barge is only cost of maintenaice, about 50 
 cents. i>er acre, or less. Watev from larg-' 
 ( anals costs 1 to 2^ dollars per acre. It is 
 the rule now to join land and water to 
 i;fcther, so that the annual cost will include 
 interest on original investment and main 
 lenancc for the year. Perpetual wat^r right.- 
 run from 10 dollars fo 50 dollars per acrr. 
 The maintenance charges vary Irom 50 cents, 
 to 1.50 dollars per acre. 
 
 When the Water Act was before the State 
 Legislature of Colorado, an ad valorem ta.^ 
 \ias tried to be insoi-ted, but it did not pas.-. 
 'Ill© land, if this werb passed, would have 
 Iceii taxed according to valu' and produc- 
 tive lapacity. 
 
 W. M. Wooldridge, Hinsdale, Val'ey Co.. 
 Montana, states ihat the farmers own the 
 haids and use thenii co-oporativoiy. Tlio first 
 cost at construction of works runs from 2 
 ((> 4 dollars per ivcrc, and the maintenance 
 15 to 25 cents, per acre annually, and 
 t'(',0()0 acri's hei'e have Ic-^n placed 
 under canals at a cost of 4- dollar.s 
 an acre and 35 cents. per annum 
 for maintenance. The colony was founded iii 
 1898, and tho laud waw then valueless. The 
 Stata gave it away to any who became 
 .M'tUeis, and ;iow it readily sells at 20 dol- 
 
lars an acre, the reault of tho expenditure 
 of four dollars per acf:> for water. 
 
 Mr. Caleb Taiiner, State engineer, Utah, 
 says tliat water there oosts annually two to 
 five dollai's per ;:cre, acoordino- to the loca- 
 tion of the land. 
 
 Mr. B. H. M'Allister, Land C'onimissi.»ner 
 for Union Pacific Railway, Onialia, Ne- 
 braska, states that there ai'c four classes oi 
 ditches in tiie laud he contix-ls — (a) Thos." 
 owned by a farim-r, or two or three together, 
 who divide tho cost and hiaintenance, 
 operated cntii-oly for his or 1hcir own use, 
 (b) the ditch owned by a corporation, th ; 
 watec being sold each year to the user, the; 
 charge varying from one to four dollars jy^r 
 irrigated aero i>or annum; (c) the ditch 
 cwjicd by a coq>oration, from wliich perma- 
 nent rights are sold, coupled with an annual 
 maintenaacc charge. Th.^ price of water in 
 such ditches varies from 10 to 50 dollars an 
 acre for a permanent riglit, the annual 
 charge being from 50 cents, to a dollar an 
 acre. Anoth'?r (d) is the district irrigation 
 ditch, operated under a State district law, 
 Slid under which an annual tax is levied 
 and collected by the district, the tax being 
 6uflicier»t to cover operation expenses, and to 
 provide a sinking fund for the redemption 
 of bonds issued for construction. Tne cost 
 of water is about tlic same as under class C, 
 but under chass D all owners of property sus- 
 ceptible of irrigation aro eonipnllcd to pay 
 the tax, whetlier they are users or not. There 
 is no diffe.'eiitiation of cost for crops or 
 quality of 1-nd. The value of the water 
 rigVj dcp'-rnds in the {ir.st instance uiion its 
 priority on tiie ditch, and upon the priority 
 „f Lhj iit-'i on the stream or source of water 
 supply. It ir.i'j be noted that the lands of 
 the Pacific Union Railv.ay traverse the 
 Statos of Utah, AVyonmig, Nebraska, and 
 Kansfs, and are iTierefore subject to different 
 State laws. 
 
 Mr. F. W. Metcalf, manager of the K.S. 
 and Fiuit Land Company, Arcadia, Oregon, 
 says that under the Owyhee ditoli 1 dol. 60 
 cents, is the cost per acre this year. _ One 
 miners' inch per acre constant flow is the 
 quantity allowed. Classes of land or crops 
 arc not considr.7^d, laj there are no dif- 
 ferential r%*T«. 
 
 Mr. J. H. Barbour, Montebello, Los 
 Ange'"*i Company, California: — ^Water is 
 not sold by the acre, but by the miners' 
 inch, and the cost per aore comes to abaut 
 3 dol. per annum. 
 
 Mr. W. A. Wiley, manager Arkansas 
 Valley Sugar Beet Company, Holly, Colo- 
 rado, says: — ^^Vater is not sold in that dis- 
 trict by the acre. A water right varying 
 from h to 1.44 second feet per 80 acres is sold 
 at 20'to 30 dols. per acre This is when 
 
 the water is separated from the land. In 
 the advanced methods water and hind are 
 attached to each other inseparably, and sold 
 together; 20 to 30 dols. is a fair estimate of 
 its value There is nc different price for 
 water for different soils or crops. 
 
 Mr. L. G. Carpenter, director. Experi- 
 mental Station, Fort Collins, Colorado, is 
 one of the most experienced men in the 
 States. He says their schemes are mostly 
 based on mutual enterprise. Tlie water is 
 controlled by corporations, the users being 
 the stockholders. The companies make no 
 profit, and pay no dividends. The crops are 
 the dividends. Assessments are levied for 
 maintenance, repairs, etc. Where com- 
 panies built in tho first instance, they sold 
 out, taking tlicir profit at the first sale. 
 Tlie division of water is according to the 
 stock held, and the maintenance varies con- 
 sidei-ably, from 25 cents, to a dollar an 
 acre. 
 
 Mr. James Stephenson, juuv., 'jnginecr, 
 Boise Idaho, says that the average price paid 
 fo*' Avater tlier© is 1.50 dollars por nci-e, no 
 c^iffcrencc being made for crops or c|U;ilitit>s 
 of land. 
 
 yZr. R. H. Forbes, director ixper^mcnt;'.! 
 station, Tucson, Arizona, statc'.s that th ; 
 prico for wa,tar varies from 1 doiUir per acii; 
 per voar to as high as 15 dollars by pumping. 
 Thoror is a distinction made b.lwceu winter 
 and summer water, the 'latter being used 
 for late crops is lower. 
 
 Mr. A. J. Chandler, Mesa, Arizona, states 
 that for a variable supply of water from ] 
 to 3 dollars per aero anniially is paid. The 
 canal compivuies do not contract for a con- 
 stant supply, as it varies with 1hc rise and 
 fall of the river. 
 
 Mr. J. W. \\'oolf. Tempe, Arizona, says that 
 in this valley the year is- divided into two 
 periods, summer and winter. The avcrag'? 
 prico for both periods is 1.25 dollars pel 
 inch. Tliis is not for a. continuous fiow ; in 
 high Avaterj more is delivered: in scarcity, 
 less. Where canals are co-opcrativc, only 
 ir.aiutcnauco a,nd oi>eratiou3 arc charged. 
 
 Mr. W. H. Code, chief engineer, Yakimi, 
 Indian Agency, Simcoe, Washington, says 
 that water rights, or rights of way ;u cnna's 
 or laterals, are valued at fron; 10 to 2(; 
 dollars per acre. Maintenance charges arc 
 1.50 -lulhirs per acre. No differential charge ,• 
 cro made. 
 
 Mr. E. C. I.liiucy, Bo-cm.-.u, Montana, 
 says that prices aro the same ioi all cro])S, 
 but may vaiy under the differont cau.ils from 
 25 cents, to 3 dollars per acre for a dlivery 
 of one miner's inch pov acre. A miner's 
 int 1) here is a stroaan that will flew li cubic 
 Icet per minute. 
 
23 
 
 Mr J. K. Booth, district judge, Provo, Utah, 
 says that watci- here is mostly ow.ed by 
 laiidowuers, and tho charges arc those fur 
 repairs aud maiutenaiicej about on'.- dollai 
 per acre. Water is sometiincs roiit<'d 
 yiid Ihe user pays lour to hve dolhu's ptu 
 aere yearly tor it. No (bffereiit rate^? arc 
 .barged. ..;*ii 
 
 Mr. !■'. k!. Gouay, Deii/cr, Colorado, is pre- 
 sidout and manager of four canal companies. 
 He says that water is sold generally by the 
 cubie loot j cr second, or by the jnin(;rs' inch, 
 and oO statutory inches cf water issujficieut 
 for SO acres of land. In some cases wher^ 
 land waters readily, 50 inches will water IGO 
 acres. A water right of 50 inches ranges in 
 price from 800 to 2000 dollais, dcpciiding on 
 Ihe locality, productions, etc. This secures 
 a perpetual water right, with an annual 
 cliarge for maintenance and operations from 
 50 ce'its. to 1.50 dollars. Water is rented an- 
 nually from 1.30 dollars to 2.10 dollars per 
 statutory -."nch. The average annual charge 
 in Colorado vuns close to 1.75 dollars an 
 ijich wliere watj:* is rented. 
 
 Mr. A, L. Fcllowes, State enginec r, Eis- 
 mark, N. Dalcota, saya that in Alberta, 
 Canada, the Oanadian Pacific Eailway, in scl 
 ling land,, j-dds five dollars per acre to tlio 
 price if water is available for irrigaticn, ana 
 charges 50 ceuts. per acre yearly lor nunn- 
 tenaiaco. 
 
 Mr. O. L. Wallor, Experiment Station, 
 Pulljuiin, Washiugton, says that water is 
 charged for lat so much a year, witli a duty 
 Lf from 100 to 160 aeres. He thmks the 
 water should be sold by measmc, ae there is 
 s<. maeh waste. 
 
 Mr. D Wight B. Heard, Investment .Securi- 
 ties, Phconix, Arizona, states that in this 
 State they are uniting hind and water. Al- 
 falfa land, Avith a supply of water, is worth 
 .100 dollars per kore. The only limit is bene- 
 tcial use. 
 
 Mr. C. N. Perry, Imperial Valley, South 
 California, says:^ — "This is going to be one 
 of the big irrigation schcm.es of the United 
 States. 'Plie Government has 500,000 acres 
 of land that can be had under the desert law 
 for 1.25 dollars per acre, or under the homc- 
 fctead ^a-vv for the asking, and tliis company 
 is goiii^ to snpiply this laud aud 250,000 acros 
 in Mexico with water. This comes frcm the 
 Colorado Kiver, and is plentiful and cheap.' 
 Ho adds tliat tho co.st is but 50 ceuts. 2>er 
 acre feot. There are no (rffcrential rates, aud 
 usor.^ are allowed up to four acre feet a year. 
 The enterprise was projected and is owned 
 by ths California Developiueut Couipany. 
 
 Mr. Adna Dobson, State engineer, Lincoln, 
 Nebraska, says that the law there limits 
 thiO water to be supplied to one cubic foot 
 per second to 70 acres. The price paid 
 
 varies greatly, being determined by the 
 cost of construeting and operating the works. 
 In the cheaply-made canals the cost is as 
 low as 1 dol. per Hcre per annum; on the 
 others the cost is much more. There are 
 no differential charges for land or ci'ops. 
 
 Mr. S. A. Knap^s, 3ix;oial agent, Houston, 
 Texas, says that the irrigation there is 
 mainly for rice. The cost for water is from 
 2 dols. to as high as 9 dols. per acre. The 
 suppliers of the water charge according to 
 the crop, taking one-fourth, so that the cost 
 of tlie water differs as the return does. 
 
 Mr. C. N. Little, C.E., State University, 
 Moscow, Idaho, says the charge is 2 dols. 
 per acre per annum. Under the Twin Falls 
 Company, whose works cover 270,000 acres, 
 a water right costs 25 dols. an acre, and 10 
 years are allowed for payment. The Ian I 
 is bought from the State at 50 cents. p.\- 
 acre. It is under the Carey Act. If arrea'-. 
 gather 6 per cent, interest is charged on 
 overdue payments. 
 
 Mr. Jas. Withycom^io ./Igricultuial Col- 
 lege and Exijeriment Station, Cornwal'is, 
 0-egon, writes that ;;nder one SYS'i<un there 
 1.50 dol. per acre is charged, regardiiss of 
 crop; under anothei system 2.50 dols. per 
 miners' inch is chargad. One half a m'ucrs' 
 inch is estimated to .siijiply an aere. 
 
 Mr. A. B. Crane Brookings, S. Dakota, 
 says that 1.50 c'ol. i er miners' inch cr i cr 
 acre is charged. D <f"r.-iili il rales are not 
 charged to any extei't. 
 
 Mr. P. J. Hazen, attornc^y for the Tiu- 
 lock and Modesta Companies, Modesta, says 
 that water is distributed according 
 to the acreage and value of the land in the 
 district, .i.nd the ratio eacli holding bears 
 to the cash value of all the laud and the 
 cost of the works. The area of (he Tur- 
 look di.Mncl is 180,000 acres, valued at 
 three million dollars; the wo-rks cost one 
 million two hundred thousand dollars, for 
 which bonds were issued at 5 per cent, in- 
 terest ; their repayment beginning at the 
 twentieth year after issue, and continu'^-J 
 yearly at 5 per cent, off the principal each 
 year The working of the whole district 
 costs 40,000 dollars per annum, and the 
 area irrigatc<l to date is 40,000 acres. Ir- 
 rigation was actually commenced about fou." 
 years ago. The laud i^s assessc-d on its 
 value as land, and the distribution of water 
 follows the assessment. At present ilic 
 users of water pay 25 cents per acre jA'r 
 year for distribution of water, 35 cents for 
 interest on bonds, and after twenty year.T 
 will need to pay 35 cents per acre per year 
 for twenty years, when the bonds will be re- 
 deemed. As there is ample water at pre 
 sent, no restri<;tion is put on its luse, but 
 as the demand iucrcit&es a water rate will 
 
24 
 
 be put on to restrict waste. This country 
 is very lite the Tragowol Plains, and there 
 will be a fine system here in time. 
 
 At Berkeley College, Professors Fortier 
 Elliott Stover Adams kindly gave me iii- 
 t'ormation as to cl)arges for water as fol- 
 lows:— At Gage Canal, Eiverside tJie value 
 of a water right was 200 dollars per acre, 
 this riirht calling for one-fifth of a miner's 
 inch per acre continuous How. A miners 
 inch being counted as one-fiftieth of a cuoic 
 xoot per second. Counting interest at d 
 per cent., vhis is equivalent +o 
 a charge of 12 dollars per acre p<M- 
 year. The cost of operation and maintenance 
 of tho svstem in ]P04 was at tho rate of 6.85 
 dollars por acre. Tl)e total annual cost of 
 v.ater is therefore 18.85 dollars i^er acre. At 
 Eiverside Water Comi^my, the estimated 
 avoragc value of a water right isl37.50 dol- 
 Lars per acre, with one-fiftieth of a miner's 
 inch per aere continuous flow called for, 
 reckoujng interest at per cent., gives annunl 
 cost 3.25 dollars per acre. The aunmil charL,'': 
 for opcratious and maintenance is 8.39 dollars 
 jier acre, making the total annual cost 16. 6t 
 dollars per acre for the same amount as 
 iiscd under t'.io Gage canal. At Sunnyeidc 
 Canal, Yakima Valley, Wasliington, th" 
 charge for wa.tor right is 30 dollars per acr.\ 
 each right calling for water at the rate of 
 one cubic foot per second to each 160 acres. 
 l\eckoning interest at 6 per ccnr,. gives 1.80 
 dollars. Tlie annual cost of operations atid 
 maintenance is 1 dollar to 1.5(J dollars pe; 
 acre. Tt^tal cost of water per year, 2.80 
 to 3.30 dollars. In Modesta irrigation di3 
 trict the cost of water is made up of intercsr 
 en bonded indebtedueg^ and annual ex2>eiise 
 cf maintenance and supervision. This i.- 
 charged "against all land and improvements 
 xU the district (81,14:^ acres), including 
 towns, although at present not ovei" 12,00j 
 (.r 13,000 are irrigated. In 19(H total tax 
 averaged approximately 1.40 dollars per acre. 
 This is charged whether water is used or 
 not, and regardless of amounts used or orop>^ 
 iriigated. At th© Txirlock irrigation <i''- 
 trict, Turlock, California, tlie tost of water 
 was made up as in tho Modesta district, 
 iroa >u district, 176,210 acres, of whioh not 
 
 o%er 25,000 acrc^ arc ifow irrigated. In 
 
 l{Xn total tax averaged 0.56 dollars per acr-'. 
 n garJless of th« amount of wati.r used. 
 
 These figures correspond closely with those 
 supplied by Mr. Ilazen, attorney for the 
 Turlock district. The Kern County Canal 
 and Water Company, Bakersfiold, Cal., fur- 
 nishes water to nearly the entire territory 
 surrounding Bakersfield, and the charge is 
 372 cents, per acre ft. At the Bear River 
 Canal, Ogden, Utah, in 1901 the water was 
 sold under three classifications — (1^ for farm 
 lands; (2) for orchards exceeding five years' 
 growth; (3) for city or town lots. For auy 
 of the?e classes 20 dols. per acre was clniri,'- 
 ed for perpetual right, entitling the holder 
 to water at a rate of not to exceed one cubic 
 foo't ]ier second for each 80 a'^res. In ad- 
 dition to jjerpetual right, which is equiva- 
 lent tol.20dol. per year, at 6 jjcr cent, in- 
 terest, the annual rental charged foi the 
 three classes, is 1 dol., 2.50 dols., and 3 
 dols. respectively, makintr total cost 2.20, 
 3.70, and 4.20 dols. At the Eastsido C'anai, 
 Merced, Cal., the charge for water is 2 
 dols. per aore irrigated, but if not contracted 
 for by 1st January tho charge is 2.50 dols. 
 per acre At the San Joaquin and King 
 Piv<'r C'K-.al and Irrigation Company, Fiesuo, 
 and Merced, Cal., the charges for Wrtter are — 
 For alfalfa, 2 50 dols. per acre ; for cereals 
 and corn, 2 dols. per acr<? , for orcli.<irds ana 
 vineyards, 2.50 dols. per acre: for market 
 gardens, 5 dols. per acre. 
 
 It will be observed, therefore, that there 
 is a wide diflerenct in the charges made 
 for irrigation water in the United States. 
 It mu!3t be remembered, however, that the 
 charges quoted are made over an enormous 
 area, equal, roughly, to about one-third oi 
 Australia, and in which both climates and 
 altitudes diffei conside:ably. Wlicrc the 
 rates are low is where there is abundance 
 of water, easily controlled, and spread on 
 tho lard. In other parts the high price 
 charged ;tp]y-'ars to be no bar to its use. 
 The rapid o.Kteusion of schemes, even in tlie 
 colder northern-western States and in Laiiada 
 shows how important an irrigation supply as an 
 auxiliary is considered. 
 
 ~^%^W^ 
 
^5 
 
 Initiation in the United States 
 
 THE MEASURIiMENT OF MATTER. 
 
 While in America I made inquiry 
 uiii.' over the qiuiuuty they are entitled to 
 re b3 others of thoir duo. Water is the most 
 precious factor in production, for without it 
 all otlier factors have no Talue. An acre of 
 irriq;ated land will produc-e, say, twice a?^ 
 nmch as two acres dependent on the natural 
 rainfall. We arc careful to sec the land is- 
 measured to the mch, but take little hoed 
 tliat tlie water, which doubles its production, 
 icj fairly and equitably measured. 
 
 The ablest engineers in the United States 
 are pursuing- inquiries mth the object of in- 
 creasing the duty cf water, and checkin<i; 
 e"aporation and seepage, for it is well known 
 that when every effort at conservation has 
 been exhaufcted, and all the water utilicjcd, 
 80 or 90 per cent, of the land requiring it 
 cannot be supplied; and when we hero in 
 Victoria have all our storages completed, 
 our methods of measniement and distribution 
 rcrfectod, and utilised by all the 
 water available, we will ' have en- 
 Gimons areas needing the lifc-givdng fluid 
 still remaining thirsly and profitless. Two 
 things have to bs determined; first, a uni-: 
 of measurement, and second, a met hod of 
 ri&cortaining the volume correctly. Then 
 fire some localities in the United States 
 where water is so abundant that no trouble 
 is taken to measure it, and in almost all 
 places tliio has been the case at artt, but 
 as the area to be served extends, re^trictiour 
 into the methods used in the measurement 
 of water for irrigation, and send you the re- 
 sults. I do not know that 1 can give you 
 any very new information on the matter, and 
 possibly your cngiuf-ers may be conversant 
 with the various methods to be named, but 
 the paper will help to call attention to the 
 importance of the subject, which must grow 
 ia the near future. It Avill also detail the 
 methods in use m the Western States of 
 America, though 't dees not appear that of 
 late years there has been any 'jpeoially valu- 
 able method introduced, and the perfect sys- 
 
 tem of measurement i^i -still to be found, for 
 it is admitted by all engineers that the best 
 known systems are more tr less defective. 
 
 In Victoria accurate measurements of 
 water for irrigation are not general, only 
 rough and ready methods having been used. 
 The day for this is, now 'ver, passing away, 
 and the increased appreciation of the value 
 of watei will compel accuracy in measuring 
 it. This will not apply merely to irrigation 
 water, but to all f-er vices, and especially in 
 cities and towns, where people are most 
 wasteful. In all other commodities we are 
 tareful to see that they are correctly weighed 
 or measured, ensuring fair dealing between 
 supplier and user, but in water many people 
 think only of th?>ir own needs, and not of 
 their neighbors. They forget that what they 
 are being put on, and more care used. 
 
 At Vorden Ran -h, Sacremento County, no 
 lestriction is placed on the use of water or 
 measures used, and in Louisiana and Texas, 
 no methods of measuring water have yet been 
 employed. 
 
 In the Turlock district, meaBurem^nls are 
 roughly made by headgales, with similar 
 oi.enings, the calculation beiusf made on 
 the cross section, but as more land is 
 brought under water, the measuring wi^ 
 becoyie more accurate. 
 
 At Cheyenne, no jilan of measurement is 
 fixed, the quantity of water used being mer^ 
 ly guessed. In Montiina, weir.s arc used 
 in but few places, no' accurate methods being 
 followed. 
 
 Tho units of measurement now generally 
 iLsed are the miner's iucl\, the cubit foot, 
 and the acre foot. Forty miners' inohes 
 
 eciual a cubic foot, moving at the rate of 
 a lineal foot per second, and 43,561) cubic 
 feet equal an acre foot. There is a genera) 
 consensus of opinion that the best method 
 or measuring is by the Cippolctte Weir. Tliis 
 is the invention of an Italian engineer. 
 Cesare Cippoletti, and w^as introduced into 
 Western America by Professor L. G. Oar- 
 
26 
 
 penter, the director of the experimental sta- 
 tion in Colorado. Among a large number 
 of replies to inquiries on this stibject, the 
 following are selected as the most instruc- 
 tive : — 
 
 Prof(-fsor Fortier and his colleagues, at 
 Berkeley, state tha^^ the fjtandard and nios<: 
 satisfactory methods of measuring water fov 
 irrigation iu the United States are by mean- 
 ol' the Cipolletti and rectangular" wi irs. 
 These are chiefly Tise<l for stTeiims, ot from 
 cno or two to fifteen or twenty cubic feet 
 jier second. For larger canals and streams, 
 rating flumes are chiefly used. For small 
 streams of water, fractions of a cubic foot 
 per second, the miner's inch box is u«ed- 
 They fctate that while thosp are tho best 
 known methods and devices, their use on 
 canals is not general, except where water ha.-; 
 a very high value. As a rule, farmers only 
 guess at the amount of water beinK us' d 
 t'.nd the measurements by canal compinies 
 Tire often very unsatisfactory 
 
 No device for giving entirely satisfactory 
 results under the widely varying conditions 
 under which the farmers must receive water 
 has yet been worked out, though there is an 
 urgent need for one. Different forms of 
 orifice, with or without pressure submerged 
 or open, are used in some cases, and while 
 none of these, as used, is as accurate as is 
 desirable, some, notably the submerged ori- 
 fice, give quite satisfactory results. The 
 current meters used are chiefly the "Price," 
 manufactured by W. and L. E. Gurley, of 
 Troy, New York, and the "Lallie,'' by J. 
 S. Lallie, of Denver, Colo. 
 
 Professor L. G. Carpenter Fort Collins, 
 Colo, says, water is largely measured by 
 weir or overfall. One commonly used is the 
 Cippoletti or trapezoidal weir. On the large 
 canals, and those that contain Bediment, 
 tlie open box forming a flume is used. It 
 is rated, i.e., the quantity showing at different 
 depths is determined. 
 
 Division boxed are used to a large extent. 
 The principle of these is to divide the water 
 into fractions in propoition to the number of 
 shares in the canal. 
 
 James Stephenson, junr., State engineer, 
 Idaho, states: — ^The methods most in use 
 are the Cippoletti weir and rating flume. 
 A few Ventura weirs are in use for measur- 
 ing in a main line where water is used both 
 for domestic use and irrigation. 
 
 J. N. Barstoiv, Montebello. Cal., says 
 that the whole question of measurinj^ water 
 is in process of evolution, and chaotic at 
 that. He measures by ordinary open weir, 
 the weir inches being then calculable into 
 miners' inclies, the charge being made a 
 fixed rate per minors' inch. 
 
 The State engineer of Utah says that the 
 
 Cippoletti weir is universally used in that 
 State. 
 
 W. M. Wiley, who manages a large sugar 
 beet company at Holly, Colo., where the ap- 
 pliances for iirigation are said to le up-to- 
 date, fctates that the Arkansas Pviver, from 
 which their supply tomes, vontains mucli 
 silt. The method there is a carefully-con 
 structed measuring weir formed of three 
 wooden sides, placed at a point where tlie 
 flow IS most uniform. This weir should be 
 rated by an electric meter at different 
 heights. Automatic measuring weira can- 
 not be used because of the silt. 
 
 At Chase Nursery, Riverside, Cal., the 
 measurements are entirely over weirs, tlie 
 unit being the miners' inch undcr_a four- 
 inch pressure, Wher. aocurato measure- 
 ments are desired they have an automatic 
 weir register operated with a clock and float, 
 which registers the height. 
 
 At Hinsdale, Montana, the overflow mea- 
 sure is used. 
 
 B. H. Forbes, Arizona Experiment Sta- 
 tion, eays- — Water in Arizona is measured 
 bv the inch, 40 inches to the cubic foot. Ac- 
 curate measurement is rare, the head usual- 
 ly being estimated with more or less ac- 
 curacy by tlie watir maatcrs. At Mesa and 
 T( mpe, Arizoiia, meters are used for main 
 canals, where heads of water are measured 
 cut, but the weir :s used to supply the la- 
 terals. These methods are not considered 
 accurate, on account of the variations in 
 fall of the ditch supplying the water pressure 
 on the gate, etc. 
 
 E. C. ivinncy, Bozeman, Montana, on frh+; 
 other hand says the measuring -.vith a meter 
 or a w?ir are quito accurate, but there are 
 al?o many forms of head gates used for sup- 
 plying orchard and crops 
 
 John E. Booth, Provo, Utah, says:— They 
 have used three methods — float, metei and 
 weir. The firet is not a satisfactory or ac- 
 curate way. He prefers the last over the 
 other two. Tliey do lot use either method 
 except for division among the users. 
 
 Frank H. Goudy, Denver, Colorado, is pre 
 sidont and manager of four canal companies, 
 and says: — Water ie sold generally by the 
 cubic foot per second, and in Colorado the 
 best method of measuring water an served to 
 the farmer is the Foote spill box. He givee 
 a description of this, which I need not re- 
 peat, as it can be seen with a drawing in 
 Newell's "Irrigat-on in the United States." 
 rage 127 The idea came from Italy, and the 
 device appears to be an excellent one. Where 
 this weir is not practicable, the ordinary 
 measuring weir is used. 
 
 A. L. Fellowes, State engineer. Bismark, 
 North Dakota, says the best method of '.nea- 
 suring water in general prrictice is the Cip- 
 
pc'letti weir, the pool abore the weir being 
 kept in good order, oc<;a8ional)y flushed, and 
 tlie f^auge rod being carjfully looked after. 
 
 Meters are not much nsed except in 
 laterals, and then but seldom. Mr. Fellowes 
 writes highly of a device invented and pa- 
 tented in Australia by Messrs. Grant and 
 Mitchell, which he says 3 8 as good as any lie 
 has seen. It is now being studied by the 
 officers of the United St^ates Reclamation 
 Service, with the view of adopting it upon 
 some of their own canals. 
 
 O. L. Waller, of the Experiment Station, 
 Pullman, Washington, writes: — The Cip- 
 poletti weir is the best, the most accurate, 
 and satisfactory. Tliere are a large variety 
 of measuring devices, but none fill the bill 
 like this, providing the silt is well kept 
 away from the upper side. 
 
 Clemens Herschell, civil and hydraulic en- 
 gineer, of New Y?)rk, writes very strongly 
 in favor of the Venturi meter, of which there 
 are some on the Coolgardie pipe line. West 
 Australia. He describes it as the only prac- 
 tical meter for large quantities of water, 
 700 of them being used through- 
 out the world. George Kent, 2(:0 
 High Holboru, London, builds them for all 
 places except North America. Mr. Herschell 
 says he has long thought thev should be 
 I'Sed ;n irrigation practice if furnished with 
 an especial register at moderate cost, suited 
 to irrigation requirements. In America they 
 yre inaxie by Builders' Iron Foundry, Pro 
 vidence, Rhode Island. Mr. Herschell askei 
 for printed information to be sent to me, 
 but it is not yet to hand. He refers t<> 
 places where they are used, and concludes 
 as follows: — The watchman feature cl sucii 
 moterg would be of great value in irrigation 
 ])ractice, by keeping all the ditch«"s, main 
 end subsidiary, under constant shar^j watch 
 and control. 
 
 Dwight B. Heard, of Phoenix Arizona, 
 says ihe most advanced niethod of meagur 
 iiig water is the Cippoletti Weir, used ui 
 conne<;tion with standard water register. 
 
 C. N. Perry, of the Imperial Comoany, ' 
 very largo irrigation venture, says all watc 
 ia measured to consumers by means of w its 
 These are of three classes. No. 1, with a 
 submerged opening; No. 2, an op-ning with 
 a free discharge; No. 3, an overflow with 
 frcc dischaige. 
 
 A formula is given the Zanjeros, as water 
 bailiffs are called, with a tableOf multipliers, 
 to calculate t1i<' colume passing tlirough 
 each opening. 
 
 Professor M'Laughlin, irrigation engineer 
 at the experimental station, Logan. Ulah, 
 fctatea the most advanced niethoda for mea 
 buring water in large streams is by 'he use 
 of tho current meter, and for smaller streams 
 the trapsoidal and rectangular weirs. Meters 
 arc nob used to any extent for measuring 
 wat<^r directly to orops or orchards, weirn 
 being iised in this case. I received a large. 
 Fumber of other replies, but those quoted 
 cover all the information supplied 
 
 At the experimental station, Cheyenne, 
 Wyoming, I saw a new invention for mea- 
 suring water, just patented by Dav'd Hoff, 
 of Denver. It was made of sheet galvanised 
 iron, in the shape of a long box, having a 
 in on a spindle four blades of sheet iron. 
 These were double sheets, and round the 
 edges was rubber, fitting tight to the aid s 
 and bottom of the box, so that water could 
 lot pass. At the back of thes<' bla.les was 
 a cc^pper float, and as the water liUed in 
 the float raised, and when a certain volume 
 vae in the box, a catch holding the blados 
 was released, and the box om pried. 
 
 Tho next blade then acted, holding the 
 water; the float sank, and then raisixi ti I 
 the requisite volume poured in, when il 
 'vas a?;aiu released, and the next blade 
 moved into position. 
 
 The device I saw was measuring water 
 from a pump, and a small contrivance con 
 iiected with the spindle on wiiich the blades 
 were fixed registered each revolution of the 
 blades, and gave the total water passed 
 through. 
 
 I tried to find the inventor in Denver, 
 but failed to do so. Tiiough the device of 
 the miner's inch is in use in various Stales, 
 the same term has a different value. 
 
 The second foot in California, Idaho, Ne 
 vada, Utah, equals 50 miners' inches, in 
 Colorado, it equals 38.4 miners' inches; in 
 Arizona and Montana, 40 miners' inche.s. 
 
 Under the Canadian Noi-th-wcst Irrigation 
 Act, the correct meiisuremcut of water is 
 insisted on, and all devices i'.sed mi>st b- 
 approved by the Minister of tho Interior, or 
 S('mo officer appointed by him, wh'i will 
 rate the appliance I'nd issue a certificat-i 
 authorising its use. 
 
 The same strict authority on this qu' s 
 tion must at no distant date be oxtriised 
 litre, and the information now forwarded 
 may, it is hoped, be of a.ssiatance n detei- 
 inining the selection of Uu- most efficient 
 methoda to be used. 
 
28 
 
 Further Reports of Western America. 
 
 DIFFERENTIAL EATES FOR WATER. 
 BASED ON TT]E VALUE OF Tlii; 
 LAND SUPPLIED. 
 
 Nowliere in the Western States is tlie ad 
 valorem prineiplo applied in water cluirg-os 
 for u-rigatiou. Where there are differential 
 latca they are based in some eases oi- tlio 
 productB s^rown, or ilie season whon the 
 water is supplied, or the priority of the usej- 
 on she channel, or the cliannel on the 
 stream. The charge for water in almost 
 all cases is fixed )>y the cost of the works 
 supplyinjj; it, and the quantity available. 
 
 When tJie Water Act was being passed by 
 the Legislature of Colorado, a jn-dpositJoii 
 was iiiitde to basie the cliarge on tlie value 
 of the land, but it was rejected. Nor arr 
 there n-any who advocate it A. J. M'Ciuie. 
 of Denver, irrigation enginear, docs so, but 
 ( nt of sojiie fifty to wJiom ref'nencc was 
 made he was the only one. It is in the 
 pre.s*'ut Victoiiau Act, and its operation 
 will Ko doubt he int( resting to note. 
 RRSTPTCTIONS ON THE UNDUE USf: 
 OF WATER. 
 
 In ail eases the tendency in initiating an 
 irrigation scheme is to use too much watoi, 
 I'ud V iiilc water is abundant the practice 
 injures only the user, but as the area to 
 water extends the public suffer^ so canai 
 ^•ompauies and other suppliers are now mor.. 
 uharply defining the amount eacJi user can 
 lake. In some States it la defined by a 
 State law, in other cases by a court decree, 
 one cubic foot per sc<'on(l beinsf alhwed lor 
 from 7U to lOU acres. 
 
 Of late years measuring appliances ar.' 
 becoming more general, and locked gates 
 yre j.ut on, severe penalties hoins.' imposed 
 for iiileriering with them. 
 
 In Doise, Idaho, it is a misdemeanor to 
 waste water. Where a man has a right 
 tor a definite quantity, and pays for it, he 
 will use it to tho full extent. Where the 
 supply is not fijced, and paid for as ob 
 tained, the user will pay as little, and get 
 as much, as he can. Considerable powe- 
 is placed in the hando of the water masters, 
 
 I'ud i;nfair dealing is punished by shullin'.'; 
 (if til.' supply. In other cases they refusi- 
 to sell more water than tliey think is re 
 fjiiired by the. land 
 
 Gone rally all suppliers of water arf' get 
 ling stricter in su])plying it, and they thus 
 (ompjl economy. It is found in all cases 
 with less water and proper cultivation that 
 c-ropa nre better. The undue use of water 
 Idgs the land, causing alkali to come i hi ough 
 Gen^relly a more intelligent appri-ciation 
 of how much to usa is (gaining ground, to 
 the iidvantage of the individual and the ooni- 
 n: unity 
 
 HOW ARE FARMERS EDUCATED TO 
 USE A MINIMUM QUANTITY.? 
 
 For the past seven years this has been 
 made a special feature by the irrigation 
 branch of the Department of Agriculture. 
 Through its agents it has investigated t'le 
 duty of water, especially where the supply is 
 Scarce, and by bulletins, addresses by ox- 
 |icrts, and personal instruction to users, has 
 largely increased the duty, and brought 
 about iiioi^ economical use. Each of the 
 exixirinient stations is also specialising this 
 work. In New Mexico three years ago. 
 where over 6ft. of water was used for the 
 reason, the limit was made 2ft.; any more 
 to be specially paid for. 
 
 The result has been better and larger 
 crops, and no one has claimed any more 
 water. The strict watching of adjacent 
 users is also having its effect, and Mr. 
 Crane, of Brookings, in reply to my query 
 how instruction was given nn this sul'joct, 
 laconically replied, "By neighbors' kicks." 
 Necessity is generally bringing about lM><ter 
 jiractico. Larger heads of water lor short 
 |;eriods instead of smaller heads for lono 
 periods tends to economy. 
 
 One of the most effective means of educs 
 tion is through the pocket. When the duty 
 of water for any crop is obtained, make a 
 stilf charge ior the excess used, and good 
 results will follow to all concerned. There 
 is no more important question for us in 
 connection with irrigation than this, for 
 
39 
 
 our limited supply of water must compel 
 not only strict economy in use, but at a 
 very early date further and extensive stor- 
 ages on all our rivers. 
 
 lERIGATION BY NIGHT. 
 
 This is largely carried on in America, 
 but more to economise time than to navo 
 loss by evaporation. In many places water 
 is .supplied by the hour, and it must be ta- 
 ken when it is available, as each man's turn 
 comes. As a rule, day irrigation i^ pre- 
 ferred, as at night there is a good deal of 
 waste, unless the water is put on to large 
 checks by flooding. In Arizona and the 
 other hot States night irrigation is more 
 favored, as some loss by evaporation is 
 avoided, and plants do not get ''scaldtHl 
 out.'' Generally, however, where it is prac- 
 tised, it is to save time and ri,ot water. 
 IRRKiATlON OF WHEAT. 
 
 This is largely practised in the central, 
 west, and north-west States, bnt not so 
 much in the south. Two to four irrigations 
 are given, from 2ft. to 2Jft. of water being 
 used. It is everywhei-e a fairly profitable 
 crop, but in some parts, where "dry farm- 
 ing" is progressing, the irrigated land is 
 going out of wheat to more valuablt pro- 
 ducts, such as alfalfa and sugar beets. I am 
 i)iclined to think that witli the better know- 
 ledge and improved methods of cultivating 
 the arid areas, wheat as an irrigated crop 
 will go out of fashion, for while the yield 
 on the dry areas is not so large, the coat 
 of production is only one-half of what it is 
 by irrigation, and the land can be better 
 used for other products where water can bo 
 obtained, 
 
 THE PIG INDUSTRY IN CONJUNCTION 
 WITH FRUIT. 
 
 This is not very extensively carried on, 
 though in places it finds favor. In Idaho 
 fome kinds of fruit, particularly the prune, 
 give better results by feeding to young pigs 
 than by attejiipting to market it. " Th° 
 pigs are allowed to run in the prnnc or- 
 chards, and put on flesh rapidly. When 
 the prune season is over, the pigs are fed on 
 grain for a short time to harden the flesh. 
 ]''or the past two or three seasons the prune 
 crop hafi been so good that this hae been 
 extensively carried on. The great food for 
 pigs ;s alfalfa, both for pr^wiiig and fatten- 
 iT:g, fruit, where there ^s a surplus, bein^ 
 i.sed as an adjunct. ^ 
 
 IRRIG.VTION BY SIMPLE DTVFRSION 
 
 FROM stii,'<:ams only. 
 
 Until about seven -TarQ ago nearly all the 
 iirigation was effected by simple diversion 
 from streams, without storage. But a.s the 
 irrigation area ext-Mided the sujiply from 
 siream?, many of which ra»i for but t'hi-ee or 
 
 fcur months, and were dry the rest of the 
 year, ])roved quit<, inadequate, and reservoir 
 building has been cxter.sively going on. 
 Under the Reclamation Act many large 
 dams are being built. The stage has been 
 rfoached wheal large storage reservoirs to 
 iiupcund flood waters are essential to pro- 
 gress, and many are being built and others 
 projected. 
 
 The United States V/ill not stop till all the 
 v^alcr possible be saved and ueed^ and every 
 cultivable aero turned to account. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL LABOR IN WEST 
 AM'ERICA 
 
 The supply of l.ibor for agriculture In 
 tl;e wesf IS not up to the demand, though 
 tl)b wages are probably tlie highest paid 
 anyv/here, though they vary in soaie States, 
 'lliey are of all classes, a good many Ameri- 
 can, tiiough the A-hite ' American grows 
 nu^re and n.'crc avers? to mine or farm la- 
 bor. In Nevada the main labor is Italian, 
 Swiss, German, Chiiieee, with a few whites, 
 and the pay is .io to 40 dollars a month and 
 beard. In Montana <he labor is largely loeal 
 or from the Eastern States or North Europe, 
 fn summer the wages are two dollars a day 
 and no board; in >vinter, 45 dollars a month, 
 and if found. 25 to 30 dollars, 10 hours' 
 work. In Arizona, -lute and Mexicans, 12 
 hours, ]i dollars a day and ft'und. In 
 Taxas, American and Mexican, ii and one 
 dollar respectively p<r d..,y. and lO hours' 
 work. In Colorado, Mexicans. Japs, Rus- 
 sians for beets, 10 h(urs' work, v/ages one 
 dt.llar a day to 3o .lollars a month, accord- 
 ing to experience, /Vmericans for general 
 f£;rm v.crk. A.t Rivoiside, California? f^ene- 
 ral work. Americans, la dollars for" 10 
 hcurs; for fruit picking, many Japs at same 
 rate. In Nebraska, one dollar to U dollar^ 
 a day, luns up ^o 24 dcHars at harvest 
 .imirs, sunrise to sunset. In Oregon while 
 r.bor used; by day the pay is one to two dol- 
 lars; by month, 30 to 40 and found; if not 
 lound, It :s 11- to Z'i c\)llr.r(^ by the day, TO 
 hours' work. In NoHh Dakota, 30 dollars 
 per month, with board, to 2,1 dollars a day 
 and no l,oard. The classes are mostly voun" 
 men starting life or tramps; hours, 6 a.ra! 
 to 7 p.m. At Ph.Tenix. Arizon-^. Mexicans 
 and laqiaa Indians usrd as :rrifrators- 
 yages, one dollar rer dav and board. In 
 the Imperial Valley, close to Mexico th« 
 labor IS white, Mexicans and Indians- 
 wages, 1.. to 21 dollM_^a day, 10 hours' 
 work In Louisiana and Texas the labor 's 
 n -ainly colored, 12 to 20 dollars a month 
 uthout board; hours, sun to enn. W^here 
 j\luto labor IS usvl the wi.ges are five dol- 
 lars more. The labor for beets is let out, 20 
 dollars per acre being paid for the care of 
 
3" 
 
 the be»te from seedjiig till they are pulle<l. 
 At the Yakima Indi iji Agoncy, lort ttimcoo, 
 Washington, Tudi-uis are chiefly employed , 
 wages, one dollar to ji dollars lor oigbt 
 hours' work. At Bozemaii, Montana, all 
 nationalities are employed; wagco, two to 
 three dollars a day, not tonnd; hours, 3 
 a.m. to 9 p.m. 'these particulars give a 
 general idea of the wages paid aii over the 
 Western States, .ind show that producers 
 here have no adva^itage in that respect, aq 
 our rates are lower. 
 
 DEALING WITH INSECT PESTS. 
 This work is generally in charge of the 
 Board of Horticulture in each State, acting 
 under a State law, though in some cases 
 the counties have control. The law is 
 strictly kept, and very rigorous measures 
 enforced. Ample powers are given to the 
 inspectors to compel the law being kept, 
 and to destroy trees affected bv posts. Para- 
 sites are but little used, the main remedies 
 being banding and spraying. No one is al- 
 lowed to keep a dirty orchard to the ruin 
 of himself and neighbors. 
 
 USE or LIANURES. 
 
 For cropping, the use of manures has not 
 become general. The bulk of the western 
 soils arc in a virgin state, and the need of 
 fertilisers has not yet )x;en severely felt, 
 for orchards and special cions, manures — 
 mostly barnyard — arc used, and in Colorado 
 sheep manure is used for beets and potatoes. 
 In this State, however, the general practice 
 row to restore fertility to the soil is to 
 put in alfalfa for three year?, and then 
 plough it under. 
 
 They say it ia cheaper^ and arts first- 
 class. Tills is the common practice at Crree- 
 ley. Rotation of crops is also closely at- 
 tended to. For onions, asparagus (largely 
 grown) and truck stuff (vegetables) manures 
 are, of course, larirely used. 
 RAINFALL IN THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 With regard to the rainfall, Victoria has 
 an advantage over these States even in its 
 driest districts. Excepting near the moun- 
 taiug, none of them have over a 15in. rain- 
 fall, while many are much lower. At Car- 
 son City, Nevada, it was 9.82in. : at Salt 
 River, Arizona, 6in. ; at Barstow, Texas, 
 12in.; at Riverside, California, 'l2in. ; at 
 Hinsdale, Montana, 12in. : Sin. falling in 
 the spring months. At Montebello, Los 
 Angelos, California, from April to Novem- 
 ber_ no rain falls, from November to April 
 lOVin. At Mesa, Arizona, for the past three 
 years the precipitation has been 5.78, 5.68. 
 fi.76: at Bismark, North Dakota, 15.75 i.s 
 the average for 15 years. At Pullman. 
 W'jishington, about 7in. falls, all durins the 
 winter months. In Imperial "Valley, whore 
 
 one of the greatest irrigation schemes in 
 America is being established, the water 
 coming from the Colorado River, only l|in. 
 falls. At Turlock and Modesto the average 
 is 9 to 12 inches. 
 
 These are all annual rainfalls. In regard 
 to rainfall, Australia as a whole has nothing 
 to fear in comparison with Western 
 America. 
 
 RAILWAY FREIGHTS. 
 
 Tliesc vary considerably, as there ar( so 
 many companies with varied rates, and 
 each company does not keep its own rates 
 uniform. From Eaton, Colorado, to Den- 
 ver, 61 miles, for held car load lot, the rate 
 is 12 cents, per lOOlb. Mr. A. J. Chandler, 
 president of the Mesa Improvement Com- 
 pany, Mesa, Arizona, kindly supplied me 
 with the following rates. They bhow that 
 the rates vary per ton mile with the places 
 the loads go to. For car loads in cents, per 
 ton mile : — 
 
 
 Mesa to 
 
 Mesa to 
 
 
 Chicago. 
 
 Los Angeles. 
 
 Fruit, fresh 
 
 ... 2.9 ... 
 
 6.:5 
 
 Fruit, dried 
 
 ... 2..3 ... 
 
 5.8 
 
 Caiiteloupcs 
 
 ... 0.9 ... 
 
 0.5 
 
 Grapes 
 
 ... 1.2 ... 
 
 2.4- 
 
 Raisins 
 
 ... 1.0 ... 
 
 2.0 
 
 Cereals 
 
 ... 1.7 ... 
 
 ;5.G 
 
 Wheat 
 
 . 
 
 l.G 
 
 Dairy produce... 
 
 '.'.'. 2.9 '.'.'. 
 
 G.:5 
 
 Live stock 
 
 ... 1.0 ... 
 
 2.0 
 
 Sheep 
 
 ... 1.4, ... 
 
 1.5 
 
 The rates at Moscow, Idaho, were in 
 cents, per ton mile — Wheat, 1 cent. ; live 
 stock, 2 cents. ; butter, 4 cents. From 
 Modesta to San Francisco^ on car load lots 
 the freight per ton mile is— Fruit, 2 cents. ; 
 cereals, 1 oent. ; dairy produce, 1^ cents. ; 
 live stock, 1^ cents. The general opinion 
 was that the railway companies treated 
 producers fairly, and made good provision 
 for perishable goods. 
 
 STOCK RAISING. 
 
 In the North-western States stock is one 
 of tlio great industnoe. TJiey are nearly all 
 raised on the range, and topped up on the 
 farm. In the winter they are brought to 
 the valleys and fed on alfalfa hay. In the 
 irrigation districts they are alniojr entirely 
 fed on alfalfa. Montana !/■ the groat cattle, 
 sheep tnd horse country. Cattle sell from 
 4i to 5i dollars ptr lOOTb. on the hoof. 
 Sheep, 2^ to 2f dollars per head. In 
 Color-.ido there is a g -^wing tendency to 
 bring the range sheep in and fatten on 
 alfalfa held;; and stacks. They bring from 
 fvo to feven dollars per 1001b. in Chicago. 
 Ill Arizona the live stock is started "on 
 grazing ranges, afterwards driv-n to irri- 
 gated valleys and fed. Cattle here range 
 from sciub stock to good grades, tlie latter 
 
31 
 
 n ostly Herefords. Fat stock, 3.75 dollars 
 to 4.50 dollars per lOOlb. Both cattle and 
 sleep are largely grown :u Colorado, mo.stly 
 sliortuorn cattle. Steers sold for feeding 
 purposes bring 3.50 dollars to 3.75 dolliUo 
 per 1001b., -wciglicd at place, of pur&h:isc, 
 with 1 per cent, for shrinkage. Lambs, fci 
 feeding purposee, bring four dollars to 4.5u 
 per 1001b. At Bisinark, North Dakota, 
 grass-iod beef brings 4.25 dollars per lOOlb. 
 At Phoenix, Arizona, great quantities oi: 
 cattle and hogs are raised The jirincipa! 
 are Herefords, Dhrham and galloways. For 
 dairying, Holstcins and Jerseys. Hogs are 
 n:ainly Poland China, Well-matured strero 
 on the hoof market -wore from 3.50 dollars 
 tu 4 25 dollars per jOOlb., and Jiogs froii, 
 tour to fivvj cent« i>er lb. In Imperial Val 
 ley, entirely by irrigation, they raise cattle, 
 htgs, horses and niulea. Beef on the hoof 
 is 3.75 dollars to 4.25 dollars per JOOlb., 
 hogs from four to nix cents, per lb. In 
 Texas, as a business stock-raising is scatce- 
 Ij^ known. On the iwc fa:ms they keep it to 
 consume the waste i-roducts. In the Tur- 
 lock district, California, the indu-itry is de- 
 veloping rapidly under irrigation, cattle tak- 
 ing hrst place, then hors'-e and irviios, liog^i 
 ti.ud sheep. Cattlvj bring .^ cents- per lb. on 
 foot; liogQ, four to five cents.; slu;ep, by 
 the head, 3-^ dollars; mides and hoises aver- 
 age from 75 to 200 dol'tsrs per head. In 
 Utah considerable live stock is raised by ii- 
 rigation, mainly ;]a;ry cows and iiogs. Hogs 
 sell at four cents, a lb. ; steers, 2^ cents. , 
 sheep, 3^ cents, on the 1 oof. The meat in 
 America haa not the quality of ours, and I 
 do not think it will approach Australia as 
 a cattle and sheep vaising countrv. 
 
 GOVERNMENT AID TO IREIGATION. 
 lliroughout America there is absolutely 
 no free grants for irrigation. For all worke 
 constructed the land has to become respor- 
 sible. But while uo direct sums are voted 
 for works, both th;.- National and State G<^ 
 verninonts spend cnormoi.sly in t-iding the 
 people by testing frf.hemes and teaching 
 them in every possible way. Every farmci 
 in Anierica knows that if there is any trouble 
 on hia farm he cannot cope with," wheth>n 
 it be with water, land, .stock, crop or fruit 
 ho can get the best advice and assistance 
 either from the Depaitmcnt of Agiiculturc 
 at Washington, or the State experim<^ntal 
 farms. The farmers approach th.»m freely, 
 and they as freely respond. 
 
 ALKALI IN SOIL AND THE KFMEDY. 
 I found there Avas a good deal of this 
 thioughout the irrigation dislricts, and 
 while in some it was unavoidabb, in others 
 it was the result of careless farming. It i'.-; 
 caused by over-watering und want of pro^xir 
 
 drainage. If the subsoil is havd clay j>au 
 it soon shows itself; if of a sandy nature, not 
 «i> soon. Mr. Barstow, president of tie 
 Barstow Irrigation Co., Texas, says:— "We 
 regard alkali as us.4ul to the crcps if the 
 laud has proper drainage." The. proper 
 arahiin-.' of the laud is a preventive of 
 e.vcesa. Ordinary methods of i. -igatiou wi'l 
 dei'Tcase it if there is proper dr. nage. Tl o 
 bureau of soils, an.i the c iTice of e nerimeut 
 stations have been cxponmcnting ■ nd de- 
 monstrating the feasibility of dramog. as a 
 jirevcntion and cure of the evils of aluali. 
 Fields have been drained with ti'es, open 
 drains, or wood drains, and then i'ooded 
 For flooding the ground is usually checked, 
 and the land covered with 6 to 8 Juches ■■ f 
 water to a flooding. One tract in Utah 
 v.a.s ticatcd in this way for 2^ summtrs. It 
 is now raising a light crop — four vears 
 alter first trying to reclaim it It ha I be<=-n 
 j.rtviously abandoned. W^ell informed in- 
 quirer.? believe that drainage and ordinary 
 ;rr.'<^ation will reclaim alkali laud. Where 
 it ift not too heavy, lucern or hardy crcps 
 II ay be grown on it, but no other T-cniedy 
 br" disposing of it is suggested but Ihf- 
 tUiiiuage and leaching the land, 
 
 THE MARKETS OF THE WEST. 
 
 The growth of population is so rap.d in 
 the States that the great bulk of produc- 
 tion in the West finds a market eit'her lo- 
 cally or to the East. The cities on the 
 ^Vest — San Francisco, Seattle, Tacoma, 
 Portland, Sjiokane — are good customers, 
 then the great central and eastern cities, 
 with their enormous population take im- 
 mense quantities. In the mining States, the 
 camps and towns require large supplies, 
 and so far as production from the soil is 
 concerned, the market is within the country 
 itself. Its politicians arc seriously dis- 
 cussing whether the export of cereals should 
 not bo checked. For stack, dairy stufif, 
 grain and wool. Australia should have no 
 need to fear the competition of the States. 
 THE CULTIVATION OF WHEAT. 
 
 I made inquiries as to the cost of produc- 
 ing wheat, both by irrigation and dry farm- 
 ing and the leturns obtained. The follow- 
 ing is a brief summary of the information 
 I received;— \t Twin Falls, Idaho, the cost 
 is 10 dols. per acre; at Carson City. Nevada, 
 1 he cost is 6 dols. per acre, .it Boremnn, 
 Montana, GO bushels of wheat, worth 80 
 cents, pel' bushel, was obtaiuf'd. )t was 
 said the cost of irrigated whoit was 4 tlols. 
 over dry-grown, while the yield wa« more 
 tlian double. At Hinsdale, Montana, ' he 
 cost of raising wheat is 6i dols. per acre, 
 and the crop brought 12 dols. per acre. In 
 Nebraska the yield is 25 to 40 bushels, and 
 
32 
 
 without m-igation 15 to 30. It pays either 
 way. lu Mesa, Aritoiia, all under irriga- 
 tion, it costs 10 to 12 doLy. to grow it; 
 yield, 20tJ0 to oOOO lb. per acre; price, 1.25 
 dols. per 100 lb. In the Imperial Valley, 
 where there is almost no rain, the cost ot 
 raieinpr and harvcstinfr an acre of wheat is 
 aa follows: — Water, 1 dol. ; cost of irrigat- 
 inj,', 1.50 dol; feced wheat. .75 del. hai 
 vesting, 3 dols.; sacks, 1.25 dols.; a total 
 of 7.50 dols., or i3]/ll/3 per acre. The cost 
 oil irrigated land depends largely on tlie 
 price of the water, and rune from 5 to 12^ 
 dols. per acre; on xmirrigatcd land it ia 
 from 3 to 6 dols. 
 
 ALKALK A— (Lucerne). 
 
 If there is any product that the Western 
 farmer grows enthusiastic about, it is 
 alfalfa, and one does not wonder, wlien it 
 is seen how valuable it is. For cattle, sheep, 
 pigs, ]}oultry, it u an almost all sufficing 
 feed. It is said to have been introduced 
 by the Persians under Darius to Greece 
 •about 490 B.C., it having been found in 
 Media, from which the name Medick came. 
 
 It was grown abundantly in Spain, where 
 it was known by the Arabic name, alfalfa. 
 It was introduced by the Chilians into Cali- 
 fornia in 1854, and from there spread over 
 the other States. Its culture will embrace 
 a large variety of soils and climate. The 
 conditions most f\ta» to its growth being 
 cold, wet weather, or badly drained or 
 water-logged soils; stagnant water kills it. 
 It does best in an open, loamy soil, 
 but adapts itself to other soils if well 
 provided with plant food, for it is a heavy 
 feeder. On the sides of the K .ckies it 
 grows at an altitude of SfJOOft., and flourishes 
 also i)X. sea level. If the soil admits of it, 
 the rccts will go down 15 or more feet, or 
 it will thrive with roots a few inches long 
 if it gets moisture. It grows all over 
 the Western States, on the uplands of 
 Colorado, the plains of Kansas, or the val- 
 leys of C-aliforxiia, and is becoming the al- 
 most universal feed. Its pro^rties for 
 restoring fertility to soils sick with any 
 other crop are well known, and considered 
 criual to ajiy manuring the land can be 
 given. From all the Western States I had 
 word in its praise, and there is no need 
 to specialise it with any one of them. In 
 the lower altitudes and richer soils it wilJ 
 tut six to eight times in the year, and yield 
 tight to ten tons of baled hay. Higher up 
 it will cut two or three times, yielding 
 three t > six tons. The general practice is 
 not to pasture till the last cut is off. and 
 then feed it for two months; the rest of 
 the year it is cut Jer hay and fed to the 
 stock. In Idaho it will feed eight shceji 
 or two cows to the acre. One ton will feed 
 
 a tw^o or three year-cld steer 60 days. At 
 Baritow, Texas,' it feedo 15 to 20 hogs t<> 
 tho acre. In Imperial Valley, wJiith was 
 in t]ie desert region, and where cultivation de- 
 pends entirely on irrigation, its growth is 
 .sprcuc'ing extensively. There an acre cur- 
 ries JO sheep or three head of cattle. In 
 Oregoa it is the main hay crop, and princi 
 pal winter feed for all stock. its merits 
 are wcli known in Victoria, and I refer to 
 ?,' at length, as there is an idea that special 
 soils :ind treatmont are requireu. winch is 
 not the ca;je. It should become here, as 
 it is in the Western States, the backbone of 
 agriculture. 
 
 WEEDS IN IKEIGATJON CHANNELS. 
 
 Tliose i'.re very prevalent, and tJiere 's 
 not I'ny organised effort to deal with them. 
 The faimers are often careless oi lazy, and 
 watoruiasters have to be strict to see the 
 weeds are kept down. They are worst in 
 warm water and in slow runnii'.g channels. 
 ^VherJ the water comes down cold from th.j 
 mountains they do not grow so much, but 
 ni the plains ihey thrive, especially wher • 
 the velocity is slow in the channel. 
 
 A velocity of two feet per second will 
 check their growth, but they flourish it It 
 be one foot to per second. But littl.- ha.'? 
 been done in the way of special appliances 
 to keep them down. On the Vtrdeu 
 Ranch, Sacramento Co., they use a 
 long, heavy V shaped knife. It is 
 
 dragged along the bottom of the ditch 
 against the current, one team ol horses on 
 either side. This cuts the weeds loote, an-- 
 they float down streaai and form dams. The-' 
 are thei_ taken out by means of a derrick, 
 rigged on a waggon and a Jackson fork, ti 
 is the ranch's own .scheme. In Montebello, 
 California, they are avoided by cementing 
 tlie channels, but this is expensive, costing 
 from 20 to 60 cents, per lineal foot, accord- 
 ing to the size of ihe channel. 
 
 In Imperial Valle-y the ditches have to be 
 cleaned once a year. No s]x;cia.l appliances 
 have been generally used, but experiments 
 are being made with some euccess in tiie 
 smalle-- ditches with a machine which has 
 two V's with the !and sides 3ft. .-apart, and 
 the blades drawn togeti-er in front to a 
 point. This is drawn by 24 horsee, 12 work- 
 ing cm each side of the bank. In South 
 California one of the chief causes of trouble 
 is the water moss, algae Some canals re- 
 quire the constant iabor of day and night 
 nien to keep it down. The question of treat- 
 ing the canal water with copper sulphate, as 
 1-; done successfully in rcscrvoiie, was being 
 considered. 
 
33 
 
 At Logan, Utah, several methods are be- 
 ing tried. The mo,5t succeRsful is a drag mado 
 of a piece of railroad rail or other siinihu- 
 ircn, and by means of hotwefi on either bank 
 dra-^'gnl up rnd down the channel. Another, 
 ( ven belter, in use on the Bear River Cana' 
 ih to t^trip the ord'nary difec harrow of all 
 v.oodwork, loaded somow'hat with weight 
 having screens at suiLable intervals to catch 
 (he loose weeds, whi.h are removed from the 
 canal by an attendant. This appliance is 
 
 lid to have been very snocessful. In some 
 ;iprs a heavy chain i£ used, dragged up the 
 luinnel. 
 
 Tliia cjuestion 's ivost important, as there 
 :in lie no proper economical irrigation un- 
 ss tlie channels are kept clean. 
 
 Tliere were other rnatters brought iinder 
 ly notice I miglit rf^Ior lo, but the collect- 
 
 g of ibis information occiipics cor.siderabl ; 
 iuie, more than I can well spare now. At 
 
 future time 1 may i^eal with other matters 
 
34 
 
 DRY FARMING 
 
 111 two })reviou8 j .ipers I drew atteotiou 
 to the prot;ii.'«s oi dry farming in portions 
 v'l the United Statts, niore especially in iNe- 
 Wraska, Oregon, au'i ^Vyoming. The enor- 
 n.ous '^xtcnt of' temtory in Australia, and 
 even in Vi'jturia, lu which the annual rain- 
 fall is less than li inches, and the necessity, 
 growiii>^ in importance as time rolls on_ of 
 uiilisi'Ag it, rendore this question of drv 
 farming- or growing flops under a light rain- 
 fall one of the greatest importance. In the 
 United .States there is an area of 300 million 
 acres ui which the conditions are similar, 
 and for flie past ';e/eu or eight years great 
 attentiju has been given to its utilisatiou 
 piid setllement. References were made prc- 
 v'ously to the work done by Professor Camp- 
 bell, of Nebraska, and Dr Cooke, of Oregon, 
 and 1 Lave since received information as to 
 similar work going cii I'l Utah, which iv^ 
 worthy of nc.tice. The piodigal squandering 
 of our lands in districts with an assured ivin- 
 fall lias driven cultivation back to the semi- 
 arid areas, where the i^azards of fanning are 
 great, ?iid the results uncertain. But these- 
 Eieas are mainly the only land available for 
 fiist hand settlem-^nt, and the co.st of pur 
 chasing land from private owners makes the 
 S3curing of it almost ];rohibitive to the 
 greater number of would- be settlers. If th" 
 (ountry sfill in the liands of the Crown ^•'an, 
 by impicved methods of farming, be )nade 
 to yield crops, thousands will find homes, 
 and the production of the State enormous 
 ly increase; and because I believe there are 
 great ])(issib}lities in our semi-arid regions, 
 1 again venture to (all attoulion to the sub- 
 iect of this paper. 
 
 THE STATE OF UTAH. 
 T'He area of t^his State is 82,190 square 
 milee, or 52,601,rJOO acres, rather smaller 
 tlian Vutoria, which has an area of 87,8Si 
 square miles. Its rainfa'I varies from '«?•> 
 to 20 inches. Nine hundred and eighty- 
 thiee square miles are ir;;gated, and in th? 
 futura it is poBsib'e several thousand miles 
 rjay be added. At present, however, but 1 
 
 per cent, is watered. About IJ-j.OOO square 
 jniles i;re mountain lund, so from 45,UU0 to 
 iJO.UOO square miles of desert remain, the 
 only chance of devdoping which, is lo tak? 
 the natiual conditiona and seek to improve 
 them. 
 
 Production in TTtah has been mainly aj 
 sociated with irrigation, though since the 
 seventies a little arid farming has been car- 
 ried on. in Bear Kiver City, in the coun- 
 try between Ogden and Bountiful, and in 
 C:,c]ie Valley, it Ims bee;i fairly successful 
 But (.oiith of Salt L.ike City little has bc-i 
 done, or, it was 'bought, could be done in 
 (his direction. But rhe i>reseut availabl • 
 v-^^atcr usources arc rcachir.g their limit, n.ud 
 without very expensive works of conserva- 
 tion the supply for iirigation cannot be ;n- 
 cieased. Population is growing, the irri- 
 gated fi-cas are being divided into alio'.- 
 Jiicnts, which do not absorb the full time 
 and energies of .settlors. Besides, they aii. 
 Icing ]mt to the growing of more profitablo 
 crop.s than giain, suc:i as suga-- beets, pota- 
 tccs, fn.it, vegetables, etc., and hence at- 
 tention has been c;ined to the arid farm 
 and its possibilities. 
 
 The utilisation of all '■hr water by im- 
 Uicnse reservoirs being built would still 
 leave more than 90 per cent, oi the State 
 without irrigation. 
 
 DESERT RECLAMATION. 
 
 The reclamation of these deserts has bee'i 
 ( ngaging the attention of the Utah experi 
 )nent stations for the past 10 years, but it 
 was lot till 1901 that ^ysematic invcstiga 
 tion was undertaken. The dry farming 
 carried on was studied, and Ciu-eful atteiH 
 tion given to the rainfall and climatic oou- 
 ditious, resulting in the opinion being ar 
 rived at that there was every chance of and 
 farming being successful in niiiny portions 
 of th-j State. The officers who conducted 
 the inquiry were Dr. John A. Widtsoe and 
 Professor Lewis. A Merrill director and 
 
 agronomist respectively of the Utah experi- 
 mental station, Logan. Governor Heber 
 
35 
 
 rort and recommended to the Utah Legis 
 latur^ the proposal it contained that ex- 
 perimental larms bo established throughoii . 
 the ftate in order that the possibilities ol 
 arid larminiT miglit be thoroughly tested 
 A bill was d^'rafted by Dr. Widtscc, and was 
 passed without dissent by both Houses lu 
 
 ^^'^' THE AEID FARM ACT. 
 
 Its n.'ain provisions were that fivo experi 
 mental farms were to be established, only 
 one iji any county. Seeds suitable, for dry 
 areas ^^ere to be obtained both for croppin- 
 -nd crazino'. The experimental station was 
 to hav charcre and to report to Parliament 
 anniiiiiy, and the farms were to be rnain 
 tain«d for five years. The sum of i2.o0(- 
 dols was appropriated ,for the es>al> ish 
 men> ot the farms and the county m whioli 
 ■. farm was to be established had to pro- 
 vide i> site. The two gentlemen named, 
 and Senator Whitmore. from the nmtl: 
 district, were appointed to select sites, ami 
 with the characteristic activity oi the 
 ^merlcar.B, commencing on the 4th April, 
 hicy vent through the State, and had 
 their leport ready on the 3rd June 190... 
 making r thorough examination "1 all Uk> 
 ly localities They recommended the es- 
 lablisiiment of six farms of 40 acres each, 
 in the following places: — 
 
 SITES or FARMS. 
 Iron County, four miles west of P^rowan , 
 Juab County, six miles south of Nephi; San 
 Juan County, six miles south of Monti- 
 cello- Sevier County, Grass A^illey, 1> 
 miles south-east of Richfield: Tooele County. 
 14 miles south of GiantsviUe; Washington 
 County at Enterprise, 18 miles from Mo- 
 dena. ' A local foreman was at once ap- 
 pointed. Field operations were superviscfl 
 by i'rof. Merrill, the chemical and otlie" 
 work by Dr. Widtsoe. Rain gauges wero 
 cstablibhed, and the precipitation in inchc- 
 for the first twelve months in the order ol 
 the farms as above was as follows:— 13.14 
 11.91. 10. 2G, 10.58, 16.56, 11.94, or an ave- 
 rao-e of 12V inches throughout the farm 
 (ounlifs. Tho soil of the several farms varies 
 in =.ts character, the gravel areas from 1 to 
 '-"O per cent . ihe sand from 50 to 75 
 cent , the silt from 13 to 28 per cent., an<l 
 the clav frons 10 to 16 per cent The gravellv 
 soil represented the most gravelly in tlu 
 State, the mo3t sandy was apparently pur;) 
 Bind, and the clay 8)il on the Jiiah farm 
 was <-n" of the heaviest clays ♦'ound m I. tab. 
 The f Ik mica 1 composition of the soils varied 
 ;s much as their character 
 
 THE METHODS ADOP'ITD. 
 la each case the county found the 4u 
 
 acres for the farm, and cleaned the Bcrub 
 
 or sage brush from off it. Most of the ex- 
 reriniental work was done on the Juab and 
 Iron county farms, each being divided into 
 170 plots of one-third of an acre m size. 
 The Washington, Tooele, and San Juan 
 farms were divided into 100 plots of one 
 third of an acre each, and the Sevier farm 
 into 63 plots one-half acre each Plans for 
 the testing v/ork in each farm were prepar- 
 ed, whicfi included (1) variety tests of 
 wheat, oats, barley, lucerne, corn, grasses, 
 etc.; (2) depth of ploughing tests; (3) cul- 
 tivation tests; (4) rate of seeding tests; (5) 
 time of seeding tests; (6) depth of seeding 
 tests; (7) method of seeding tests; (8) 
 crop 'rotation tests; (9) fallowing tests; (10\ 
 drought-resistant quality tests of crops, 
 such as millet, katlir corn, sugar beets, pota- 
 toes, vetches, etc. Instructions were given 
 to plough to a depth of lOin., but this was 
 found difficult, and on the Washington 
 farm the ploughing was Sin. and 6in. ; on 
 the rest it was Bfn. The harrow followed 
 the plough till the surface soil was loose 
 and tine. In some cases it was found neces- 
 sary to disc the ground before the proper 
 tilth could be obtained, but the smoothing 
 harrow always followed the disc. A'.iout 
 one-half of the jdots were summer fallow- 
 ed during the season of 1904, kept fret-, of 
 weeds, and under constant cultivation to 
 wnserve the moisture for use during the 
 Reason of 1905. Most ol these plots were 
 seeded during the fall of 19(>4, the remaind- 
 er during tlie following spring. 
 
 THE RESULTS OBTAINED. 
 
 The results secured have been the pro- 
 duct of Imi. one year'* pr( cipitalion, and 
 the station workers have never maintained 
 thit with present cultural methods large 
 yields could be secured with but one year'., 
 "rainfall, but that the raiofall of two or 
 even three years may be required to pro- 
 <luc' prfitahle cr^p^. Bearing this in 
 mind, it is not surprising better yields were 
 not secured on some of the larm» but it is 
 rather a surprise that the yields were bo 
 .rood under the existing conditions even m 
 the best farms. Tlie following fall wheats 
 were tested on the various farms, but a 
 detailed report on all was not given, as one 
 year's test was not considered of Butticient 
 value for guidance of farmers. It was de- 
 teriniued to conduct the tests for a few 
 years before officially giving results of the 
 various varieties on each farm. In Jual^ 
 and Tooek counties the variety tests of 
 iall wheat were as follows (all wheat bushels 
 601b.): — 
 
36 
 
 Variety. Juab- Tooele. 
 
 Bushels. Bushels. 
 
 Odessa 20.5 ... 10.55 
 
 Turkey 23.8.3 ... ll.U 
 
 Red aiaff 22.08 ... V2.Qo 
 
 Fortv-fold Gold Coin ... 22.50 .. 1:3,20 
 
 Blue" Stem l^^-'^^j ■•• ^.G 
 
 Kopoid 18.91 ... 14.1 
 
 Peliesin 16.16 ... — 
 
 Black Don 15-00 ... — 
 
 Lofthouse 16.16 ■• 10 02 
 
 Iv-yptian - ••• 11-8 
 
 Sonora — ••• ■'•^•^ 
 
 ill Iron couiilrv Lnfrhnus« led wnli 9 
 bushels; in Sevier, Turkey with 10.8; in 
 Waehington, Fortyfold was first with 6.7. 
 In the ' list were two macaroni wheats— 
 nlack iJOii nnd Pelissiei -lli>^ one a Ku- 
 sian, the other an Algerian whoat TSiey 
 were sent as spring wheats, but planted lu 
 the fall, and did wtll, the yields being 15.0 
 and 16.16 bushels respectively. The chcmi- 
 (al and milling varieties of those wheat.^ are 
 being .studicdlor future report. Tlicy are 
 called macaroni, as their main use has been 
 to make paete foods. They belong to the 
 b jtanical bpTcits "Triticum durum," l.eiue 
 are known as "durum," or hard wheats. 
 They lire heavily bearded, being often 
 /liistaken for barley, and the flour makes 
 bread darker in <.olor, tougher and heavier 
 than ordinary wheats. It is more nutritious 
 also, and keeps sw^et an;! moist for longer 
 than ordinary bread. Plamted at the .luab 
 arid farm on 19th March. 1904, it was har- 
 vested en 28th July, and four varieties 
 yielded as follows r—Modma. 19.8:3 bushels 
 per acre; Adjini, 11.50 bushels per acre; 
 Mohamed ben Bachir, 21.25 bushels p?r 
 acre; Mideah, 20.33 bushels per acre. Theso 
 ore good yields, but the pced had come from 
 an arid coui;try, and suited arid eondition« 
 
 The yields of oats were also good, the best 
 bein? the Sixty Day, a Eussiau variety^ im- 
 ported by the United States Department of 
 Agriculture a few ynrs ago It produced in 
 the Juab farm 36 bushels; Tooele farm, 
 17.2.5; Sevier farm, 15.31; Iron farm 8 91, 
 and in AVashington wa« but 3.75. Other 
 good varieties— Giant Yellow, Black Anuri- 
 cau, Badfrer Queen, and North-western 
 White, all of which yielded well. The bar- 
 ley was from irrigated seed, and sown in 
 three counties only, yielding in Juab .H.9 
 bushels to 26.8: in Iron C'r'.uuty, 10.0 to 
 «.15; end Washington, 5.13. The lest 
 varieties were Califoruia. California Prolific 
 and .Surceefl. Rye did well, yielding frou- 
 14 to 12 bushels, and is highly commended 
 as a drought-resisting cereal. A wheal 
 i-amed Emmer, aUo calh-d Spelz or Speltz, 
 
 has special drought-resisting qualitlos. 
 'n;ere is a Fall and fcpring variety, the lat- 
 ter yielding on Juab farm 23.55, and Tooele 
 farm 17.68 biiehels per acre. It is a stock 
 feed, tpeeially good for milking cows. Tli- 
 lulls cling to the grain after threshing, 
 making it less elangeroui^ than ordinary 
 wheat. It weighs "Sib. to 'K)lb. per bushel, 
 piid is reported as "producing a fair crop 
 iii;der almost any condition of soil and cli- 
 n-ate, but thrives 1 est in a dry prairie re- 
 gion, with hot summers, where it gives ex- 
 cellent yields.'' Lucerne planted in tlio fall 
 f:iilej, but where spring planted a gooel 
 stand was obtained. It was mown at a 
 height of eight inches to develop the rcots, 
 pnd prevent the moisture leaving the ground 
 through the leaves. Next year, it M'a? 
 thought, a good crop vcs assured. Sugar 
 bectfi were tried, and grew froni 21b. 1o 2.^1b. 
 in weight. Grae«os, corn, vctthte, rye and 
 millet were also grown with sati.sfactory re- 
 iiiilta. 
 
 THE RESULTS EXHIBITED 
 
 All the farms ftent exTiibits to tlie i^tate 
 Fair at Salt Lake City, and they created 
 much interest, being a revelation to the visi- 
 tors, who could scarcely believe that in one 
 year the sage-brush elesert on which the ex- 
 liib'ts were grown could be changed to such 
 a fruitful field. 'Tt n;arked," the papers 
 wrote, ^a new era in tli:-^ farming ejf aril 
 lands." 
 
 DRY FARMING ELSEAVHERE. 
 
 Twenty years .tgo tlie school class books 
 ir Oregon taught th.at ceieals (wheat, oat-? 
 and l)arloy') would not grow in Eastern 
 Oregon, and all *he country was fit for was 
 stork. Gradually rew methods of farmin;' 
 have teen introduced, and whereas fh the 
 crrly days they might get a crop, but a poor 
 one, once in three years, now they plough 
 deep, keep the land cultivated, anel get one 
 good crop every other year, ram or no rain 
 during the Siimmer, harvesting 30 to 7^> 
 liiishels, according to the soil and season. 
 
 Portland, the '^.'cport city of Oregon, is 
 tfw one of the large export cities for wheat 
 in the States. Mneli of the progress hero "s 
 due to the example ?nd teaching of Dr. V. 
 T. Cooke, of whom I have previously writ- 
 tc^n. T'or tlie past two years he lias been 
 ]? caching dry farming in W^yoming. and is 
 there at present on the same mifision, and 
 by recent advice from him T lenrn the syw- 
 Irm i.s making good progress. Macaroni 
 wluals are being largely used. 
 
 THE OPINIONS OF EICPERTS. 
 
 Frederick V. Covillc. the chief botanist 
 of the United States Department of Agri- 
 rulture, says that i' the strictly arid re 
 gions there are many milliems of acres now 
 
37 
 
 considered worthless for agriculture wliioli 
 i;re as certain to be scttk-d in small farm.^ 
 as wore the lands of lUinoiiS, and this witli- 
 ont irrigation. This ai>pi;ee particularly io 
 the great plateau in the Northern Eocfey 
 Mountain region. 
 
 Mr. Coville .says: — ''I would coiifidiiil ly 
 predict that the transformation of thes.j 
 harrou looking lands into farms througli 
 Ihc introduction of desert jalaits will be a-^ 
 I'xtetisivc a work as tlie enormous reclama- 
 lion through irrigation." 
 
 Mr. David G. Fairchild, who is in charge 
 of the ''section of iutioductioii of now seeds 
 and plants," says: — "The greatest surprise 
 to l.he agriculturist wilt come through the 
 ciiltivation of what are now considered 
 des'rl lands for the growing of .special arid 
 land cjops, r€quirin;.>; but a fraction of the 
 moisture necessary for the production of 
 Ihe crdinaiy plants of the eastern half of 
 the United "states, such as corn and wheat 
 We are finding new plants from tlie far 
 fable hinds of Turkestan and tlie steppes of 
 Kufsia and Siberia, which grow liixnri mtly 
 under such conditions of aridity. tViat the 
 crop.s of the Mississippi Valley larmei' 
 would wither and die as though scorched by 
 the Sirocco." 
 
 Mr. M. A. CarLton, the Macaroni wJioit 
 specialist of the Bureau of Plant Indusfrv, 
 sayS;— '"The Macaroni wlieat belt extcndt; on 
 i.n average the widtli of the United Statos. 
 The Mar aroni w^heat country would includ - 
 a very large fraction of a million square 
 luilo.-.." Our i)eople are but Ijegini.iiig to 
 reali-;e dimly the utterly vast agricuttural 
 wcal-ii whirli lies latent in this cuormoiii^ 
 area." 
 
 Dr. Widtsoe, writing on the " Principles nf 
 Arid Farming." states :—" It is important to 
 know the relation of the plant to the soil, and 
 the method by which the plint obtains its 
 moistare. Water ts held in the soil in three 
 different forms, viz , free, capillary, and hygro- 
 Kcr)pic. The capillary is the direct source of 
 supply to the plants. It is held as a distinct 
 him round the soil grains. Fining and pulve- 
 rising the soil renders it possible for more 
 capillary water to bs held. Ploughing the 
 land the land has a very appreciable inlluence 
 on the amount of water that can be held by the 
 sf)il,, especially ploughing land in [he fall. The 
 difference in the moisture that can be held in 
 the soil as between fall and spring ploughing 
 is over 7 per cent. The general practice is to 
 plough to 8in. or loin., and subsoiling is 
 followed, at least, about once in three ye;irs. 
 Deep pioiigbing increases the moisture-holding 
 capacity of the soil, retains the water that f.iUs 
 on it, and draws moisture also from the deeper 
 layers by capillary attraction- 
 
 The land generally is left fallowed every 
 other season. Green manuring is also ad- 
 vocated, rye, vetch, or clover being named. 
 Prom one-half to a bushel of seed is used 
 jier acre. Success in arid farms seems to 
 be attained by deep cultivation, the reten- 
 tion of all moisture in the soil, and the 
 preventive of evaporation by tine tillagOj 
 a good seed bed and good root bed and all 
 the moistare stored to come by canillary 
 attraction when needed for t\.e plant. In 
 arid Utah lib. of dry plant substance re- 
 quires about 75()Ib. of water. One bushel 
 of wheat requires approximately 50 tons of 
 water. If the rainfall is I2in., each acre 
 receives over 1250 tons of water — two and 
 one half times as much as is needed for 10 
 bushels of v/heat. If tlu- ground i.'5 crop 
 ped every other year, and it is kept in 
 proper condition, there will be two years' 
 rains in the soil, less eva}X)ration ; or enough 
 to grow 25 bushels of wheat. In the drier 
 part of Victoria, the extreme north-west, 
 the lowcst«^imc«\nt of precipitation is 11.3^ 
 nchea. For all the JVJallee the amount of 
 rainfall is about 14 inches. For all Vic- 
 toria the precipitation averages over 22 
 iiichcs. Why have we drotights and failures? 
 Becau5e we do not ase the rainfall as we 
 should. I belicvo that groat as the ber.ef.t-, 
 are thac will ensue from irrigation, those 
 fioni dry farming wiiT far surpass them. We 
 have 20 million .-leres of land in Northern 
 Victoria, and few rv^ally Tiad acres in it. We 
 have 50 miTlion aer^^s in Eiverina of a simi- 
 lar character. With proper treatment and 
 seeds the potentialities of this area are '.'U 
 ormoTis, even without irrigation; witn_ it 
 tliey may be doublod. We are quarrelling 
 like children over trifles, with all this great 
 area to subdue, this great wealth to re.slisf-, 
 this great country to settle. We have made 
 many conquests, but the greatest of all, the 
 conquest of arid Australia, still remains to 
 be aeciiUipliished, for eonqnost moans not 
 only possession, but utibsation. 
 
 Probably 85 per cent, of the population of 
 Australia is within lOO miles of the coast 
 line. Our surrlus rosourccs of land, iumu^- 
 rals and water need developing, for tne 
 1)uilding of homes rnd rearing a race. To 
 do this the physical conditions niufct be 
 studied. The man who shows that he can 
 fiuceessfully grow crops under a 12 ineh rain- 
 fall is donng more fo^ .\u*l ralTa than all the 
 politieians. The -uccess of dry farming wiU 
 solve many difficult problems. 
 
 These notes are sent out with the hop? 
 it will he tried, and if it succeeds, as it has 
 elsewhere, then the future prosperity of Aus- 
 tralia is assured. 
 
UNIVEESITY OF CALIFOENIA LIBRARY, 
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 CAT. m 21, 1308 
 
 57255:} 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY