^^"^^"^O C' ; :y/ J 
 
 L22L- ^-frZ-^V.^Sf^P 
 
 UC-NRLF 
 
 *B Ebb fl7b 
 
 t^^'^ti- 
 
 4 
 
 '"^Z-^M^ 
 
GIFT or 
 
 Dr. Horace Ivie 
 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 
 
 ADAPTED TO THE 
 
 DIFFERENT CLASSES OF LEARNERS, 
 
 APPENDIX, 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 RULES AND OBSERViATIONS 
 
 FOR ASSISTING THE MORE ADVAI^'cEI) StlTDENTS TO WRITE 
 WITH PERSPICUITY AND ACCURACY. 
 
 They who are learning to compose and arrange their sentences with accuracy and 
 order, are learning, at the same time, to think with accuracy and order.—BLAiB. 
 
 BY LINDLEY MURRAY. 
 
 NEW-LONDON: 
 PUBLISHED BY W. & J. BOLLES. 
 
 1835. 
 
V* ; 
 
 
 erFfeF 
 
 EDUCATION DePT 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Wj 
 
 HEN the number and variety of English Grammars already 
 published, and the ability with which some of them are written, 
 are considered, little can be expected from a new compilation, be- 
 sides a careful selection of the most useful matter, and some 
 degree of improvement in the mode of adapting it to the under- 
 standing, and the gradual progress of learners. In these respects 
 something, perhaps, may yet be done, for the ease and advantage 
 of young persons. 
 
 In books designed for the instruction of youth, there is a me- 
 dium to be observed, between treating the subject in so exten- 
 sive and minute a manner, as to eiiibai'yass and 'C<3nfijse their 
 minds, by offering too much at oi^e^for.their ,i!omprefheiision ; and, 
 ©n the other hand, conducting it by Such short and generalprecepts 
 and observations, as convey to;thei][i,n<) cl^ar aiid preOi^ pnf'W:ma- 
 tion. A distribution of the ^^^rt;§j Vhi<ch is eithei* 'defective or 
 irregular, has also a tendency to perplex the young understanding, 
 and to retard its knowledge of the principles of literature. A dis- 
 tinct general view, or outhne, of all the essential parts ofthe study 
 in which they are engaged ; a gradual and judicious supply of this 
 outline ; and a due arrangement of the divisions, according to 
 their natural order and connexion, appear to be among the best 
 means of enhghtening the minds of youth, and of facilitating their 
 acquisition of knowledge. The author of this work, at the same 
 time that he has endeavoured to avoid a plan, which may be too 
 concise or too extensive, defective in its parts or irregu'a, in their 
 disposition, has studied to render his subject sufficient' j«sy, in- 
 telligible, and comprehensive. He does not prep J^ne t /lave com- 
 pletely attained these objects. How far he has sue ^eded in the 
 attempt, and wherein he has failed, must be refe'.;ed to the de- 
 termination ofthe judicious and candid reader. 
 
 The method which he has adopted, of exhibiting the perform- 
 ance in characters of different sizes, will, he trusts, be conducive 
 to that gradual and regular procedure, which is so favourable' to 
 the business of instruction. The more important rules, definitions, 
 and observations, and which are therefore the most proper to be 
 committed to memory, are printed with a larger type ; whilst rules 
 and remarks that are of less consequence, that extend or diversify 
 the general idea, or that serve as explanations, are contained in the 
 smaller letter : these, or the chief of them, will be perused by the 
 etudent to the greatest advantage, if postponed till the general sys- 
 tem be completed. The use of notes and observations, in the com 
 mon and detached manner, at the bottom ofthe page, would not, it 
 is imagined, be so likely to attract the perusal of youth, or admit ol 
 go ample and regular an illustration, as a continued and uniform 
 Oi'der ofthe several subjectg^ Iw.aiUjptiji|;f,this mode, care has been 
 
4 INTRODUCTIOrf. 
 
 taken to adjust it so that the whole may be perused in a t^onnected 
 progress, or the part contained in the larger character read in or- 
 der by itself. Many of the notes and observations are intended, 
 not only to explain the subjects, and to illustrate them, by compara- 
 tive views of the grammar of other languages, and of the variouf I 
 sentiments of English grammarians ; but also to invite the ingeniH 
 ous student to inquiry and reflection, and to prompt to a more 
 enlarged, critical, and philosophical research. 
 
 With respect to the definitions and rules, it may not be impro- 
 per more particularly to observe, that in selecting and forming 
 them, it has been the author's aim to render them as exact and 
 comprehensive, and, at the same time, as intelligible to young 
 minds, as the nature of the subject, and the dirficuities attending it, 
 would admit. He presumes that they are also calculated to be 
 readily committed to memory, and easily retained. For this pur- 
 pose, he '(vas been s«^li«ixous to select terms that are smooth and 
 voluble ; to proportioK' th^,*. m«*3mbers of the sentences to one 
 another; Jo avoid protracted periods ; and to give the whole defi- 
 nitiwo? fjal/e,'a5 -^f.icKljarj>iony of expression as he could devise. 
 
 From the ^eiitirAent gei* ;,Kk-%^(idmitted, that a proper selection 
 of faulty composition is more instructive to the young gramma- 
 rian, than any rules and examples of propriety that can be given, 
 the Compiler has been induced to pay peculiar attention to this 
 part of the subject ; and though tlie instances of false grammar, 
 under the ru]«5s of Syntax, are numerous, it is hoped they will not 
 be found too many, when their variety and usefulness are con- 
 sidered. 
 
 In a work which professes itself to be a compilation, and which, 
 from the nature and design of it, must consist chiefly of materials 
 selected from the writings of others, it is scarcely necessary to 
 apologize for the use which the Compiler has made of his prede- 
 cessors' labours ; or for omitting to insert their names. From the 
 alterations which have been frequently made in the sentiments 
 and the language, to suit the connexion, and to adapt them to the 
 particular purposes for which they are introduced ; a'^d, in many 
 instances, from the uncertainty to whom the passa^ j originally 
 belonged, the insertion of names could seldom be made with pro- 
 priety. But if this could have been generally done, a work of this 
 nature would derive no advantage from it, equal to the inconve- 
 nience of crowding the pages with a repetition of names and re- 
 ferences. It is, however, proper to acknowledge, in genera) 
 terms, that the authors to whom the grammatical part of thi? 
 compilation is principally irdebted for its materials, are Harris. 
 Johnson, Lowth, Priestley, Beattie, Sheridan, Walker, and Coote. 
 
 The Rules and Observations respecting Perspicuity, &c. con- 
 tained in the Appendix, and which are, chiefly, extracted from 
 the writings of 131air and Campbell, will, it is presumed, form a 
 proi>er addition to the Grammar. The subjects are very nearly 
 related ; and the study of perspicuity and accuracy in writing 
 appears naturally to follow that of Grammar. A competent ac 
 
INTRODUCTIO't. 5 
 
 quaintance with the principles of both, will prepare and qualify 
 the students, for prosecuting those additional improvements in 
 language, to which they may be properly directed. 
 
 On the utihty and importance of the study of Grammar, and 
 the principles of Composition, much might be advanced, for the 
 encouragement of persons in early life to apply themselves to 
 this branch of learning; but as tlie limits of this Introduction 
 \vl;l not allow of many observations on the subject, a few leading 
 sentiments are all that can be admitted here with propriety. As 
 words are the signs of our ideas, and the medium by which w^e 
 perceive the sentiments of others, and communicate our own : 
 and as signs exhibit the things which they are intended to repre- 
 sent, more or less accurately, according as their real or established 
 conformity to those things is more or less exact; it is evident, that 
 in proportion to our knowledge of the nature and properties ot 
 words, of their relation to each other, and of their established 
 connexion with the ideas to which they are applied, will be the 
 certainty and ease, with which we transfuse our sentiments 
 into the minds of one another ; and that, without a competent 
 knowledge of this kind, we shall frequently be in hazard of mis- 
 understanding others, and of being misunderstood ourselves. It 
 may indeed be justly asserted, that many of the differences in 
 opinion amongst men, with the disputes, contentions, and aliena- 
 tions of lieart, which have too often proceeded from such differ- 
 ences, have been occasioned by a want of proper skill in the 
 connexion and meaning of words, and by a tenacious misappli- 
 cation of language. 
 
 One of the best supports, which the recommendation of this 
 study can receive, in small compass, may be derived from the 
 following sentimenrs of an eminent and candid writer* on lan- 
 guage and composition. " All that regards the study of compo- 
 " sition, merits the higher attention upon this account, that it is 
 "intimately connected with the improvement of our intellectual 
 " powers. For I must be allowed to say, that when we are em- 
 " ployed, after a proper manner, in the study of ccrnposition, we 
 '^are cultivating the understanding itself. Thestudy of arranging 
 'and expressing our thoughts with propriety, teaches to think, 
 " as well as to speak, accurately." 
 
 Before the close of this Introduction, it may not be superflu- 
 ous to observe, that the author of the following work has no 
 interest in it, but that which arises from the hope, that it will 
 prove of some advantage to young persons, and relieve the 
 labours of those who are employed in their education, lie 
 wishes to promote, in some degree, the ca ise of virtue, as weh as 
 of learning; and, with this view, he has been studious, through 
 the whole of the work, not only to avoid every example and illus- 
 tration, which might have an improper effect on the minds of 
 vouth ; but also to introduce, on many occasions, such as have ^ 
 
 ♦ Blait 
 
 A2 
 
INTROPUCTIOK. 
 
 moral and religious tendency. His attention to objects of so 
 much importance will, he trusts, meet the approbation of ever^ 
 well-disposed reader. If they were faithfully regarded in all 
 books of education, they would doubtless contribute very mate- 
 rially to the order and happiness of society, by guarding the in 
 nocence and cherishing the virtue of the rising generation. 
 Holdgate, near York, 1795. 
 
 ADVERTISEMENT 
 
 A 
 
 TO THE NINTH EDITION. 
 
 The eighth edition of this grammar received considerable 
 alterations and additions; but works of this nature admit of re- 
 peated improvements ; and are, perhaps, never complete. The 
 author, soficitous to render his book more worthy of the en 
 couragiog approbation bestowed on it by the public, has again 
 revised the work with care and attention. The new edition, he 
 hopes, will be found much improved. The additions, which are 
 very considerable, are, chiefly, such as are calculated to expand 
 the learner's views of the subject ; to obviate objections ; and to 
 render the study of grammar both easy and interesting. This 
 edition contains also anew and enlarged system of parsing ; co- 
 pious lists of nouns arranged according to their gender and 
 number ; and many notes and observations, which serve to ex- 
 tend, or to explain, particular rules and positions.* 
 
 The writer is sensible that, after all his endeavours to elucidate 
 the principles of the work, there are few of the divisions, arrange- 
 ments, definitions, or rules, against which critical ingenuity 
 cannot devise plausible objections. The subject is attended with 
 so much intricacy, and admits of views so various, that it was not 
 possible to render every part of it unexceptionable ; or to ac- 
 commodate the work, in all respects, to the opinions and pre- 
 possessions of every grammarian and teacher. If the authoi 
 has adopted that system which, on the whole, is best suited to 
 the nature of tne subject, and conformable to the sentiments of 
 the most judicious grammarians ; if his reasonings and illustra- 
 tions, respecting particular points, are founded on just principles, 
 and the pecuharities of the English language ; he has, perhaps, 
 done all that could reasonably be expected in a work of this 
 nature ; and he may warrantably indulge a hope, that the book 
 will be still more extensively approved and circulated. 
 
 * The author conceives that the occasional strictures, dispersed through ihe 
 book, and intended to illustrate and support a number of important grammatical 
 points, will not, to young i arsons of ingenuity, appear to be drv and useless 
 discussions. He is persuaded that, by such persons, they will be read with at- 
 tention. And he presumes that these strictures will gratify their curiosity, 
 stimulate application, and n;ive solidity and permanence to thetr grainniatical 
 knowledge. In tlie Octavo edition of the grammar, the reader wil\ find manjf 
 additional discussions of this nature, 
 
 HoldgaU^ near Yorkf 1804. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I.— ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 CI AP. 1. Of letters. Page. 
 
 Sect. 1. Of the nature of the letters, and of a per- 
 fect alphabet 11 
 
 2. General observations on the sounds of the 
 
 letters 17 
 
 3. The nature of articulation explained. . 24 
 CHAP. 2. Of syllables, and the rules for arranging them. 26 
 CHaP. 3. Of words in general, and the rules for spelling 
 
 them 27 
 
 PART II.— ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 CHAP. 1. A general view of the parts of speech. ... 30 
 
 CHAP. 2. Of the articles 33 
 
 CHAP. 3. Of substantives. 
 
 Sect. 1. Of substantives in general 34 
 
 2. Of gender ib. 
 
 3. Of number 36 
 
 4. Of case 38 
 
 CHAP. 4. Of adjectives. 
 
 Sect. 1. Of the nature of adjectives, and the degrees 
 
 of comparison 41 
 
 2. Remarks on the subject of comparison. . 42 
 
 CHAP. 5. Of pronouns. 
 
 Sect. 1. Of the personal pronouns 43 
 
 2. Of the relative pronouns .45 
 
 3. Of the adjective pronouns. . . . . 46 
 
 CHAP. 6. Of verbs. 
 
 Sect. 1. Of the nature of verbs in general. ... 50 
 
 2. Of number and person 52 
 
 3. Of moods and participles ib. 
 
 4. Remarks on the potential mood 55 
 
 5. Of the tenses 57 
 
 6. The conjugation of the auxiliary verbs to 
 
 have and to be 61 
 
 7. The auxiliary verbs conjugated in their 
 
 simple form ; with obr^ervations on their 
 peculiar nature and force. • • • 67 
 
8 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Sect. 8. The conjugation of regular verbs. . . 70 
 
 9. Observations on passive verbs. ... 76 
 
 10. Of irregular verbs 78 
 
 11. Of defective verbs ; and of the different 
 
 ways in which verbs are conjugated. . 83 
 
 CHAP. 7. Of adverbs 84 
 
 CHAP. 8. Of prepositions 87 
 
 CHAP. 9. Of conjunctions S9 
 
 CHAP. 10. Of Interjections 91 
 
 CHAP. IK Of derivation 92 
 
 Sect. 1, Of the various ways in which words are 
 
 derived from one another ib 
 
 2. A sketch of the steps, by which the English 
 language has risen to its present state 
 
 of refinement 94 
 
 PART in.— SYNTAX. 
 
 Of the syntax of the article 115 
 
 Of the syntax of the noun. 
 
 Of several nouns joined by copulatives 100 
 
 Of nouns connected by disjunctives 102 
 
 Of nouns of multitude ib. 
 
 Of one noun governing another in the possessive case. 117 
 
 Of the syntax of the pronoun* 
 
 Of pronouns agreeing with their antecedents. . . 103 
 Of the relative being nominative to the verb. . . . 107 
 Of the relative preceded by nominatives of different 
 persons 108 
 
 Of the syntax of the adjective ib 
 
 Of the syntax of the verb. 
 
 Of the verb's agreement with the nominative case. . 97 
 
 Of verbs active requiring the objective case. . . . 121 
 
 Of one verb governing another in the infinitive mood. 123 
 
 Of verbs related in point of time 124 
 
 Of the syntax of the participle 127 
 
 Of the rules respecting adverbs. 
 
 Of the position of adverbs 129 
 
 Of two negatives 131 
 
 Of the syntax of prepositions 131 
 
 Of the syntax of conjunctions. 
 
 Of conjunctions connecting the same moods, tenses, 
 
 and cases 134 
 
 Of conjunctions requiring the6ubjunctive°mood,dcc. 135 
 
 Of the syntax of interjections 106 
 
CONTENTS. 9 
 
 Page. 
 
 Of comparisons by the conjunction Man 01 (w J 42 
 
 Directions respecting the ellipses 143 
 
 General rule of syntax J 46 
 
 Directions for parsing 148 
 
 PART IV.— PROSODY, 
 
 CHAP. 1. Of pronunciation ! 154 
 
 Sect. 1. Of accent ik. 
 
 2. Of quantity 158 
 
 3. Of emphasis 159 
 
 4. Of pauses 163 
 
 5. Of tones 165 
 
 CHAP. 2. Of versification 166 
 
 OF PUNCTUATION. 
 
 CHAP. 1. Of the comma ; 177 
 
 CHAP. 2. Of the semicolon 181 
 
 CHAP, a Of the colon 182 
 
 CHAP. 4. Of the period ib. 
 
 CHAP. 5. Of the dash, notes of interrogation, exclama- 
 tion, capitals, &c 183 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 EULKS AND OBSERVATION'S FOR PROMOTING FERSPICUITT AND 
 ACCURACT IN WRITING. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 Of ptrspicuityi and cLCCuracy of expression, with respect to single 
 words and phrases. 
 
 CHAP. 1. Of purity 188 
 
 CHAP. 2. Of propriety 189 
 
 CHAP. 3. Of precision 193 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Of perspicuity and accuracy of expression, with respect to the con^ 
 struction of sentences. 
 
 Of the clearness of a sentence. . . • • 197 
 
 CHAP. 1. 
 CHAP. 2. 
 CHAP. 3. 
 CHAP. 4. 
 
 Of the unity of a sentence . 
 Of the strength of a sentence. 
 Of figures of speech. . 
 
 4DDR£8S TO YOUNG STUDENTS. 
 
 200 
 203 
 215 
 
 229 
 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 English grammar is the art of speaking and writing 
 the English language with propriety. 
 
 It is divided into four parts, viz. ORTHOGRAPHY, 
 ETYMOLOGY, SYNTAX, and PROSODY. 
 
 This division may be rendered more intelligible to the student, 
 by observing, in other words, that Grammar treats, first; of the 
 form and sound of the letters, the combination of letters into syl- 
 lables, and syllables into words ; secondly^ of the different sorts 
 of words, their var4ous modifications, and their derivation ; third- 
 ly, of the union and right order of words in the formation of a 
 uentcnce ; and lastly, of the just pronunciation, and poetical con- 
 HtuctJoK of flontences. 
 
 PART L 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 OP THE LETTERS. 
 
 SECTION I. Of the nature of the letters, and of a perfect 
 alphabets 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY teaches the nature and powers of 
 letters, and the just method of spelhng words. 
 
 A letter is the first principle, or least part, of a word. 
 
 The letters of the English language, called the English 
 Alphabet, are twenty-six in number. 
 
 These letters are the representatives of certain articu- 
 late sounds, the elements of the language. An articulate 
 sound, is the sound of the human voice, formed by the or- 
 gans of speech. 
 
I2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
 
 The following is a list of the Anglo-Saxon, Roman, 
 and Old English Characters 
 
 Saxon. 
 
 Roman. 
 
 Italic. 
 
 Old English. 
 
 Name 
 
 Cap. 
 
 Small 
 
 Cap. 
 
 Small. 
 
 Cap. 
 
 Small. 
 
 Cap. 
 
 Small 
 
 ^ 
 
 S. 
 
 a 
 
 A 
 
 a 
 
 A 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 at. 
 
 6 
 
 b 
 
 B 
 
 b 
 
 B 
 
 h 
 
 i$ 
 
 t 
 
 hee» 
 
 E 
 
 c 
 
 C 
 
 c 
 
 a 
 
 c 
 
 « 
 
 c 
 
 Bee, 
 
 D 
 
 b 
 
 D 
 
 d 
 
 D 
 
 d 
 
 @ 
 
 tr 
 
 dee. 
 
 e ' 
 
 e 
 
 £ 
 
 e 
 
 E 
 
 e 
 
 35 
 
 e 
 
 «• 
 
 F 
 
 F 
 
 F 
 
 f 
 
 F 
 
 f 
 
 9 
 
 t 
 
 C/-. ^ 
 
 Xt 
 
 S 
 
 G 
 
 g 
 
 G 
 
 S 
 
 <& 
 
 s 
 
 ;>ft 
 
 Jj 
 
 h 
 
 H 
 
 h 
 
 H 
 
 h 
 
 m 
 
 h 
 
 aiVcA. i 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 K 
 
 C 
 
 t or ey 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 S 
 
 f 
 
 i«y- 
 
 K 
 
 Jc 
 
 K 
 
 k 
 
 ' K 
 
 k 
 
 It 
 
 ft 
 
 kay 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 L 
 
 I 
 
 3L 
 
 I 
 
 el. 
 
 CO 
 
 m 
 
 M 
 
 m 
 
 M 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 em. 
 
 N 
 
 n 
 
 N 
 
 n 
 
 JV 
 
 n 
 
 m 
 
 n 
 
 €n. 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ® 
 
 
 
 0. 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 ^ 
 
 9 
 
 ;>ce. 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 q 
 
 Q 
 
 9 
 
 <& 
 
 Q 
 
 ctic 
 
 R 
 
 P 
 
 R 
 
 r 
 
 R 
 
 r 
 
 21 
 
 r 
 
 ar. 
 
 S 
 
 r 
 
 S 
 
 8 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 & 
 
 » 
 
 ess 
 
 T 
 
 c 
 
 T 
 
 t 
 
 T 
 
 t 
 
 a: 
 
 t 
 
 tee. 
 
 B 
 
 "^tk 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 U 
 
 u 
 
 U 
 
 a 
 
 U 
 
 u 
 
 n 
 
 tt 
 
 u or yot 
 
 
 V 
 
 V 
 
 T 
 
 F 
 
 V 
 
 ® 
 
 i) 
 
 vee. 
 
 ID 
 
 p 
 
 W 
 
 W 
 
 W 
 
 w 
 
 as? 
 
 in 
 
 double % 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 F 
 
 eks. 1 
 
 If 
 
 f 
 
 Y 
 
 y 
 
 Y 
 
 y 
 
 a? 
 
 S 
 
 wy. ^ 
 
 z 
 
 s 
 
 Z 
 
 z 
 
 Z 
 
 z 
 
 z 
 
 1 
 
 zed. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 
 
 A perfect alphabet of the Enghsh language, and, indeed, of 
 every otber language, would contain a number of letters, pre- 
 cisely equal to the number of simple articulate sounds belonging 
 - to the language. Every simple sound would have its distinct 
 character ; and that character be the representative of no other 
 gound. But this is far from being the state of the English al- 
 phabet. It has more original sounds than distinct significant 
 letters; and, consequently, some of these letters are made to re- 
 present, not one sound alone, but several sounds. This will ap- 
 pear by reflecting, that the sounds signified by the united letters 
 thj sh, ng, are elementary, and have no single appropriate cha- 
 racters, in our alphabet : and that the letters a and u represent 
 the different sounds heard in k9t, hatCy hall ; and in but, hullj mule. 
 To explain this subject more fully to the learners, we sliall set 
 down the characters made use of to represent all the elementary 
 articulate sounds of our language, as nearly in the manner and 
 order of the piesent English alphabet, as the design of the sub- 
 ject will admit ; and shall annex to each character tlie syllable 
 or word, which contains its pjroper and distinct sound. And 
 tkece it will be proper to begin with the vowels. 
 
 Letters denoting the Words containing the 
 
 gtraple sounds. simple sounds. 
 
 a as heard in fate 
 
 a as in fall 
 
 a . as in fat 
 
 a as in far 
 
 e as in ' me 
 
 e as in met 
 
 i as in pine 
 
 i as in pin 
 
 o as in no 
 
 o as in not 
 
 o ae in ' move 
 
 u as in mule 
 
 u as in tub 
 
 u as ' in bull 
 
 By this list it appears, that there are in the English language 
 fourteen simple vowel sounds : but as tand w, when pronounced 
 long, may be considered as diphthongs, or diphthongal vowels, ouij 
 lan^age, strictly speaking, contains but twelve simple vowel 
 f)cunds ; to represent which, we have only five distinct charac- 
 lers or letters. If a in far, is the same specific sound as a in fat ; 
 Rud u in hull, the same as o in viove, which is the opinion of some 
 granm)arians ; then there are but ten original vowel sounds in 
 the English language. 
 
 The following hst denotes the sounds o£the consonants, being 
 Ml number twenty-two. 
 
 B 
 
14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Letters denoting the 
 
 
 
 Words containing ih» 
 
 simple sounds. 
 
 
 
 simple sounds. 
 
 b 
 
 as heard in 
 
 h^y, tub i 
 
 d 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 day, sad | 
 
 f 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 off, for 
 
 y 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 van, love 
 
 S 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 f gg, go . 
 
 h* 
 
 €U 
 
 in 
 
 bop, ho d 
 
 k 
 
 as 
 
 %n 
 
 kil , oak 
 
 1 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 lap, all 
 
 m 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 my, mum 
 
 n 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 no, on 
 
 P 
 
 us 
 
 4n 
 
 pin, map 
 
 r 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 rap, cry 
 
 s 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 60, lass 
 
 z 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 zed, buzz 
 
 t 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 top, mat 
 
 w 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 wo, will 
 
 y 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 ye, yes 
 
 ng 
 
 as 
 
 i7^ 
 
 ing, sing 
 
 sh 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 shy, ash 
 
 th 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 thin, thick 
 
 th 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 then, them 
 
 zh 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 pleasure 
 
 Several letters marked in the English alphabet, as consonaflts^ 
 are either superfluous, or represent, not simple, but complex 
 sounds. C, for instance, is superfluous in both its sounds; the one 
 oeing expressed by A:, and the other by 5. G, in the soft pronun- 
 ciation, is not a simple, but a complex sound ; as age is pro- 
 nounced aidge, J is unnecessary, because its sound, and that of 
 the soft gi are in our language the same. Q, with its attendant 
 1^, is either complex, and resolvable into to, as in quality; or un- 
 necessary, because its sound is the same with k, as in opaque, X 
 is compounded of g-5, as in example ; or ofks, as in expect 
 
 From the preceding representation, it appears to be a point of 
 considerable importance, that every learner of the English lan- 
 guage should be taught to pronounce perfectly, and with facility, 
 every original simple sound that belongs to it. By a timely arid 
 iudicious care in this respect, the voice will be prepared to utter, 
 with ease and accuracy, every combination of sounds ; and tai^ght 
 to avoid that confused and imperfect manner of pronouncing 
 words, which accompanies, through life, many persons who have 
 not, in this respect, been properly instructed at an early period. 
 
 Letters are divided into Vowels and Consonants. 
 
 A Vowel is an articulate sound, that can be perfectly 
 uttered by itself: as, a, c, o ; which are formed without 
 the help of any other sound. 
 
 * Some grammarians suppose h to mark only an aspiration, or breathing; 
 but it appears to be a distinct sound, and formed in a particular manner, by th* 
 organs of speech. Encyclopedia Britannicck 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 15 
 
 A Consonant is an articulate sound, which cannot be 
 pi^rfectly uttered without the help of a vowel : as, 6, d,/. 
 / ; which require vowels to express them fully. 
 
 The vowels are, a, e, i. o, n, and sometimes w and y. 
 /Fand y are consonants when they begin a word or syl- 
 lable ; but in every other situation they are vowels. 
 
 It is generally acknowledged by the best grammarians, that w 
 and y are consonants when they begin a syllable or word, and 
 vowels when they end one. That they are consonants, when used 
 as initials, seems to be evident from their not admitting the arti- 
 cle an before them, as it would be improper to say, an walnut, an 
 yard, &c. ; and from their following a vowel without any hiatus 
 or difficulty of utterance ; as, frosty winter, rosy youth. That they 
 are vowels in other situations, appears from their regularly tak- 
 ing the sound of other vowels ; as, w has the exact sound of w in 
 saw, few, now, &c. ; and y that of i, in hymn, fly, crystal, &c 
 See the letters W and Y, pages 22 and 23.^ 
 . We present the following as more exact and philosophical de 
 finitions of a vowel and consonant. 
 
 A vowel is a simple, articulate sound, perfect in itself, and 
 formed by a continued effusion of the breath, and a certain con- 
 formation of the mouth, without any alteration in the position, 
 or any motion of the organs of speech, from the moment the vocal 
 sound commences, till it ends. 
 
 A consonant is a simple, articulate sound, imperfect by itself, 
 but which joined with a vowel, forms a complete sound, by a 
 particular motion or contact of the organs of speech. 
 
 Some grammarians subdivide vowels into the simple and the 
 compound. But t> ere does not appear to be any foundation for the 
 distinction. Simplicity is essential to the nature of a vowel, which 
 excludes every degree of mixed or compound sounds. It requires, 
 .according to the definition, but one conformation of the organs of 
 speech, to form it, and no motion in the organs, whilst it is forming. 
 
 Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. 
 
 The mutes cannot be sounded at all, without the aid of 
 a vowel. They are 6, p, t, d, k, and c and g hard. 
 
 Tl^s semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves 
 They are/, /, m, n, r, r, s, z, a?, and c and g soft. 
 
 Four of the semi-vowels, namely, /, m, n, r, are also 
 distinguished by the name of liquids, from their readily 
 uniting with other consonants, and flowing, as it were into 
 their sounds. 
 
 * The letters w and y, are of an ambiguous nature ; being consonants at th« 
 (beginning of words, and vowels at the end. Encydopadia Briiannica 
 
 WALKER'S Critical Pronouncing Dictionary, page 24, third ediHon, 
 PERRY'S English Dictionary, Preface, pag« 7. 
 
16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 We have shown above, that it is essential to the nature of a 
 consonant, that it cannot be fully uttered vs^ithout the aid of a 
 vowel. We may further observe, that even the names of the con 
 sonants, as they are pronounced in reciting the alphabet, require 
 the help of vowels to express them. In pronouncing tlie nam^a 
 of the mutes, the assistant vowels follow the consonants: as, h^. 
 pe, fe, rfe, ka. In pronouncing the names of the semi- vowels, tlie 
 vowels generally J9recc6/c the consonants: as, ef el, em, tn, ar, es 
 ex. The exceptions are, ce, ge, ve, zed. 
 
 This distinction between the nature and the name of a conso 
 nant, is of great importance, and should be well explained to the 
 pupil. They are frequently confounded by writers on grammar 
 Observations and reasonings on the name, are often appUed to 
 explain the nature, of a consonant : and, by this means, the stu- 
 dent is led into error and perplexity, respecting these elements 
 of language. It should be impressed on his mind, that the name 
 of every consonant is a complex sound ; but that the consonant it- 
 self, is always sl simple sound. 
 
 Some writers have described the mutes and semi-vowels, With 
 their subdivisions, nearly in the following manner. 
 
 The inuies are those consonants whose sounds cannot be pro- 
 tracted. The semi-vowels^ such whose sounds can be continued 
 at pleasure, partaking of the nature of vowels, from which they 
 derive their name. 
 
 The mutes may be subdivided into pure and impure. The pure 
 are those whose sounds cannot be at all prolonged : they are 
 A, j>, t. The impure, are those whose sounds may be continued^ 
 though for a very short space : they are 6, d, g. 
 
 The semi-vowels may be subdivided into vocal and aspirated 
 The Yocal are those which are formed by the voice ; the aspirated, 
 those formed by the breath. There are eleven vocal, and five 
 aspirated. The vocal are ?, m, n, r, v, w^y^ z, th flat, zh, ng : the 
 aspirated,/. A, s, th sharp, sh. I 
 
 The vocal semi-vowels may be subdivided into pure and im- 
 pure. The pure are those which are formed entirely by the 
 voice : the impure, such as have a mixture of breath with the 
 voice. There are seven pure — /, m, n, r, w, y^ng ; four impure 
 — V, z, ih flat, z/i. 
 
 A diphthong is the lanion of two vowels, pronounced by 
 a simple impulse of the voice ; as ea in beat, ou in sound. 
 
 A triphthong is the union of three vowels, pronounceil 
 n like manner ; as, eau in beau, iew in view. 
 
 A proper diphthong is that in which both tlie vowels arc 
 sounded ; as, oi in voice, ou in ounce. 
 
 An improper diphthong has but one of the vowels 
 sounded ; as, ea in eagle, oa in boat. 
 
 Each of the diphthongal letters was, doubtless, originally h^rd 
 in pronouncing the words which contain them. Though this is not 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. J7 
 
 tlie case iit present, witli respect to niar«y of them, these combina- 
 tions still retain the nameofdiphthongs ; but, to distinguish them, 
 they are marked by the term improper. As the diphthong 
 derives its name and naiure from its sound, and not from its 
 letters, and properly denotes a doul)le vowel sound, no union of 
 two vowels, where one is silent, can, in strictness, be entitled to 
 thjtt appellation ; and the single letters i and u, when pronounced 
 long, must, in this view, be considered as diphthongs. The triph- 
 thongs, having at most but two sounds, are merely ocular, and 
 are, therefore, by some grammarians, classed with the diphthongs. 
 
 SECTION II. General observations on the sounds of the letters 
 
 A 
 
 »4 has four sounds ; the long or slender, the broad, the short 
 or open, and the middle. 
 
 The long ; as in name, basin, creation. 
 
 The broad ; as in call, wall, all. 
 
 The short ; as in barrel, fancy, glass. 
 
 The middle ; as in far, farm, fathe»*. 
 
 The diphthong aa generally sounds like a short in proper 
 names ; as in Balaam, Canaan, Isaac ; but not in Baal, Gaal. 
 
 w^e has the sound of long e. It is sometimes found in Latin 
 words. Some authors retain this form ; as, aenigma, asquator, &.c.; 
 but others have laid it aside, and write enigma, Cesar, Eneas, &c. 
 
 The diphthong ai has exactly the long slender sound of a, as 
 m pail, tail, &c. ; pronounced pale, tale, &c. : except plaid, again 
 raillery, fountain, Britain, and a few others. 
 
 w^it is generally sounded like the broad a : as in taught, caught, 
 &c. Sometimes like the short or open a ; as in aunt, flaunt, 
 gauntlet, &c. It has the sound of long o in hautboy ; and that 
 of short in laurel, laudanum, &c. 
 
 Aio has always the sound of broad a; as in bawl, scrawl, crawl. 
 
 Ay, like its near relation ai, is pronuuncea like the long slen- 
 der sound of a ; as in pay, day, delav. 
 
 B 
 
 B keeps one unvaried sound, at the beginning, middle, and 
 end of words ; as in baker, number, rhubarb, &c. 
 
 In some words it is silent ; as in thumb, debtor, subtle, &c. In 
 others, besides being silent, it lengthens the syllable ; as in 
 climb, comb, tomb. 
 
 C 
 C has two different sounds. 
 
 A hard sound like k, before a, o, w, r, l, t ; as in cart, cottage, 
 curious, craft, tract, cloth, &c. ; and when it ends a syllable ; as 
 in victim, flaccid. 
 
 A soft sound like s before e, t, and y, generally ; as in centre, 
 face, civil, cymbal, mercy, &c. It has sometimes the sound of 
 gh ; as in ocean, social. 
 
 C is mute in czar, czarine, victuals, &c. 
 C, says Dr. Johnson, according to English orthography, never 
 B 2 
 
18 EiNGLISII GRAiMMAR. H 
 
 ends a word ; and therefore we find in our best dictionaries, 
 stick, block, publick, politick, &c. But many writers of latter 
 j'ears omit the k in words of two or more syllables ; and this prac- 
 tice is gaining ground, though it is productive of irregularities j 
 such as writing mimic and mimickry ; traffic and trafficking. 
 
 Ch is commonly sounded like Ich; as in church, chin, chaff, 
 charter : but in words derived from the Greek, has the sound of 
 k; as in chymist, scheme, chorus, chyle, distich ; and in foreign 
 names; as Achish, Baruch, Enoch, &-c. 
 
 CA, in some words derived from the French, takes the sound ot 
 sh; as in chaise, chagrin, chevalier, machine. 
 
 Ch in arch, before a vowel, sounds like k ; as in archangel 
 archives. Archipelago ; except in arched, archery, archer, and 
 arch-enemy: but before a consonant it always sounds like tch j 
 as in archbishop, archduke, archpresbyter, &ic, Ch is silent in 
 schedule, schism, and yacht. 
 
 D 
 
 D keeps one uniform sound, at the beginning, middle, and end 
 of words ; as in death, bandage, kindred ; utdess it may be said 
 to take the sound off, in stuffisd, tripped. &c. stuft, tript, &c. 
 
 E 
 
 E has three different sounds. 
 
 A long sound ; as in scheme, glebe, severe, pulley. 
 
 A short sound ; as in men, bed, clemencv. 
 
 An obscure and scarcely perceptible sound ; as, open, lucre, 
 participle. 
 
 It has sometimes the sound of middle a ; as in clerk, serjoant, 
 and sometimes that of short i ; as in England, yes, pretty. 
 
 E is always mute at the end of a word, except in monosylla 
 bles that have no other vowel ; as, me, he, she : or in substan 
 tives derived from the Greek ; as, catastrophe, epitome, Penelope. 
 It is used to soften and modify the foregoing consonants ; as, force, 
 rage, since, obhge : or to lengthen the preceding vowel ; as, can, 
 cane ; pin, pine ; rob, robe. 
 
 The diphthong ea is generally sounded like e long ; as in appear 
 beaver, creature, &c. It has also the sound of short e ; as in 
 breath, meadow, treasure. And it is sometimes pronounced like 
 the long and slender a ; as in bear, break, great. 
 
 Eau has the sound of long o ; as in beau, flambeau, portmar 
 teau. In beauty and its compounds, it has the sound of long u, 
 
 Ei, in general, sounds the same as long and slender a; as in 
 deign, vein, neighbour, &c. It has the sound of long e in seize, 
 deceit, receive, either, neither, &c. It is sometimes pronounced 
 like short*; as in foreign, forfeit, sovereign, &c. 
 
 Eo is pronounced like c long ; as in people ; and sometlmefl 
 like c short ; as in leopard, jeopardy. It has also the sound ol 
 short u ; as in dungeon, sturgeon, puncheon, &c. 
 
 Eu is always sounded like long n or ew ; as in feud, deuce. 
 
 Ew *« almost always pronounced like long u ; as in few, new, dew 
 
 Ey^ vfh^n the accent is on it^ is always pro'uoyneefd like a loiig' 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY U 
 
 as In bey, grey, convey ; except in key, ley, where it is soundei 
 like long e. 
 
 When this diplithong is unaccented, it takes the sound of e long* 
 as, alley, valley, barley. 
 
 F 
 
 F keeps one pure unvaried sound at the beginning, middle, ano 
 f.riA of words; a«, fancy, muffin, mischief, &c. : except in o/*, in 
 which it Jias the flat sound of ov ; but not in composition ; as 
 whereof, thereof, &c. We should not pronounce, a wive's join 
 ture, a calve's head ; but a wife's jointure, a calf's head. 
 
 G 
 G has two sounds : one hard ; as in gay, go, gun : the othci 
 soft ; as in gem, giant. 
 
 At the end of a word it is always hard ; as in bag, snug, frog. 
 It is hard before a, o, w, Z, and r ; as, game, gone, gull, glory, 
 grandeur. 
 
 G before c, i, and i/, is soft ; as in genius, gesture, ginger, 
 Egypt ; except in get, gewgaw, finger, craggy, and some others. 
 
 G is mute before n; as in gnasb, sign, foreign, &c. 
 
 G;i, at the end of a word, or syllable accented, gives the pre- 
 ceding vowel a long sound ; as in resign, impugn, oppugn, 
 imj)regn, impugned ; pronounced impune, imprene, &c. 
 
 Gh, at the beginning of a word, has the sound of the hard 
 ^; as, ghost, ghastly : in the middle, and sometimes at the end, 
 it is quite silent ; as in right, high, plough, mighty. 
 
 At the end it has often the sound of/; as in laugh, cough, 
 lough. Sometimes only the g is sounded ; as in burgh, burgher. 
 
 H 
 
 The sound signified by this letter, is, as before observed, an 
 articulate sound, and not merely an aspiration. It is heard in 
 the words, hat, horse, Hull. It is seldom mute at the beginning of 
 a word. It is always silent after r ; as, rhetoric, rheum, rhubarb. 
 
 // final, preceded by a vowel, is always silent ; as, ah ! hah I 
 oh ! foil ! Sarah, Messiah. 
 
 From the faintness of the sound of this letter, in many words, 
 and its total silence in others, added to the negligence of tutors, 
 and the inattention of pupils, it has happened, that many persons 
 nave become almost incapable of acquiring its just and full pro- 
 nunciation. It is, therefore, incumbent on teachers, to be particu- 
 larly careful to inculcate a clear and distinct utterance of this 
 sound. 
 
 I 
 
 /has a long sound ; as in fine : and a short one ; as in fin. 
 
 The long sound is always marked by the e final in monosylla- 
 bles ; as thin, thine; except give, live. Before r it is often 
 sounded hke a short u ; as flirt, first. In some words it has the 
 sound of c long ; as in machine, bombazine, magazine. 
 
 The diphthong ia is frequently sounded like ya ; as in < hris 
 tian, fiha!, poinard ; pronounced christ-yan, &c. It has some- 
 times the sound of short i ; as in carriage, marriage, parhamenL 
 
20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 1 
 
 It sounds in general like e long ; as in grief, thief, grenadier 
 It has also the sound of long i ; aa in die, pie, lie : and sonie- 
 tinjes that of short i ; as in sieve. 
 
 hu has the sound of long u ; as in lieu, adieu, purlieu. 
 
 /o, when the accent is upon the first vowel, forms two dls- 
 inct syllahles ; as, priory, violet, violent. The terniinations tion 
 and 51*0/1, are sounded exactly like the word shun ; except when 
 he i is preceded by sor x ; as in question, digestion, combustion, 
 mixtion, &c. 
 
 The triphthong iou is sometimes pronounced distinctly in tM'o 
 syllables; as in bilious, various, abstemious. But these vowel? 
 often coalesce into one syllable ; as in precious, factious, noxious. 
 
 J 
 
 J is pronounced exactly like soft g ; except in hallelujah, 
 where it is pronounced like y. 
 
 JRThas the sound of c hard, and is used before c and i, where, 
 according to English analogy, c would be soft ; as, kept, king, 
 skirts. It is not sounded before n ; as in knife, knell, knocker. 
 It is never doubled, except in Habbakkuk ; but c is used before 
 it, to shorten the vowel by a double consonant; as, cockle, pic 
 Kle, sucker. 
 
 L 
 
 L has always a soft liquid sound ; as in love, billow, quarrel. 
 It is sometimes mute ; as in half, talk, psalm. The custom is to 
 double the I at the end of monosyllables ; as, mill, will, fall : ex- 
 cept where a diphthong precedes it ; as, hail, toil, soil. 
 
 Le, at the end of words, is pronounced like a weak el ; in 
 which the c is almost mute ; as, table, shuttle. 
 
 M 
 
 M has always the same sound ; as, murmur, monumental ; 
 except in comptroller, which is pronounced controller. 
 
 N 
 
 JSr has two sounds : the one pure ; as in man, net, noble ; the 
 other a ringing sound like ng ; as in thank, banquet, &c. 
 
 JVis mute when it ends a syllable, and is preceded by m ; as, 
 hymn, solemn, autumn. 
 
 The participial ing must always have its ringing sound ; as, 
 writing, reading, speaking. Some writers have supposed that 
 when ing is preceded by ing^ it should be pronounced in ; as, 
 smging, bringing, should be sounded singin, bringin : but as it is a 
 good rule, with respect to pronunciation, to adhere to the written 
 words, unless custom has clearly decided otherwise, it does not 
 »eem proper to adopt this innovation. 
 
 O 
 
 O has a long sound ; as in note, bone, obedient, over ; and a 
 »hort one ; as in not, got, lot, trot. 
 
 It has sometimes the short sound of u ; as, son, come, attor- 
 ney. And in some words it is sounded like oo ; as in prove, 
 move ; and often like au / as in nor, for, lord. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 21 
 
 The diphthong oa is regularly pronounced as the long sound of 
 f ; as in boat, oat, coal ; except in broad, abroad, groat, where it 
 £akes the sound of broad a ; as, brawd, &lc. ■ 
 
 Oe has the sound of single c. It is sometimes long ; as in foe- 
 tus, Antoeci : and sometimes short ; as in oeconomics, cecumeni- 
 c.il. In doe, foe, sloe, toe, throe, hoe, and bilboes, it is sounded 
 exactly like long o. 
 
 Oi has almost universally the double sound of a broad and c 
 long united, as in boy ; as boil, toil, spoil, joint, point, anoint : which 
 sliould never be pronounced as if written bile, spile, tile, &c. 
 
 Oo ahnost always preserves its regular sound ; as in moon, 
 *oon, food. It has a shorter sound in wool, good, foot, and a few 
 others. In blood and flood it sounds like short w. Door and 
 floor should always be pronounced as if written dore and flore. 
 
 The dipt!iong ou has six different sounds. The first and proper 
 sound is equivalent to ow in down ; as in bound, found, surrounds 
 
 I'lie second is that of short u ; as in enough, trouble, journey 
 
 The third is that of oo; as in soup, youth, tournament. 
 
 The fourth is that of long o ; as in though, mourn, poultice. 
 
 The fifth is that of short o ; as in cough, trough. 
 
 The sixth is that oi'awe ; as in ought, brought, thought. 
 
 Ow is generally sounded like ou in thou ; as in brown, dowry, 
 Bhower. It has also the sound of long o ; as in snow, grown, 
 bestow. 
 
 The diphthong oy is but another form for oi, and is pronounced 
 exactly like it. 
 
 P 
 
 P haf^always the same sound, except, perhaps, in cupboard, 
 where it sounds like b. It is sometimes mute ; as in psalm, psal- 
 ter, Ptolemy : and between m and t ; as, tempt, empty, pre- 
 sumptuous. 
 
 Ph is generally pronounced like/; as in philosophy, philan- 
 thropy, Philip. 
 
 In nephew and Stephen, it has the sound of v. In apophthegem, 
 phthisis, phthisic, and phthisical, both letters are entirely dropped, 
 
 a 
 
 Q is always followed by u ; as, quadrant, queen, quire. 
 
 Qu is sometimes sounded like k; as, conquer, liquor, risqir^e* 
 R 
 
 it has a rough sound ; as in Rome, river, rage : and a 8m*>otn 
 one ; as in bard, card, regard. 
 
 Re at the end of many words, is pronounced like a weak *t 
 as in theatre, sepulchre, massacre. 
 
 S 
 
 ShsLS two different sounds. 
 
 A soft and flat soUnd like z ; as, besom, nasal, dismal. 
 
 A sharp hissing sound ; as, saint, sister, Cyprus. 
 
 Ft is always sharp at the beginning of words. 
 
 At the end of words it takes the soft sound ; as, his, was, tr# 5, 
 
22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 eyes ; except in the words this, thus, us, yes, rebus, surplus, &o. ; ' 
 and in words terminati-ng with ous. 
 
 It sounds like 2 before ton, if a vowel goes before : as, intrusion , 
 but like s sharp, if it follows a consonant ; as, conversion. It also ' 
 sounds like 2 before c mute ; as, amuse ; and before y final ; as, , 
 rosy ; and in the words bosom, desire, wisdom, &c. 
 
 S is mute in isle, island, demesne, viscount. 
 T 
 
 T generally sounds, as in tak^, tempter. T before m, ^rhen 
 the accent precedes^ sounds like tch ; as, nature, virtue, are prc^- 
 nounced, natchure, virtchue. Ti before a vowel has the sound 
 ot'sh ; as in salvation : except in such words as tierce> liara, &c. 
 and unless an s goes before ; as, question ; and excepting also 
 derivatives from words ending in ty; as, mighty, mightier. 
 
 27i has two sounds : the one soft and flat ; as, thus, whether 
 heathen : the other hard and sharp ; as, thing, think, breath. 
 
 TA, at the beginning of words, is sharp ; as in thank, thick. 
 thunder : except in that, then, thus, thither, and some others. 
 T/i, at the end of words, is also sharp ; as, death, breath, mouth ' 
 except in with, booth, beneath, &c. 
 
 TO, in the middle of words, is sharp ; as, panther, orthodox, mis- 
 anthrope : except worthy, farthing, brethren, and a few others. 
 
 Thy between two vowels, is generally flat in words purely 
 Enghsh ; as, father, heathen, together, neither, mother. 
 
 Thy between two vowels, in words from the learned languages, 
 is generally sharp ; as, apathy, sympathy, Athens, apothecary. 
 
 TJi is sometimes pronounced like simple / ; as, Thomas, thyme, 
 Thames, asthma. • 
 
 U 
 
 U has three sounds, viz. 
 
 A long sound ; as in mule, tube, cubie, 
 
 A short sound ; as in dull, gull, custariL 
 
 An obtuse sound, like 00 ; as in bull, full, bushel. 
 
 The strangest deviation of this letter from its natural sound, is 
 m the words busy, business, bury, and burial ; which are pro- 
 nounced bizzy, bizness, berry, and berrial. 
 
 A is now often used befoi*e words beginning with u long, and 
 an always before those that begin with u short ; as, a union, a 
 university, a useful book; an uproar, an usher, an umbrella. 
 
 The diphthong wa, has sometimes the sound of wa ; as in as- 
 suage, persuade, antiquary. It has also the sound of middle a ; 
 as in guard, guardian, guarantee. 
 
 67e is often sounded like we ; as in quench, querist, conquest. 
 It has also the sound of long u ; as in cue, hue, ague. In a few 
 words, it is pronounced like e short ; as in guest, guess. In some 
 words it is entirely sunk ; as in antique, oblique, jM*orogue, cata- 
 logue, dialogue, &c. 
 
 Ui is frequently pronounced wi; as in languid, anguish, extin- 
 guish. It has sometimes the sound of i long ; as in guide, guile, 
 *d4sguise : and sometimes that of i short ; as in guilt, guinea, 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 83 
 
 liuildhall. In some words it is sounded like long u ; as in juice 
 suit, pursuit : and after r, like oo ; as in bruise, fruit, recruit. 
 
 Uo is pronounced like wo ; as in quote, quorum, quondam. 
 
 (Jy has the sound of long c ; as in obloquy, soliloquy ; pro- 
 nounced obloquee, &c. ; except by, and its derivatives. 
 
 Fhas the sound of flat/; and bears the same relation to it, as 
 t (Joes to p, d to tf hard g to k, and z to 5. It has also one uni 
 form sound ; as, vain, vanity, love. 
 
 W 
 
 TV, w^hen a consonant, has nearly the sound'of oo; as water re- 
 sembles the sound ofooater ; but that it has a stronger and quick- 
 er sound than oo, ami has a formation essentially different, will 
 appear to any person who pronounces, with attention, the words 
 wo, woo, beware ; and who reflects that it will not admit the arti- 
 cle an before it ; which oo would admit. In some words it is not 
 sounded ; as in answer, sword, wholesome : it is always silent 
 before r ; as in wrap, wreck, wrinkle, wrist, wrong, wry, be- 
 wray, &c. 
 
 fT before h is pronounced as if it were after the h ; as, why, 
 hwy ; when, hwen ; what, hwat. 
 
 TF is often joined to o at the end of a syllable, without affect- 
 ing the sound of that vowel ; as in crow, blow, grow, know, 
 row, flow, &c. 
 
 When 10 is a vowel, and is distinguished in the pronunciation, 
 it has exactly the same sound as u would have in the same situ- 
 ation ; as. di-aw, crew, view, now sawyer, vowel, outlaw 
 
 X 
 •X has three sounds, viz. 
 
 It is sounded like z at the beginning of proper names of Greek 
 original ; as in Xanthus, Xenophon, Xerxes. 
 
 It has a sharp sound like ks, when it ends a syllable with the 
 accent upon it ; as exit, exercise, excellence ; or when the ac 
 cent is on the next syllable, if it begins with a consonant ; as^ 
 Dxcuse, extent, expense. 
 
 It has, generally, a flat sound like g:^, when the accent is not 
 on it, and the following syllable begins with a voWel ; as, exert,, 
 exist, example ; pronounced, egzert, egzist, egzample. 
 
 Y, when a consonant, has nearly the sound of ce ; as, youth, 
 Vork, resemble the sound of eeouth, eeork : but that this is not 
 its exact sound, will be clearly perceived by pronouncing the 
 words ye, yes, new-year, in which its just and prt)per sound is as- 
 certained. It not only requires a stronger exertion of the organs of 
 speech to pronounce it, than is required to pronounce ee ; but its 
 formaiion is essentially difierent. It will not admft of a?i before 
 it, as ee will in the following example ; an eel. The opinion that 
 y and w, when they begin a word or syllable, take exactly the 
 wound of ee and oo, has induced some grammarians to asserti. 
 that these letters are always vowels or diphthongs. 
 
1 
 
 24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 When 2/ is a vowel, it has exactly the same sound as i would 
 have in the same situation; as, rhyme, system,- justify, pyran: 
 party, fancy, hungry. 
 
 Z 
 
 Z has the sound of an s uttered with a closer compression of 
 the palate by the tongue : it is the flat s ; as, freeze, frozen, brazen. 
 
 It may be proper to remark, that the sounds of the letters vary, 
 as they are differently associated, and that the pronunciation of 
 these associations depends upon the position of the accent. It 
 may also be observed, that, in order to pronounce accurately, 
 great attention must be paid to the vowels which ^re not ac- 
 cented. There is scarcely any thing which more distinguishes 
 a person of a poor education, from a person^of a good one, than 
 the pronunciation of the unaccented vowels. When vowels ar<B 
 under the accent^ the best speakers and the lowest of the people, 
 with very few exceptions, pronounce them in the same manner; 
 but the unaccented vowels in the mouths of the former, have a 
 distinct, open, and specific sound, while the latter often totally 
 sink them, or change them into some other sound. 
 
 SECTION III. Th^ nature of articulation explained, 
 A CONCISE account of the origin and formation of the sounds 
 emitted by the human voice, may, perhaps, not improperly, be 
 here introduced. It may gratify the ingenious student, and 
 serve to explain more fully the nature of articulation, and the 
 radical distinction between vowels and consonants. 
 
 Human voice is air sent out from the lungs, and so agitated or 
 modified in its passage through the windpipe and larynx, as to 
 become distinctly audible. The windpipe is that tube, which, o* 
 touching the forepart of our throat externally, we feel hard and 
 uneven. It conveys air into the lungs for the purpose of breath- 
 ing and speech. The top or upper part of the windpipe is called 
 the larynx, consisting of four or five cartilages, that may be^ex- 
 panded or brought together, by the action of certain muscles which 
 operate all at the same time. In the middle of the larynx there 
 is a small opening, called the glottis, through which the breath 
 and voice are conveyed. This opening is not wider than on« 
 tenth of an inch ; and, therefore, the breath transmitted through 
 it from the lungs, must pass with considerable velocity. The 
 voice thus formed, is strengthened and softened by a reverbera- 
 tion from the palate and other hollow places in the inside of the 
 mouth and nostrils ; and as these are better or worse shaped for 
 this reverberaticfi^ the voice is said to be more or less agreeable. 
 If we consider the many varieties of sound, which one and the 
 game human voice is capable of uttering, together with the small 
 ness of the diameter of the glottis ; and reflect, that the same di 
 ameter must always produce the same tpne, and, consequently, 
 that to every change of tone a correspondent change of diameter 
 
 ie necessary ; we must be filled with admiration at the mechanii 
 
 of these parts, and the fineness of the fibres that operate in pi 
 
 1 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 25 
 
 ducing effects so minute, so various, and in their proportions so 
 exactly uniform. For it admits of proof, that the diameter of the 
 liuman glottis is capable of mere than sixty distinct degrees of 
 contraction or enlargement, by each of which a different note is 
 produced ; and yet the greatest diameter of that aperture, as be- 
 iotv observed, does not exceed one tenth of an inch. 
 
 Speech is made u^t of articulate voices ; and what we call artU 
 culation, is performed, not by the lungs, windpipe, or larynx, but 
 by the action of the throat, palate, teeth, tongue, hps, and nostrils. 
 Articulation begins not, till the breath, or voice, has passed 
 through the larynx. 
 
 The simplest articulate voices are those which proceed from 
 an open mouth, and are by grammarians called vow^eZ sounds. In 
 Iransmitting these, the aperture of the mouth may be pretty large, 
 or somewhat smaller or very small ; which is one cause of the 
 variety of vowels ; a particular sound being produced by each 
 particular aperture. Moreover, in passing through an open 
 M:outh, the voice may be gently acted upoiij by the li|)s, or by the 
 toigue and palate, or by the tongue and throat ; whence another 
 eonrce of variety in vowel sounds. 
 
 Thus ten or twelve simple vowel sounds may be formed, agree- 
 ably to the plan in page 13 ; and the learners, by observing the 
 position of their mouth, lips, tongue, &c. when they are uttering 
 the sounds, will perceive that A^arious operations of these organs 
 of speech, are necessary to the production of the different vowel 
 rounds ; and that by minute variations they may all be distinctly 
 pronounced. 
 
 When the voice, in its passage through the mouth, is totally in- 
 tercepted, or strongly compressed, there is formed a certain modifi- 
 cation of articulate sound, which, as expressed by a character 
 in writing, is called a consonant. Silence is the effect of a total 
 interception ; and indistinct sound, of a strong colnpression ; and 
 tl erefore a consonant is not of itself a distinct articulate voice 
 an 1 its influence in varying the tones of language is not clearly 
 pel ^.oived; unless it be accompanied by an opening of the mouth, 
 that IS, by a vowel. 
 
 By making the experiment with attention, the student will per- 
 ceive 'hat each of the mutes is formed by the voice being intercept- 
 ul, by "^he lips, by the tongue and palate, or by the tongue and 
 ' 'hroat; and that the semi-vowels are formed by the same organs 
 i^rongly compressing the voice in its passage, but not totally in- 
 ttrcepting it. 
 
 The elements of language, according to the different seats 
 where they are formed, or the several organs of speech chiefly 
 concerned in their pronunciation, are divided into several classes, 
 and denominated as follows: those are called labials, which are 
 fo**med by the lips ; those denials, that are formed with the 
 *ee<^^h ; palatals, that are formed by the palate ; and nasals, that 
 ire formed by the nose. 
 
 The importance of obtaining, in early life, a clear, distinct, and 
 
 C 
 
2C ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 tI 
 
 accurate knowledge of the sounds of the iirst principles of lan- 
 guage, and a wish to lead young minds to a further considera- 
 tion of a suhject so curious and useful, have induced the com- 
 piler to bestow particular attention on the preceding part of this 
 work. Some writers think that these subjects do not propnerly 
 constitute any part of grammar ; and consider them as the ex- 
 clusive province of the spelHng-book; but if we reflect, that let- 
 ters and their sounds are the constituent principles of that art, 
 which teaches us to speak and write with propriety, and that, in 
 general, very little knowledge of their nature is acquired by the 
 spelling-book, we must admit, that they properly belong to gram 
 mar j and that a'rational consideration of these elementary prin- 
 ciples of language is an object that demands the attention of the 
 young grammarian. The sentiments of a very judicious and 
 eminent' "writer (Quinctilian) respecting this part of grammar, 
 may, perhaps, be properly introduced on the present occasion. 
 
 "Let no person despise, as inconsiderable, the elements oi 
 grammar, because it may seem to them a matter of small conse- 
 quence, to show the distinction between vowels and consonants, 
 and to divide the latter into hquids and mutes. But they who 
 penetrate into the innermost parts of this temple of science, will 
 there discover such refinement and subtility of matter, as are not 
 only proper to sharpen the understandings of young persons, but 
 sufiicient to give exercise for the most profound knowledge and 
 erudition." 
 
 The elementary sounds, under their smallest combination, pro- 
 duce a syllable ; syllables properly combined produce a word ; 
 words duly combined produce a sentence ; and sentences proper- 
 ly combined produce an Gration or discourse. Thus it is, says Ha r- 
 III s, in his Hermes, that to principles apparently so trivia! as a few 
 plain elementary sounds, we owe that variety of articulate voicesi 
 which has beencuflicient to explain the sentiments of so innume 
 rable a multitude, as all the present and past generations of men 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 OF SYLLABLES, AND THE RULES FOR ARRANGING THEM. 
 
 A SYLLABLE is a sound, either sinnple or compoimd- 
 cd, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and con- 
 stituting a word, or part of a word : as, a, an, ant 
 
 Spelling is the art of rightly dividing words into their-- 
 syllables, or of expressing a word by its proper letters. j|| 
 
 The following arc the general rules for the division of words 
 into syllables. ^ . 
 
 1 A single consonant between two vowels, must be joined to 
 the latter syllable : as, de-light, bri-dal, re-source : except the 
 letter x ; as, ex-ist, ex-amine : and except likewise words com 
 pounded ; as, up-on, un-even, dis-ease. 
 
 2 Two consooants proper to begin a word, must not be sepa- 
 
ORTIIOGHAPITY. 27 
 
 rated ; as, fa-ble, sti-jfle. But when ihey come between two 
 vowels, and are such as cannot begin a word, they must be di- 
 vi(ied ; as, ut-most, un-der, in-sect, er-ror, cof-iin. 
 
 3 When three consonants meet in the middle? of a word, if 
 they can begin a word, and the preceding vowel be pronounced 
 long, tliey are not to be separated ; as, de-throne, de-stroy. But 
 when the vowel of the preceding syllable is pronounced short, 
 one of the consonants always belongs to that syllable ; as, dis- 
 tract, dis-provc, dis-train. 
 
 4 VVhen three or four consonants, which arc not proper to 
 begin a syllable, meet between two vowels, such of them as can 
 begin a syllable belong to the latter, the rest to the former sylla- 
 ble : as, ab-stain, com-plete, em-broil, dan-dler, dap-ple, con- 
 strain, hand-some, parch-ment. 
 
 5 Two vowels, not being a diphthong, must be divided into 
 separate syllables ; as, cru-el, de-ni-al, so-ci-e-ty. 
 
 G Compounded words must be traced into the simple words 
 of which they are composed ; as, ice-house, glow-worm, over- 
 power, never-the-less. 
 
 7 Grammatical, and other particular terminations, are gene- 
 rally separated: as, teach-est, teach-eth, teach-ing, teach-er, 
 contend-est, great-er, wretch-ed ; good-ness, free-dom, false-hood. 
 
 The rules for dividing words into syllables, with the reasons in 
 support of them, are expressed at large in the author's English 
 Spelling-book, Thirteenth, or any subsequent, edition, page 210 
 —215. 
 
 CHAPTER m 
 O/* WORDS in general, and the rules /or spelling them. 
 
 WORDS are articulate sounds, used by common con- 
 sent, as signs of our ideas. 
 
 A word of one syllable i« t ? med a Monosyllable ; a word 
 of two syllables, a Di?^sy liable ; a word of three syllables, a 
 Trisyllable ; and a word of four or more i yllables, a Poly- 
 syllable. 
 
 All words are either primitive or derivative. 
 
 A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to any 
 simpler word in the language : as, man, good, content. 
 
 A derivative word is that which may be reduced to ano- 
 ther word in English of greater simplicity : as manful, 
 goodness, contentment, Yorkshire,* 
 
 i' There are many Enghsh words which, though compounds in 
 other languages, are to us primitives ; thus, circumspect, circum- 
 vent, circumstance, delude, concave, complicate, &c. primitive 
 words in English ; will be found derivatives, when traced in the 
 Latin tongue. 
 
 * A compound word is included uuderthe head of dei ivative words : as, pen- 
 knife, t«acup, looking glass ; may ^ reduced to other wo ds of greater simplicity. 
 
«^ ENGLISH GRAMIMAR. 
 
 The ori]iogrn])liy of tlie English Language is attended with 
 inucli uncertainty and perplexity. Bnt a considerable ]mrt of 
 this inconvenience may he remedied, hy attending to the general 
 laws of forinaj:ion ; and, for this end, the learner is presented with 
 a view of such general maxims in spelling prim'tive and deriva- 
 tive words, as have been almost universally received. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 Monosyllables ending with/, /, or s, preceded by a single vowel, 
 dou!)le the final consonant: as, stafl', mill, pass, &c. Tiie only 
 exceptions are, of, if, as, is, has, was, yes, his, this, us, and thus. 
 
 ROLE 11. 
 
 Monosyllables ending with any consonant but/, I, or s, and pre- 
 ceded by a single vowel, never do^ible the final consonant ; ex- 
 cepting add, ebb, butt, e}^g, odd, err, inn, bunn, purr, and buzz 
 
 RULE III. 
 
 Words ending with ?/, preceded by a consonant, form the ])hi- 
 rals of nouns, the persons of verbs, verbal nouns, past participles, 
 comparatives, and superlatives, by changing y into i : as, sj)y, 
 spies ; I carry, thou carriest ; he can*ieth, or carries ; carrier, 
 carried ; haj)py, happier, happiest. 
 
 The ])r|?sent participle in ing^ retains the t/, that i may not be 
 doid)led; as, carry, carrying ; bury, burying, &c. 
 
 Bnt ?/, preceded by a vowel, in such instances as the above, is 
 not changed ; as, boy, boys : I cloy, he cloys, cloyed, &c. ; ex- 
 ce])t in lay, pay, and say ; from which ai'^ formed, laid, paid, and 
 said ; and their compounds, unlaid, uni)aid, unsaid, &c. 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, upon assuming 
 an additional syllable beginning with a consonant, commonly 
 change y into i ; as, happy, happily, happiness. But when y i« 
 preceded by a vowel, it is very rarely changed in the additional 
 hyllal.^le ; as, coy, coyly; boy, boyish, boyhood : annoy, annoyer 
 annoyance; joy, joyless, joyful. 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 IMonosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, ending 
 with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double that 
 consonant, when they take another syllable beginning with a 
 vowel: as, wit, witty ; thin, thinnish ; to abet, an abettor; to 
 begin, a beginner. 
 
 Jhit if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is on the preceding 
 syllable, the consonant remains single : as, to toil, toiling . to ofjHj 
 fer, an offering ; maid, maiden, &c. fl 
 
 RULE VI. ^' 
 
 Words ending with any double letter but Z, and taking ??c9.?, 
 lesSf ly, or ful, after them, preserve the letter double ; as, harm 
 lessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful, distressful, 
 Ccv. j?ut those words .which end with double /, and take 7iess, Icsa, 
 (7, ur fill, after them, generally omit one I ; as fulness, skilless, 
 f::lly, skilful, i^c.j 
 
 RULE VI I. SI 
 
 JSJ'esSt lesSf iy, and/w/j added to wo/ds ending with silent e, ^^^fl 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY 2l> 
 
 not cut it of!*: as, paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful : except iu 
 a few words; as, duly, truly, awful. 
 RULE viir. 
 
 Menty added to words ending with silent c, generally preserve^ 
 the e from elision , as, abatement, chastisement, incitement, &c. 
 The words judgment, abridgment, acknowledgment, are devia- 
 tions from the rule. 
 
 Like other terminations, ?ncn^ changes!/ into I, when preceded by 
 a consonant; as, accompany, accompaniment ; merry, merriment. 
 
 RULE IX. 
 
 Able and itZe, when incorporated into words ending with silent «, 
 almost always cut it off: as, blame, blaniable ; cure, curable ; 
 sense, sensible, &c. : but if c or g- soft comes before e in the origi- 
 nal word, the e is then preserved in words compounded with 
 able ; as, change, changeable ; peace, peaceable, &c. 
 
 RULE X. 
 
 When ing or ish is added to words ending with silent c, the e 
 IS almost universally omitted : as, place, placing ; lodge, lodging , 
 slave, slavish ; prude, prudish. 
 
 RULE XI. 
 
 Words taken into composition, often drop those letters which 
 were superfluous in the simple words : as, handful, dunghil, with- 
 al, also, chilblain, foreteL 
 
 The orthography of a great number of English words is far from 
 oeing uniform, even amongst writers of distinction. Thus, ho- 
 nour and honor, inquire and enquire, negotiate and negociate, con- 
 trol and controul, expense and expence, allege and alledge, surprise 
 and surpi'ize, complete and compleat, connexion and connection^ 
 abridgment and abridgement, and many other orthographical va- . 
 nations, are to be met with in the best modern publications. 
 Some authority for deciding differences of this nature, appears 
 to be necessary: and where can we find one of equal pretensions 
 with Dr. Johnson's Dictionary ? though a few of his decisions do 
 not appear to be warranted by the principles of etymology and 
 analogy, the stable foundations of his improvements. — "As the 
 weight of truth and reason (says Nares in his " Elements of Orthoe- 
 py") is irresistible. Dr. Johnson's Dictionary has nearly fixed the) 
 external form of our language. Indeed, so convenient is it to have 
 one acknowledged standard to recur to ; so much preferable, in 
 matters of this nature, is a trifling degree of irregularity, to a 
 continual change, and fruitless pursuit of unattainable perfection ; 
 thnt it is earnestly to be hoped, that no author will henceforth, 
 on light grounds, be tempted to innovate." 
 
 This Dictionary, hovyever, contains some orthographical in- 
 consistencies, which ought to be rectified : such as, immovable^ 
 moveable, chastely chastness, feriileness fertily, sliness slyly, fear 
 lessly fearlesness^ needlessness needlesly. If these, and similar ir 
 regularities, were corrected by spelling the words analogically, 
 according to the first word in each part of the series, and agreea- 
 bly to the general- rules' of spelhng, the Dictionary would doubt- 
 less, in these respects, be improved. 
 
 C 2 
 
PART 11. 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 A General View of the Parts of Speech. 
 
 THE second part of grammar is etymology, which 
 of the different sorts of words, their various modifications, 
 and their derivation. 
 
 There are, in Enghsh, nine sorts of words, or, as they are 
 commonly called, parts of speech ; namely, the article, 
 the substantive or noun, the ad/ective, the pronoun, 
 the verb, the adverb, the preposition, the conjunction, 
 and the interjection. 
 
 1 An Article is a word prefixed to substantives, to point 
 them out, and to show how far their signification extends : 
 as, a garden, an eagle, the woman. 
 
 2 A Substantive or noun is the name of any thing that 
 exists, or of which we have any notion : as, London, man, 
 virtue, 
 
 A Substantive may, in general, be distinguished by its taking 
 an article before it, or by its making sense of itself: as, a book, 
 the sun, an apple ; temperance, industry, chastity. 
 
 3 An Adjective is a word added to a substantive, to ex- 
 press its quality : as, " An industrious man ; a virtuous wo- 
 man." 
 
 An Adjective may be known by its making sense with the ad- 
 dition of the word thing : as, a good thing ; a had thing : or of 
 any particular substantive ; as, a sweet apple, a pleasant prospect, 
 a lively boy. 
 
 4 A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid 
 the too frequent repetition of the same word : as, " The 
 man is happy ; he is benevolent ; he is useful." 
 
 5 A Verb is as word which signifies to be, to do, or to 
 SUFFER : as, " I am ; I rule^ I am ruled.'' 
 
 A Verb may generally be distinguished, by its making sense 
 with any of the personal pronouns, or the word to before it : as, 
 I wdlky he plays, they write ; or, to walk, to play, to write. 
 
 6 An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, an 
 adjective, and sometimes to another adverb, to express some 
 quality or circumstance respecting it : as, " He reads well ; 
 a truly good man ; he writes very correctly.'* « 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 3 
 
 An Adverb may be generally k?Town, by its answering to the 
 question, How? how niiicli ? when? or wJiere ? as, in the phrase 
 " He reads co7Tec%," the answer to the question, How does he 
 read ? is, correctly, 
 
 7 Prepositions serve to connect words with one another, 
 and to show the relation between them: as, " He wt nt from 
 London to York ;" "she is above disguise;" " they nre sup* 
 ported 63/ industry." 
 
 A Preposition may be known by its admitting after it a person- 
 al pronoun, in the objective case; as, with, for, to, &c. w 11 allow 
 the objective case after them ; with him, for her, to them, &c. 
 
 8 A Conjunction fs a part of speech that is chiefly used 
 to connect sentences ; so as, out of two or more sentences, 
 to make but one : it sometimes connects only words : as, 
 " Thou and he are happy, because you are good." " Two 
 and three are five." 
 
 9 Interjections are words thrown in between the parts 
 of a sentence, to express the passions or emotions of the 
 speaker: as, " O virtue ! how amiable thou art !" 
 
 The observations which have been made, to aid learners in 
 distinguishing the parts of speech from one another, may afford 
 them some small assistance ; but it will certainly be much more 
 instructive, to distinguish them by the definitions, and an accu- 
 rate knowledge of their nature. 
 
 In the following passage, all the parts of speech are exemplified , 
 1 272 5 12 3 72 85 
 
 The power of speech is a faculty peculiar to man ; and waa^ 
 57474 3 2 71 38 
 
 bestowed on him by his beneficent Creator, for the greatest and 
 
 6 3 2896654 547 
 
 most excellent uses ; but alas ! how often do we pervert it to 
 
 13 7 2 
 
 the worst of purposes ! 
 
 In the foregoing sentence, the words the, a, are articles; power, 
 speech, faculty, man, Creator .ises, purposes, are substantives ; pe- 
 culiar, beneficent, greatest, excellent, worst, are adjectives; him, his, 
 we, it, are pronouns ; is, was, bestowed, do, pervert, are verbs ; 
 most how, often, are adverbs ; of to, on, by, for, are prepositions ; 
 and, but, are conjunctions ; and alas is an interjection. 
 
 The number of the different sorts of words, or of the parts of 
 speech, has been variously reckoned by different grarnmarians. 
 Some hdve enumerated ten, making the participle a distinct part ; 
 some eight, excluding the participle, and ranking the adjective 
 under the noun ; some four, nnd others only two, (the noun and 
 the verb,) supposing the res ;o be contained in the parts of their 
 division. We have follow€ those authors, who appear to »«r^ 
 
32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 given them the most natural and intelligible distribuH jn. Some 
 remarks on the division made by the learned Uorne Tooke, are 
 contained in the first section of the eleventh chapter of etymology. 
 The interjection, indeed, seems scarcely w^orthy of being con- 
 sidered as a part of artificial language or speech, being rather a 
 branch of that natural language, which we possess in common 
 with the brute creation, and by which v/e express the sudden 
 emotions and passions that actuate our frame. But, as it is used 
 n written as well as oral language, it may, in some measure, hv 
 deemed a part of speech. It is with us, a virtual sentence, in 
 which the noun and verb are concealed under an imperfect oi 
 indigested word. — See this Chajpter^ in the octavo Grammar, 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 OF THE ARTICLES. 
 
 AN ARTICLE is a word prefixed to substantives to point 
 them out, and to show how far their signification extends ; 
 as, a garden, an eagle, the woman. 
 
 In Enghsh, there are hut two articles, a and the : a be- 
 comes an before a vowel,* and before a silent h ; as, an 
 acorn, an hour. But if the h be sounded, the a only is to 
 be used ; as, a hand, a heart, a highway. 
 
 The inattention of writers and printers to this necessary dis- 
 tinction, has occasioned the frequent use of an before h, when 
 is to be pronounced ; and this circumstance, more than any other 
 has probably contributed to that indistinct utterance, or total 
 omission, of the sound signified by this letter, which very often 
 occurs amongst readers and speakers. An horse, an husband, 
 an herald, an heathen, and many similar associations, are fre- 
 quently to be found in works of taste and merit. To remedy this 
 evil, readers should be taught to omit, in all similar cases, the 
 sound of the n, and to give the h its full pronunciation. 
 
 A or an is styled the indefinite article : it is used in a vague 
 sense, to point out one single thing of the kind, in other 
 respects indeterminate : as, " Give me a book;" /* Bring 
 me an apple." 
 
 The is called the definite article ; because it ascertains 
 what particular thing or things are meant : as, '* Give me 
 the book ;" " Bring me the apples ;" meaning some book, 
 or apples, referred to. 
 
 A substantive without any article to limit it, is generally 
 taken in its widest sense : as, " A candid temper is proper 
 for man ;" that is,.for all mankind. 
 
 * A instead of an is now used before words beginning with u long. Seo pag« 
 82, letter U, It Is also used before one,' as, many a one. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 33 
 
 The peculiar use and importance of the articles will be seen in 
 the following examples; the son of a king — the son of the i^ing 
 — a son of the king." Each of thcseithree phrases has an entire- 
 ly different meaning, through the different apphcation of the arti- 
 cles a and the, 
 
 " T]io<i art a man," is a very general and harmless position ; 
 hut, " Thou art the man," (as Nathan said to David,) is an asser- 
 tion capable of striking terror and remorse into the heart. 
 
 The article is omitted before nouns that imply the different vir- 
 tues, vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs, &c. , 
 as, " prudence is commendable ; falsehood is odious ; anger ouglu 
 Co be avoided ;" &;c. It is not prefixed to a proper name ; at, 
 •^Alexander," (because that of itself denotes a determinate indi- 
 vidual or particular thing,) except for the sake of distinguishing 
 A particular family : as, *' He is a Howard, or of the family of the 
 Howards;" or by way of eminence: as, "every man is not a 
 Newton ;" ** He has the courage of a?i Achilles:" or when some 
 noun is understood ; " We sailed down the (river) Thames, in tht 
 (tship) Britannia." 
 
 When an adj^ctife is used with the noun to which the article 
 relates, it is j^laced between the article and the noun ; as, " a 
 good man," " an agreeable woman," " the hest friend." On some 
 occasions, however, the adjective precedes a or an ,^s, ''such a 
 fiiiame," *^ as great a man as Alexander," " too careless an author." 
 The indefinite article can be joined to substantives in the singu- 
 lar number only ; the definite article may be joined also to plurals. 
 But there appears to be a remarkable exception to this rule, in 
 the use of the adjectives few and many^ (the latter chiefly with 
 the word great before it,) which, though joined wjth plural sub- 
 stantives, yet admit of the singular article a : as, a few men ; a 
 great many men. 
 
 The reason of it is manifest, from the effect which the article 
 Las in these phrases ; it means 9. small or great number collec- 
 tively taken, and therefore gives the idea of a whole, that is, of 
 unity. Thus likewise, a dozen, a score, a hundred, or a thou- 
 sand, is one v/hole number, an aggregate of many collectively 
 taken ; and therefore still retains the article a, though joined as 
 an adjective to a plural substantive ; as, a hundred years, &c. 
 
 The iiidefinite article is sometimes placed between the adjec- 
 tive many, and a singular noun: as, 
 
 "Full inany a gem of purest ray serene, 
 
 " The dark tinfathom'd caves of ocean bear: 
 " Full many afiow^r is born to blush unseen, 
 " And waste its sweetness on the desert air." 
 In these lines, the phrases, ?na7z?/ a gem and many afloioh'^ refer to 
 many gems and many flowers , separately, not collectively consi- 
 dered. 
 
 The definite article the is frequently applied to adverbs in the 
 comparative and superlative degree ; and its effect is, to mark the 
 degree the more strongly, and to define it the more precisely : aj> 
 
34 ENGLISH GRAMxMAR. 
 
 " The more I examine it, the better I like iL I like this the least 
 of any.'* See this Chapter, in the Octavo Grammar. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 OF SUBSTAJVTIFES. 
 
 SECTION I. Of Substantives in general 
 
 A SUBSTANTIVE or Noun is the name of any thing 
 that exists, or of which we have any notion : as, London^ 
 mariy virtue. 
 
 Substantives are either proper or common. 
 
 Proper names or substantives, are the names appropri- 
 ated to individuals : as, George, London, Thames. 
 
 Common names or substantives, stand for kinds contain- 
 ing many sorts, or for sorts containing many individuals 
 under them ; as, animal, man, tree, &c. 
 
 When proper names have an article annexed to them, 
 they are used as common names : as, " rle is the Cicero oi 
 his age ; he is reading the lives of the Twelve Ccesars" 
 
 Commo^^ames may also be used to signify individuals, by- 
 the addition of articles or pronouns : as, " The boy is studi- 
 ous ; that girl is discreet."* 
 
 To substantives belong gender, number, and case ; and 
 they are all of the third person when spoken of, and of 
 the second when spoken to : as, " Blessings attend us on 
 every side ; be grateful, children of men !" that is, ye chil 
 dren of men. 
 
 SECTION 11.^ Of Gender 
 
 GENDER is the distinction of nouns, with regard to sex. 
 There are three genders, the masculine, the feminine, and 
 
 NEUTER. 
 
 The Masculine Gender denotes animals of the male kind . 
 as, a man, a horse, a bull. 
 
 The Feminine Gender signifies animals of the female 
 kind : as, a woman, a duck, a hen. 
 
 The Neuter Gender denotes objects which are neither 
 males nor females : as, a field, a house, a garden. 
 
 Some substantives, naturally neuter, are, by a figure of 
 speech, converted into the masculine or feminine gender : 
 
 ♦ Nouns may also be divided into the following classes : Collective nouns, oi 
 nouns of multitude ; as, the people, the parliament, the army: Abstract nouns, 
 or the names of qualities ahstmcred from then substances; as, knowledge, good 
 oers, whiteness i Verbal or particij>ial nouns \ as, beginning, reading, writing. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 as, when we saj of llie sun, he is setting ; and of a ship, stit 
 sails well. 
 
 Figuratively, in the English tongue, we commonly give the 
 niascuhne gender tc nouns which are conspicuous for the attri- 
 butes of imparting or communicating, and which are by nature 
 strong and efficacious. Those, again, are made feminine, whicU 
 are consi>icuous for the attributes of containing or bringing forth, 
 or which are pecuharly beautiful or amiable. Upon these prin- 
 ciples, the sun is said to be masculine ; and the moon, being the 
 receptacle of the sun's light, to be feminine. The earth is gene- 
 rally feminine. A ship, a country, a city, &c. are likewise made 
 femmine, being receivers or containers. Time is always mascu- 
 line, on account of its mighty efficacy. Virtue is feminine from 
 its beauty, and its being the object of love. Fortune and the 
 church are generally put in the feminine gender. 
 
 The English language has three methods of distinguishing the 
 &€X, viz. 
 
 1. By different words: as, 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Bachelor. 
 
 Waid. 
 
 Husband. 
 
 Wife. 
 
 Hoar. 
 
 Sow, 
 
 Kinsf, 
 
 Queen, 
 
 J^oy. 
 
 Girl. 
 
 Lad: 
 
 Lass. 
 
 Brother. 
 
 Sister. 
 
 Lord. 
 
 Lady. 
 
 Buck. 
 
 Doe. 
 
 Man. 
 
 Woman. 
 
 Bull. 
 
 Cow. 
 
 Master. 
 
 Mistress. 
 
 Bullock or 
 
 ;| Heifer. 
 
 Milter. 
 
 Spawner. 
 
 Steer. 
 
 Nephew. 
 
 Niece. 
 
 Cock. 
 
 Hen. 
 
 Ram. 
 
 Ewe. 
 
 Dog. 
 
 Bitch. 
 
 Singer. 
 
 ^ Songstress or 
 i' Singer. 
 
 Drake. 
 
 Duck. 
 
 liarl. 
 
 Countess. 
 
 Sloven. 
 
 Slut. 
 
 Father. 
 
 Mother. 
 
 Son. 
 
 Daughter. 
 
 Friar. 
 
 Nun. 
 
 Stag. 
 
 Hind. 
 
 Gander 
 
 Goose. 
 
 Uncle. 
 
 Aunt. 
 
 Hart. 
 
 Roe. 
 
 Wizard. 
 
 Witch. 
 
 Horse. 
 
 Mare. 
 
 
 
 
 2. By a difference of termination: as, 
 
 Mal«. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female 
 
 Abbot. 
 
 Abbess. 
 
 Landgrave. 
 
 Landgravine. 
 
 Actor. 
 
 Actress. 
 
 Lion. 
 
 Lioness. 
 
 Adminptiratoi 
 
 . Administratri^j 
 
 ., Marquis, 
 
 Marchioness. 
 
 Adulterer. 
 
 Adultress. 
 
 Master. 
 
 Mistress. 
 
 Ambassador. 
 
 Ambassadress. 
 
 Mayor. 
 
 Mayoress. 
 
 Arbiter. 
 
 Arbitress. 
 
 Patron. 
 
 Patroness. 
 
 Baron. 
 
 Baroness 
 
 Peer. 
 
 Peeress. 
 
 Bridegroom. 
 
 Bride. 
 
 Poet. 
 
 Poetess. 
 
 Benefactor. 
 
 Benefactress. 
 
 Priest. 
 
 Priestess. 
 
 Caterer. 
 
 Cateress. 
 
 Prince. 
 
 Princess. 
 
 Chanter. 
 
 Chantress. 
 
 Prior. 
 
 Prioress. 
 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female 
 
 Conductor 
 
 Conductress. 
 
 Prophet. 
 
 ProphetCF*! 
 
 Count. 
 
 Countess. 
 
 Protector. 
 
 Protectress. 
 
 Deacon. 
 
 Deaconess. 
 
 Shepherd. 
 
 Shepherdess. 
 
 Duke. 
 
 Duchess. 
 
 Songster. 
 
 Songstress. 
 
 Elector. 
 
 Electress. 
 
 Sorcerer. 
 
 Sorceress. 
 
 Emperor. 
 
 Empress. 
 
 Sultan. 
 
 J Sultaness, or 
 \ Sultana. 
 
 Enchanter. 
 
 Enchantress. 
 
 Executor. 
 
 Executrix. 
 
 Tiger. 
 
 Tigress. 
 
 Governor. 
 
 Governess. 
 
 Traitor. 
 
 Traitress. 
 
 Heir. 
 
 Heiress. 
 
 Tutor. 
 
 Tutoress. 
 
 Hero. 
 
 Heroine. 
 
 Viscount. 
 
 Viscountess. 
 
 Hunter. 
 
 Huntre.ss. 
 
 Votary. 
 
 Votaress. 
 
 Host. 
 
 Hostess. 
 
 Widower. 
 
 Widow. 
 
 Jew. 
 
 Jewess. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 3. By a ncun, pronoun, or adjective, hem^ prefixed to the sub 
 fitantive: as, 
 
 A cock-sparrow. A hen-sparrow. 
 
 A man-servant. A maid-servant. 
 
 A he-goat. A she-goat. 
 
 A he-hear. A she-hear. 
 
 A male child. A female child. 
 
 Male descendants. Female descendants 
 
 It sometimes happens, that the same noun is either masculine 
 or feminine. The words pareni. child, cousin, friend, iieif^kbour, 
 servant, and several others, are used indifferently for males or 
 females. 
 
 Nouns with variahle terminations contrihute to conciseness and 
 perspicuity of expression. We have only a sufficient number of 
 them to make us feel our want ; for when we say of a woman, 
 si»e is a philosopher, an astronomer, a builder, a weaver, we per- 
 ceive an im])ropriety in the termination, which we cannot avoid, 
 but we can say, that she is a botanist, a student, a witness, a 
 scholar, an or])han, a companion, because these terminations 
 have not annexed to them the notion of sex. 
 
 SECTION III. OfJVumber, 
 
 NUMBER is the consideration of an object, as one or 
 
 ore. 
 
 SuTjstantivcs are of two numbers, the singular and the 
 plural. 
 
 The singular number expresses but one object ; ^s, a 
 cluair, a table. 
 
 The plural number signifies more objects than one ;«as, 
 chairs, tables. 
 
 boras liouns, from the nature of the things which they 
 •express, iie used only in the singular form; as, wheat, 
 
ETVMOLO<JY. 37 
 
 pitch, gold, sloth, pride, &c. ; others, only in the plural form; 
 as, bellows, scissors, lungs, riches, &c. 
 
 Some words arc the same in both numbers ; as, Jeer, 
 fiheep, swine, &;c. 
 
 The plural number of nouns is generally formed by add- 
 ing s to the singular : as, dove, doves ; face, faces ; thought, 
 thoughts. But when the substantive singular ends in x, 
 ch soft, sh, ss, or s, we add es in the plural : as, box, boxes ; 
 church, churches ; lash, lashes ; kiss, kisses ; rebus, rebusses. 
 tf the singular ends in ch hard, the plural is formed by ad- 
 ding 5; as, monarch, monarchs ; distich, distichs. 
 
 Nouns which end in 0, have sometimes es, added to the plural ; 
 as, cargo, echo, hero, negro, manifesto, potato, volcano, wo: and 
 sometinies only s ; as, fbho, nuncio, punctilio, seraglio. 
 
 Nouns ending in /, or/e, are rendered plural by the change of 
 those terminations into vts : as, loaf, loaves ; half, halves ; wife, 
 wives : excep.t grief, relief, reproof, and several others, whict 
 form the plural by the addition of 5. Those which end in^, have 
 the regular })hiral : as, ruff, ruffs ; except, staff, staves. 
 
 Nouns which have y in the singular, with no other vowel in 
 !he same syllable, cliiinge it into ies in the plural: as, beauty, 
 beauties ; fly. Hies. But the 1/ is not changed, when there is ano- 
 ther vowel in the syllable : as, key, keys; delay, delays; attor** 
 iiey, attorneys. 
 
 Some nouns become plural by changing the a of the singuleur 
 into e: as, man, men; woman, women; alderman, aldermen. 
 The words, ox and child, form oxen and children ; brother, 
 makes either brothers, or brethren. Sometimes the diphthong 
 00 is changed into ee in the plural; as, foot, feet; goose, geese; 
 tooth, teeth. Louse and mouse make lice and mice. Penny 
 uudces pence, or pennies, when the coin is meant : die, dice (for 
 play ;) die, dies (for coining.) 
 
 It is agreealile to analogy, and the practice of the generality of 
 correct writers, to construe the following words as plural nouns ; 
 pains, riches, alms: and also, mathematics, metaphysics, politics^ 
 ethics, optics, pneumatics, with other similar names of sciences. 
 
 Dr. Johnson says that the adjective much is sometimes a tenn 
 of number, as well as of quantity. This may account for the in- 
 stances we meet with of its associating with pains as a plural 
 noun : as, " much pains." The connexion, however, is not to be 
 recommended. 
 
 The word iiews is now almost universally considered as be- 
 longing to the singular number. 
 
 The noun means is used both in the singular and the plural 
 number. 
 
 The following words, which have been adopted from the He- 
 Drew, Greek, and Latin languages, are thus distinguished, with 
 respect to number. 
 
S8 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Fiuial. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural A 
 
 Cherub. 
 
 Cherubim. 
 
 Datum. 
 
 Data. j 
 
 Seraph. 
 
 Seraphim. 
 
 Effluvium. 
 
 Effluvia. 
 
 Antithesis. 
 
 Antitheses, 
 
 Encomium. 
 
 J Encomia, or 
 \ Encomiums. ^ 
 
 Automaton. 
 
 Automata. 
 
 Basis, 
 
 Bases. 
 
 EiTatum. 
 
 Errata. 
 
 Crisis. 
 
 Crises. 
 
 Genius 
 
 Genii.^ 
 
 Criterion. 
 
 Criteria. 
 
 Genus. 
 
 Genera. , 
 
 Direresis. 
 p]nipsis. 
 
 Diasreses. 
 EHipses. 
 
 Index. 
 
 \ Indices or 
 I Indexes.f 
 
 Emphasis. 
 
 Emphases. 
 
 Lamina. 
 
 Laminae. j 
 
 Hypothesis. 
 
 Hypotheses. 
 
 Medium. 
 
 Media. i 
 
 MetaiT?orpi\o»is. Metamorphoses.Magus. 
 
 Magi. i 
 
 Phoenomenon 
 
 . Phaenomena. - 
 
 Memoran- 
 
 \ 1 Memoranda or 
 i Memorandums. 
 
 Appendix. 
 
 ^ Appendices or 
 \ Appendixes. 
 
 dum. 
 
 Radius. 
 
 Radii. 
 
 Arcanum. 
 
 Arcana. 
 
 Stameii. 
 
 Stamina. 
 
 Axis. 
 
 Axes. 
 
 Stratum. 
 
 Strata. 
 
 Calx. 
 
 Calces. 
 
 Vortex. 
 
 Vortices, 
 
 Some words, derived from the learned languages, are confined 
 to the plural number: as, antipodes, credenda, literati, minutiiB. 
 
 The following nouns being, in Latin, both singular and plural, 
 are used in the same manner when adopted into our tongue: 
 hiatus, apparatus, series, species. 
 
 SECTION IV. Of Case. 
 
 In English, substantives have three cases, the nominative, 
 the possessive, and the objective.^ 
 
 The nominative case simply expresses the name of a 
 thins:, or the subject of the verb : as, " The boy plays ;" 
 "■ The girls learn." 
 
 The possessive case expresses the relation of property or 
 possession ; and has an apostrophe with the letter s coming 
 after it : as, " The scholar's duty ;" " My father's house." 
 
 When the plural ends in s, the other s is omitted, but the 
 apostrophe is retained: as, "on eagles' wings;" "The 
 drapers' company.'* 
 
 Sometimes, also, when the singular terminates in ss, thedl 
 apostrophic s is not added : as, " For goodness' sake ;* ^1 
 " For righteousness' sake." 
 
 The objective case expresses the object of an action, oroij 
 a relation ; and generally follows a verb active, or a prepo^ 
 sition : as, " John assists Charles;" " They live in London. 
 
 * Genii, when denoting atrial spirits : Geniuses, when signifying pRrsons of geniu 
 f Indexes, when it signifies pointers, or Tables of coatents: Indices^ wUen re| 
 
 ferriiigto Algebraic quantities. 
 
 t The poi>s.csbive is sometimes called tlic genitive case ; and the o])jeclive, th 
 
 accusaij'.^e. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 English substantives are declined in the following manner : 
 
 Kominativc Case. 
 Possessive Vase. 
 Objective Case. 
 Jfoniinaiive Case. 
 Possessive Case. 
 Objective Case. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 A mother. Mothers. 
 
 A mother's. Mothers', 
 
 A mother. Mothers. 
 
 The man. The men. 
 
 "J'he man's. The men's. 
 
 The man. The men, 
 
 Tlie English language, to express different connexjoiLs and re- 
 lations of one thing to another, uses, for the most part, preposi- 
 tions. The Greek and Latin among the ancient, and some too 
 among the modern languages, as the Gorman, vary the termina- 
 tion or endmg of the substantive, to answer ihe same purpose; 
 an example of which, in the Latin, is inserted, as explanatory of 
 the nature and use of cases, viz. 
 
 Suigiilar. 
 ♦Vo min at ive* D o yi i n u s, 
 
 Genitive. D o ]\i i m , 
 
 Dative. Domino, 
 
 Accusative. D o m i n u xU, 
 
 Vocative, 1) o bh n e , 
 
 Mlative^ Do Ml. NO, 
 
 PluiaL 
 JsTominative. Domini, 
 
 Genitive. D o ai i n o R u m , 
 
 Dative, Do min is, 
 
 Accusative. Domino s, 
 
 Vocative. Domini, 
 
 ^ Ablative. D o m i n i s. 
 
 Some writers think, that the relations signified by the addition 
 of articles and prepositions to the noun, may properly be de-, 
 nomiivated cases, in English ; and that, on this i)rinciple, there 
 are, in our language, as many cases as in tlie Latin tongue.' But 
 to this mode of forming cases for our substantives, there are strong 
 objections. It would, indeed, be a formal and useless arrange • 
 ment of nouns, articles, and prepositions. If an arrangement of 
 this nature were to be <xjnsidered as consntuting cases, the Eng- 
 lish language would have a much greater number of them than 
 the Greek and Latin tongues: for, as every preposition has its 
 distinct meaning and effect, every combination of a preposition • 
 aiid article with the noun would form a different relation, and 
 would constitute a distinct case. — This would encumber our lan- 
 guage with many new terms, and a heavy and useless load of 
 distinctions.* 
 
 * If cases are to be distinguished by tlie different significations of the noun, or 
 by the different relations it may bear to the c;overning word, then we have in our 
 language as many casos almost, as tliere are prepositions : and above a mau, 
 beneath a man, beyond a miin, round about a man, within a man, without a 
 W5l»i &c. shall be eases, as well as, of a man, to a man, au'd with a man." 
 
 />- BeaiiU, 
 
 A Lord. 
 
 Lord^'s^ of a Lord- 
 To a Lor(L 
 A Lord^ 
 O Lord.. 
 By a Lord, 
 
 Lords, 
 
 Lords', of Lords, 
 
 To Lords, 
 
 Lords, 
 
 O Lords. 
 
 By Lords. 
 
40 ' ENGLISH GRAMxMAR. 
 
 On tlie principle of nnjtating other languages in names fn^^ 
 forms, without a correspondence in nature anil idiom, we might 
 adopt a number of declensions, as well as a variety of cases, for 
 English substantives. Thus, live or six declensions, distinguished 
 according to the various modes of forming the plural of substan 
 tives, with at least half a dozen cases to each declension, would 
 furnish a complete arrangement of English nouns, in all their 
 trappings. See on this subject, the fifth and tmiih seciion.t of thr 
 sixth chapter of etymology. 
 
 But though this variety of casesdoes not at all correspond with 
 the idiom of our language, there seems to be great propriety ii\ 
 admitting a case in English substantives, which shall serve to de- 
 note the objects of active verbs and of prepositions; and which is, 
 therefore, properly termed the objective case. The general idea 
 of case doubtless has a reference to the termination of the nonn : 
 but there are many instances, both in Greek and Latin, in which 
 the nominative and accusative cases have precisely the same 
 form, and are distinguished only by the relation they bear to 
 other words in the sentence. We are therefore warranted, by 
 analogy, in applying this principle to our own language, as far as 
 jtility, and the idiom of it, will admit. Now it is obvious, that in 
 English, a noun governed by an active verb, or a preposition, is 
 very differently circumstanced, from a noun in the nominative, 
 or in the possessive case ; and that a comprehensive case, cor- 
 respondent to that difference, must be useful and proper. The 
 business of parsing, and of showing the connexion and depend- 
 ence of words, will be most conveniently accomplished, by the 
 adoption of such a case ; and the irregularity of having our nouns 
 sometimes placed in a situation, in which they cannot be said to 
 be in any case at all, will be avoided. 
 
 The author of this work long doubted the propriety of assign 
 ing to English substantives an objective case: but a renewed, 
 critical examination of the subject, an examination to which he 
 was prompted by the extensive and increasing demand for the 
 grammar, has produced in his mind a full persuasion, that th» 
 nouns of our language are entitled to this comprehensive objce 
 tive case. 
 
 When the thing to which another is said to belong, is express 
 ed by a circumlocution, or by many terms, the sign of the posses 
 sive case is commonly added to the last term : as, " The king of 
 Great Britain's dominions." 
 
 Sometimes, though rarely, two nouns in the possessive oaf*e 
 immediately succeed each other, in the following form: "My 
 friend's wife's sister ;" a sense which would be better expressed 
 by saying, " the sister of my friend's wife ;" or, " my friend's si;? 
 ter-in-law." Some grammarians say, that in each of the follow 
 ing phrases, viz. "A book of my brother's," '* A servant of tho 
 queen's," "A soldier of the king's," there are two genitive cascn; 
 the first phrase implying, " cue of the bool^s of my brother^" l^H* 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 41 
 
 next, "one of the servants of the queen ;" and the last, "one of 
 the soMiers of the king." But as the preposition governs the ob- 
 jective case ; and as there are not, in each of these sentences, 
 two apostrophes with the letter s coming after them, we cannot 
 with propriety say, that there ai'e two genitive cases. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 OF ADJECTIVES, 
 
 SECTION L Of the nature of Adjectives, and the degrees of 
 
 compamsan. 
 
 An Adjective is a word added to a substantive, to ex- 
 press its quality : as, '' An industrious man ;" " A virtuous 
 woman ;" " A benevolent mind." 
 
 In English, the adjective is not varied on account of gen- 
 der, number, or case. Thus we saj, *' A careless boy ; 
 careless girls." 
 
 The only variation which it admits, is that of the degrees 
 of comparison. 
 
 There are commonly reckoned three degrees of compari- 
 son ; the POSITIVE, the comparative, and the superlative. 
 
 Grammarians have generally enun erated these three de- 
 grees of comparison ; but the first of them has been thought by 
 some writers, to be, improperly, termed a degree of comparison ; 
 as it seems to be nothing more than the simple form of the ad- 
 jective, and not to imply either comparison or degree. This 
 opinion may be well founded, unless the adjective be supposed 
 to imply comparison or degree, by containing a secrot or general 
 reference to other things : as, when we say, " he is a tall man," 
 *' this is a /air day,'* we make some reference to the ordinary 
 size of men, and to different weather. 
 
 The Positive state expresses the quality of an object, 
 without any increase or diminution : as, good, wise, great. 
 
 The Comparative Degree increases or lessens the posi- 
 tive in signiiication : as, wiser, greater, less wise. 
 
 The Superlative Degree increases or lessens the positive 
 to the highest or lowest degree : as, wisest, greatest, least 
 wise. 
 
 The simple word, or positive, becomes the comparative, 
 by adding r or er; and the superlative, by adding 5f or e^^, to 
 the end of it : as, wise, wiser, wisest, great, greater, greatest. 
 And the adverbs more and most, placed before the adjec- 
 tive, have the same effect : as, wise, more wise, most wise. 
 
 The termination ish may be accounted in some sort a degree 
 of comparison, by which the signification is diminished below th« 
 D2 
 
42 ENGLISH OIIAMMAK. 
 
 positive : ^is, hlacfr, blackish, or tending to Ulackness ; salt, sallisJk, 
 or having a little taste of'^jalt. 
 
 The word rather is very properly used to express a small degree 
 or excess of a quality : as, " she is leather profuse in her expenses.** 
 
 Monosyllables, for the most part, are compared by e?- and est ; 
 and dissyllables by more and most: as, mild, milder, mildest ; fru- 
 gal, more frugal, most frugal. Dissyllables ending in y ; a«, 
 ^^PPy? lovely ; and in le after a mute, as, able, ample ; or accent- 
 ed on the last syllable, as, discreet, polite ; easily admit of cr and 
 est: as, happier, happiest ; abler, ablest ; politer, politest. Words 
 of more than two syllables hardly ever admit of those terminations. 
 
 In some words the superlative is formed by adding tUe adverb 
 most to the end of them ; as, nethermost, uttermost, or utmost, 
 undermost, uppermost, foremost. 
 
 In English, as in most languages, there are some words of 
 very common use, (in which the caprice of custom is apt to get 
 the better of analogy,) that are irregular in this respect: as» 
 ■*good, better, best; bad, worse, worst; little, less, least ; much or 
 many, more, most ; near, nearer, nearest or next : late, later, late»?t 
 or last ; old, older or elder, oldest or eldest ;" and a few others. 
 
 An adjective put without a substantive, with the definite ar- 
 ticle before it, becomes a substantive in sense and meaning, and 
 is written as a substantive ; as, " Providence rewards the good, 
 and punishes the bad.^^ 
 
 Various nouns placed before other nouns assume the nature o. 
 adjectives ; as, sea fish, wine vessel, corn field, meadow ground, &c. 
 
 Numeral adjectives are either cardinal, or ordinal : cardinal, aa, 
 one, two, three, &c. ; ordinal, as, first, second, third, &c. 
 
 SECTION II. Remarks on the subject of Comparison, 
 IF we consider the subject of comparison attentively, we shall 
 perceive that the degrees of it are infinite in number, or at least 
 indefinite. — A mountain is larger than a mite ; — by how many 
 degrees ? How much bigger is the earth than a grain of sand ? 
 By how many degrees was Socrates wiser than Alcibiades ? or by 
 how many is snow whiter than this paper ? It is plain, that to 
 these and the like questions, no definite answers can be returned. 
 In quantities, however, that may be exactly measured, the de- 
 grees of excess may be exactly ascertained. A foot is just twelve! 
 limes as long as an inch ; and an hour is sixty times the lengtlfl 
 of a minute. But, in regard to qualities, and to those quantities 
 ■which cannot be measured exactly, it is impossible to say howl 
 many degrees may be comprehended in the comparative excess*! 
 But though these degrees are infinite or indefinite in fact, thej^l 
 cannot be so in language ; nor would it be convenient, if lan-»l 
 ghage were to express many of them. In regard to unmeasuredl 
 quantities and qualities, the degrees of more and less, (besideaj 
 those marked above,) may be expressed intelligibly, at least, ill 
 not accurately, by certain adverbs, or words of like import : as,i 
 •* Socrates was rtiuch wiser than Alcibiades ;" "Snow is a great 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 43 
 
 dettl n hiinr il .in tltis pa})er ;" " Epaminonda* was hyfnr tlin !no5t 
 McoompliHhfMl of the Thebans ;" " Tl:e evening star 13 a vtry 
 5j)lciRlitl ol)ject, but cbe sun is incomparably more splendid ;" 
 " The Dcitv is injinitdy greater than the greatest of his crea- 
 tin-es." The inaccuracy of tijcse, and the hke expressions, \s 
 not a material inconvenience ; and, if it were, it is unavoidable: 
 for hninan speecli can only express human thought; and where 
 thought is necessarily inaccurate, language must be so too. 
 
 When the word very^ exceedingly^ or any other of similar ini 
 port, is put before the positive, it is called by some writers tiie 
 Ruperlative of eminence, to distinguish it from the other srperla- 
 tire, which has been already mentioned, and is called the super- 
 lative of comparison. Thus, Vivy eloquent^ is termed the super- 
 lative of eminence ; most eloquent, the superlative of comparison. 
 In the superlative of eminence, something of comparison is, how- 
 ever, remotely or indirectly intimated ; for we cannot reasona- 
 bly call a man very eloquent, without comparing his eloquence 
 with the eloquence of other men. 
 
 The comparative may be so employed, as to express the same 
 pre-eminence or inferiority as the superlative. Thus, ihe sen- 
 tence, "Of all acquirements, virtue is the most valuable ^''^ con- 
 veys th(j same sentiment as the following: ** Virtue is more 
 Vfiluahle than every other acquirement." 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 OF PROJVOUjVS, 
 A Pronoun Is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid 
 the too frequent repetition of the same word : as, " Tlie 
 man is happy , he is benevolent ; he is useful." 
 
 There are three kinds of pronouns, viz. the tersoxal 
 the RELATIVE, and the adjective pronouns. 
 
 SECTION I. 0/ the Personal Pronouns. 
 
 There are iivc Personal Pronouns, viz. /, t/ion, he, she, 
 it ; with their plurals, we\ ye, or i/ou, they. 
 
 Personal pronouns admit of person, number, gender, 
 and case. 
 
 The persons of pronouns are three in each number, viz. 
 
 /, is the first person ) 
 
 Iliou, is the second person > Singular. 
 
 He, she, or it, is the third person 3 
 
 fVe, is the first person 1 
 
 Ye or you, is the second person > Plural. 
 
 They, is the thii*d person j 
 
 This account of persons wiil be very intelligible, when we re- 
 flcjct, that there are three persons who may be the subject of any 
 discouraie : firBt, the person wlio speaks, may speak of liisiiseif , 
 
44 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 m 
 
 Kecondly, he may speak of the person to whom he addresses him- 
 self; thirdly, he may speak of some other person: and as the 
 speakers, the persons spoken to, and the other persons spoken 
 of, may be many, so each of these persons must have the pli 
 ral number- 
 
 I 
 
 The numbers of pronouns, like those of substantives, 
 are two, the singular and the plural : as, /, ihou, he, we, ye 
 or you, they. 
 
 Gender has respect only to the third person singular 
 of the pronouns, he, she, it. He is masculine; she is femi- 
 nine ; it is neuter. 
 
 The persons speaking and spoken to, being at the same time 
 the subjects of the discourse, are supposed to be present ; from 
 which, and other circumstances, their sex is fcommonly known, 
 and needs not to be marked by a distinction of gender in the 
 pronouns : but the third person, or thing spoken of, being absent, 
 and in many respects unknown, it is necessary that it should be 
 marked by a distinction of gender ; at least when some particu 
 lar person or thing is i^poken of, that ought to be more distinctly 
 marked : accordingly tlie pronoun singular of the third per 
 son has the three genders, he, she, it. 
 
 Pronouns have three cases ; the nominative, the pos- 
 sessive, and the objective. 
 
 The objective case of a pronoun has, in general, a form differ- 
 ent from that of the nominative, or the possessive case. 
 
 The personal pronouns are thus declined : 
 
 Person. 
 
 Case. 
 
 First. 
 
 Nom, 
 
 
 Poss, 
 
 
 Obj, 
 
 Second. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 
 Poss. 
 
 
 Obj. 
 
 Third. 
 
 Kom, 
 
 Mas, 
 
 Poss 
 Obj. 
 Nom. 
 
 Third, 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Poss, 
 
 Obj, 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Third. 
 
 KtiUer, 
 
 Poss. 
 
 
 Obj, 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 I. 
 
 We. 
 
 Mine. 
 
 Oars. 
 
 Me. 
 
 Us. 
 
 Thou. 
 
 Ye or you 
 
 Thine. 
 
 Yours. 
 
 Thee. 
 
 You. 
 
 He. 
 
 They. 
 
 His. 
 
 Theirs. 
 
 Him. 
 
 Them. 
 
 She. ) 
 Hers. 5 
 
 They. 
 
 Theirs. 
 
 Her. 
 
 Them ' 
 
 It. 
 
 They ' 
 
 Its. 
 
 Theirs 
 
 It. 
 
 Them. 
 
ErY3I0L0(j;Y 45 
 
 SECTION II. Of tht Relative Pronouns. 
 
 Relative Pronouns are such as relate in general, to 
 some word or phrase going before, wliich is thence called 
 the antecedent : thej are, who, which, and that : as, ** The 
 man is happy who hyes virtuously.' * 
 
 What is a kind of compound relative, including both the 
 antecedent and the relative, and is mostly equivalent to 
 that lohich : as, " This is what I wanted ;" that is to say, 
 *' the thing which I wanted." 
 
 WJio is applied to persons, which to animals and inani- 
 mate things : as, " He is Si friend, who is faithful in adver- 
 sity ;" *' The bird, which sung so sweetly, is flown ;" " This 
 is the tree, which produces no fruit." 
 
 That, as a relative, is often used to prevent the too frequent 
 repetition of who and zohich. It is applied to both persons 
 and things : as, " He that acts wisely deserves praise ;" 
 " Modesty is a quality that highly adorns a woman." 
 
 Who is of both numbers, and is thus declined : 
 
 Singular and Plural. 
 
 Nominatize, Who. 
 
 Possessive, Whose. 
 
 Objective, Whom. 
 
 Jfhichy that, and what, sue likewise of both numbers, but tney 
 do not vary their termination ; except that whose is sometimes 
 used as the possessive case of which : as, " Is there any other 
 doctrine whose followers are punished .^" 
 
 " And the fruit 
 
 Of that forbidden tree whose mortal taste 
 
 Brought death." MILT029. 
 
 " Pure the joy without allay, 
 
 Whose very rapture is tranquillity." TOUNO. 
 
 "The lights and shades, whose well accorded strife 
 Gives all the strength and colour of our life." pope. 
 " This is one of the clearest characteristics of its being a reli- 
 gion whose origin is divine." blair. 
 By the use of this license, one word is substiuited for three : 
 as, "Philosophy, whose end is to instruct us in the knowledge of 
 nature," for, " Philoso[)hy, the end of which is to instruct us," &c. 
 JfTiOyWhich, and whatj have sometimes the w^ords soever and ever 
 annexed to them; as, ^^ whosoever or whoever, whichsoever or 
 whichever, whatsoever or whatever ;" but they are seldom used in 
 modern style. 
 
 ♦ Thfs relative pronoun, when used interrogatively, relates to a word or 
 phrase which is not unteeeJenty but ^ubseo^ucni, to tJie relative. See uo^e under 
 Uie VI. auleofSynta.\, 
 
46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 The word that is sometimes a relative, sometimes a demon- 
 strative pronoun, and sometimes a conjunction. It is a relative^ 
 when it may be turned into who or which without destroying the 
 sense : as, " They that (who) reprove us, may be our best friends ;" 
 *' From every thing that (which) you see, derive instruction." It 
 is a demonstrative pronoun when it is followed immediately by 
 a substantive, to which it is either joined, or referS; and which il 
 limits or quaUfies : as, ^' That boy is industrious ;" " Thathelongs 
 to me ,'* meaning, that book, that desk, &c. It is a conjunction, 
 when it joins sentences together, and cannot be turned into who 
 or which, without destroying the sense : as, *' Take care that every 
 Jay be well employed." " I hope he will beheve that I have not 
 .icted improperly." 
 
 Who, which, and ivhat, are called Inten-ogatives, when they are 
 dsed in asking questions ; as, " fVho is he .^" " Which is the book ?" 
 ^* What art thou doing ?" 
 
 Whether was formerly made use of to signify interrogation : as, 
 ** Whether of these shall I choose ?" but it is now seldom used, the 
 interrogative whith being substituted for it. Some grammari- 
 ans think that the use of it should be revived, as, like either and 
 neither, it points to the dual number ; and would contribute to 
 render our expressions concise and definite. 
 
 Some writers have classed the interrogatives as a separate kind 
 of pronouns ; but they are too nearly related to the relative pro- 
 nouns, both in nature and form, to render such a division pro- 
 per. They do not, in fact, lose the character of relatives, 
 when they become interrogatives. The only dijfference is, that 
 tmthout an interrogation, the relatives have reference to a sub- 
 ject which is antecedent, definite, and known ; ivith an interro- 
 gation, to a subject which is subsequent, indefinite, and unknown, 
 and which it is expected that the answer should express and as 
 certain. 
 
 SECTION III. Of the Adjective Pronouns. 
 
 Adjective Pronouns are of a mixed nature, participating 
 the properties both of pronouns and adjectives. 
 
 The adjective pronouns may be subdivided into four 
 sorts, namely, the possessive^ the distributive^ the demon- 
 strative, and the indefinite. 
 
 1 The possQ^sive are those which relate to possession 
 or property. There are seven of them ; viz. m-^, thy, his, 
 her, our, your, their. W\ 
 
 Mine and thine, instead oCmy and thy, were foi-m^rly used I»^' 
 fore a substantive, or adjective, beginning with a vowel, or a si- 
 lent h: as, "Blot out all mine iniquities.'' 
 
 The pronounS; his, viine, thine, have the same form, whether 
 they are possessive pronouns, or tlie ])08sessive cases of th eir r<a 
 gpectivo personal pronouns. Spe note to RuIq |0, 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 47 
 
 A few exami)les will probably assist the learner, to distinguish 
 the possessive pronouns from the genitive cases of their corres- 
 pon(ient personal jironouns. 
 
 The follovving sentences exemplify the possessive pronouns. — 
 "jW?/ lesson is finished; Thy hooks are defaced; He loves his 
 studies ; She performs her duty ; We own oiw faults ; Your situa- 
 tion is distressing ; I admire their virtues." 
 
 The following are examples of the possessive cases of the per- 
 sonal pronouns. — "This desk is mine; the other is thine; These 
 trinkets are his ; those are hers ; This house is owr^, and that is 
 yours ; Theirs is very commodious." 
 
 Some grammarians consider its as a possessive pronoun. 
 
 The two words own and self, are used in conjunction v^^ith pro- 
 nouns. Own is added to possessives, both singular and plural: 
 as, ^^ My own hand, our oivn house." It is emphatical, and im- 
 plies a siient contrariety or op])osition : as, " I live in my own 
 iioHse," that is, " not in a hired house." Self is added to posses- 
 sives ; as, myself yourselves ; and sometinies to personal pro- 
 nouns : as, himself] itself themselves. It then, like own, expresses 
 emphasis and ojjposition : as, "I did this myself," that is, "not 
 pnother;" or it forms a reciprocal pronoun: as, " We hurt our- 
 h' "Ives by vain rage." 
 
 Himself ihemselveSj are now used in the nominative case, in- 
 r>tead of hisself theirselves ; as, " He came himself;" " He hiwi- 
 self shall do this;" "They performed it themselves." 
 
 2 The distributive are those which denote the persons 
 or tilings that make up a number, as taken separately and 
 singly. They are each, cxery, either : as, *' Each of his 
 brothers is in a favourable situation ;" " Every man must 
 account for himself;" " I have not seen either of them.'* 
 
 Each relates to two or niore persons or things, and signifies 
 either of the two, or every one of any number taken separately. 
 
 Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies each 
 one of them all taken separately. This pronoun was formerly 
 used apart from its noun, but it is now constantly annexed to it, ex- 
 cept iiv legal proceedings; as in the phrase, "all andeueri/ of them.** 
 
 Either relates to two persons or things taken separately, and 
 signifies the one or the other. To say, "either of the three," is 
 therefore improper. 
 
 JVeither imports " not either ;" that is, not one nor the other : as, 
 'Neither of my friends was there." 
 
 3 The demonstrative are those which precisely point out 
 the subjects to which they relate : this and that, these and 
 those, are of this class : as, " This is true charity ; that is 
 only its image." 
 
 This refers to the nearest person or thing, and that to the 
 most distant : as, " This man is more intelligent than that,*' 
 
formJl 
 rty afll 
 
 48 ENGLISH GRAM3IAR. 
 
 This indicates the latter or last mentioned ; thai, the for 
 or first mentioned : as, " Both wealth and poverty 
 temptations; that, tends to excite pride, this, discontent." 
 Perhaps the words former and latter may be properly ranked 
 amongst the demonstrative pronouns, especially in many of 
 their applications. The following sentence may serve as an ex- 
 ample : " It was happy for the state, that Fabius continued in 
 the command with Minucius : the former^s phlegm was a check 
 upon the latter^s vivacity." 
 
 4 The indefinite are those which express their subjects 
 in an indefinite or general manner. The following are of 
 this kind : some, other, any, one, all, such, &c. 
 
 Of these pronouns, only the words one and other are raried 
 One has a possessive case, which it forms in the sam<e manner 
 as substantives: as, one^one^s. This word has a general signifi- 
 cation, meaning people at large ; a. id sometimes also a peculiar 
 reference to the person wno is speaking : as, " One ought to pity 
 the distresses of mankiud." " One is apt to love one'*s self." 
 ' This word is often used, by good writers, in the plural number: 
 as, " The great ones of the world ;" " The boy wounded the oW 
 bird, and stole the young ones ;^^ " My wife and the little on4 
 are in good health." 
 
 Other is declined in the following manner : 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Nom. Other Others 
 
 Poss* Other^s Others^ 
 
 Obj. Other Others. 
 
 The plural others is onl}^ used when apart from the noun to 
 which it refers, whether expressed or understood : as, " When 
 you have perused these papers, I will send you the others.^^ ** He 
 pleases some, but he disgusts others.^"* When this pronoun is 
 joined to nouns, either singular or plural, it has no variation : as, 
 " the other man," " the other men." 
 
 The following phrases may serve to exemplify the indefinite 
 pronouns. ^^ Some of you are wise and good ;" "A few of them 
 were idle, the othej's industrious ;" " Neither is there any that is 
 imexceptionable ;" " One ought to know one''s own mind •," " They 
 were all present;" " Such is the state of man, that he is never at 
 rest ;" " Some are happy, while others are miserable," 
 
 The word another is composed of the indefinite article prefixed 
 to the word other, 
 
 JVone is used in both numbers : as, " JVone is so deaf as he that 
 will not hear ;" " JVone of those are equal to these." It seems 
 originally to have signified, according to its derivation, not one, 
 and therefore to have had no plural ; but there is good authority 
 for the use of it in the plural number : as, " JVone that go unto 
 her return again." Prov. ii. 19. "Terms of peace were none 
 vouck-^rd." MILTON. "Abne of them are varied to express the 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 49 
 
 fender." " N'one of tlieni /?/7ue different endings for the numbers. ** 
 .owth's Introduction. " Ab?ie of their productions are extant.'- 
 Blair. 
 
 We have endeavoured to explain the nature of the adjective 
 pronouns, and to distinguish and arrange them intelhgibly : but 
 it is difficult, perhaps im])racticahle, to define and divide them in 
 a manner perfectly unexceptionable. Some of them, in particu- 
 lar, may seem to require a different arrangement. We presume 
 however, that, for every useful })urpose, the present classification 
 is sufHciently correct. All the pronouns, except the personal and 
 relative, may indeed, in a general view of them, be considered as 
 definitive pronouns, because they define or ascertain the extent of 
 the common name, or general term, to which they refer, or are 
 joined ; but as each class of them does this, more or less exactly^ 
 or in a manner peculiar to itself, a division adapted to this cir- 
 cumstance appears to be suitable to the nature of things, and the 
 understanding of learners. 
 
 It is the opinion of some respectable grammarians, that the 
 words thiSf that, any, some, such, his, their, our, &c. are pronouns, 
 when they are used separately from the nouns to w^hich they re- 
 late ; but that, when they are joined to those nouns, they are not 
 to be considered as belonging to this species of words ; because, 
 in this association, they rather ascertain a substantive, than sup- 
 ply the place of one. They assert that, in the phrases, " give me 
 that,^^ "i/it5 is John's," and ^^ such were some of you," the words 
 in italics are pronouns ; but that, in the following phrases, they 
 are not pronouns ; " this book is instructive," " some boys are in- 
 genious," "mi/ health is declining," " owr hearts are deceitful," &c. 
 Other grammarians think, that all these words are pure adjec- 
 tives ; and that none of them can properly be called pronouns; 
 as the genuine pronoun stands by itself, without the aid of a 
 noun expressed or understood. They are of opinion, that in the 
 expressions, " Give me that," " this is John's," &c. the noun is 
 always understood, and must be supplied in the mind of the 
 reader: as, "Give me that book ;^^ ^Hhis book is John's;" " and 
 such persons were some persons amongst you." 
 
 Some writers are of opinion that the pronouns should be classed 
 into substantive and adjective pronouns. Under the former, they 
 include the personal and the relative ; under the latter, all the 
 others. But this division, though a neat one, does not appear to 
 be accurate. All the relative pronouns will not range imder the 
 substantive head. — We have distributed these parts of grammar, 
 in the mode which we think most correct and intelligible : but, 
 for the information of students, and to direct their inquiries on 
 the subject, we state the different opinions of several judicious 
 grammarians. See the Octavo Grammar on these points. 
 
 E 
 
50 ENGLISH GRAM3IAR. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 OF VERBS. 
 
 SECTION I. Of the nature of Verbs in general. 
 
 A VERB is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to sur- 
 FER ; as, ** I am, I rule, I am ruled." 
 
 Verbs are of three kinds ; active, passive, and neuter 
 They are also divided,into regular, irregular, and de- 
 fective. 
 
 A Verb Active expresses an action, and necessarily im- 
 plies an agent, and an object acted upon : as, to love ; ** I 
 love Penelope." 
 
 A Verb Passive expresses a passion or a suffering or 
 the receiving of an action ; and necessarily implies an ob- 
 ject acted upon, and an agent by which it is acted upon : 
 as, to be loved ; " Penelope is loved by me." 
 
 A Verb Neuter expresses neither action nor passion, but 
 being, or a state of being : as, " I am, I sleep, I sit."* 
 
 The verb active is also called transitive, because the action 
 passes over to the object, or has an effect upon some other thing: 
 as, "The tutor instructs his pupils ;" " I esteem the man." 
 
 Verbs neuter may properly be denominated intransitives, be- 
 cause the effect is confined within the subject, and does not pas 
 over to any object : as, " I sit, he lives, they sleep." 
 
 Some of the verbs that are usually ranked among neuters, 
 make a near approach to the nature of a verb active ; but they 
 may be distinguished from it by their being intransitive : as, to 
 run, to walk, to fly, &c. The rest are more obviously neuter, 
 and more clearly expressive of a middle state between mction 
 and passion : as, to stand, to lie, to sleep, &c. 
 
 In English, many verbs are used both in an active and a neu- 
 ter signification, the construction only determining of which 
 kind they are : as, to flatten, signifying to make even or level, is 
 a verb active ; but when it signifies to grow dull or insipid, it is 
 
 a verb neuter. 
 
 g. . ' ' ' '- 
 
 * Verbs have been distinguished by some writers, into the following kinds. 
 
 1st. Active-transitive^ or those which denote an action that passed from the 
 agent to some object : as, Cesar conquered Pompey. 
 
 2d. Active-intransitive^ or those which express that kind of action, which has 
 no effect upon any thing beyond the agent himself: as, Cesaj walked. 
 
 3d. Passive^ or those which express, not action, but passion, whether pleasing 
 or painful : as Portia was loved ; Pompey was conquered. 
 
 4th. J^euter, or those which express an attribute that consists neither in ac- 
 tion nor passion : as, Cesar stood. 
 
 This appears to be an orderly arrangement. But if the class of active-intraiu 
 sitive verbs were admitted, it would rather perplex than assist the learner: for 
 the difference between verbs active and neuter, as transitive and intransitive, Is 
 easy and obvious ; but the difference between verbs absolutely neuter and in- 
 transitively active, is not always clear. It is, indeed, often very difficult to b« 
 ascertained. ' * 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 51 
 
 A neuter verb, by the addition of a preposition, may become a 
 compound active verb. To smile is a neuter verb ; it cannot, 
 therefore, be followed by an objective case, nor be construed as 
 a passive verb. We cannot say, she smiled him, or, he was smiled. 
 But to smile on being a compound active verb, we properly say, she 
 smiled on him ; he was smiled on by fortune in every undertaking. 
 
 Auxiliary or helping Verbs, are those by the help of 
 which the EngHsh verbs are principally conjugated. Tliey 
 are, do, he, have, shall, will, may, can, with their variations : 
 and let and must, which have no variation.^ 
 
 In our definition of the verb, as a part of speech which signi 
 fies io he, to do, or to suffer, &lc. we have included every thing, 
 either expressly or by necessary consequence, that is essential to 
 its nature, and nothing that is not essential to it. This definition 
 is warranted by the authority of Dr. Lowth, and of many other 
 respectable writers on grammar. * There are, however, some 
 grammarians, who consider assertion as the essence of the verb. 
 But, as the participle and the infinitive, if included in it, would 
 prove insuperable objections to their scheme, they have, witiiout 
 hesitation, denied the former a place in the verb, and declared 
 the latter to be merely an abstract noun. This appears to be 
 going rather too far in support of an hypothesis. It seems to be 
 incumbent on these grammarians, to reject also the imperative 
 mood. What part of speech would they make the verbs in the 
 following sentence } " Depart instantly : improve your time : for- 
 give us our sins." Will it be said, that the verbs in these phrases 
 are assertions? 
 
 In reply to these questions, it has been said, that " Depart in- 
 stantly," is an expression equivalent to, ** I desire you to depart 
 instantly," and that as the latter phrase implies affirmation or 
 assertion, so does the former. But, supposing the phrases to be 
 exactly alike in sense, the reasoning is not conclusive. Isi. In 
 the latter phrase, the only part implying affirmation, is, " I de- 
 sire." The words " to depart," are in the infinitive mood, and 
 contain no assertion : they afl?irm nothing. 2d. The position is 
 not tenable, that " Equivalence in sense implies similarity in 
 grammatical nature." It proves too much, and therefore nothing. 
 This mode of reasoning would confound the acknowledged 
 grammatical distinction of words. A pronoun, on this principle, 
 may be proved to be a noun ; a noun, a verb ; an adverb, a noun 
 and preposition ; the superlative degree, the comparative ; the 
 imperative mood, the indicative ; the future tense, the present ; 
 and so on : because they may respectively be resolved into simi- 
 lar meanings. Thus, in the sentence, " I desire you to depart," 
 the words to depart, may be called a noun, because they are 
 equivalent in sense to the noun departure, in the following sen- 
 
 » Let, as a principal verb, has kttest and kikih ; but as a hel|5in| verb, ii 
 ft(}injts of no variation. 
 
52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 1 
 
 tence, " I desire your departure." The words " depart instantly," 
 may be proved to be, not the imperative mood with an adverb, 
 but the indicative and infinitive, with a noun and preposition ; 
 for they are equivalent to " I desire you to depart in an instant." 
 The superlative degree in this sentence, " Of all acquirements 
 virtue is the most valuable," may pass for the comparative, be- 
 cause it conveys the same sentiment as, " Virtue is more valu- 
 able than every other acquirement." 
 
 We shall not pursue this subject any further, as the reader 
 must be satisfied, that only the word desire, in the equivalent 
 sentence, implies affirmation ; and that one phrase may, in sense^ 
 be equivalent to another, though its grammatical nature is essen* 
 tially different. 
 
 To verbs belong number, person, mood, and tense. 
 
 SECTION II. Of Mimher and Person. 
 Verbs have two numbers, the Singular and the PluraL 
 as, ** I run, we run," &c. 
 
 In each number there are three persons ; as, 
 
 Singular. PluraL 
 
 First Person. I love. We love. 
 
 Second Person, Thou lovest. Ye or you love. 
 
 Third Person. He loves. They love. 
 
 Thus the verb, in some parts of it, varies its endings, to ex- 
 press, or agree with, differeiit persons of the same number : as^ 
 " I love, thou lovest ; he loveth, or loves ;" and also to express 
 different numbers of the same person : as, " thou lovest, ye love ; 
 he loveth, they Zove." In the plural number of the verb, there is 
 no variation of ending to express the different persons ; and the 
 verb, in the three persons plural, is the same as it is in the first 
 person singular. Yet this scanty provision of terminations is 
 sufficient for all the purposes of discourse, and no ambiguity 
 arises from it: the verb being always attended, either with the 
 noun expressing the subject acting or acted upon, or with the 
 pronoun representing it. For this reason, the plural termina- 
 tion in en, they loven, they weren, formerly in use, was laid aside as 
 unnecessary, and has long been obsolete. 
 
 SECTION III. Of Moods and Participles, II 
 
 Mood or Mode is a particular form of the verb, showing 
 the manner in which the being, action, or passion, is re* 
 presented. 
 
 The nature of a mood may bo more intelligibly explained t| 
 the scholar, by observing, that it consists in the change which th| 
 verb undergoes, to signify various intentions of the mind, ani 
 various modifications and circumstances of action : which exi 
 planation, if compared with the following account and uses of the 
 ilfterent moods, will be found to agree with and illustrate them. 
 
 e* 
 
 J 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 There are live moods of verbs, the indicative, the ik 
 
 PERATIVE, the POTENTIAL, the SUBJUNCTIVE, and the IN- 
 FINITIVE. 
 
 The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares a 
 thing: as, " He loves, he is loved :" or it asks a question ; 
 as, " Does he love ?" *• Is he loved V 
 
 The Imperative Mood is used for commanding, exhort- 
 ing, entreating, or permitting ; as, *' Depart thou ; mind ye ; 
 let us stay; go in peace." 
 
 Though this mood derives its name from its intimation of 
 command, it is used on occasions of a very opposite nature, even 
 in the humblest supplications of an inferior being to one who is 
 infinitely his superior : as, " Give us this day our daily bread ; 
 and forgive us our trespasses." 
 
 The Potential Mood implies possibility or liberty, power, 
 will, or obligation : as, " It may rain ; he may go or stay, I 
 can ride ; he would walk ; they should learn." 
 
 The Subjunctive Mood represents a thing under a condi- 
 tion, motive, wish, supposition, <Sz:c. ; and is preceded by a 
 conjunction, expressed or understood, and attended by 
 another verb : as, " I will respect him, though he chide 
 me;" "Were he good, he would be happy;" that is, " if 
 he were good." — See note 8 to Rule 19. 
 
 The Infinitive Mood expresses a thing in a general and 
 unlimited manner, without any distinction of number or 
 person ; as, '* to act, to speak, to be feared." 
 
 The participle is a certain form of the verb, and derives 
 its name from its participating, not only of the properties 
 of a verb, but also of those of an adjective : as, " I am de- 
 sirous of knowins^ him f " admired and applauded, he be- 
 came vain;" " Having finished his work, he submitted it," 
 &c. 
 
 There are three participles, the Present or Active, the 
 Perfect or Passive, and the Compound Perfect: as, 
 *' loving, loved, having loved." — See p, 72. 
 
 Agreeably to the general practice of grammarians, we have 
 represented the present participle, as active ; and the past, as 
 passive : but they are not uniformly so: the present is sometimes 
 passive; and the past is frequently active. Thus, " The youth 
 loas consuming by a slow malady ;" " The Indian was burning 
 by tne cruelty of his enemies ;" appear to be instances of the 
 present participle being used passively. " He has instructed me ;" 
 *' I have gratefully repaid his kindness ;" are examples of the 
 
 E 2 
 
54 ENGLISH GRAJMMAR. 
 
 past participle being applied in an active sense., We may also 
 observe, that the present participle is sometimes associated with 
 the past and future tenses of the verb ; and thepast participle con ' 
 nected w^ith the present and future tenses. — The most unexcep 
 tionable distinction which grammarians make between the parti^ 
 ciplcs, is, that the one points to the continuation of the actioft' 
 passion, or state, denoted by the verb ; and the other, to the 
 completion of it. Thus, the present participle signifies imperfect 
 action, or action begun and not ended : as, " I am writing a 
 letter." The past participle signifies action perfected, or finished : 
 as, " I have written a letter ;" " The letter is icritttny* 
 
 The participle is distinguished from the adjective, by the for 
 mer's expressing the idea of time, and the latter's denoting pnl 
 a quality. The phrases, " lovirig to give as well as to receive^ 
 " moving in baste," " heated with liquor," contain participle 
 giving the idea of time ; but the epithets contained in the e^ 
 pressions, " a loving child," " a moving spectacle," " a heated ima 
 gination," mark simply the quahties referred to, without any re- 
 gard to time ; and may properly be called participial adjectives. 
 
 Participles not only convey the notion of time ; but they also 
 signify actions, and govern the cases of nouns and pronouns, in 
 the same manner as verbs do ; and therefore should be compre- 
 hended in the general name of verbs. That they are mere 
 modes of the verb, is manifest, if our definition of a verb be ad- 
 mitted : for they signify being, doing, or suffering, with the de- 
 signation of time superadded. But if the essence of the verb be 
 made to consist in affirmation or assertion, not only the partici- 
 ple will be excluded from its place in the verb, but the infinitive 
 itself also ; which certain ancient grammarians of great autho- 
 rity held to be alone the genuine verb, simple and unconnected 
 with persons and circumstances. 
 
 The following phrases, even when considered in themselves, 
 show that participles include the idea of time : " The letter being 
 written, or having been written ;" " Charles being wmting, having 
 written, or having been writing,'*'' But when arranged in an entire 
 sentence, which they must be to make a complete sense, they show 
 it still more evidently: as, " Charles ^avtng- wmtten the letter, seal- 
 ed and despatched it." — The participle does indeed associate with 
 different tenses of the verb : as, "I am writing," " I was writing," 
 ♦* I shall be writing :" but this forms no just objection to its denoting 
 time. If the time of it is often relative time, this circumstance, 
 far from disproving, supports our position.f ^ee observations un- 
 der Rule 13 of Syntax, 
 
 Participles sometimes perform the office of substantives, and 
 
 * When this participle is joined to the verb io have^ it is called perftct; when 
 il is joined to the verb to 6e, or understood with it, it is denominated pctssive. 
 
 f From the very nature of time, an action may be present now, it may havt 
 been present formerly ^ or it may be present at some future period — yet who ever 
 •upposed, that tlie present of the indicative denotes no time ? 
 
 Encyclopedia Britannica, 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 5:; 
 
 are used as such ; as in the followi.ig instances: "The begii> 
 ning ;" "a good understanding;''^ "excellent writing ;^^ *^ The 
 chancellor's being attached to the king secured his crown:'* 
 •* The general's haviicg failed in this enterprise occasioned his 
 disgrace ;" " John's having been ivrlling a long time had weiried 
 him." 
 
 That the words in italics of the three latter examples, perform 
 the office of suhstantives, and may be considered as such, will be 
 evident, if we reflect, that the first of them has exactly the same 
 meaning and construction as, " Tlie chancellor's attachment to 
 the king secured his crown ;'• and that the other examples will 
 bear a sin^ilar construction. The words, being attached, govern 
 the word chancellor'^s in the possessive case, in the one instance, as 
 clearly as attachment governs it in that case, in the other : and 
 it is only substantives, or words and phrases which operate as 
 substantives, that govern the genitive or possessive case. 
 
 The following sentence is not precisely the same as the above, 
 cither in sense or construction, though, except the genitive case, 
 the words are the same ; " The chancellor, being attached to the 
 king, secured his crown." In the former, the words, being at- 
 iached, form the nominative case to the verb, and are stated as 
 the cause of the effect; in the latter, they are not the nominative 
 •case, and make only a circumstance to chancellory which is the 
 |)roper nominative. It may not be improper to add another 
 form of the sentence, by which the learner may better under- 
 stand the peculiar nature and form of each of these modes of ex- 
 pression : " The chancellor being attached to the king, his crown 
 Was secured." This constitutes what is properly called, the 
 Case Absolute. 
 
 SECTION IV. Remarks on the Potential Mood. 
 
 That the Potential Mood should be separated from the subjunc- 
 tive, is evident, from the intricacy and confusion which are pro- 
 duced by their being blended together, and from the distinct na- 
 ture of the two moods ; the former of which may be expressed 
 without any condition, supposition, &c. as will appear from the 
 following instances : " They might have done better ;" " We may 
 always act uprightly ;" " He was generous, and would not take 
 revenge ;" " We should resist the allurements of vice ;" " I could 
 ormerly indulge myself in things, of which I cannot now think 
 but with pain." 
 
 Some grammarians have supposed that the Potential Mood, as 
 distinguished above from the Subjunctive, coincides with the Indi- 
 cative. But as the latter " simply indicates or declares a thing," 
 it is manifest that the former, which modifies the declaration, 
 and introduces an idea materially distinct from it, must be con- 
 siderably different. " I can walk," " I should walk," appear to 
 be 60 essentially distinct from the simplicity of, " I walk," "I 
 walked," as to warrant a correspondent distinction of moods. 
 Tho Imperative and Infinitive Moods, which are allowed to re- 
 
56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 M 
 
 ,tain their rank, do not appear to contain such strong marks 
 discrimination from the Indicatfve, as are found in the Potent 
 Mood. 
 
 There are other writers on this subject, who exclude the Po- 
 tential Mood from their division, because it is formed, not by 
 varying the principal verb, but by means of the auxiliary verbH 
 may, can, might, could, would, &c. ; but if we recollect, that mooda 
 are used " to signify various intentions of the mind, and various 
 modifications and circumstances of action," we shall perceive 
 that those auxiharies, far from interfering with this design, do, in 
 the clearest manner, support and exemplify it. On the reason 
 alleged by these ;vrkers, the greater part of the Indicative Mood 
 must also be excluded ; as but a small part of it is conjugated 
 without auxiliaries. The Subjunctive too, will fare no better; 
 since it so nearly resembles the Indicative, and is formed by 
 means of conjunctions, expressed or understood, which do not 
 . more effectually show the varied intentions of the mind, than the 
 auxiliaries do which are used to form the Potential Mood. 
 
 Some writers have given our moods a much greater extent 
 than we have assigned to them. They assert that the English 
 language may be said, without any great impropriety, to have as 
 many moods as it has auxiliary verbs ; and they allege, in sup- 
 port of their opinion, that the compound expression which they 
 help to form, point out those various dispositions and actions, 
 which, in other languages, are expressed by moods. This would 
 be to multiply the moods without advantage. It is, however, 
 certain, that the conjugation or variation of verbs, in tiie Eng- 
 lish language, is effecied, almost entirely, by the means of auxilia- 
 ries. We must, therefore, accommodate ourselves to this circum- 
 stance ; and do that by their assistance, which has been done in 
 the learned languages, (a few instances to the contrary except- 
 ed,) in another manner, namely, by varying the form of the verb 
 itself. At the same time, it is necessary to set proper bounds to 
 this business, so as not to occasion obscurity and perplexity, 
 when we mean to be simple and perspicuous. Instead, there- 
 fore, of making a separate mood for every auxiliary verb, and in- 
 troducing moods Interrogative, Oplaiive, Promissive, Hortative, 
 Precative, &c. we have exhibited such only as are obviously dis- 
 tinct ; and which, whilst they are calculated to unfold and dis- 
 play the subject intelligibly to the learner, seem to be sufficient, 
 and not more than sufficient, to answer all the purposes for 
 which moods were introduced. 
 
 From grammarians who form their ideas, and make their de- 
 cisions, respecting this part of English Grammar on the princi- 
 ples and construction of languages, which in these points, do not 
 suit the peculiar nature of our own, but differ considerably from 
 it, we may naturally expect grammatical schemes that are n 
 very perspicuous nor perfectly consistent, a||d which wiU 
 more to perplex than inform the learner. See pages 59 — i 
 72—74. 76—78. 138—140. 
 
 ly from 
 ire not 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 57 
 
 SECTION V. Of the Tenses. 
 
 Tense, being the distinction of time, might seem to ad- 
 mit only of the present, past, and future ; but to mark it 
 »nore accurately, it is made to consist of six variations, viz 
 the PRESENT, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, 
 and the first and second future tenses. 
 
 The Present Tense represents an action or event, as 
 passing at the time in which it is mentioned : as, " I rule ; 
 1 am ruled ; I think; I fear." 
 
 The present tense likewise expresses a character, quality, &c. 
 at present existing : as, " He is an able man ;" " she is an amia- 
 ble woman." It is also used in speaking of actions continued, 
 with occasional intermissions, to the present time ; as, " He fre- 
 quently rides ;" " He walks out every morning ;" "He goes into 
 the country every summer." We sometimes apply this tense 
 even to persons long since dead : as, " Seneca reasons and mo- 
 ralizes well ;" "Job speaks feelingly of his afflictions." 
 
 The present tense, preceded by the words, when^ he/ore, afier^ 
 as soon as, &c. is sometimes used to point out the relative time 
 of a future action : as, " JVhen he arrives he will hear the news ;" 
 " He will hear the news before he arrives, or a^ soon as he ar- 
 rives, or, at farthest, soon after he arrives ;" " The more she im- 
 proves, the more amiable she will be." 
 
 In animated historical narrations, this tense is sometimes sub- 
 stituted for the imperfect tense : as, " He enters the territory of 
 the peaceable inhabitants ; he fights and conquers, takes an im- 
 mense booty, which he divides amongst his soldiers, and returns 
 home to enjoy an empty triuuiph." 
 
 The Imperfect Tense represents the action or event, 
 either as past and finished, or as remaining unfinished at a 
 certain time past: as, " I loved her for her modesty and 
 virtue ;" " They were travelling post when he met them.*' 
 
 The Perfect Tense not only refers to what is past, hut 
 also conveys an allusion to the present time : as, " 1 have 
 finished my letter ;" ** 1 have seen the person that was re- 
 commended to me." 
 
 In the former example, it is signified that the finishing of tha 
 letter, though past, was at a period immediately, or very nearly, 
 preceding the present time. In the latter instance, it is uncer- 
 tain whether the person mentioned was seen by the speaker a 
 long or short time before. The meaning is, " I have seen him 
 iome time in the course of a period which includes, or comes to, 
 the present time." When the j>articuia: time of any occur* 
 rence is specified, as prior to llie present time, this tense is not 
 used: for it would be iniproj)er to say, " J have seen him yester- 
 day ;" or," I have finished my work ]a?t week " In these casea 
 
68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 
 
 the imperfect is necessary : as, " I saw him yesterday ;" " 1 
 finished my work last week." But when we speak indefinitely 
 of any thing past, as hap{)ening or not happening in the day, 
 year, or age, in which we jnention it, the perfect must be em- 
 ployed : asj " I have been there this morning ;" " I have travelled 
 much this year :" " We have escaped many dangers through 
 life." In referring, however, to such a division of the day as is 
 past before the time of our speaking, we use the imperfect: as, 
 '* They came home early this morning ;" " He was with them at 
 three o'clock this afternoon." 
 
 The perfect tense, and the imperfect tense, both denote a 
 thing that is past ; but the former denotes it in such a manner, 
 that there is still actually remaining some part of the time to. 
 slide away, wherein we declare the thing has been done ; where- 
 as the imperfect denotes the thing or action past, in such a man- 
 ner, that nothing remains of that time in which it was done. 
 If we speak of the present century, we say, " Philosophers have 
 made great discoveries in the present century :" but if we speak 
 of the last century, we say, "Philosophers made great disco- 
 veries in the last century." " He has been much afflicted this 
 year ;" " I have this week read the king's proclamation ;" " I have 
 heard great news this morning :" in these instances, " He has 
 been,*' " I have read,^^ and ^^heard,^\ denote things that are past ; 
 but they occurred in this year, in this week, and to-day ; and still 
 there remains a part of this year, week, and day, whereof I speak» 
 
 In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever the ac- 
 tion is connected with the present time, by the actual existence, 
 either of the author, or of the work, though it may have been 
 performed many centuries ago ; but if neither the author nor the 
 work now remains, it cannot be used. We may say, " Cicero 
 has laritten orations ;" but we cannot say, Cicero has tvritten 
 poems ;" because the orations are in being, but the poems are 
 lost. Speaking of priests in general, we may say, " They have 
 in all ages claimed great powers ;" because the general order of 
 the priesthood still exists: but if we speak of the Druids, as any 
 particular order of priests, which does not now exist, we cannot 
 use this tense. We cannot say, " The Druid priests have claimed 
 great powers," but must say, *• The Druid priests claimed great 
 powers ;" because that order is now totally extinct. See Pick- 
 bourn on the English Verb, 
 
 The Pluperfect Tense represents a thing, not only as 
 past, but also as prior to some other point of time specified 
 in the sentence : as, "I had finished my letter before he ar- 
 rived." 
 
 The First Future Tense represents the action as yet to 
 come, either with or without respect to the precise time : 
 as, ** The sun will rise to-morrow ;" " I shall see them again," 
 
 The Second Future intimates tliat the action will be fully 
 
ETY.IIOLOGY. 69 
 
 accomplished, at or before the time of another future ac- 
 tion or event : as, " I shall have dined at one o'clock ;** 
 '* The two houses will have finished their business, when the 
 king comes to prorogue them."* 
 
 It is to be observed, tliat in the subjunctive mood, the event 
 being spoken of under a condition or supposition, or in the form 
 of a wish, and therefore as doubtful and contingent, the verb 
 itself in the present, and the auxiliary both of the present and 
 past imperfect times, often carry w^ith them somewhat of a 
 future sense : as, " If he come to-morrow, I may speak to him ;" 
 " If he should, or would come to-morrow, 1 might, would, could, 
 or should speak to him." Observe also, that the auxiliary should 
 and would, in the i nperfect times, are used to express the present 
 and future as well^as the past : as, " It is rny desire, that he should, 
 or would, come now, or to-morrow ;" as well as, " It was ray 
 desire, that he should or v/ould come yesterday." So that in 
 this mood the precise time of the verb is very much determined 
 by the nature and drift of the sentence. 
 
 The present, past, and future tenses, may be used either defi- 
 nitely or indejinitely^ both with respect to time and action. When 
 they denote customs or habits, and not individual acts, they are 
 applied indefinitely: as, " Virtue ^romo<c5 happiness;" "The 
 old Romans governed by benefits more than by fear ;" " I shall 
 hereafter employ my time more usefully." In these examples, 
 the words, promotes, governed, and shall employ, are used indefi- 
 nitely, both in regard to action and time ; for they are not con- 
 fined to individual actions, nor to any precise points of present, 
 past, or future time. When they are applied to signify particular 
 actions, and to ascertain the precise pomts of time to which they 
 are confined, they are used definitely ; as in the following in- 
 stances. " My brother is tvnting ;" " He built the house last 
 summer, but did not inhabit it till yesterday." " He unll writ% 
 another letter to-morrow." 
 
 The difierent tenses also represent an action as complete or 
 perfect, or as incomplete or imperfect. In the phrases, "1 am 
 writing," "I was writing," "I shall be writing," imperfect, 
 unfinished actions are signified. But the following examples, 
 *' I wrote," " I have written," " I had written," " I shall have 
 written," all denote complete perfect action. 
 
 From the preceding representation of the diflferent tenses, it 
 appears, that each of them has its distinct and peculiar province ; 
 and that though some of them may sometimes be used promis- 
 cuously, or substituted one for another, in cases where great 
 accuracy is not required, yet there is a real and essential diflfer- 
 ence in their meaning. — It is also evident, that the English 
 language contains the six tenses which we have enumerated. 
 Grammarians who limit the number to two, or at most to three, 
 namely , the present, the imperfect, and the future, do not reflect 
 
 ♦ See an account of tlie simple and compound tenses, at page 71. 
 
60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 
 
 that the English verb is mostl}^ composed of principal and riiix- 
 iliary ; and that these several parts constitute one verb. Either 
 the Enghsh language has no regular future tense, or its future 
 is composed of the auxiliary and the principal verb. If the 
 latter be admitted, then the auxilirjry and principal united, con- 
 stitute a tense, in one instance; and, from reason and analogy, 
 may doubtless do so, in others, in which minuter divisions of 
 time are necessary, or useful. What reason can be assigned for 
 not considering this case as other cases, in which a whole is 
 regarded as composed of several parts, or of principal and 
 adjuncts? There is nothing heterogeneous in the parts : and pre- 
 cedent, analogy, utility, and even necessity, authorize the union. 
 
 In support of this opinion, we have the authority of eminent 
 grammarians ; in particular, that of Dr. Beatti>i. " Some writers," 
 says the doctor, " wilj not allow any thing to be a tense, 
 but what in one inflected word, expresses an affirmation with 
 time; for that those parts of the verb are not properly called 
 tenses, which assume that appearance, by means of auxihary 
 words. At this rate, we should have, in English, two tenses 
 only, the present and the past in the active verb, and in the 
 passiv^e no tenses at all. But this is a needless nicety ; and, if 
 adopted, would introduce confusion into the grammatical art. 
 If amaveram be a tense, why should not amatus fueram ? If 1 
 heard be a tense, I did hear, I have heard, and / shall hear, must 
 be equally entitled to that appellation." 
 
 The proper form of a tense, in the Greek and Latin tongue?, 
 is certainly that which it has in the grammars of those languages. 
 But in the Greek and Latin grammars, we uniformly find, that 
 some of the tenses are formed by variations of the principal 
 verb ; and others, by the addition of a helping verb. It is, there- 
 fore, indisputable, that the principal verb, or rather its participle, 
 and an auxihary, constitute a regular tense in the Greek and 
 Latin languages. This point being established, we may, doubt- 
 less, apply it to English verbs ; and extend the principle as far 
 as convenience, and the idiom of our language require. 
 
 If it should be said, that, on the same ground that a participle 
 and auxiliary are allowed to form a tense, and the verb is to be 
 conjugated accordingly, the English noun and pronoun ought to 
 be declined at large, with articles and prepositions ; we must 
 object to the inference. Such a mode of declension is not 
 adapted to our language. This we think has been already- 
 proved.* It is also confessedly inapplicable to the learned lan- 
 guages. Where then is the grammatical inconsistency, or the 
 want of conformity to the principles of analogy, in making some 
 tenses of the English verb to consist of principal and auxiliary 
 and the cases of English nouns, chiefly in their termination? 
 The argument from analogy, instead of mihtating against us, 
 appears to confirm and establish our position. See pages 55— 
 56.-72—73, 74— 76.-139 --140. 
 
 * See page 40. 
 
 ~J 
 
ETYMOLOGY. , 61 
 
 We shall close these remarks on the tenses, with a few ob- 
 servations extracted fron^i the Eivcyclop^dia Britannica. 
 They are worth the student's attention, as a part of them applies, 
 not only to our views of the tenses, but to many other parts of 
 the work. — " Harris (by way of hypothesis) has enumerated no 
 fewer than twelve tenses. Of this enumeration we can by no 
 means approve : for, without entering into a minute examina- 
 tion of it, nothing can be more obvious, than that his inceptive 
 present, " I am going to write," is a future tense ; and his com 
 pletive present, " I have written," a past tense. But, as was be • 
 fore observed of the classification of words, we cannot help 
 being of opinion, that, to take the tenses as they are commonly 
 received, and endeavour to ascertain their nature and their differ- 
 ftnces, is a much more useful exercise, as well as more proper for 
 fi work of this kind, than to raise, as might easily be raised, new 
 theories on the suhject."^ 
 
 SECTION VI. The Conjugation of the Auxiliary Verbs 
 TO^AVE and to be. 
 
 The Conjugation of a verb, is the regular combination 
 and arrangement of its several numbers, persons, moods, 
 and tenses. 
 
 The Conjugation of an active verb is styled the active 
 VOICE ; and that of a passive verb, the passive voice. 
 
 The auxiliary- and active verb to have, is conjugated in 
 he following manner. 
 
 TO HAVE. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 Present. Tense, 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. Pers. I have. 1. We have. 
 
 2. Pers. Thou hast. 2. Ye or you have, 
 
 3. Per,. He, she, or it? 3 T^ey have. 
 hath or has. ^ ^ 
 
 Imperfect Tense,^ 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I had.. 1. We had. 
 
 2. Thou hadst. 2. Ye or you had. 
 
 3. He, &c. had. 3. They had. 
 
 * The following crilicism affords an additional support to the author's system 
 of the Tenses, &c. 
 
 " Under the head of Etymology, the author of this grammar jijdiciously ad- 
 heres to the natural simplicity of the JEnglish language, witliout embarrassing the 
 learner, with distinctions peculiar to the Latin tongue. The difficult subject of 
 the Tenses, is clearly explained; and with less encumbrance of technical 
 phraseology, than in most other grammars." Analytical Review, 
 
62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Perfect Ten^e.* 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I have had. 1. We have had. 
 
 2. Thou hast had. 2. Ye or you have had. 
 
 3. He has had. 3. They have had. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense,^ 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I had had. 1. We had had. 
 
 2. Thou hadst had. 2. Ye or you had had. 
 
 3. He had had. 3. They had had. 
 
 First Future Tense, 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall or will have. 1. We shall or will have. 
 
 2. Thou Shalt or wilt have. 2. Ye or you shall or will havt 
 
 3. He shall or will have. 3. They shall or will have. 
 
 Second Future Tense, 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall have had. 1. We shall have had. 
 
 2. Thou wilt have had. 2. Ye or you will have had, 
 
 3. He will have had. 3. Th»y will have had. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. Let me have. 1. Let us have. 
 
 2. Have, or have thou, or dp 2. Have, or have ye, or do yo or 
 
 thou have. you have. 
 
 3. Let him have. 3. Let them have.f 
 
 The imperative mood is not strictly entitled to three persons. 
 The command is always addressed to the second person, not to 
 the first or third. For when we say, " Let me have," " Lei 
 him, or let them have," the meaning and construction are, do 
 thou, or do ye, let me, him, or them have. In philosophical 
 strictness, both number and person might be entirely exclu- 
 ded from every verb. They are, in fact, the properties of sub- 
 stantives, not a part of the essence of a verb. Even the name 
 of the imperative mood, does not always correspond to its 
 nature : for it sometimes petitions as well as commands. But, 
 with respect to all these points, the practice of our gramma- 
 rians is so uniformly fixed, and so analogous to the languages, 
 
 * The terms which we have adopted, to designate the»three past tenses, may 
 not be exactly signiiicant of their nature and distinctions. But as they are used 
 by grammarians in general, and have an established authority; and, especially, 
 as the meaning attached to each of them, and their different significations, havo 
 been carefully explained ; we presume that no solid objection can be made to 
 the use of terms so generally approved, and so explicitly defined. See pages 61 
 and 62. We are supported in these sentiments, by the authority of Dr. John- 
 son. See the first note in his " Grammar of the English Tongue," prefixed to 
 his dictionary. If, however, any teachers should think it warrantable to changa 
 the established names, they cannot perhaps find any more appropriate, than the 
 terms Jirstpreterity second preterit j and thirdpreterii. — See the Octavo Grammar. 
 
 f If such sentences should be rigorously examined, tlie Imperative will ap* 
 pear to consist merely in the word let. See Parsings p. 164. 
 
Etymology. 63 
 
 ancient and modern, which our youth have to study, that it 
 would be an unwarrantable degree of innovation, to deviate 
 from the established terms and arrangements. See the advertise- 
 ment at the end of the Introduction, page 6 ; and the quotation 
 from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, page 61. 
 Potential Mood. 
 
 Present Tense, 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may or can have. 1. We may or can have. 
 
 2 Thou mayst or canst have. 2. Ye or you may or can have. 
 
 8. He may or can have. 3. They may or can have. 
 
 Imperfect Tense* 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I might, could,, would, or 1. We might, could, would, ot 
 should have. should have. 
 
 2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could,wonld, 
 wouldst, or shouldst have. or should have. 
 
 3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, or 
 or should have. should have. 
 
 Perfect Tense, 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may or can have had. 1. We may or can have had. 
 
 2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can have 
 had. - had. 
 
 3. He may or can have had. 3. They may or can have had. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, of 
 should have had. should have had. 
 
 2. Thou mightst, couldst, ^ Ye or you might,.;ould,would, 
 wouldst, or shouldst have ^^ ^j^^^l^ ^J^ ^^^^ 
 
 2. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, or 
 or should have had. should have had.* 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 Present Tense, 
 Singular. Plural, 
 
 1. If I have. 1. If we have. 
 
 2. If thou have.f 2. If ye or you have. 
 
 3. If he have.f 3. If they havie. 
 
 The remaining tenses of the subjunctive mood, are, in every 
 respect, similar to the correspondent tenses of the indicative 
 
 * Shall and toill^ when they denote inclination, resolution, promise, may be 
 considered, as well as their relations should and would^ as belonging to the po 
 tential mood. But as they genei-ally signify futurity, they have been appro 
 priated, as helping verbs, to the formation of the future tenses of tlie indicative 
 and subjunctive moods. 
 
 f Grammarians, in general, conjugate the present of the auxiliary, in this 
 manner. But we presume that this is the form of the verb, considered as a 
 »rincipalf not as an auxiliary verb. See page 133, Note 5. 
 
64 ENGLISH GR VMM All. 
 
 mood ;* vvitli the addition to tlie verlvof a conjunction, expressed 
 or implied, denoting a condition, motive, wish, supposition, &<! 
 It will be p4*oper to direct the learner to repeat all the tenses ot 
 this mood, with a conjunction prefixed to each of them. See 
 on this suV)ject, the observations at page 74 ; and the notej^on the 
 nineteenth rule of syntax. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 PRESENT. To have. perfect. To have had 
 
 ad. 11 
 
 J 
 
 Pai'ticiples, 
 
 present or active. Having. 
 
 PERFECT, Had. 
 
 compound PERFECT, Having had. 
 As the subjunctive mood, in English, has no variation, in tht 
 form of the verb, from the indicative, (except in the present tense, 
 and the second future tense, of verbs generally, and the present 
 and imperfect tenses of the verb to &e,) it would be superfluous 
 t4:) conjugate it in tlus work, through every tense. But all the 
 (jihpv moods and tenses of the verbs, both in the active and 
 passive voices, are conjugated at large, that the learners tnay 
 liave no doubts or misapprehensions respecting their particular 
 forms. They to whom the subject of grammar is entirely new, 
 and young persons especially, are much more readily and effect- 
 unlly instructed, by seeing the parts of a subject so essential as 
 the verb, unfolded and spread before them, in all their varieties, 
 than by being generally and cursorily informed of the manner 
 in which they may be exhibited. The time employed by the 
 scholars, in consequence of this display of the verbs, is of small 
 moment, compared with the advantages which they will proba- 
 bly derive from the plan. 
 
 It may nor, however, be generally proper for young persons 
 beginning the study of grammar, to commit to memory all the 
 tenses of the verbs. If the simple tenses, namely, the present 
 and the imperfect, together with the first future tevsey should, in 
 the first instance, be committed to memory, and the ifest care- 
 fully perused and explained, the business will not be iiediaus to 
 the scholars, and their progress wil! be rendered moie obvious 
 and ploasing. The general view of the subject, thus acc^uired ami 
 impressed, may afterward he extended with ease and atnvantage. 
 It appears to be proper, for the information of the learners, to 
 make a few observations in this place, on some of the t«jnses, &lc. 
 The first is, that, in the potential mood, some grammarjpus con- 
 found the present with the imperfect tense ; and the perfect with 
 the pluperfect. But that they are really distinct, and hnve an 
 appropriate reference to time, corres])ondent to the detJMitions 
 of those tenses, wdl appear from a few exam])les: "I wished 
 
 * Except that the second and third persons, singular and plural, oft'i'- yecoi^ 
 future tense, require the auxiliary shall, sfuill, instead oi w'ii, will. l(h»«8 " F* 
 will have completed the work by niidsunnner," is the indicative form . 'i* t I 
 subjunctive isj " If he shaM liave completed the work by niidsiuiimer. 
 
ETYiMOLOGY. 65 
 
 him to 8tay, but he would not;" "I could not acconiplisli tJie 
 business in time ;" "It was my direction that he should submit ;" 
 " He was ill, but I thought he might live ;" " I uiay have mU- 
 understood him ;" " He cannot have deceived me ;" " He might have 
 finished the work sooner, but he could not have done it better." — 
 It must, however, be admitted, that, on some occasions, the aux- 
 iliaries might, could, would, and should, refer also to present and 
 to future time. See page 59. 
 
 The next remark is, that the auxiliary mZZ, in the first person 
 singular and plural of the second future tense ; and the auxiliary 
 shall^ in the second and third persons of that tense, in the indica- 
 tive mood, appear to be incorrectly applied. The impropriety 
 of such associations may be inferred from a few examples : " I 
 loill have had previous notice, whenever the event happens ;" 
 " Thou shalt have served thy apprenticeship before the end of 
 the year ;" " He shall have completed his business when the 
 messenger arrives." " I shall ha,ve had ; thou wilt have served ; 
 he will have completed," &c. would have been correct and ap- 
 plicable. The peculiar import of these auxiliaries, as explained 
 in page 69, under section 7, seems to account for their im|)ro* 
 priety in the applications just mentioned. 
 
 Some writers on grammar object to the propriety of admitting 
 the second future, in both the indicative and subjunctive moods : 
 but that this tense is applicable to both moods, will be manifest 
 from the following examples ; " John will have earned his wages 
 the next new-year's day," is a simple declaration, and therefore 
 in the indicative mood : " If he shall have finished his work when . 
 the bell rings, he will be entitled to the reward," is conditional 
 and contingent, and is therefore in the subjunctive mood. 
 
 We shall conclude these detached observations, with one re- 
 mark which may be useful to the young scholar, namely, that as 
 the indicative mood is converted into the subjunctive, by the ex- 
 pression of a condition, motive, wish, supposition, &c. being su- 
 peradded to it ; so the potential mood may, in like manner, be 
 turned into the subjunctive ; as will be seen in the following 
 examples ; "If I could deceive him, I should abhor it ;" " Though 
 he should increase in Wealth, he would not be charitable ;" " Even 
 in prosperity he would gain no esteem, unless he should conduct 
 himself better. 
 
 The auxiliary and neuter verb To be, is conjugated as 
 follows ; 
 
 TO BE. 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present Tense, 
 Singulat Plural. 
 
 1. I am. 1. We are. 
 
 2. Thou art. 2. Ye or you are 
 
 3. He, she, or it is. 3. They are. 
 
66 
 
 ENvGILISII GIlArJMAR. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We were. 
 
 2. Ye or you were. 
 
 3. They were. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We have been. 
 
 2. Ye or you have been. 
 
 3. They have been. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We had been. 
 
 2. Ye or you had been. 
 
 3. They had been. 
 
 First Future Tense. 
 Plural. 
 1. We shall or will be 
 Thou shall or wilt be. 2. Ye or you shall or will be* 
 
 He shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be. 
 
 I Second Future Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 
 
 2. Thou wilt have been. ?.. Ye or you will have been. 
 
 3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. Let me be. 1. Let us be. 
 
 2. Be thou or do thou be. 2. Be ye or you, or do ye be. 
 
 3. Let him be. 3. Let them be. 
 
 Potential Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may or can be. 1. We may or can be. 
 
 2. Thou mayst or canst be. 2. Ye or you may or can be. 
 
 3. He may or can be. 3. They may or can be. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 Singular. '"' 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I was. 
 
 2. Thou wast. 
 
 3. He was. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I have been. 
 
 2. Thou hast been. 
 
 3. He hath or has been. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I had been. 
 
 2. Thou hadst been. 
 
 3. He had been. 
 
 Singular. 
 1. I shall or will be. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Plural, 
 
 1. We might, could, would, or 
 should be. 
 
 2. Ye or you might, could,would, 
 or should be. 
 
 3. They might, could, would, or 
 should be. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 Singular. PluraL 
 
 1. I may or can have been. 1. We may or can have been. 
 
 2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can have 
 been. been. 
 
 3. He may or can have been. 3. They may or can have been. 
 
 i 
 
 L I might, could, would, or 
 
 should be. 
 2. Thou mightst, couldst, 
 
 wouldst, or shouldst be. 
 .J. He might, could, would, 
 
 or should be. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. ^ 
 
 Pluperfect Tense, 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I might, could, would, or i. We might, could, would, or 
 should have been. should have been. 
 
 2. Thoumightst^ couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, would, 
 wouldst, or shouldst have or should have been. 
 
 been. 
 
 3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, or 
 or should have been, should have been. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 I. If I be. 1. If we be. 
 
 9 If thou be. 2. Ifye or you be. 
 
 3. If he be. 3. If they be. 
 
 Imperfect Tense, 
 Singular; Plural. 
 
 1. If I were. 1. If we were. 
 
 2. If thou wert. 2. If ye or you were. 
 
 3. If he were. 3. If they were. 
 
 The remaining tenses of this mood are, in general, similar to 
 the correspondent tenses of the indicative mood. See pages 64, 
 73, 74, and the notes under the nineteenth rule of Syntax. 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 Present Tense^ To be. Perfect. To have been. 
 
 Participles. 
 Present. Being. Perfect. Been. 
 
 Compound Perfect. Having been. 
 
 SECTION VII. The Auxiliarij Verbs conjugated in their simple 
 form ; with observations on their peculiar nature and force. 
 The learner will perceive that the preceding auxiliary verbs, 
 to have and to be, could not be conjugated through all the moods 
 and tenses, without the help of other auxiliary verbs; namely, 
 may, can, will, shall, and their variations. That auxiliary verbs, 
 in their simple state, and unassisted by others, are of a very 
 limited extent ; and that they are chiefly useful, in the aid which 
 they afford in conjugating the principal verbs ; will clearly ap- 
 pear to the scholar, by a distinct conjugation of each of them, 
 uncombined with any other. They are exhibited for his inspec* 
 lion ; not to be committed to memory. 
 TO HAVE. 
 Present Tense. 
 Sing. 1. I have. 2. Thou hast. 3. He hath or hag. 
 
 Plvr. 1. We have. 2. Ye^ or you have. 3. They have. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 Sing. 1. I had. 2. Thou hadst. 3. He had. 
 
 Plur. 1. We had. 2. Ye or you had. 3. They had. 
 Perfect. I have had, &c. Pluperfect, I had had, &C» 
 
63 
 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 
 
 Present, 
 
 Participles. 
 Having. Perfect, Had. '^ 
 
 
 
 
 TO BE. 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 Present Tense, 
 
 m 
 
 Sing, 
 
 1. 
 
 I am. 
 
 2. Thou art. 
 
 3. He is. ,H 
 
 Plur, 
 
 I. 
 
 We are. 
 
 ' 2. Ye or you are. 
 
 3. They are. S 
 
 Sing. 
 
 1. 
 
 I was. 
 
 Imperfect Tense, 
 2. Thou wast. 
 
 3. He was. ^ 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. 
 
 We were. 
 
 2. Ye or you were. 
 
 3. They were. 
 
 
 
 Present, 
 
 Participles. 
 Being. Perfect, Been. 
 
 
 
 
 SHALL. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Present Tense, 
 
 
 Sing, 
 
 1. 
 
 I shall.* 
 
 2. Thou shalt. 
 
 3. He shall. 
 
 Plur, 
 
 1. 
 
 We shall. 
 
 2. Ye or you shall. 
 
 3. They shall. 
 
 Sing, 
 
 1. 
 
 I should. 
 
 Imperfect Tense, 
 2. Thou shouldst. 
 
 3. He should. 
 
 Plur, 
 
 1. 
 
 We should. 2. Ye or you should 
 
 . 3. They should 
 
 
 
 
 WILL. 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 Present Tense, 
 
 
 Sing, 
 
 1. 
 
 I will. 
 
 2. Thou wilt. 
 
 3. He will. 
 
 Plur, 
 
 1. 
 
 We will. 
 
 2. Ye or you will. 
 
 3. They will. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 1. 
 
 I would. 
 
 Imperfezt Tense, 
 2. Thou wouldst. 
 
 3. He would. 
 
 Plur, 
 
 1. 
 
 We would, 
 
 , 2. Ye or you would 
 MAY. 
 
 Present Tense, 
 
 . 3. They would. 
 
 Sing, 
 Plur, 
 
 1. 
 1. 
 
 I may. 
 We may 
 
 2. Thou may St. 
 2. Ye or you may. 
 
 3. He may. 
 3. They may. 
 
 Sing, 
 Plur, 
 
 1. 
 1. 
 
 I might. 
 We might, 
 
 Imperfect Tense, 
 2. Thou mightst. 
 , 2. Ye or you might. 
 
 CAN. 
 
 Present Tense, 
 
 3. He might. 
 3. They might. 
 
 Sing, 
 
 1. 
 
 I can. 
 
 2. Thou canst. 
 
 3. He can. 
 
 Plur, 
 
 1. 
 
 We can. 
 
 2. Ye or you can. 
 
 3. They can. 
 
 Sing, 
 
 1. 
 
 I could. 
 
 Imperfect Tense, 
 2. Thou couldst. 
 
 3. He could. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. 
 
 We could. 
 
 2. Ye or you could. 
 TO DO. 
 
 Present Tense, 
 
 3. They could. 
 
 Sing, 
 
 1, 
 
 , I do. 
 
 2. Thou dost. 
 
 3. He doth or does 
 
 Plur, 
 
 1. 
 
 We do. 
 
 2. Ye or you do. 
 
 3. They do. 
 
 * Shall i3 here properl}' used in the present tense, having the same analo*' 
 to should thai can has to coidr/^ may to might, and will to would. 
 
. ETYMOLOOY. m 
 
 Imperfect Tense, 
 Sing. 1. I did. 2. Thou didst. 3. He did. 
 
 Plur. 1. We did. 2. Ye or you did. 3. They did. 
 
 Participles, 
 Present Doing. Perfect. Done. 
 
 The verbs have, he, will, and do, when they are unconnected 
 with a principal verb, expressed or understood, are not auxilia- 
 ries, but principal verbs : as, '' We have enough ;" " I am grateful ;" 
 " He wills it to be so ;" " They do as they please." In this view, 
 they also have their auxiliaries : as, " I shall have enough ;" " I 
 will be gratefid," &c. 
 
 The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will appear from 
 the following account of them. ♦ 
 
 Do and did mark the action itself, or the time of it, with great- 
 er energy and positiveness : as, " I do speak truth.;" " I did 
 respect him;" "Here am I, /or thou didst caAl me." They are 
 of great use in negative sentences r as, " I do not fear;" " I did 
 Kot write." They are almost universally employed in asking 
 questions : as, " Does he learn ?" " Did he not write ?" They 
 sometimes also supply tlie place of another verb, and make the 
 repetition of it in the same, or a subsequent sentence, unneces- 
 sary: as, "You attend not to your studies as he does ;^^ (i. e. as he 
 attends, Slc,^ " I shall come if I can ; but if I c^ not, please to ex- 
 cuse me ;" (i. e. if I come not.) 
 
 Let not only expresses permission, but entreating, exhorting, 
 commanding: as, "Let us know the truth ;" " Let me die the 
 death of the righteous ;" " Let not thy heart be too much elated 
 with success ;" " Let thy inclination submit to thy duty." 
 
 May and might express the possibiHty or liberty of doing a 
 thing; can and could, the power: as, " It may rain ;" "I may 
 write or read;" "He might have improved more than he has;" 
 ** He can write much better than he could last year." 
 
 Must is sometimes called in for a helper, and denotes necessi'* 
 ty ; as, " We must speak the truth whenever we do speak, a?jd 
 we must not prevaricate." 
 
 Will, in the first person singular and plural, intimates resolu- 
 tion and promising ; in the second and third person, only foretells: 
 as, " I will reward the good, and will punish the wicked ;" "We 
 will remember benefits, and be grateful ;" " Thou wilt, or he 
 will, repent of that folly;" "You or they will have a pleasant 
 A^alk." 
 
 Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretells ; in 
 •he second and third persons, promises, commands, or threatens : 
 ws, " I shall go abroad ;" "We shall dine at home ;" " Thon shalt, 
 ^r you shall, inherit the land :" " Ye shall do justice, and love 
 mercy ;" " They shall account for their misconduct." The fol- 
 lowing passage is not translated according to the distinct and 
 proper meanings of the words shall and will: "Surely goodngss 
 and mercy sliali follow me all the days of my life ; and I will 
 
70 EXGLISII GRAlvlAlAn. 
 
 4hveil in tlje liouse of'tliu Lord i'or ever;" ii ou^Jii to In*, " 'ft 
 follow nic," and ^^i shall dwell." — Tlie Ibrcfgiiei- w l7s>,!i:* it is 3«hiJ 
 fell into the Tliames, tiiid cried out; "I inli be drowned, i.ojsod} 
 shall help me ;'* made a sad mi6a|)])lication of* those auxiliaries. 
 
 These observations respectmg the inij)ort of the verl)s tvill and 
 shall, must be understood of explicative sentences; for when the 
 sentence is interrogative, just the reverse, for the most part, 
 takes place : thus, " Ishall go ; you ivill go ;" express event only : 
 but, " mZZ you go ?" imports intention ; and, "^^cr/ZI go?*^' refers 
 to the will of another. But, " He shall go," and *' shall he go ?" 
 both imply will ; expressing or referring to a command. 
 
 When the verb is put in the subjunctive mood, the meaning 
 of these auxiharies likewise undergoes some alteration ; as the 
 earner* will readily perceive by a few examples: ''He shall pro- 
 ceed" " If he shall proceed ;" " You shall consent," " If you shall 
 consent." These auxiliaries are sometimes interchanged, in the 
 indicative and subjunctive moods, to^onvey the same meaning of 
 the auxiliary : as, " He will not return," " If he shall not return ;" 
 '*He shaU not return," " If he urill not return." 
 
 Would, primarily denotes inclination of will ; and should, obli- 
 gation : but they both vary their import, and are often used to 
 express simple event. 
 
 SECTION VIII. The Conjugation of Regular Verbs 
 
 ACTIVE. 
 
 Verbs Active are called Regular, when they form then 
 imperfect tense of the indicative mood, and their perfect 
 participle, by adding to the verb ed, or d only when the verb 
 ends in e : as. 
 
 Present. Imperfect. Perf. Particip. 
 
 I favour. I favoured. Favoured. 
 
 I love. I loved. Loved. 
 
 A Regular Active Verb is conjugated in the followmg 
 manner 
 
 TO LOVE. 
 Indicative Mood. 
 Present Tense, 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I love.* 1. We love. 
 
 2. Thou lovest. 2. Ye or you love. 
 
 3. He she, or it, loveth,? 3^ r^^ ,^^^^ 
 or loves, J -^ 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I loved. 1. We loved. 
 
 2. Thou lovedst. 2. Ye or vou loved. 
 
 3. He lo ved. 3. Tliey loved . «.,.-.,«^ 
 
 ♦ In the present and imperfect tenses, we use a diflferentform of the verb, 
 
 vfhen we mean to express energy and positiveness : as, " I do love \ thou 4ost 
 ioTe ; he doss love ; I did love ; tiiou didst love \ he did love.* 
 
ETYMOLOGY. Tl 
 
 Pe^'fecl Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I have loved. 1. We have loved. 
 
 2. Thou hast loved. 2. Ye or you have loved. 
 3 He hath or has loved. 3. They have loved. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 
 
 ^. Thou hadst loved. ^. Ye or you had loved 
 
 3. He hati loved. 3. They had loved. 
 
 First Future Tense, 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall m' ^^^ll love. 1. We shall or will love. 
 
 2. Thou shalt or wilt love. ^. Ye or you shall or will lov€. 
 
 3. He shall or will love. 3. They shall or will love. 
 
 Second Future Tense, 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. 1 shall have loved^ 1. We shall have loved. 
 
 2. Thou wilt have loved. 2. Ye or you will have loved 
 8. He will have loved. 3. They will have loved. 
 
 Those tenses are called simple tenses, which are formed of the 
 jnincipal, without ar» auxiliary verb : as, " I love, I loved." The 
 oom[)ound tenses are such as cannot be formed without an aux- 
 iliary verb : as, " I have loved ; I had loved ; I shall or wUl love; 
 I may love ; I may he loved ; I may have been loved ;" &c. These 
 compounds are, however, to be considered as only different forms 
 of the same verb. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. Let me love. 1. Let us love. 
 
 2. Love, w love thou, or 2. Love, or love ye or you, or 
 
 do thou love. do ye love. 
 
 3 Let him love. 3. Let them love. 
 
 Potential Mood. 
 Present Tense, 
 Singular Plural, 
 
 1. I may or can love. 1. We may or can love. 
 
 2. Thou mayst or canst love. 2. Ye or you may or can love* 
 8. He may or can love. 3. They may <w* can love. 
 
 Imperfect Tense, 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 L I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 
 
 should love. should love. 
 
 2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, would, 
 
 wouldst, or shouldst love. or should love. 
 
 8. He might, could, would, 3. They mighty could, would, or 
 or should love. should love. 
 
72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1| 
 
 Perfect Tense, 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may or can have loved. 1. We may or can have loved. 
 
 2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can have 
 loved. loved. 
 
 3. He may or can have loved. 3. They may or can have loved. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 09 
 should have loved. should have loved. 
 
 2. Thou mightst, couldst, ^ Ye or you might, could,would, 
 wouldst, or shouldst have ^^ ^^J^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ 
 
 loved. 
 
 3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, Of 
 or should have loved. should have loved 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 Present Tense ^ 
 Singular. Plural 
 
 1. If I love. 1. If we love. 
 
 2. If thou love. 2. If ye or you love. 
 
 3. If he love. 3. If they love. 
 
 The remaining tenses of this mood, are, in general, simtlsir 
 to the correspondent tenses of the indicative mood. See pag& 
 64, and page 73. 
 
 It may be of use to the scholar, to remark, in this place, that 
 though only the conjunction if is affixed to the verb, any otlier 
 conjunction proper for the subjunctive mood, may, with equal 
 propriety, be occasionally annexed. The instance given is sufli- 
 cient to explain the subject : more would be tedious, and tend to 
 embarrass the learner. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 Present. To love. Perfect. To have loved. 
 
 Participles. 
 Present. Loving. Perfect. Loved. 
 
 Compound Perfect. Having loved. 
 
 The active verb may be conjugated differently, by adding its 
 present or active participle to the auxiliary verb to fee, through 
 all its moods and tenses ; as, instead of "I teach, thou teachest, 
 he teaches," &c. ; we may say, " I am teaching, thou art teach- 
 ing, he is teaching," &c. : and instead of" I taught," &c. " I was 
 teaching," &c. and so on, through all the variations of the aux- 
 iliary. This mode of conjugation has, on particular occasions, 
 a peculiar propriety ; and contributes to the harmony and pre- 
 cision of the language. These forms of expression are adapted 
 to particular acts, not to general habits, or affections of the mind. 
 They are very frequently applied to neuter verbs ; as, " I am 
 musing ; he is sleeping."^ 
 
 * As the participle, in this mode of conjugation, performs the office of a verb, 
 thcougji allthe moods and tenses \ and as it implies the idea of time, and governs 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 73 
 
 Soms grammarians apply, what is called the conjunctive termi- 
 nation, to the persons of the principal verh, and to its auxiliaries, 
 through all the tenses of the suhjunctive mood. But this is cer- 
 tainly contrary to the practice of good writers. Johnson ap- 
 l)lies this termination to the present and perfect tenses only. 
 Lowth restricts it entirely to the })resent tense ; and Priestley 
 confines it to the present and imperfect tenses. This difference 
 of opinion amongst grammarians of such eminence, may have 
 contrihuted to that diversity of practice, so ohservable in the 
 use of the subjunctive mood. Uniformity in this point is highly 
 desirable- It would materially assist both teachers and learn- 
 ers ; and would constitute a considerable improvement in our 
 language. On this subject, we adopt the opinion of Dr. Lowth ; 
 and conceive we are fully warranted by his authority, and that 
 of the most correct and elegant writers, in limiting the con- 
 junctive termination of the principal verb, to the second and 
 third person singular of the present tense. 
 
 Grammarians have not only differed in opinion, respecting the 
 extent and variations of the subjunctive mood ; but afew of them 
 have even doubted the existence of such a mood in the Eng- 
 lish language. These writers assert, that the verb has no vari- 
 ation from the indicative ; and that a conjunction added to the 
 verb, gives it no title to become a distinct mood ; or, at most, 
 no better than it would have, if any other particle were joined 
 to it. To these observations it may be replied ; 1st. It is evident, 
 on inspection, that, in the subjunctive rnood,the present tense of 
 the principal verbs, the present and imperfect tenses of the verb 
 to he, and the second and third persons, in both numbers, of the 
 second future tense of all verbs ;* require a variation from the 
 forms which those tenses have in the indicative mood. So much 
 difference in the form of the verb, would warrant a correspondent 
 distinction of mood, though the remaining parts of the subjunctive 
 were, in all respects, similar to those of the indicative. In other 
 languages, a prhiciple of this nature has been admitted, both in 
 the conjugation of verbs, and the declension of nouns. 2d. There 
 appears to be as much propriety, in giving a conjunction the 
 power of assisting to form the subjunctive mood, as there is in 
 allowing the particle to to have an effect in the formation of the 
 infinitive mood.f Sd. A conjunction added to the verb, shows 
 the manner of being, doing, or suffering, which other particles 
 cannot show : they do not coalesce with the verb, and modify it 
 as conjunctions do. 4th. It may be said, " If contingency consti- 
 
 rhe objective case of nouns and pronouns, in the same manner as verbs i\o: is 
 It not manifest, tliat it is a specie? or form of the verb, and that it cannot be 
 properly considered as a distinct part of speech ? 
 V* We think it has been proved, that the auxiliary is a constituent part of the 
 verb to which it relates : that tlie principal and its auxiliary form but one verbu 
 f Conjunctions have an influence on the mood of the foUowhig verb. 
 
 Dr. BeatUe* 
 Conjunctions have sometimes a government of mood*. Dr. Lou^ 
 
74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 tutes tlie subjunctive mood, then it is tlie sense of a phrase, and 
 not a conjunction, that determines this mood." But a littie re- 
 flection will show, that the contingent sense lies in the meaning 
 and force of the conjunction, expressed or understood. 
 
 This subject maybe farther illustrated, by the following obser- 
 vations. — Moods have a foundation in nature. They show what is 
 certain ; what is possible ; what is conditional ; what is command- 
 ed. They express also other conceptions and volitions ; all signify- 
 ing the manner of being, doing, or suffering. But as it would tend 
 to obscure, rather than elucidate the subject, if the moods were 
 \iarticularly enumerated, grammarians have very properly given 
 ihem such combinations and arrangements, as serve to explain 
 the nature of this part of language, and to render the knowledge 
 of it easily attainable. 
 
 The grammars of some languages contain a greater number 
 of the moods, than others, and exhibit them in different forms 
 The Greek and Roman tongues denote them, by particular vari- 
 ations in the verb itself. This form, however, was the effect oi 
 ingenuity and improvement : it is not essential to the nature oi 
 the subject. The moods may be as effectually designated by a 
 plurality of words, as by a change in the a})pearance of a single 
 word ; because the same ideas are denoted, and the same ends 
 accomplished, by either manner of expression. 
 
 On this ground, the moods of the English verb, as well as the 
 tenses, are, with great propriety, formed partly by the principal 
 verb itself, and partly by the assistance which that verb derives 
 from other words. For further observations, relative to the 
 views and sentiments here advanced, see pages 56j 56. 59, 60. 
 77, 78—139—140. 
 
 PASSIVE. 
 
 Verbs Passive are called regular, when they form their 
 perfect participle by the addition of d or ed, to the verb: 
 as, from the verb " To love," is formed the passive, " I am 
 loved, I was loved, I shall be loved," &c. 
 
 A passive verb is conjugated by adding the perfect parti- 
 ciple to the auxiliary to 6e, through all its changes of number 
 person, mood, and tense, in the following manner. 
 TO BE LOVED. 
 Indicative Mood. 
 Present Tense, 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I am loved. 1. We are loved. 
 
 2. Thou art loved. 2. Ye or you are loved. 
 
 3. He is loved. 3. They are loved. 
 
 Imperfect Tense, 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I was loved 1. We were loved. 
 
 ^ Tliou wabt loved. 2. Ye or you were loved. 
 
 Uo was loved. 3. They were loved. 
 
ETYMOLOGY 75 
 
 Perfect Tense, 
 Singular Plural. 
 
 1, I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 
 
 9. Thou hast been loved. 2. Ye or you have been loved. 
 
 3. He hath or '^as been loved. 3. They have been loved. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense, 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I had been lo«red. 1. We had been loved. 
 
 2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. Ye or you had been loved. 
 
 3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. 
 
 First Future Tense, 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall or will be loved. !• We shall or vrill be loved. 
 
 1. Thou shalt or vv^ilt be loved. 2. Ye or you shall or will be loved 
 3. He shall or will be loved. 3. They shall or will be loved. 
 
 Second Future Tense, 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 J. I shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved. 
 
 2. Tliou wilt have been loved. 2. Ye or you will have been loved. 
 
 3. He will have been loved. 3, They will have been loved. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 J. Let me be loved. 1, Let us be loved. 
 
 2. Be thou loved, or do thou 2. Be ye or you loved, or do ye be 
 be loved. loved. 
 
 3. Let him be loved. 3. Let them be loved. 
 
 Potential Mood. 
 Present Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may or can be loved. 1. We may or can be loved. 
 
 2. Thou mayst or canst be loved. 2. Ye or you may or can be loved. 
 
 3. He may or can be loved. 3. They may or can be loved. 
 
 Imperfect Tense, 
 Singular. Plural 
 
 I, I might, could, would, or L We might, could, would, or 
 
 should be loved. should be loved. 
 
 I, Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could,wouldv 
 
 wouldst, or shouldst be loved. or should be loved. 
 3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, o* 
 
 or should be loved. should be loved. 
 
 Perfect Tense, 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 I. I may or can have been 1. We may or can have been 
 
 loved. loved. 
 
 i. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can have 
 
 been loved. been loved. 
 
 3 He may or can have been 3. They may or can have been 
 loved. loved. 
 
76 ENGLISH GRAMxMAR. 
 
 Pluperfed Tense. 
 
 Singular Plural. 
 
 1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 
 should have been loved. should have been loved. 
 
 2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye oryou might, could,would 
 wouldst, or shouldst have or should have been loved, 
 been loved. 
 
 3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, c 
 or should have been loved. should have been loved. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1, If I be loved. 1. If we be loved. 
 
 2, If thou be loved. 2. If ye or you be loved. 
 
 3, If he be loved. 3. If they be loved. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I were loved. 1. If we were loved. 
 
 2. If thou wert loved. 2. If ye or you were loved. 
 
 3. If he were loved. 3, If they were loved. 
 
 The remaining tenses of this mood are, in general, similar tu 
 the correspondent tenses of the indicative mood. See pages 
 64, 73, and the notes under the nineteenth rule of Syntax. 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 Present Tense. Perfect. 
 
 To bo loved. To have been loved. 
 
 Pai^ticiples. 
 
 Present. Being loved. 
 
 Perfect or Passive. Loved. 
 
 Compound Perfect. Having been loved. 
 
 When an auxiliary is joined to the participle of the principa) 
 verb, the auxihary goes through all the variations of person an(t 
 number, and the participle itself continues invariably the same 
 When there are two or more auxiliaries joined to the participle, 
 the first of them only is varied according to person and number. 
 The auxiliary r7iii5i admits of no variation. 
 
 The neuter verb is conjugated like the active; but as it pai- 
 takes somewhat of the nature of the passive, it admits, in many 
 instances, of the passive form, retaining still the neuter signifi- 
 cation : as, "I am arrived;" "I was gone;" "I am grown.' 
 The auxiliary verb, am, was, in this case, })recisely defines the 
 time of the action or event, but does not change the nature of it ; 
 the passive form still expressing, not properly a passion, but only 
 a state Or condition of being. 
 
 SECTION IX. Ghservations on Passive Verbs. 
 Some writers on grammar assert, that there are no passiva 
 verbs in the English language, because we have no verbs of this 
 kind with a peculiar termination, all of them being formed by th« 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 77 
 
 difFerent tenses of the -auxiliary to he, joined to the passive parti- 
 ciple of the verb. This is, however, to mistake the true nature 
 of the English verb ; and to regulate it, not on the principles of 
 our o.wn tongue, but on those of foreign languages. The con- 
 jugation, or the variation, of the English verb, to answer all the 
 purposes of verbs, is accomplished by the means of auxiliaries ; 
 and if it be alleged that we have no passive verbs, because we 
 cannot exhibit them without having recourse to helping verbs, it 
 may with equal truth be said, that we have no perfect, pluperfect, 
 or future tense, in the indicative or subjunctive mood; since 
 these, as well as some other parts of the verb active, are formed 
 by auxiliaries. 
 
 Even the Greek and Latin passive verbs require an auxiliary 
 to conjugate some of their tenses ; namely, the former, in the 
 preterit of the optative and subjunctive moods; and the latter, 
 in the perfect and pluperfect of the indicative, the perfect, plu- 
 perfect, and future, of the subjunctive mood, and the perfect of 
 the infinitive. The deponent verbs, in Latin, require also an 
 auxiliary to conjugate several of their tenses. This statement 
 abundantly proves that the conjugation of a verb in the learned 
 languages does not consist solely in varying the form of the 
 original verb. It proves that these languages, like our own 
 language, sometimes conjugate with an auxiliary, and some- 
 times without it. There is, indeed, a difference. What the 
 learned languages require to be done, in some instances, the 
 peculiar genius of our own tongue obliges us to do, in active 
 verbs, principally, and in passive ones, universally. In short, 
 the variation of the verb, in Greek and Latin, is generally ac- 
 complished by prefixes, or terminations, added to the verb itself; 
 in English, by the addition of auxiliaries. 
 
 The English tongue is, in many respects, materially different 
 from the learned languages. It is, therefore, very possible to be 
 mistaken ourselves, and to mislead and perplex others, by an 
 undistinguishing attachment to the principles and arrangement 
 of the Greek and Latin grammarians. Much of the confusion 
 and perplexity, which we meet with in the writings of some 
 English grammarians, on the subject of verbs, moods, and con- 
 jugations, has arisen from the misapplication of names. We are 
 apt to think, that the old names must always be attached to the 
 identical forms and things to which they were anciently attached. 
 But if we rectify this mistake, and properly adjust the names to 
 the peculiar forms and nature of the things in our own language, 
 we shall be clear and consistent in our ideas ; and, consequently, 
 better able to represent them intelligibly to those whom we wish 
 to inform. 
 
 The observations which we have made under this head, and 
 on the subject of the moods in another place, will not apply to 
 the declension and cases of nouns, so as to require us to adopt 
 names and divisions similar to those of the Greek and Latin Ian 
 guages : for we should then have more cases than there are pr« 
 
78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 ;r all, H 
 e ever^l 
 
 positions in connexion with the article and noun : and after j 
 would be a useless, as well as an unwieldy apparatus ; since c 
 English preposition points to, and governs, but one case, namely 
 the objective ; which is also true with respect to our governing 
 verbs and participles. But the conjugation of an English verb in 
 form, through all its moods and tenses, by means of auxiliaries, 
 so far from being useless or intricate, is a beautiful and regular 
 display of it, and indispensably necessary to the language. 
 
 Some grammarians have alleged, that on the same ground that 
 the voices, moods, and tenses, are adnntted into the English tongue, 
 in the forms for which we have contended, we should also admit 
 the dual number, the paulo post future tense, the middle voice, 
 and all the moods and tenses, which are to be found in Greek and 
 Latin. But this objection, tliough urged with much reliance on 
 its weight, is not well founded. If the arrangement of the moods, 
 tenses, &c. which we have adopted, is suited to the idiom of our 
 tongue ; and the principle, on which they are adopted, is extend 
 ed as far as use and convenience require ; where is the impro- 
 priety, in arresting our progress, and fixing our forms at the point 
 of utility ? A principle may be warrantably adopted, and car- 
 ried to a precise convenient extent, without subjecting its sup- 
 porters to the charge of inconsistency, for not pursuing it beyond 
 the line of use and propriety. 
 
 The importance of giving the ingenious stud'^.nt clear and just 
 ideas of the nature of our verbs, moods, and tenses, will apolo- 
 gize for the extent of the Author's remarks on these subjt3Cts, 
 both here and elsewhere, and for his solicitude to simplify and 
 explain them. — He thinks it has been proved, that the idiom of 
 our tongue demands the arrangement he has gi^en to the Eng- 
 lish verb ; and that, though the learned languages, with respect 
 to voices, moods, and tenses, are, in general, differently con- 
 structed from the English tongue, yet, in some respects, they are 
 so similar to it, as to warrant the principle which he has adopted 
 See pages 55, 56. 60, 61. 73, 74. 139 -140. 
 
 SECTION X. Of Irregular Verbs. 
 
 Irregular verbs are those which do not form their im- 
 perfect tense, and their perfect participle, by the addition of 
 d or ed to the verb : as, 
 
 Present. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Perfect Part. 
 
 I begin. 
 
 I began. 
 
 begun. 
 
 1 know, 
 
 I knew, 
 
 known. 
 
 Irregular Verbs are of various sorts. 
 1. Such as have tho present and imperfect tenses, and perfect 
 participle the same : as. 
 
 Present. Imperfect. Perfect Part 
 
 Cost, cost, cost. 
 
 Put put, put. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 79 
 
 2. Such as have the imperfect tense, and perfect participle, the 
 
 same : as, 
 
 Present. Imperfect. Perfect Part. 
 
 Abide, abode, abode. 
 
 Sell, sell, sold. 
 
 3. Such as have the imperfect tense, and perfect participle 
 different: as, 
 
 Present. Imperfect. Perfect Part. 
 
 Arise, arose, arisen. 
 
 Blow, blew, blown. 
 
 Many verbs become irregular by contraction ; as, "feed, fed j 
 leave, left :'* others by the termination C7i; as, "fall, fell, fallen:" 
 others by the termination g-/if ; as," buy, bought ; teach, taught,"&c. 
 
 The following list of the irregular verbs will, it is presumed, 
 be found both comprehensive and accurate. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Imperfect 
 
 Perf. or Pass. Part. 
 
 Abide, 
 
 abode, 
 
 abode. 
 
 Am, 
 
 was. 
 
 been. 
 
 Arise, 
 
 arose. 
 
 arisen. 
 
 Awake, 
 
 awoke, r. 
 
 awaked. 
 
 Bear, to bring forthy 
 
 bare. 
 
 born. 
 
 Bear, to carnj^ 
 
 bore, 
 
 borne. 
 
 Beat, 
 
 beat. 
 
 beaten, beat. 
 
 Begin, 
 
 began, 
 
 begun. 
 
 Bend, 
 
 bent. 
 
 bent. 
 
 Bereave, 
 
 bereft, r. 
 
 bereft, r 
 
 Beseech, 
 
 besought. 
 
 besought. 
 
 Bid, 
 
 bid, bade. 
 
 bidden, bid. 
 
 Bind, 
 
 bound. 
 
 bound. 
 
 Bite, 
 
 bit. 
 
 bitten, bit. 
 
 Bleed. 
 
 bled. 
 
 bled. 
 
 Blow, 
 
 blew, 
 
 blown. 
 
 Break, 
 
 broke. 
 
 broken 
 
 Breed, 
 
 bred, 
 
 bred. 
 
 Bring, 
 
 brought, 
 
 brought. 
 
 Build, 
 
 built, 
 
 built. 
 
 Burst, 
 
 burst, 
 
 burst. 
 
 Buy, 
 
 bought. 
 
 bought. 
 
 Cast, 
 
 cast. 
 
 cast. 
 
 Catch, 
 
 caught, R. 
 
 cauffht, R. 
 chidd««i, chid. 
 
 Chide, 
 
 chid. 
 
 Choose, 
 
 chose. 
 
 chosen 
 
 Cleave, to stick or 
 
 > REGULAR. 
 
 
 adhere, 
 
 
 Cleave, to split. 
 
 clove, or cleft. 
 
 cleft, cloven. 
 
 Cling, 
 
 clung. 
 
 clung. 
 
 Clothe, 
 
 clothed, 
 
 clad. R. 
 
 Come, 
 
 camo, 
 
 come. 
 
 Cost, 
 
 cost, 
 
 cost. 
 
80 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Perf. or Paes. Par*. 
 
 Crow, 
 
 crew, R. 
 
 crowed. 
 
 Creep, 
 
 crept, 
 
 crept. 
 
 Cut, 
 
 cut. 
 
 cut. 
 
 Dare, to venture. 
 
 durst. 
 
 dared. 
 
 J)are, b, to challenge 
 
 !« 
 
 
 Deal 
 
 dealt, R. 
 
 dealt, R. 
 
 J)ig, 
 
 dug, R. 
 
 dug, R. 
 
 Do, 
 
 did. 
 
 done. Jj 
 
 Draw, 
 
 drew. 
 
 drawn. m 
 
 Drive 
 
 drove. 
 
 driven. 
 
 Drink, 
 
 drank. 
 
 drunjc. 
 
 Dwell, 
 
 dwelt, R. 
 
 dwelt, t> 
 
 Eat, 
 
 eat or ate. 
 
 eaten. 
 
 Fall, 
 
 fell. 
 
 fallen. 
 
 Feed, 
 
 fed, 
 
 fed. 
 
 Feel, 
 
 felt. 
 
 felt. 
 
 Fight, 
 
 fought, 
 
 fough 
 
 Find, 
 
 found, 
 
 founii 
 
 Flee, 
 
 fled. 
 
 fled. 
 
 Fling, 
 
 flungv 
 
 flung. 
 
 Fly, 
 
 flew. 
 
 flown 
 
 Forget, 
 
 forgot. 
 
 forgottfcu, forgot 
 
 Forsake, 
 
 foraook, 
 
 forsakekt. 
 
 Freeze, 
 
 froze. 
 
 frozen. 
 
 Get, 
 
 got. 
 
 got.* 
 
 Gild, 
 
 gilt, R. 
 
 gilt, R. 
 
 Gird, 
 
 girt, R. 
 
 girt, R. 
 
 Give, 
 
 gave. 
 
 givtn. 
 
 Go, 
 
 went, 
 
 gone. 
 
 Grave, 
 
 graved, ^ 
 
 graven, r. 
 
 Grind, 
 
 ground. 
 
 ground. 
 
 Grow, 
 
 grew, 
 
 grown. 
 
 Have, 
 
 had, 
 
 had. 
 
 Hang, 
 
 hung, f 
 
 hung, R. 
 
 Hear, 
 
 heard. 
 
 heard. 
 
 Hew, 
 
 hewed 
 
 hewn, R. 
 
 Hide, 
 
 hid. 
 
 hidden, hid* 
 
 Hit, 
 
 hit, 
 
 hit. 
 
 Hold, 
 
 held. 
 
 held. 
 
 Hurt, 
 
 hurt, 
 
 hurt. 
 
 Keep, 
 
 kept. 
 
 kept. 
 
 Knit, 
 
 knit, I 
 
 knit, a. 
 
 Know, 
 
 knew, 
 
 known. 
 
 Lade, 
 
 laded 
 
 laden. 
 
 Lay, 
 
 laid. 
 
 laid. 
 
 licad, 
 
 led, 
 
 led. 
 
 Leave, 
 
 left. 
 
 left. 
 
 Lend, 
 
 lent. 
 
 lent. 
 
 * Gotten is nearly obsolete. Its compound Jbrgotien ig still in good use. 
 

 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Perf. or Pass. Part. 
 
 Let, 
 
 let, 
 
 let. 
 
 Lie. to lie doion. 
 
 lay. 
 
 lain. 
 
 Load, 
 
 loaded, 
 
 laden, r. 
 
 Lose, 
 
 lost, 
 
 lost. 
 
 Make, 
 
 made. 
 
 made. 
 
 Meet, 
 
 met, 
 
 met. 
 
 Mow, 
 
 mowed. 
 
 mown, r. 
 
 ray, 
 
 paid, 
 
 paid. 
 
 Put, 
 
 put. 
 
 put. 
 
 Read, 
 
 read, 
 
 read. 
 
 Rend, 
 
 , rent. 
 
 rent. 
 
 Rid, 
 
 rid. 
 
 rid. 
 
 Ride, 
 
 rode. 
 
 rode, ridden.* 
 
 Ring, 
 
 rung, rail 
 
 run-g. 
 
 Rise, 
 
 rose. 
 
 risen. 
 
 Rive, 
 
 rived, 
 
 riven. 
 
 Run, 
 
 ran. 
 
 run. 
 
 Saw, 
 
 sawed, 
 
 sawn, R. 
 
 Say, 
 
 said. 
 
 said. 
 
 See, 
 
 saw, 
 
 seen. 
 
 Seek, 
 
 sought. 
 
 sought. 
 
 Sell, 
 
 sold. 
 
 sold. 
 
 Send, 
 
 sent, 
 
 sent. 
 
 Set. 
 
 set. 
 
 set. 
 
 Shake, 
 
 shook, 
 
 shaken. 
 
 Shape, 
 
 shaped. 
 
 shaped, shapcn. 
 
 Shave, 
 
 shaved. 
 
 shaven, r. 
 
 Shear, 
 
 sheared. 
 
 shorn. 
 
 Shed, 
 
 shed, ^ 
 
 shed. 
 
 Shine, 
 
 shone, r 
 
 shone, r. 
 
 Show, 
 
 showed. 
 
 shown. 
 
 Shoe, 
 
 shod. 
 
 shod. 
 
 Shoot, 
 
 shot, 
 
 shot. 
 
 Shrink, 
 
 shrunk, 
 
 shrunk. 
 
 Shred, 
 
 shred, 
 
 shred. 
 
 Sliiit, 
 
 shut. 
 
 shut. 
 
 Sing, 
 
 sung, sang, 
 
 sung. 
 
 Sink, 
 
 sunk, sank. 
 
 sunk. 
 
 Sit, 
 
 sat, 
 
 sat. 
 
 Sh'iy, 
 
 slew, 
 
 slain. 
 
 Sleep, 
 
 slept. 
 
 slept. 
 
 SUde, 
 
 slid. 
 
 slidden. 
 
 Sling, 
 
 slung, 
 
 slung. 
 
 Slink, 
 
 slunk, 
 
 slunk. 
 
 Sht, 
 
 slit, R. 
 
 slit, or slitted. 
 
 Smite, 
 
 smote. 
 
 smitten. 
 
 Sow, 
 
 sowed, 
 
 sown. R. 
 
 Speak, 
 
 spoke. 
 
 spoken. 
 
 
 *^ Ridden is nearly obsolete. 
 
82 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Perf. or Pass. Part. 
 
 sped. 
 
 spent. 
 
 spilt. R. 
 
 spun. 
 
 spit, spitten* 
 
 split. 
 
 spread. 
 
 sprung. 
 
 stood. 
 
 stolen. 
 
 stuck. 
 
 stung. 
 
 stun£. 
 
 stridden. 
 
 struck or stricken 
 
 strung. 
 
 striven. 
 
 strown, strowed 
 
 strewed, 
 sworn, 
 swet, k, 
 swollen, R. 
 swum, 
 swung, 
 taken. 
 
 taught. -- , 
 
 torn, 
 told, 
 thought, 
 thriven, 
 thrown, 
 thrust, 
 hodden, 
 waxen, r. 
 worn, 
 woven, 
 wept, 
 won. 
 wound. 
 
 wrought or worked, 
 wrung, 
 written. 
 
 In the preceding list, some of the verbs will be found to be 
 conjugated regularly, as well as irregularly ; and those which 
 admit of the regular form are marked with an b. There is a 
 preference to be given to some of these, which custom and 
 iudgment must determine. Those preterits and participles which 
 
 Present. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Speed, 
 
 sped. 
 
 Spend, 
 
 spent. 
 
 Spill, 
 
 spilt, R. 
 
 Spin, 
 
 spun. 
 
 Spit, 
 
 spit, spat, 
 
 Split, 
 
 spht, 
 
 Spread, 
 
 spread. 
 
 Spring, 
 
 sprung, sprang. 
 
 Stand, 
 
 stood. 
 
 Steal, 
 
 stole. 
 
 Stick, 
 
 stuck. 
 
 Sting, 
 
 stung. 
 
 Stink, 
 
 stunk. 
 
 Stride, 
 
 strode or strid. 
 
 Strike, 
 
 struck, 
 
 String, 
 
 strung, 
 
 Strive, 
 
 strove. 
 
 Strow or strew, 
 
 strowed or strewed. 
 
 Swear, 
 
 swore. 
 
 Sweat, 
 
 swet, R. 
 
 SweUL 
 
 swelled, 
 
 Swim, 
 
 swum, swam, 
 
 Swing, 
 
 swung. 
 
 Take, 
 
 took, 
 
 Teach, 
 
 taught, 
 
 Tear, 
 
 tore, 
 
 Tell, 
 
 told. 
 
 Think, 
 
 thought, ^ 
 
 Thrive, 
 
 throve, r. 
 
 Throw, 
 
 threw. 
 
 Thrust, 
 
 thrust, 
 
 Tread, 
 
 trod. 
 
 Wax, . 
 
 waxed, 
 
 Wear, 
 
 wore. 
 
 Weave, 
 
 wove, 
 
 Weep, 
 
 wept. 
 
 Win, 
 
 won. 
 
 Wind, 
 
 wound, 
 
 Work, 
 
 wrought. 
 
 Wring, 
 
 wrung. 
 
 Write, 
 
 wrote, 
 
 Spiiten is nearly obsolete. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 83 
 
 are first mentioned in the list, seem to be most eligible. The 
 Compiler has not inserted such verbs as are irregular only in 
 familiar writing or discourse, and which are improperly termi- 
 nated by t, instead of ed : as, learnt, spelt, spilt, &c. These 
 should be avoided in every sort of composition. It is, however, 
 proper to observe, that some contractions of edinto t, are unex- 
 ceptionable : and others, the only established forms of expression : 
 as crept, gilt, &c. : and lost, felt, slept, &c. These allowable and 
 necessary contractions must therefore be carefully distinguished 
 by the learner, from those that are exceptionable. The words 
 which are obsolete have also been omitted, that the learner might 
 not be induced to mistake them for words in present use. Such 
 are,wreathen, drunken, holpen, molten, gotten, holden, bounden, 
 &c.: and swang, wrang, slank, strawed, gat, brake, tare,ware, &c. 
 
 SECTION XI. Of Defective Verbs; and of the different ways in 
 which verbs are conjugated. 
 
 Defective verbs are those which are used only in 
 some of their moods and tenses. 
 
 2Vie principal of them are these. 
 Present. Imperfect. Perf. or Pass. Part, 
 
 Can, could, 
 
 May, might, ~ 
 
 Shall, should, 
 
 Will, would, 
 
 Must, must, 
 
 Ought, ought, 
 
 quoth, 
 
 That the verbs must and ought have both a present and past 
 signification, appears from the following sentences : " I must 
 own that I am to blame ;" " He must have been mistaken ;" 
 " Speaking things which they ought not ;" •' These ought ye to 
 have done." 
 
 In most languages there are some verbs which are defective 
 with respect to persons. These are denominated impersonal 
 verbs. They are used only in the third person, because they 
 refer to a subject peculiarly appropriated to that person ; as, 
 " It rains, it snows, it hails, it lightens, it thunders." But as the 
 word impersonal implies a total absence of persons, it is impro- 
 perly applied to those verbs which have a person : and hence it 
 is manifest, that there is no such thing in English, nor indeed, in 
 any language, as a sort of verbs really impersonal. 
 
 The whole number of verbs in the English language, regular 
 
 and irregular, simple ai;d compounded, taken together, is about 
 
 4300. The number of irregular verbs, the defective included, ia 
 
 about 177.* 
 
 Some grammarians have thought that the English verbs, as wel! 
 
 * The «hole number of words, in the English language, is about thirty-fivo 
 thousand '% 
 
84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 as those of the Greek, Latin, French, and other languages, might 
 be classed into several conjiigaiions ; and that the three different 
 terminations of the participle might be the distinguishing cha- 
 racteristics. They have accordingly proposed three conjuga- 
 tions ; namely, the first to consist of verbs, the participles of 
 which end in ed or its contraction i ; the second, of those ending 
 in ght; and the third of those in en. But as the verbs of the 
 first conjugation, would so greatly exceed in number those of 
 ^oth the others, as may be seen by the preceding account ol 
 ibem ; and as those of the third conjugation are so various in 
 iheir form, and incapable of being reduced to one plain rule ; it 
 seems better in practice, as Dr. Lowth justly observes, to consider 
 the first in ed as the only regular form, and the other as deviations 
 A"om it ; after the example of the Saxon and German grammarians. 
 Before we close the account of the verbs, it may afford in- 
 etruction to the learners, to be informed, more particularly than 
 they have been, that different nations have made use of different 
 contrivances for marking the tenses and moods of their verbs. 
 The Greeks and Latins distinguish them, as well as the cases of 
 their nouns, adjectives, and participles, by varying the termina- 
 tion, or otherwise changing the form, of the word ; retaining, 
 however, those radical letters, which prove the inflection to be of 
 the same kindred with its root. The modern tongues, particularly 
 the English, abound in auxiliary words, which vary the mean- 
 ing of the noun, or the verb, without requiring any considerable 
 varieties of inflection. Thus, I do love, I did love, I have loved, I 
 had loved, I shall love, have the same import with avio, amaham^ 
 amavi, amaveram, amaho. It is obvious, that a language, like the 
 Greek or Latin, which can thus comprehend in one word the 
 meaning of two or three words, must have some advantages 
 over those which are not so comprehensive. Perhaps, indeed, 
 it may not be more perspicuous ; but, in the arrangement of words, 
 and consequently in harmony and energy, as well as in con- 
 ciseness, it may be much more elegant. 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 OF ADVERBS. 
 
 An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, an adjec- 
 tive, and sometimes to another adverb, to express some 
 quality or circumstance respecting it : as, " He reads well ^" 
 *' A truly good man ;" " He writes very correctly ^ 
 
 Some adverbs are compared, tlms, "Soon, sooner, soon- 
 est ;" " often, oftener, oftenest." Those ending in ly, are 
 compared by morc^ and most : as, " Wisely, more wisely, most 
 wisely." 
 
 Adverbs seem originally to have been contrived to express 
 compendiously in one word, what must otherwise have required 
 two or more : as, ** He acted wisely," for, be acted with wifadoni • 
 
frrvMOLOGY. e's 
 
 "prudently," for, with prudence ; "He ditl it here," for, be did 
 it in this place ; " exceedingly," for, to a great degree ; " often 
 and seldom," for many, and for few times ; " very," for, in aD 
 eminent degree, &c. 
 
 There are many words in the English languc.ge that are some- 
 times used as adjectives, and sometimes as adverbs : as, "More 
 men than women were there ;" or, " I am more diligent than 
 he." In the former sentence more 13 evidently an adjective, and 
 in the latter, an adverb. There are others that are sometimes 
 used as substantives, and sometimes as adverbs : as, " To-day's 
 lesson is longer than yesterday's ;" here to-day and yesterday are 
 substantives, because they are words that make sense of them- 
 selves, and admit besides of a genitive case: but in the phrase, 
 " He came home yesterday, and sets out again to-day," they are 
 adverbs of time ; because they answer to the question when 
 The adverb much is used as all three: as, "Where much ia 
 given, much is required;" "Much money has been expended ;" 
 "It is much better to go than to stay." In the first of these 
 sentences, much is a substantive ; in the second, it is an adjec- 
 tive ; and in the third, an adverb. In short, nothing but the 
 sense can determine what they are. 
 
 Adverbs, though very numerous, may be reduced to certain 
 classes, the chief of which are those of Number, Order, Place, 
 Time, Quantity, Manner or Quality, Doubt, Affirmation, Nega- 
 tion, Interrogation, and Comparison. 
 
 1. Oi 7iU7nber : as, "Once, twice, thrice," &c. 
 
 2. Of order : as, " First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, fifthly, 
 lastly, finally," &c. 
 
 3. Of place: as, "Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, 
 somewhere, nowhere, herein, whither, hither, thither, upward, 
 downward, forward, backward, Avhence, hence, thence, whither- 
 soever," &c. 
 
 4. Of time. 
 
 Of time present: as, "Now, to-day," &c. 
 
 Of time past : as, " Already, before, lately, yesterday, hereto- 
 fore, hitherto, long since, long ago," &c. 
 
 Of time to come : as, "To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, hence- 
 forth, henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, immedi- 
 ately, straightways," Szc. 
 
 Of time indejinite : as, " Oft, often, oft-times, often-times, some- 
 times, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, always, 
 when, then, ever, never, again," &c. 
 
 5. Of qnaniUy : as, " Much, little, sufficiently, how much, 
 how great, enough, abundantly," &c. 
 
 6. Of manner or quality : as, " Wisely, foolishly, justly, un- 
 justly, quicLly, slowly," &c. Adverbs of quality are the most 
 numerous kind ; and they are generally formed by adding the 
 termination ly to an adjective or participle, or changing It into 
 hj: ad, " Bad, badly ; clieerful, cheerfully ; able, ably ; admirable, 
 admirably'." ^ 
 
86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 7. Ofdouht : as, " Perha])s, peradventure, possibly, perchance.** 
 
 8. Of affirmation : as, ** Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtles.% 
 certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really," &c. 
 
 9. Of negation : as, " Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in 
 nowise," &c. 
 
 10. Of interrogation : as, " How, why, wherefore, whether," &c. 
 
 11. 0£ comparison : as, " More, most, better, best, worse, worst,, 
 less, least, very, almost, little, alike," &c. 
 
 Besides the adverbs already mentioned, there are many which 
 are formed by a combination of several of the prepositions with 
 ihe adverbs of place, here, there, and where : as, " Hereof, thereof, 
 whereof; hereto, thereto, whereto; hereby, thereby, whereby; 
 lierewith, therewith, wherewith ; herein, therein, wherein , there- 
 fore, (i. e. there-for,) wherefore, (i. e. where- for,) hereupon or 
 liereon, thereupon or thereon, whereupon or whereon, &c. Ex- 
 cept therefore, these are seldom used. 
 
 In some instances the preposition suffers no change, but be 
 comes an adverb merely by its application : as when we say, 
 "he rides about f^ "he was near falling ;" "but do not after lay 
 the blame on me." 
 
 There are' also some adverbs, which are composed of nouns, 
 and the letter a used instead of at, on, &c.: as, "Aside, athirst, 
 afoot, ahead, asleep, aboard, ashore, abed, aground, afloat," &c. 
 
 The words when and where, and all others of the same nature, 
 such as, whence, whither, whenever, wherever, &c. may be [)roperly 
 called adverbial conjunctions, because they participate the nature 
 both of adverbs and conjunctions: of conjunctions, as they 
 conjoin sentences; of adverbs, as they denote the attributes 
 either of time or of place. 
 
 It may be particularly observed with respect to the word there- 
 fore, that it is an adverb, when, withofit joining sentences, it only 
 gives the sense of, for that reason. When it gives that sense, 
 and also connects, it is a conjunction : as, "He is good, iftere/bre 
 he is happy." The same observation may be extended to the 
 words consequently, accordingly, and the like. When these are 
 subjoined to and, or joined to if, since, &c. they are adverbs, the 
 connexion being made withowt their help : when they appear 
 single, and unsupported by any other connective, they may bo 
 called conjunctions. 
 
 The inquisitive scholamay naturally ask, what necessity there 
 is for adverbs of time, when verbs are provided witli tenses, to show 
 that circumstance. The answer is, though tenses may be suffi 
 cient to denote the greater distinctions of time, yet, to denote 
 them all by the tenses would be a perplexity without end. What 
 a variety ef forms must be given to the vej-b, to denote yesterday, 
 to-day, to-morrow, formerly, lately, just now, now, immediately, pre- 
 sently^ soon, hereafter, &c. It was this consideration that i 
 the adverbs of time necessary, over and above the tenses. 
 
 at mad^ 
 
 '4 
 
Of 
 
 into 
 
 to 
 
 witliin 
 
 for 
 
 without 
 
 by 
 
 over 
 
 with 
 
 under 
 
 in 
 
 tlirough 
 
 at 
 
 off 
 
 near 
 
 on or upon 
 
 up 
 
 among 
 
 down 
 
 after 
 
 before 
 
 about 
 
 behind 
 
 against. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 87 
 
 GIIAPTEll Vin. 
 OF FREPOSITIOjYS. 
 Prepositions serve to connect words with one another, 
 and to show the relation between them. They are, for 
 the most part, put before nouns and pronouns, as, " He 
 went from London to York ;" " She is above disguise ;" 
 *' They are instructed bi/ him." 
 
 The following is a list of the principal prepositions: 
 above '^ 
 
 below 
 between 
 beneath 
 from 
 beyond 
 
 Verbs are often compounded of a verb and a preposition : as, 
 to uj>ho]d, to invest, to overlook : and this composition some« 
 times gives a new sense to the verb ; as, to understand, to with- 
 draw, to forgive. But in English, the preposition is moi*e fre- 
 quently placed after the verb, and separately from it, hke an 
 adverb, in which situation it is not less apt to affect the sense of 
 it, and to give it a new meaning ; and may still be considered as 
 belonging to the verb, and as a part of it. As, to cast^ is to throw ; 
 but to cast up^ or to compute, an account, is quite a different thing : 
 thus, to fall on, to bear out, to give over, &.c. So that the mean- 
 ing of the verb, and the propriety of the phrase, depend on the 
 preposition subjoined. 
 
 In the com])osition of many words, there are certain syllables 
 employed, which grammarians have called inseparable preposi- 
 tions : as, be, con, viis, &c. in bedeck, conjoin, mistake : but as 
 they are not words of any kind, they cannot properly be called 
 a species of preposition. 
 
 One great use of prepositions, in English, is, to express those 
 relations, w!»ich, in some languages, are chiefly marked by cases, 
 or the different endings of nouns. See page 39. The necessity 
 an<l use of them will appear from the following exam])les. If 
 we say, " he writes a i)en," " they ran the river," " the tower 
 fell the Greeks," " Lambeth is Westminster-abbey," thore is 
 observable, in each of these expressions, either a total want of 
 connexion, or such a connexion as produces falsehood or non- 
 sense : and it is evident, that before they can be turned into 
 Bcnse, the vacancy must be filled up by some connecting word : 
 as thus, " He writes ivith a pen ;" " they ran towards the river ;" 
 "the tower fell vpon the Greeks;" "Lambeth is over against 
 Westir.inster-abbey." We see by these instances, how preposi- 
 tions may be necessary to connect those words, which in their 
 signification are not naturally connected. 
 
 Prepositions, in their original and literal acceptation, seem to 
 have denoted relations of place ; but they are now used Jlgura^ 
 
88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 tively to express other relations. For example, as tliey who art 
 above have in several respects the advantage of such as are beloio, 
 prepositions expressinrj high and low^ places are used for superi- 
 ority and inferiority in general : as, " He is above disguise ;" "vv« 
 serve under a good master ;" " he rules over a willing people ;" 
 " we should do nothing beneath our character." 
 
 The importance of the pre-;ositions will be further perceived 
 by the explanation of a few of them. 
 
 Of denotes possession cr belongmg, an effect or onsequencn, 
 and other relations connected with these : as, " The house of 
 my friend ;" that is, " the house belonging to my friend ;" " He 
 died ofa. fever;" that is, " in consequence of a fever." 
 
 To, or unto, is opposed to from ; as, " He rode from Salisbury 
 to Winchester." 
 
 For indicates the cause or motive of any action or circum- 
 stance, &c. as, " He loves her for (that is, on account of) her 
 amiable qualities." 
 
 By is generally used with reference to the cause, agent, 
 means, &c. : as, " He was killed by a fall ;" that is, " a fall was 
 the cause of his being killed ;" " This house was built by him ;" 
 that is, " he was the builder of it." 
 
 With denotes the act of accompanying, uniting, &c. : as, " We 
 will go xoith you ;" *' They are on good terms with each other." 
 
 With also alludes to the instrument or means ; as, " He was 
 
 cut with a knife." 
 
 In relates to time, place, the state or manner of being or act- 
 ing, &c. : as, " He was born in (that is, during) the year 1720 ;" 
 " He dwells in the city," " She lives in affluence." 
 
 Into is us>3d after verbs that imply motion of any kind : a.«, 
 " He retired into the country ;" " Copper is converted into brass." 
 
 Within, relates to something comprehended in any place or 
 time : as, " They are within the house ;" " He began and finished 
 his work vnthin the limited time," 
 
 The signification of without is opposite to that of within : as, 
 ' She stands ivithout the gate :" But it is more frequently opposed 
 to with ; as, " You may go without me." 
 
 The import and force of the remaining prepositions will be 
 readily understood, without a particular detail of them. We 
 shall, therefore, conclude this head with observing, that there is 
 a peculiar propriety in distinguishing the use of the jwepositionfe 
 by and with ; which is observable in sentences like the following. 
 *' He walks ivith a staff % moonlight ;" " He was taken by stra- 
 tagem, and killed with a sword." Put the one preposition for 
 the other, and say, "he walks 6?/ a staff m^Ti moonlight ;" ** ho 
 was taken with stratagem, and killed by a sword ;" and it will 
 appear, that they differ in signification more than one; at first 
 view, would be apt to imagine. 
 
 Some of the prepositions have the appearance and effect ol 
 conjunctions; as, " ^i(er their prisons were thrown open," &:c. 
 ** Before I die ;" " They made haste to be prepared against theij 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 89 
 
 frieiids arrived :" but if the noun time, which is un,iorstood, be 
 added, they will lose their conjunctive foj*m ; as, " After [th« 
 time when] their prisons," &c. 
 
 The prepositions after, before, above, beneath, and several others, 
 sometimes appear to be adverbs, and may be so considered : as, 
 *' They had their reward soon after ;" *' He died not long before ;" 
 " Ho dwells above ;" but if the nouns time and ylace be added, 
 they will lose their adverbial form ; as, " He died not long before 
 that time,^^ &c. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 OF CO.YJUJSrCTIOJVS, 
 A CONJUNCTION is a part of speech that is chiefly used 
 to connect sentences ; so as, out of two or more sentences, 
 to make but one. It sometimes connects only words. 
 
 Conjunctions are principally divided into two sorts, the 
 COPULATIVE and the disjunctive. 
 
 The Conjunction Copulative serves to connect or to con- 
 tinue a sentence, by expressing an addition, a supposition, 
 a cause, &c. : as, *' He and his brother reside in London;" 
 " I will go ?/he wi!l accompany me." " You are happy, be- 
 cause you are good." 
 
 The Conjunction Disjunctive serves, not only to connect 
 and continue the sentence, but also to express opposition 
 of meaning in different degrees : as, ** Though he was fre- 
 quently reproved, yet he did not reform ;" " They came with 
 her, but they went away without her." 
 
 The following is a list of the principal Conjunctions. 
 
 The Copulative. And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because), 
 therefore, wherefore. 
 
 The Disjunctive. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unleesj 
 either, neither, yet, rutwithstanding. 
 
 The same word is occasionally used both as a conjunction 
 and as an adverb ; and sometinies, as a preposition. " I rest then 
 upon this argument ;" then is here a conjunction : in the follow- 
 ing phrase, it is an adverb ; " He arrived then, and not before.'* 
 " I submitted ; for it was vain to resist :" in this sentence, for is 
 a conjunction ; in the next, it is a preposition: "He contended 
 for victory only." In the first of the following sentences, since 
 is a conjunction: in the second, it is a preposition; and m the 
 third, an adverb : " Since we must part, let us do it peaceably:" 
 " I have not seen him since th U time :" " Our friendship com 
 menced long 5incc." 
 
 Relative jA'onouns as well as conjunctions, serve to connect 
 sentences: as, "Blessed is the man u^^o feareth the Lord, and 
 keepeth his commandments." 
 
 A relative pronoun i;ossesses the force both of a pronoun ancl 
 
00 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 a connective. Nay, tlie union by relatives is ratlje* cloaer, th n 
 that by mere conjunctions. Tlie latter may form ivvo or more 
 sentences into one ; but, by the former, several sentences may 
 incorporate in ose and the same clause of a sentence. Thus, 
 ' hou seest a man, and he is called Peter," is a sentence con- 
 si ting of two distinct clauses, united by the copulative and : hut, 
 " the man tvhom thou seest is called Peter," is a sentence of one 
 clause, and not less comprehensive than the other. 
 
 Conjunctions very often unite sentences, when they appear tc 
 unite only words ; as in the foUov/ing instances : " Duty and in- 
 terest forbid vicious indulgences ;" " Wisdom or folly governs 
 us." Each of these forms of expression contains two sentences, 
 namely ; " Duty forbids vicious indulgences ; interest forbids vi- 
 cious indulgences ;" " Wisdom governs us, or folly governs us." 
 
 Though the conjunction is commonly used to connect sen- 
 tences together, yet, on some occasions, it merely connects 
 words, not sentences ; as. " The king a7id queen are an amiable 
 pair ;" where the affirmation cannot refer to each : it being absurd 
 to say, that the king or the queen only is an amiable pair. So in 
 the instances, " two and two are four ;" " the fifth and sixth 
 volumes will complete the set of books." Prepositions also, as 
 before observed, connect words ; but they do it to show the re- 
 lation which the cownected words liave to each other: conjunc- 
 tions, when they unite words only, are designed to show the re- 
 lations, which those words, so united, have to other parts of the 
 sentence. 
 
 As there are many conjunctions and connective phrases ap- 
 propriated to the coupling of sentences, that are never employed 
 in joining the members of a senten.s ; so there are several con- 
 junctions appropriated to the latter use, which are never employed 
 in the former; and some that are equally adapted to both those pur- 
 poses : as, again, further y besides, &c. of the first kind ; than, lest^ 
 unless, that, so that, &c. of the second j and but, and, for^ there^ 
 fore, &;c. of the last. 
 
 We shall close this chapter with a few observations on the 
 peculiar use and advantage of the conjunctions ; a subject which 
 will, doubtless, give pleasure to the ingenious student, and ex- 
 pand his views of the importance of his grammatical studies. 
 
 " Relatives are not so useful in language, as conjunctions. 
 The former make speech more concise ; the latter make it more 
 explicit. Relatives comprehend the meaning of a pronoun and 
 conjunction copulative: conjunctions, while they couple sen- 
 tences, may also express opposition, inference, and many other 
 relations and dependences. 
 
 Till men began to think in a train, and to carry their reason- 
 ings to a considerable length, it is not probable that they would 
 make much use of conjunctions, or of any other connectives. 
 Ignorant people, and children, generally speak in short and sepa- 
 rate sentences. The same thing is true of barbaroua nations x 
 v'ld hence uncultivated languages are not well supplied with 
 
ETYiMOLOGY. 91 
 
 connecfing particle?. The Greeks were the greatest reasoncra 
 that ever a])peared in the world ; and their language, according- 
 ly, ahounds more than any other in connectives. 
 
 Conjunctions are not equally necessary in all sorts of writing. 
 In poetry, where great conciseness of phrase is required, and 
 ©very appearance of formality avoided, many of them would 
 have a bad etfect. In passionate language too; it may be proper 
 to omit them : because it is the nature of violent passion, to speak 
 rath«r in disjointed sentences, than in the v^ay of inference and 
 argument. Books of aphorisms, like the Proverl)s of Solomon, 
 nave few connectives ; because tliey instruct, not by reasoning., 
 but in detached observations. And narrative will sometimes ap- 
 pear very graceful, when the circumstances are plainly told, with 
 scarcely qny other conjunction than the simple copulative and: 
 which is frequently the case in the historical parts of Scriptur«. 
 When narration is full of images or events, the omission of con- 
 nectives may, by crowding the principal words upon one another, 
 give a sort of picture of hurry and tumult, and so heighten the 
 vivacity of description. But when facts are to be traced down 
 through their consequences, or upwards to their causes ; when 
 ihe complicated designs of mankind arc to be laid open, or con- 
 jectures offered concerning them ; when the historian argues 
 either for the elucidation of truth, or in order to state the pleas 
 And principles of contending parties; there will be occasion for 
 every species of connective, as much as in philosophy itself. In 
 fact, ii: is in argument, investigation, and science, that this part 
 of speech is i>cculiarly and indispensably necessary." 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 OF IJ^TERJECTIOJVS. 
 
 Interjections are words thrown in between the parts of 
 a sentence, to express the passions or emotions of the speak- 
 er : as, " Oh ! 1 have alienated my friend ; alas ! I fear for 
 life ;*' " O virtue ! how amiable thou art !" 
 
 The English Interjections, as well as those of other languages, 
 are comp.rised within a small compass. They are of different 
 sorts, according to the different passions which they serve to ex 
 press. Those which mtimate earnestness or grief, are, O! oh 
 ah! alas! Such as are expressive of contempt, are pish! tush. 
 of wonder, ^eig-^ .' really! strange! of calHng, ^C7/i .' ho! soho ! 
 of aversion or disgust,/©^ /^c' away! of a call of the attention, 
 to ! behold ! hark ! of requesting silence, hush ! hist ! of saluta- 
 tion, welcome ! hail ! all hail ! Besides these, several others, fre- 
 quent in the mouths of the multitude, might be enumerated ; but, 
 in a grammar of a cultivated tongue, it is unnecessary to expa- 
 tiate on such expressions of passion, as are scarcely worthy of 
 Being ranked among the branches of artificial language, — See (h$ 
 Ocpavo Grammar. 
 
1 
 
 92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 OF BERIFATIO.y. 
 
 SECTION I. Of the various ways in tvhich words are deriv^ 
 
 from one another. 
 
 HAVING treated of the different sorts of words, and their A^a- 
 
 rious modifications, which is the first part of Etymology, it is now 
 
 proper to explaift the methods by which one word is derived from 
 
 another. 
 
 Words are derived from one another in various ways ; viz. M 
 
 1. Substantives are derived from verbs. J 
 
 2. Verbs are derived from substantives, adjectives, and some 
 times from adverbs. 
 
 3. Adjectives are derived from substantives. 
 
 4. Substantives are derived from adjectives. 
 
 5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives. 
 
 1. Substantives are derived from verbs: as, from " to love," 
 comes "lover;'' from "to visit, visiter ;" from "to survive, sur- 
 viver ;" &c. 
 
 In the following instances, and in many others, it is difficult to 
 determine whether the verb was deduced from the noun, or the 
 noun from the verb, viz. " Love, to love ; hate, to hate ; fear, to 
 fear ; sleep, to sleep ; walk, to walk ; ride, to ride ; act, to act," &c. 
 
 2. Verbs are derived from substantives, adjectives, and some- 
 times from adverbs : as, from the substantive salt, comes " to salt ;" 
 from the adjective warnif " to warm ;" and from the ad verb yb;- 
 tvard, " to forward." Sometimes they are formed by lengthen 
 ing the vowel, or softening the consonant; as, from "grass, to 
 graze :" sometimes by adding en; as, from "length, to lengthen ;" 
 especially to adjectives ; ls, from " short, to shorten ; bright, to 
 brighten." 
 
 3. Adjectives are derived from substantives, in the following 
 manner : Adjectives denoting plenty are derived from substan- 
 tives, by adding y : as, from " Health, healthy ; wealth, wealthy , 
 might, mighty," &c. 
 
 Adjectives denoting thematter out of which any thing is made, 
 are derived from substantives by adding en : as, from " Oak, 
 oaken ; wood, wooden ; wool, woolen," &c. 
 
 Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from substantives, 
 by Siddmg ful : as, from " Joy, joyful ; sin, sinful ; fruit, fruitful,"&c. 
 
 Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of diminution, 
 are derived from substantives, by adding some : as, from " Light, 
 lightsome ; trouble, troublesome ; toil, toilsome," &c. 
 
 Adjectives denoting want, are derived from substantives, by 
 adding less : as, from " Worth, worthless ;" from " care, careless ; 
 joy, joyless," &c. 
 
 Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from substantives, by 
 adding ly : as, from " Man, manly ; earth, earthly ; court, 
 courtly," &c. 
 
 Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, or ffom 
 substantives, by adding ish to them ; which termination, when 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 93 
 
 added to adjectives, imports diminution, or lessening the quality : 
 as, "Wliiie, Avliitish ;" i.e. somewhat white. When added to 
 suhstantives, it signifies similitude or tendency to a character : as, 
 " child, childish ; thief, thievish." 
 
 Some adjectives are formed from substantives or verbs, by 
 adding the termination ablt ; and those adjectives signify capa- 
 city : as, " Answer, answerable ; to change, changeable." 
 
 4. Substantives are derived from adjectives, sometimes by 
 adding the termination ness : as, "White, whiteness; swift, 
 nwifiness:" sometimes by adding th or t, nnd making a small 
 change in some of the letters : as, " Long, length ; high, height.'* 
 
 5. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by adding 
 /ly, or changing le into /?/, and denote the same quality as the 
 adjectives from which they are derived: as, from "base,'* 
 comes "basely;" from " slow, slowly ;" from "able, ably." 
 
 There are so many other ways of deriving words from one 
 another, that it would be extremely difficult, and nearly impossi- 
 ble, to enumerate them. The primitive words of any language 
 are very few; the derivatives form much the greater number. 
 A few more instances only can be given here. 
 
 Some substantives are derived from other substantives, by 
 adding the terminations hood or headf shipf ery, wick, rick, (lofiif 
 ian, mentj and age. 
 
 Substantives ending in hood or head, are such as signify cha- 
 racter or qualities: as, " Manhood, knighthood, falsehood," &c. 
 
 Substantives ending in ship, are those that signify office, em- 
 ployment, state, or condition : as, " Lordship, stewardship, part 
 nership," &.c. Some substantives in ship, are derived from ad- 
 jectives: as, " Hard, hardship," &c. 
 
 Substantives which end in ery, signify action or habit: as, 
 " Slavery, foolery, prudery," &c. Some substantives of this sort 
 come from adjectives ; as, " Brave, bravery," &c. 
 
 Substantives ending in tvick, rick, and dom, denote dominion, 
 jurisdiction, or condition : as, " Bailiwick, bishoprick, kingdom, 
 dukedom, freedom," &c. 
 
 Substantives which end in ian, are those that signify profession , 
 as, "Physiv/ian, musician," &c. Those that end in ment and age^ 
 come generally from the French, and commonly signify the act 
 or habit: as, "Commandment, usage." 
 
 Some substantives ending in ard, are derived from verbs or 
 adjectives, and denote character or habit : as, " Drunk, drunkard ; 
 vlote, dotard." 
 
 Some substantives have the form of diminutives ; but these 
 are not many. They are formed by adding the termination!, 
 kin, ling, ing, ock, el^ and the like : as, " Lamb, lambkin ; goose, 
 gosling ; duck, duckling ; hill, hillock ; cock, cockerel," &c. 
 
 That ])art of derivation which consists in tracing English 
 words to the Saxon, Greek, Latin, French, and other languages, 
 must be omitted, as the English scholar is not suppose<l to be 
 acquainted with these languages. . The bent English dictionft- 
 
94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 ric3 will, liowever, farnisb some information on this head, t« 
 those who are desirous of obtaining it. The learned Home 
 Tooke, in his "Diversions of PnrU^y," has given an ingenious 
 account of the derivation and meaning of many of the adverbs, 
 conjunctions, and })repositions. 
 
 It is highly probable that the system of this acute grammarian, 
 is founded in truth ; and that adverbs, prepositions, and con- 
 junctions, are corruj)tions or abbreviations of other parts of 
 speech. But as many Of tliern are derived from oljsolete words 
 jn our own language, or f»-oin words in kindred languages, the rad- 
 ical meaning of which is, therefore, either obscure, or generally 
 unknown; as the system of this very able etymologist is not 
 universally admitted ; and as, by long prescription, whatever 
 may have been their origin, the words in question appear to have 
 acquired a title to the rank of distinct species ; it seems proper to 
 consider them, as such, in an elementary treatise of grammar- 
 especially as this plan coincides with that, by which other lan- 
 guages must be taught ; and will render the study of them less 
 intricate. It is of small moment, by what names and classifica- 
 tion we distinguish these words, provided their meaning and 
 use are well understood. A philosophical consideration of the 
 subject may, with great propriety, be entered upon by the gram- 
 matical student, when his knowledge and judgment become more 
 improved. 
 
 SECTION II. ^1 sketch of the steps, hy which the Enjs:lish Law 
 guage has risen to its present state of refinement. 
 
 Before we conclude the subject of derivation, it will proba- 
 bly bo gratifying to the curious scholar, to be informed of some 
 particulars respecting the origin of the English language, and 
 the various nations to which it is indebted for the copiousness, 
 elegance, and refinement, which it has now attained. 
 
 " When the ancient Britons were so harassed and oppressed 
 by the invasions of their northern neighbours, the Scots and 
 Picts, that their situation was truly miserable, they sent an em- 
 bassy (about the middle of the fifth century) to the Saxons, a 
 warlike people inhabiting the north of Germany, with solicita- 
 tions for speedy relief. The Saxons accordingly came over to 
 Britain, and were successful in repelling the incursions of the 
 Scots and Picts ; but i?eeing the weak and defenceless state o 
 the Britons, they resolved to take advantage of it ; and at length 
 established themselves in the greater part of South-Britain, after 
 having dispossessed the original inhabitants. 
 
 " From these barbarians, who founded several petty kingdoms 
 in this island, and introduced their own laws, language, and 
 manners, is derived the groundwork of the English language \ 
 which, even in its present state of cultivation, and notwithstand- 
 ing the successive augmentations and improvements, winch it 
 bas received through various channels, displays very conspicu- 
 ous traces of its Saxon original. 
 
ETYxMOLOGY. 95 
 
 "The Saxons did not long remain in quiet possession of tlie 
 kingdom ; for before the middle of the ninth century, the Danes 
 a hardy and adventurous nation, who had long infested the 
 northern seas with their piracies, began to ravage the English 
 coasts. Their first attempts were, in general, attended with 
 such success, that they were encouraged to a renewal of their 
 ravages ; till, at length, in the beginning of the eleventh century, 
 they made themselves masters of the greater part of England. 
 
 "Though the period, during which these invaders occupied 
 the English throne, was very short, not greatly exceeding half a 
 century, it is highly probable that some change was introduced 
 by them into the language spoken by those, whom they had 
 subdued : but this change cannot be supposed to have been very 
 considerable, as the Danish and Saxon languages arose from one 
 common source, the Gothic being the parent of both. 
 
 "The next conquerors of this kingdom, after the Danes, were 
 the Normans, who, in the year 1066, introduced their leader 
 Wuliani to the possession of the English throne. This prince, 
 soon after his accession, endeavoured to bring his own language 
 (,the Norman-French) into use among his new subjects ; but his 
 efforts were not very successful, as the Saxons entertained a 
 great antipathy to these haughty foreigners. In process of time, 
 nowever, many Norman words and phrases were incorporated 
 intt the Saxon language : but its general form and construction 
 8tUl remained the same. 
 
 "From the Conquest to the Reformation, the language con 
 tinned to receive occasional accessions of foreign words, till it 
 acquired such a degree ofcopiousness and strength, as to render 
 it susceptible of that polish, which it has received from writers 
 of taste and genius, in the last and present centuries. During 
 this period, the learned have enriched it with many significant 
 expressions, drawn from the treasures of Greek and Roman 
 literature; the ingenious and the fashionable have imported oc- 
 casional supplies of French, Spanish, Itahan, and German words, 
 gleaned during their foreign excursions ; and the connexions 
 which we maintahi, through the medium of government and 
 commerce, with many remote nations, have made some addi- 
 tions to our native vocabulary. 
 
 " In this manner did the ancient language of the Anglo-Saxons 
 proceed, through the various stages of innovation, and the several 
 gradations of refinement, to the formation of the present Eng- 
 lish tongue." 
 
 iSiee the Twelfth Chapter of the Octavo Grammar, 
 
PART III. 
 SYJVT^X. 
 
 I 
 
 The third part of Grammar is Syntax, ^vhich treats of 
 the agreement and construction of words in a sentence. 
 
 A sentence is an assemblage of words, forming a com 
 plete sense. 
 
 Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. 
 
 A simple sentence has in it but one subject, and one 
 finite* verb : as, " Life is short." 
 
 A compound sentence consists of two or more simple 
 sentences connected together : as, " Life is short, and art is 
 long." *' Idleness produces want, vice, and misery." 
 
 As sentences tlieinselves are div'uied into simple and compound, 
 so the mend)ers of sentences may be divided likewise into simple 
 and compound members ; for whole sentences, whether simi)le 
 or compounded, may become members of other sentences, by 
 means of some additional connexion ; as in the following exam- 
 ple : " The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his master's 
 crib ; but Israel doth not know, my people do not consider." 
 This sentence consists of two conjj)ounded members, each of 
 which is subdivided into two simple members, which are properly 
 called clauses. 
 
 There are three sorts of siniple sentences ; the explicative, or 
 explaining ; the interrogative, or asking ; the imperative, or com- 
 manding. 
 
 An explicative sentence is when a thing is said to be or not to 
 be, to do or not to do, to suffer or not suffer, in a direct manner: 
 as, " I am ; thou writest; Tliomas is loved." If the sentence be 
 negative, the adverb not is i)lace<l after the auxiliary, or after the 
 verb itself when it has no auxiliary : as, " 1 did not touch him ;" 
 or, " I touched him not." 
 
 In an interrogative sentence, orwlien a question is asked, the 
 nominative case follows the principal verb or the auxiliary: as, 
 "Was ithe.^" "Did Alexander conquer the Persians ?" 
 
 In an imperative sentence, when a thing is commanded to be, 
 to do, to suffer, or not, the nominative case likewise follows the 
 verb or the auxiliary: as, " Go, thou traitor!" "Do thou go:" 
 " Haste ye away :" unless the verb let be used ; as, " Let us be 
 gone." 
 
 A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, 
 making sometimes part of a sentence, and sometimes 
 a whole sentence. 
 
 * FtmVc verbs are those to which number and peison apj[)ertaiii. Verbs in tho 
 infinitive mood have no res})€ct to number or person. 
 
Rule I.] SYx\TAX. 97 
 
 The principal parts of a simple sentence are. the subject, 
 the attribute, and the object. 
 
 The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of; the attribute 
 is the thing or action affirmed or denied of it ; and t{ie ob- 
 ject is the thing atfected by such action 
 
 The nominative denotes the subject, and usually goes be- 
 fore the verb or attribute ; and the word or phrase, denoting 
 the object, follows the verb ; as, '* A wise man governs his 
 passions.' Here, a zotse man is the subject; governs, the at 
 tribute, or thkig affirmed ; and his passions, the object. 
 
 Syntax principally consists of two parts, Concord and Go 
 vcrnment. 
 
 Concord is the agreement which one word has with 
 another, in gender, number, case, or person. 
 
 Government is that power which one part of speech has 
 over another, in directing its mood, tense, or case. 
 
 To produce the agreement and right disposition of words 
 in a sentence, the following rules and observations should 
 be carefully studied. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 A Verb must agree with its nominative case, in number 
 and person : as, " I learn;" '' Thou art improved ;" ** The 
 birds sing." 
 
 The following are a few instances of the violation of this rule. 
 " What signifies good opinions, when our practice is had ?" " what 
 signifi/,^^ " There's two or three of us, who have seen the work:" 
 " tliere crrc." " We may suppose there was nore impostors than 
 one :" " There tvere more." " I have considered what have been 
 gsiid on hoth sides in this controversy :" " what has been said." 
 " If thou wou^d he liealthy, live temperately :" "if thou ivouldsV^ 
 " Thou sees how Uttle has been done.:" " thou seest" " Though 
 thou cannot do much for the cause, thou may and should do 
 something:" ^^ canst not, mayst, and shouldst.^^ " Full many a 
 dower are born to blush unseen :" "t* born." " A conformity of 
 inclinations and qualities y)ropare us for friendship:" *'/;re/?are5 
 us." *' A variety of blessings have been conferred upon us :" 
 '* ha^ been." " In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man :" 
 " consists." " To these precepts are subjoined a copious selec- 
 tion of rules and maxims:" "i5 subjoined." 
 
 "*!. The infinitive mood, or ]>art of a sentence, is sometimes 
 put as the nominative case to the verb : as, "To see the sun is 
 pleasant ;" " To be good is to be happy ;" " A desire to excel 
 others in learning and virtue t5 commendable;" "That warm 
 
 * The chief practical notes under each Rule, are regularly numbered, in crdei 
 to nmke tliem correspond to the examples in the voluine of Exercisei. 
 

 98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule t 
 
 cliinatcs should accelerate the growth of the huninn body, and 
 shorten its duration, is very rc:asoua})le to believe ;" " To be 
 temperate in eating and drinking, to use exercise in the oj)en 
 air. and to preserve the tnind free from tumuhuous emotions, arc 
 the best* preservatives of health." 
 
 2 Every verb, except in the infinitive mood, or the participle, 
 ought to have a nominative case, either expressed or implied 
 "Awake ; arise ;'' that is, " A wake ye ; arise ye." 
 
 We shall here add some exani})les of inaccuracy, in the use 
 the verb without its nominative case. " As it hath pleased him 
 of his goodness to give you safe deliverance, and hath pieserved 
 you in the great danger," «Sic. The verb " hath preserved,^'' has here 
 no nominative case, for it cannot be j)ropLrly supplied by the pre- 
 ceding word, ^' hijn,''^ which is in the objective case. It ought to 
 be, " and as he hath 'preserved you ;" or rather, '• and to presence 
 you." " If the calm iji which he was born, and lasted so long 
 had continued ;" "and which lasted," &c, " These we have ex- 
 tracted from an historian of undoubted credit, and are the same 
 that were practised," c^c; ^^ and they are the same." "A man 
 whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, and had great abilities 
 to manage the business ;" " and ivho had," &c. " A cloud ga- 
 thering in the north ; which we have hel})ed to raise, and may 
 quickly break in a storm upon our heads;" "and which may 
 quickly." 
 
 3 Every nominative case, except the case absolute, and when 
 an address is made to a person, should belong to some verb 
 either expressed or implied : as, " Who wrote this book .^" 
 " James ;" that is, " James wrote it." " To whom thus Adam," 
 that is, " spoke." 
 
 One or two instances of the impro^)er use of the nominative 
 case, without any verb, expressed or implied, to answer it, may 
 be sufficient to illustrate the usefulness of the preceding ob 
 servation. 
 
 " Which rule, if it had been observed, a neighbouring prince 
 would have wanted a great deal of that incense v^tich hath been 
 offered up to him." The pronoun it is here the nWninative case 
 to the verb " observed ;" and ichich rule, is left by itself, a nomi- 
 native case without any verb following it. This form of expres- 
 sion, though improper, is very common. It ought to be, " If this 
 'ule had been observed," &c. " ^an, though he has great va- 
 liety of thoughts, and such from which others as well as himself 
 might receive profit and delight, yet they are all within his own 
 breast." In this sentence, the nominative man stand? alone and 
 unconnected with any verb, either expressed or implied. It 
 should be, " Though man has great variety," &c. 
 
 4 When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which 
 maybe understood as the subject of the affirmation, it may agree 
 with either of them : but some regard must be had to that which 
 is more naturally the subject of it, as also to that which stands 
 next to the verb : as, " Hismeatu^w locusts and wild honey ;"^* A, 
 
Rule i.] SYNTAX. 9<) 
 
 great cause of the low gtate of industry were ilje restraints put 
 upon it ;" " The wages of sin is death." 
 
 5 When the nominative case lias no personal tense of a verb, 
 but is pur before a participle, indepeiideiuiy on the rest of the 
 sentence, it is called the case ahsolute : as, " Shame being lost, 
 all virtue is iost ;" " That having been discussed long ago, there 
 is no occasion to resume it." 
 
 As in the use of the case absolute, the case is, in English, 
 always the nominative, the following example is erroneous, in 
 making it the objective. " Solomon was of this mind ; and I 
 have no doubt he made as wise and true proverbs, as any body 
 has done since ; him only excepted, who was a much greater and 
 wiser man than Solomon." It should be, " he only excepted." 
 
 The nominative case is commonly placed before the verb ; but 
 Bometimes it is put after the verb, if it is a simple tense ; and 
 betAveen the auxiliary, and the verb or participle, if a compound 
 t«nse: as, 
 
 1st, When a question is asked, a command given, or a wish 
 expressed : as, " Confidest thou in me .^" "Read thou ;" "Mayst 
 thou be happy !" " Long hve the King !" 
 
 2d, When a supposition is made without the conjunction if: 
 ag, " Were it not for this ;" " Had I been there." 
 
 3d, When a verb neuter is used : as, " On a sudden appeared 
 tlije king." 
 
 4th, When the verb is preceded by the adverbs, here, there, 
 then, thence, hence, thus, &c. : as, " Here am I :" *' There was he 
 slain ;" " Then cometh the end ;" " Thence ariseth his grief;" 
 ** Hence proceeds his anger ;" " Thus was the affair settled." 
 
 5th, When a sentence depends on neither or nor, so as to be 
 coupled with another sentence: as, "Ye shall not eat of it, 
 neither shall ye touch it, lest ye die." 
 
 Some gramnfiaj-ians assert, that the phrases, as follows, as ap- 
 pears, form wl^Tare called impersonal vefbs ; and should, there- 
 fore, be confined to the singular number: as, "The arguments 
 advanced were nearly as follows ;" " The positions were as ap- 
 pears incontrovertible:" that is, "as it follows," "as it appears." 
 If we give (say they) the sentence a different turn, and instead of 
 05, say such as, the verb is no longer termed impersonal ; but 
 properly agrees with its nominative, in the plural number: as, 
 "The arguments advanced were nearly such as follow ;^^ " The 
 positions were such as appear incontrovertible."* 
 
 * These grammarians are sripported b*y general usage, and by the authority 
 of an eminent critic on language and composition. *' When a verb is used im- 
 personally," says Dr. Can»pbell, in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, " it ought un- 
 doubtedly to be in the singular number, whether the neuter pronoun be expressed 
 or understood." For this reason, analogy and usage favour this mode of ex- 
 nression : " The conditions of the agreement were asjbllotvs ;" and not, asfbl- 
 UiW. A few late writers hi;ve inconsiderately adopted this last fornj, througii 
 
100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 They who doubt the accuracy of Ilorne Tooke's statcinenf. 
 "That aSj however and whenever used in English, means the 
 same as it, or that, or which ,•" and who are not satisfied whether 
 the verbs, in the sentence first mentioned, sliould be in the sin 
 
 fnlar or the phiral nund)er, may vary tlie form of expression, 
 'hus, the sense of the ])receding sentences, may be conveyed in 
 the following terms. "The arguments advanced wero nearly 
 of the following nature ;" "The following are nearly the argu- 
 ments which were advanced ;" " Tlie arguments advanced were 
 nearly those which follow:" " It a[)pears that the positions were 
 incontrovertible ;" "That the positions were incontrovertible is 
 apparent;" "The positions were apparently incontrovertible.*" 
 See the Octavo Grammar, the Note under Rule I. 
 RULE II. 
 Two or more nouns, &:c. in the singular number joined 
 together by a copulative conjunction, expressed or under- 
 stood, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns, agreeing with 
 them in the phiral number : as, ** Socrates and Plato 7vere 
 wise ; thei/ were the most eminent philosophers of Greece ;" 
 ** The sun that rolls over our heads, the food that we receive, 
 the rest that we enjoy, daily admonish us of a superior and 
 superintending Power/'* 
 
 This rule is often violated ; some instances of which are an- 
 nexed. " And so was also James and John, the sons of Zebedee, 
 who were partners with Simon;" "and so were also." "All 
 joy, tranquillity, and peace, even for ever and ever, doth dweil ;" 
 ^^dwdl for ever." "By whose power all good and evil is dis- 
 tributed ;" " are distributed." " Their love, and their hatred, and 
 their envy, is now perished ;" " are perished.*' " The tivought- 
 less and intemperate enjoyment of pleasure, the criminal abuse 
 of it, and the forgetfuUiess of our being accountable creatures, 
 obHterates every serious thought of the proper business of life, 
 and effaces the sense o"^ religion and of God ;" It ought to be, 
 " oblileratej'' and " c/ace." 
 
 1 When the nouns are nearly related, or scarcely distinguish- 
 able in sense, and sometimes even when they are very different 
 ^me authors have thought it allowable to put the verl»s, nouns, 
 and pronouns, in the singular number: as, "Tranquillity and 
 peace dwells there ;" " Ignorance and negligence has producer! 
 the effect;" "The discomfiture and slaughter was very great." 
 But it is evidently contrary to the first principles of grannnar, to 
 consider two distinct ideas as one, however nice may be their 
 shades of difference: and if theve be no diflference, one of them 
 must be superfluous, and ought to Ije rejected. 
 
 a mistake of the construction. For the same reason, we ought to say, '• 1 shall 
 consider ills censures so far only as concerns my friend's conduct ;" and not * w 
 far as coyicern.* 
 » filee tl>e fxce^tions to tliis rule, at p. 48 of the Key ; l?Ul edilioa. 
 
Mule ii.] SYNTAX. 101 
 
 To support llie aliovc construction, it is said, that the verb 
 amy he uiulerstood as apphetl to each ofthe preceding terms ; as 
 III the fcdlovving example. " Sand, and sah, and a mass of iron, 
 %s easier to bear tiian a man without understanding." But be- 
 sides the (X>nrusion, and the latitude of apphcation, which such 
 a construction wouUl introduce, it aj)pears to be more proper and 
 aiudogical, in cases vvliere the verb is intended to be applied to 
 any one ofthe terms, to make use of the disjunctive conjunction, 
 wliich grammatically refers the verb to one or other of the pre- 
 ceding terms in a sej)arate view. To preserve the distinctive 
 uses of the copulative and disjunctive conjunctions, wouhl ren- 
 der the rules ])recise, consistent, and intelligible. Dr. Blair very 
 /.istly observes, that " two or more substantives, joined by acopu- 
 'f »ve, must always require the verb or pronoun to which they 
 i'cfer, to be placed in the plural number." 
 
 2 In many complex sentences, it is difficult for learners to 
 de^o'-mine, whether one or more of the clauses are to be con- 
 si(*>^vJ as the nominative case ; and consequently, whether the 
 verb should l)e in the singular or the plural number. We shall, 
 tlierefore, set down a number of varied examples of this nature, 
 whict> may serve as some government to the scholar, with re- 
 spect to sentences.of a similar construction. *' Prosperity, with 
 humility, renders its possessor truly amiable." "The ship, with 
 all her furniture, was destroyed." " Not only his estate, his re- 
 putation too has suffered by his misconduct." "The general 
 also, in conjunction with the officers, has applied for redress." 
 " lie caimot be justified ; for it is true, that the prince, as well as 
 the people, was blameworthy." " The king, with his lifeguard, 
 has just passed through the village." " In the mutual influence 
 of body and soul, there is a wisdom, a wonderful wisdom, which 
 we cannot fathom." " Virtue, honour, nay, even self-interest, 
 conspii:e to recommend the measure." " Patriotism, morality, 
 every public and private consideration, demand our submission 
 to just and lawful government." " Nothing delights me ro much 
 as the works of nature." 
 
 In support of such forms of expression as the following, we 
 Kee the authority of Hume, l^rie^dqyj andf othei*;A^riters ; and we 
 niniex them for the reader's coiisideration. " A' Jong course of 
 time, with a variety of accidents andoircujnstaPjces,/zr(» requisite 
 to produce those revolutions/!''^ !',T?^9 kjngy^fitK^l^e/ lords and 
 commons, /on/i an excellent frame of government.^*' "The side 
 A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle." " The fire 
 communicated itself to the bed, which, with the furniture ofthe 
 room, and a valuable library, ivere all entirely consumed." It is, 
 liowever, ])roi)er to observe, that these modes of expression do 
 not appear to be warranted by the just principles of construc- 
 tion. The words, " A long coui*se of time," " The king," " The 
 Bide A," and " which," are the true nominatives to the respect- 
 ive verbs. In the last example, the word all should be expunged. 
 Ah iUe preposition with governs the objective case in Englisfa , 
 
 I 2 
 

 loa ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule iii, iv 
 
 and, if translated into Latin, would govern the ablative case, it \a 
 manifest, that the clauses following tvith, in the preceding sen- 
 tences, cannot form any part of the nominative case. They 
 cannot be at the same time in the objective and the nominative 
 cases. The following sentence appears to be unexceptionable ; 
 and may serve to explain the others. " The lords and commong 
 are essential branches of the British constitution : the king, wi 
 them, forms an excellent frame of government."* 
 
 3 If the singular nouns and i)ronouns, which are joined logeth 
 by a copulative conjunction, be of several persons, in making 
 che plural pronoun agree with them in person, the second per- 
 <!ion takes place of the third, and the first of both: as, "James, 
 and thou, and I, are attached to our country." " Thou and ho 
 shared it between t/o«^.'' 
 
 RULE in. 
 The conjunction disjunctive has an efiect contrary to 
 that of the conjunction copulative : for as the verb, noun, 
 or pronoun, is referred to the preceding terms taken sepa- 
 rately, it must be in the singular number: as, "Ignorance 
 or negligence has caused this mistake ;" " John, James^ or 
 Joseph, intends to accompany me ;" " There is, in many 
 minds, neither knowledge nor understanding.'* 
 
 The following sentences are variations from this rule : " A man 
 may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well as read 
 them in a description ;" " read if." " Neither character nor dia- 
 logue were yet understood ;" " was yet." " It must indeed be 
 confessed, that a lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery 
 or murder ;" " does not carry in if." " Death, or some worse mis- 
 fortune, soon divide them." It ought to be " divides^ 
 
 1 When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of different 
 persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree with 
 ihat person which is placed nearest to it : as, " I or thou art to 
 blame;" "Thou or 1 am in fault;" " I, or thou, or he, 15 tlio 
 author of it ;"- " George .or J am t'be' person." But it would be 
 better to say ;'J* Either I im to ^Jamo, or thou art," &c. 
 • 2 When a disjunctive occurs betwee.xj a singular noun, or pro- 
 noun, and & pUfrcil orrfe^ thfe;^€?rb I's rfeade to agree with the plural 
 noun and,'f>r«>uc>u*n': ffs^ " Iffgitifer poverty nor riches were inju- 
 rious to him ;" " I or they were offended by it." But in this case, 
 the plural noun or pronoun, when it can conveniently be done, 
 should be placed next to the verb. 
 
 RULE IV. 
 A noun of multitude, or signifying many, may have a 
 verb or pronoun agreeing with it, either of the singular or 
 
 * Though the construction will not admit of a plural verb, the sentence would 
 eortainly stand better thus: <*The king, the lorusi and the commons,ybrm an. 
 excellent constiiutionu** 
 
Rule v.] SYiNTAX. J03 
 
 plural number; yd not without regard to the import of the 
 word, as conveying unity or plurality of idea : as, " The 
 meeting was large ;" " The parliament is dissolved ;" " The 
 nation is powerful ;'* " My people do not consider : Ike^ 
 have not known me ;" "The multitude eagerly pursue 
 pleasure, as their chief good ;" *' The council were divided 
 in Iheir sentiments." 
 
 We ought to consider whether the term will immediately sug- 
 gest the idea of* the iuiml)er it represents, or whether it exhihits 
 to the mind the uieu of the whole as one thing. In the former 
 case, the verb ought to be })Uiral ; in tJie latter, it ought co be 
 singular. Thus, it seems iin])ro[)er to say, " The peasantry goes 
 barefoot, and the middle sort makes use of wooden shoes." It 
 would be better to say, *' The peasantry go barefoot, and the 
 middle sort make use," &c. because the idea in botb these cases, 
 IS tliatof a number. On the contrary, there is a harshness in 
 ihe following sentences, in which nouns of number have verbs 
 plural } because the ideas they represent seem not to be suffi- 
 ciently divided in the mind. " The court of Rome loere not 
 without solicitude." " The house of commons were of small 
 weight." " The house of lords were so much influenced by 
 these reasons " " Stephen's party were entirely broken up by 
 the captivity of their leader." " An army of twenty-four thousand 
 were assembled." " What reason have the church of Rome for 
 proceeding in this manner ?" ^' There is indeed no constitution 
 so tame and careless of their own defence." " All the virtues ot 
 mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers, but /ii5 follies and 
 vices are innumerable." Is not mankind in this place a noun of 
 multitude, and such as requires the pronoun referring to it to he 
 in the plural number, iheir % 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, and 
 the nouns for which they stand, in gender and number : as, 
 " This is the friend zohom 1 love ;" '' That is the vice which 
 I hate ;" " The king and the queen had put on their robes ;" 
 '* The moon appears, a'nd she shines, but the light is not hc7 
 own." 
 
 The relative is of the same person as the antecedent, and 
 the verb agrees with it accordingly : lis,;*' Thou who lovest 
 wisdom ;" "I zoho speak from experience." 
 
 Of this rule there are many violations to ber'met "^ith ; a few 
 of which may be sufficient j;o put the learner on his guard. " Each 
 of the sexes should keep within its particular bounds, and con- 
 tent themselves with the advantages of iheir particular districts :" 
 better thus: "The sexes should keep within their i)SJ'7i\..ni 
 bounds," &c. *'Can any one, on their.entrance into the *»-crid 
 
.^ ENGLISH GllAMMAR. [Rule v 
 
 be fully secure that they shall not be deceived?" ^^ on his en 
 trance," and " that he shall." " One should not think too favoura- 
 bly of ourselves;" "of one's self,'' "He Jiad one acquaintance 
 which poisoned his principles ;" ^^ who poisoned." 
 
 Every relative must have an antecedent to which it refers, 
 either expressed or implied : as, " Who is fatal to others is so to 
 himself;" that is, " the man loho is fatal to others." 
 
 fVho, which, what, and the relative that, though in the objective 
 case, are always placed before the verb ; as are also their com- 
 pounds, whoever, whosoever, &c. ; as, " He whom ye seek f 
 "This is what, or the thing which, or that you want ;" " Whom- 
 soever you please to appoint." 
 
 ffhat is sometimes applied, in a manner which appears to be 
 exceptionable; as, "All fevers, except what are called nervouH." 
 &c. It would at least be better to say, " except those which are 
 called nervous." 
 
 1 Personal pronouns being used to supply the place of tlie 
 noun, are not employed in the same part of a sentence as the 
 noun which they repriesent ; for it would be improper to say, 
 "The king he is just ;" " I saw her the queen ;" " The men thtif 
 were there ;" " Many words they darken speech ;" " My banks 
 they are furnished with bees." These personals are superfluous, 
 as there is not the least occasion for a substitute in the same 
 part where the principal word is present. Tlie nommative case 
 they, in the following sentence, isalso superfluous; " Who, in- 
 stead of going about doing good, they are perpetually intent U})on 
 doing mischief." 
 
 2 The pronoun thai is frequently applied to persons as well as 
 to things; but after an adjective in the superlative degree, and 
 after the pronominal adjective same, it is generally used in pre- 
 ference to who or which : as, " Charles XII. king of Sweden, 
 was one of the greatest madmen that the world eCer saw ;" 
 "Cataline's followers were the most profligate that could be 
 found in any city." " He is the same man that we saw before." 
 There are cases wherein we cannot conveniently dispense with 
 this relative as applied to persons : as first, after who the in- 
 terrogative; "Who that has any sense of religion, would have 
 argued thus ?" Secondly, when persons make but a part of the 
 antecedent ; " The woman, and the estate, that became his por- 
 tion, were too much for his moderation." In neither of these 
 examples could any other relative have been used. 
 
 3 The pronouns tohichsoever, whosoever, and the like, are ele- 
 gantly divided by the interposition of the corresponding su))- 
 stantives: thus, " On whichsoever side the king cast his eyes ;" 
 would hava sounded better, if written, " On which side so- 
 ever," &c, 
 
 4 Many persons are apt, in conversation, to put the objective 
 case of the personal pronouns, in the place of these and those : 
 as, "Give me them books;" instead of ^^ those books." We 
 may sometimes find this fault eveu in writing: as, "Observe 
 
Rule v.] ^ ^ SYNTAX, 
 
 them three there." We also frequently meet with those instead 
 of they^ at the beginning of a sentence, and where there is no 
 particular reference to an antecedent; as, " Those that sow in 
 tears, sometimes reap in joy," They that, or they who sow 
 in tears. 
 
 It is not, however, always easy to say, whether a personal 
 pronoun or a demonstrative is preferable, in certain constructions. 
 ** We are not (Uiacquainted with the calumny of them [or those] 
 who openly make use of the warmest professions." 
 
 5 In some dialects, the word ivhat is improperly used for thai, 
 and sometimes we find it in this sense in writing : "They wilt 
 never beheve but tvhat I have been entirely to blame." " I am 
 not satisfied but what," &c. instead of " but that,^^ The w^ord 
 $om(:iohcU, m the following sentence, seems to be used impro- 
 j>erly. " These punishments seein to have been exercised h\ 
 somewhat an arbitrary manner." Sometimes we read, "In 
 somewhat of." The meaning is, " in a manner which is in some 
 respects arbitrary." 
 
 G The pronoun reJative who is so much apropriated to per- 
 sons, that there is generally harshness in the application of it, 
 except to the proper names of persons, or the general terms man^ 
 woman, Sze. A term which only implies the idea of persons, 
 aiid expresses them by some circumstance or epithet, will hardly 
 authorize the use of it: as, "That faction in England tcho most 
 l^werfully opposed his arbitrary pretensions." " That faction 
 which,^^ would have been better; and the same remark will serve 
 for the following examples : " France, ivho was in alliance with 
 Sweden." "The court, w/io," &c. "The cavalry, t^'/io," &c 
 ** The cities ivho aspired at liberty." " That party among us 
 UfhOj'^ &.C. "The family whom they consider as usurpers." 
 
 In some cases it may be doubtful, whether this pronoun is 
 profjerly applied or not : as, " The number of substar.tial inhabit- 
 ants with whom some cities abound." For when a term" directly 
 and necessarily implies persons, it may in many cases claim the 
 personal relative. " None of the company ivhom he most affected, 
 fould cure him of the melancholy under which he laboured." 
 The word acquaintance may have the same construction. 
 
 7 We hardly consider little children as persons, because 
 that term gives us the idea of reason and reflection: and there- 
 fore the application of the [)ersonal' relative who, in this case, 
 seems to be harsh : "A cbild ?f;/io." It is still more imi)roperiy 
 applied to animals: "A lake fre<|uented by that fowl whom na 
 ture has taught to dip the w ing in water." 
 
 8 When the name of a person is used merely as a name, and 
 it does not refei'^to the person, the pronoun whoou^ht not to be 
 appliied. "It is no wonder if such a man did not shine at the 
 court of queen Elizabeth, who was but another name for prudence 
 and economy." Better thus"; "whose name was but another 
 word for prudence, &e." The. word whose begins likewise to be 
 railricted to persons; yet it is not done so generally, but that 
 
!06 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule v 
 
 good writers, even in prose, n.^e it when speaking of tliingj*. 
 The construction is not, however, f^enerally pleasing, as we way 
 see in the following instances : " Pleasure, whose nature, &c.*' 
 "Call every production, ivhose pans and ivhose nature," &c. 
 
 In one case, however, custom authorizes us to use ivhich,\y\th 
 respect to persons; and that is when we want to distinguish 
 one person of two, or a particular person among a number ol 
 others. We should then say, " JVhick of ti>e two," or " Which 
 of them, is he or she?" 
 
 9 As the pronoun relative has no distinction of number, we 
 sometimes find an ambiguity in the use of it: as when we say, 
 " The 'disciples of Christ, w^om we imitate :" w^e may mean the 
 imitation either of Christ, or of his disciples. The accuracy and 
 clearness of the sentence, depend very much u[)on the proper 
 and determinate use of the relative, so that it may readily pre- 
 sent its antecedent to the mind of the heaier or reader, without 
 any obscurity or ambiguity. 
 
 10 It is and it ivas^ are often, after the manner of the Frencli, 
 used in a plural construction, and by some of our best writers : 
 as, " It is either a few great men who decide for the whole, or 
 it is the rabble that follow a seditious ringleader ;" " It is they 
 that are the real authors, thotigh the soldiers are the actors ot 
 the revolution ;"' " It was the heretics that first began to rail," &c. ; 
 "'Ti5 ^/ie5C that early taint tlie female mind." This license in 
 the construction of it is, (if it be proper to admit it at all,) has, 
 however, been certainly abused in the following sentence, which 
 is thereby made a very awkward one. *' It is wonderful the 
 very few accidents, which, in several years, happen from this 
 practice." 
 
 11 The interjections 0/ Oh I and Ah! require the objective 
 case of a pronoun in the first person after them : as. " O me ! 
 Oh mo ! Ah me !" But the nominative case in the second person : 
 as, "O thou persecutor 1" "Oh ye hypocrites I" "O thou, who 
 dwellest," &c. 
 
 The neuter pronoun, by an idiom })eculiar to the English 
 language, is frequently joined in explanatory sentences, with a 
 noun or y)ronoun of tho mah-^iline or feminine gender: as, ** It 
 was I;" "It was the man or woman that did it." 
 
 The neuter ])ronoun it is sometimes omitted and understood ; 
 thus we say, " As appears, 4is follows ;" for " As it appears, as 
 it follows;" and "Maybe," for " It may be." 
 
 The neuter pronoun it is sometimes employed to express ; 
 
 1st, The subject of any discourse or inquiry : as, " It happened 
 on a summer's day;^' " Who is it that calls on me?" 
 
 9d, The state or condition of any person or thtng: as, " How 
 is it with you ?" 
 
 3d, The thing, whatever it be, that is the cause of any eflect or 
 event, or any person considered merely as a cause : as, " VVe 
 heard her say it was not he ;" " The truth is, it was 1 that helped 
 t.Gr." 
 
Rule vi.j SYNTAX. 107 
 
 RULE VI. 
 
 The relative is the nominative case to the verb when no 
 nominative comes between it and the verb : as, " The mas- 
 ter who taught us ;" " The trees which are planted." 
 
 When a nominative comes between the relative and the 
 verb, the relative is governed by some word in its own mem- 
 ber of the sentence : as, " He who preserves me, to whom I 
 owe my being, whose 1 am, and whom I serve, is eternal." 
 
 Tn the several members of the last sentence, the relative per- 
 forms a different office. In the first member, it marks the agent ; 
 in the second, it submits to tlie government of the preposition ; 
 in the third, it represents the possessor ; and in the fourth, the 
 object of an action : and therefore it must be in the three different 
 cases, corres])ondenc to those offices. 
 
 When both the antecedent and relative become nominatives, 
 each to different verbs, the relative is the nominative to the 
 former, and the antecedent to the latter verb : as, ^^ True phi- 
 hsophy, which is the ornament of our nature, consists more in 
 the love of our duty, and the practice of virtue, than in gretA 
 talents and extensive knowledge." 
 
 A few instances of erroneous construction, will illustrate both 
 the branches of the sixth rule. The three following refer to the 
 first part. " How can we avoid being grateful to those whom, by 
 repeafed kind offices, have proved themselves our real friends !'* 
 *• These are the men whom, you might suppose, were the authors 
 of the work :" " If you were here, you would find three or four, 
 whom you would say ])assed their time agreeably :" in all these 
 places it should be ivho instead of xohom. The two latter sen- 
 tences contain a nominative between the relative and the verb ; 
 and, therefore, seem to contravene the rule : but the student will 
 reflect, that it is not the nominative of the verb with which the 
 relative is connected. The remaining examples refer to the 
 second part of the rule. " Men of fine talents are not always 
 the persons who we should esteem." " The persons who you 
 dispute with, are precisely of your opinion." " Our tutors are 
 our benefactors, who we owe obedi^ice to, and who we ought 
 to love." In these sentences, whom should be used instead of who, 
 
 1 When the relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, the 
 noun or pronoun containing the answer, must be in the same 
 case as that which contains the question: as, " Whose books are 
 rhese ? They are John's.'^ '' JFho gave them to him? ffe." 
 '* Of ichom did you buy them ? Of a bookseller ; him who lives 
 at the Bible and Crown." " WTiom did you see there ? Both 
 him and the shopman." The learner will readily comprehend 
 this rule, by supplying the words which are understood in the 
 answers. — Thus, to express the answers at large, we should say, 
 " They are John's books." " We gave them to him." " Wo 
 bought theun of him who lives, &^c." " We- saw both him and 
 
108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [RLLETn,Tin 
 
 the fc^bopman/' — As the relative pronoun, when used interro- 
 gatively, I'efers to the subsequent word or phrase containing the 
 answer to the question, that ^vord or phrase may properly be 
 termed the subsequent to the interrogative, 
 
 RULE VIL fl 
 
 Wlieii the relative is preceded by two nominatives of dK 
 fereut persons, the relative and verb may agree in person 
 with either^ according to the sense: as, "I am the man 
 toh^ command you ;" or, " I am the man who commands you/ 
 
 The form of the first of the two preceding sentences, expresses 
 the meaning rather obscurely. It would be more perspicuous 
 to say ; *• I, who command you, am the man." Perhaps the dif- 
 ference of meaning, produced by referring the relative to differ- 
 ent antecedents, will be more evident to the learner, in the fol- 
 l9wing sentences : " I am the general who givts the orders to- 
 day ;" " I am the general, who give the orders to-day ;'' that is, 
 " I, who give the orders to-day, am the general.* 
 
 When the relative and the verb have been determined to agree 
 with either of the preceding nominatives, that agreement must 
 be preserved throughout the sentence ; as in the following in- 
 stance : " I am the Lord that maktth all things ; that stretcheth 
 forth the heavens alone.'* ha. xliv. 24. Thus far is consistent : 
 The Lordj in the third person, is the antecedent, and the verb 
 agrees with the relative in the third person : " I am the Lord^ 
 which Lord, or he that maJceth all things." If /were made th© 
 antecedent, the relative and verb should agree with it in the 
 first person : as, "/am the hord, that make all things, that stretch 
 forth the heavens alone." But should it follow : " That spread- , 
 eth abroad the earth by myself;" there would aris^ a confusion 
 of persons, and a manifest solecism. 
 
 RULE VIIl. 
 
 Every adjective, and every adjective pronoun, belongs to 
 a substantive, expressed or understood : as, ** He is a good^ 
 as well as a zoise man ^" " Few are happy ;" that is, '' per- 
 fons :" ** This is a pleasaiat walk ;" that is, " This walk is," &€. 
 
 Adjective pronouns must agree, in number, with their 
 substantives : as, " This book, these books ; that sort, those 
 sorts ; another road, other roads." 
 
 I. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 A few instances of the breach of this rule are here exhibited. 
 '*I have not travelled this twenty years ;" " ^^€5e twenty." **I 
 am not recommending these kind of sufferings;" "tfei5 kind." 
 ''Those set of books was a valuable present;" ^'that set." 
 ^ 1 The word means in the singular number, and the phrases, 
 " J5v this mcans^^^ " By that means,^^ are used by our best and most 
 correct writers; namely, Bacon, Tillotson, Atterbury, Addison, 
 
I Rule viii.] SYNTAX. J 09 
 
 Steele, Pope, &c. "^Tlioy are, indeed, in so general and approved 
 use, that it would appear awkward, if net affected, to apply the 
 old singular form, and say, "By tliis viean ; by that mean; it 
 was by a mean;^'' although it is more agreeable to the general 
 analogy of the language. "The word merrns (says Priestley) 
 belongs to the class of words, which do not change their termina- 
 tion on account of number; for it is used alike in both numbers." 
 
 The word amends is used in this manner, in tlie following sen- 
 tences: " Though he did not succeed, he gained the approbaiioa 
 of his country ; and with this amends he was content." "Peace 
 of mind is an honourable amends for the sacrifices of interest." 
 " In return, he received the thanks of his employers, and thepra- 
 sent of a large estate : thjise were ample amends for all his la 
 bours." " VVe have described the rewards of vice: the good 
 man's amends are of a different nature." 
 
 It can scarcely be doubted, that this word amends (like the 
 word means) had formerly its correspondent form in the singular 
 number, as it is derived from the French amende, though now it 
 is exclusively established in the plural form. If, therefore, it bo 
 alleged, that mean should be applied in the singular, because it 
 is derived from the French moyen, the same kijid of argument 
 may be advanced in favour of the singular amende; and the gene- 
 ral analogy of the lauijuage may also be pleaded in support of it. 
 
 Campbell, in his "Philosophy of Khetoric," has the following 
 
 * " Ry this means, he had the;>i the more at vantage, being tired and liarassed 
 v/itli a long niarcli." Bacon: 
 
 ** By this means one great restraint from doing evil, would be taken away,"- • 
 " And thts is an admirable means to improve men in virtue."-^i?y that means 
 they iiave rendered their duty nirj-e difficult." Tilloisnn. 
 
 *' it renders us careless of approving ourselves to God, and by that means se- 
 curing the continuance of his goodness." — "^ A good character, when established, 
 should not be rested in as an end, but employed as a means of doing still furthei 
 good." Atterbuyy 
 
 '''-By this m£ans they are happy in each other." — "He by that i>*-^.\,iS pre 
 serves his superiority." Addison 
 
 ** V'our vanity by this means will waiU its food." Steele 
 
 " By this means alone, their greatest obstacles will vanish." Pope 
 
 ** Which custom has proved the most effectual means to ruin the nobles." 
 
 Dean Sunft 
 
 " There is no means of escaping the persecution." -** Faith is not only u 
 
 means of obeying, but a principal acl of obedience." Dr. Ycimg. 
 
 ** He looked on money as a necessary means of maintaining and increasing 
 power." Lord Lyttleton's Henry IL 
 
 " John was too much intimidated not to embrace every means afforded for hi? 
 safety." Goldsmith. 
 
 *• Lest this means sliould fail." — "By means of ship-money, the late king," (fcc. 
 ••■ '* The only means of securirfg a durable iieace." Hume. 
 
 " By this m£a7is there was nothing left to the parliament of Ireland," &c. . 
 
 Blackstone, 
 
 " By this means so many slaves escaped out of tlie hands of their masters." 
 
 Dr. Robertson. 
 
 " By this meatis they bear witness to each other." Bvrke. 
 
 ♦* By this jnenns the wrath of man was made to turn as^dinst itself." Dr. Blair, 
 
 * Amagazii.e, which has, by this rnm/w, coulained, &c."— " Birds, in general, 
 procure tiieir food by 7nean$ of their beak.'' Dr. Paiey, 
 
 K 
 
no ENGLISH GRAMMAR. LRule vin 
 
 remark on the subject before us : " No persons of taste will, 1 
 presume, venture so far to violate the present usage, and conse- 
 quently to shock the ears of the generality of readers, as to say, 
 * By this mean, by that mean.'' " 
 
 Lowth and Johnson seem to be against the use o^ means in the 
 singular number. They do not, however, speak decisively on 
 the point; but rather dubiously, and as if they knevr that they 
 were questioning eminent authorities, as vrell as general prac- 
 tice. That they vrere not decidedly against the application of 
 this word to the singular number, appears from their own lan- 
 guage : " Whole sentences, whether simple or compound, may 
 become members of other sentences by means of some additional 
 connexion,'''' — Dr. Lowth^s Introduction to English Grammar. 
 
 " There is no other method of teaching that of which any on« 
 is ignorant, but by means of something already known," — Dr. 
 Johnson. Idler. 
 
 It is remarkable that our present version of the Scriptures 
 makes no use, as far as the compiler can discover, of the word 
 mean ; though there are several instances to be found in it of the 
 use of meanSi in the sense and connexion contended for. " By 
 this means thou shalt have no portion on this side the river.'* 
 Ezra iv. 16. " That by means ofdeatK,'^ &c. Heb. ix. 15. It will 
 scarcely be pretended, that the translators of the sacred volumes 
 did not accurately understand the English language ; or that 
 they would have admitted one form of this word, and rejected 
 the other, had not their determination been conformable to the 
 best usage. An attempt therefore to recover an old word, so 
 long since disused by the most correct writers, seems not likely 
 to be successful ; especially as the rejection of it is not attended 
 with any inconvenience. 
 
 The practice of the best and most correct writers, or a great 
 majority of them, corroborated by general usage, forms, during 
 its continuance, the standard of language ; especially, if, in par- 
 ticular instances, this practice continue, after objection and due 
 consideration. Every connexion and application of words and 
 phrases, thus supported, must therefore be proper, and entitled 
 to respect, if not exceptionable in a moral point of view. 
 
 " Si volet usus 
 
 " Quern penes arbitrium est, et jus, et norma loquendi." HOR- 
 
 On this principle, many forms of expression, not less deviating 
 from the general analogy of the language, than those before men- 
 tioned, are to he considered as strictly proper and justifiable. 
 Of this kind are the following. ^' JVone of them are varied to 
 express the gender ;" and yet none originally signified no one» 
 
 * He himself shaU do the work :" here, what was at first appro- 
 .^riated to the objective, is now properly used as the nominative 
 
 5ase. *' Yon have behaved yourselves well :" in this example, 
 xhe word you is put in the nominative case plural, with strict 
 J^opriety ; though formerly it was confined to ttie objective ca&e, 
 fmd ye exclusively used for the nominative. 
 
RuLEviH,] SYNTAX. in 
 
 With respect to anomalies and variations of language, thus 
 established, it is the grammarian's business to submit, not to re- 
 monstrate. In pertinaciously opposing the decision of proper 
 authority, and contending for obsolete modes of expression, he 
 may, indeed, display learning and critical sagacity ; and, in some 
 degree, obscure points that are sufficiently clear and decided ; 
 but he caKuot reasonably hope either to succeed in his aims, or 
 to assist the learner, in discovering and respecting the true stand- 
 ard and principles of language. 
 
 Cases which custom has left dubious, are certainly within the 
 grammarian's province. Here, he may reason and remonstrate 
 on the ground of derivation, analogy, and propriety ; and hia 
 reasonings may refine arfd improve the language : but when 
 authority speaks out and decides the point, it were perpetually 
 to unsettle the language, to admit of cavil and debate. Anoma- 
 lies the«, under the limitation mentionexl, become the law, as 
 clearly as the plainest analogies. 
 
 The reader will perceive that, in the following sentences, the 
 use of the word mean in the old form has a very uncouth appear- 
 ance : "By the wean of adversity we are often instructed.'* 
 " He preserved his health by mean of exercise." "Frugahty is 
 one mean of acquiring a competency." They should be, "By 
 means of adversity," &c. "By means of exercise," &c. "Fru- 
 gality is one means j^^ &c. 
 
 Good writers do indeed make use of the substantive mean in 
 the singular number, and in that number only, to signify medi- 
 ocrity, middle rate, &c. as, " This is a mean between the two 
 extremes." But in the sense of instrumentality, it has been 
 long disused by the best authors, and by almost every writer. 
 
 This m^ans and that means should be used only when they 
 refer to what is singular ; these means and those means, when 
 they respect plurals : as, " He lived temperately, and by this 
 means preserved his health ;" " The scholars were attentive, 
 industrious, and obedient to their tutors ; and by these means 
 acquired knowledge." 
 
 We have enlarged on'this article, that the young student may 
 be led to reflect on a point so important, as that of ascertaining 
 the standard of propriety in the use of language. 
 
 2 When two persons or things are spoken of in a sentence, 
 and there is occasion to mention them again for the sake of 
 distinction, that is used in i*eference to the former, and this^ in 
 reference to the latter : as, " Self-lave, which is the spring of 
 action in the soul, is ruled by reason : but for that, man would 
 be inactive ; and but for this, he would be active to no end.'' 
 
 3 The distributive adjective pronouns, each, even/, either, agree 
 with the nouns, pronouns, and verbs, of the singular number 
 only: as, **The king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat, the king of 
 Judali, sat each on his throne;" ^^ Every tree is known by its 
 fruit :" unless the plural noun convey a collective idea : as, 
 ** Every six months ;" " -Gvery hundred years." The following 
 
112 ENGLISH GRAMaiAR. 
 
 [RUI-E VI^ 
 
 phrases are exceptionable. '^ Let each esteem others better than 
 themselves:*' It ought t(i be '•^ Idmself.''* •' The language should 
 be both perspicuous and correct : in proportion as ci7Aer of these 
 two qualities are waitting, the language is imperfect:" it should 
 be, ^' is wanting.'* '* Kvcry one of the letters bear regular dates, 
 and contain proofs of attachment:" '■'hnars a regular dale., and 
 contains^ *' livery town and village were burned ; every grove 
 and every tree were cut down:" '"•was burned, and was cut 
 down." See the Key, p. 16; and the Octavo Grammar, SECo^'D 
 edition, volume 2, page 322. 
 
 Either is often used improperly, instead of each : as, "The 
 king ofl srael, and Jehoshaphat, the king of Judah, sat either ol 
 them on his throne;" " Nadab and Abihu, the sons of Aaron, 
 took either of them his censer." Each signifies both of them 
 taken distinctly or separately ; cither properly signifies only the 
 one or the other of them taken disjunctively. 
 
 In the course of this work, some examples will appear of erro- 
 neous translations from the Holy Scriptures, with respect to 
 grammatical construction : but it may be proper to remark, that 
 notwithstanding these verbal mistakes, the Bible, for the size of 
 it, is the most accurate grammatical composition that we have 
 in the English language. The authority of several eminent 
 grammarians might be adduced in support of this assertion : but 
 it may be suflicient to mention only that of Dr. Lowth, who says, 
 *'The present translation of the Bible, is the best standard of the 
 English- language." 
 
 '..'j II. ADJECTIVES. 
 
 4 Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as adverbs : 
 as, " Indifferent honest ; excellent well ; miserable poor ;" instead 
 of '* Indifferently honest ; excellently well ; miserably poor." 
 " He behaved himself conformable to that great example ;" 
 ^''conformably.'''' "Eiijdeavour to live hereafter suitable to a 
 l^erson in thy station ;" ** suitably,''^ " I can never think so very 
 mean of him ;" " meanly,'''' *' He describes this river agreeable 
 to the common reading;" *^ agreeably. ^^ "Agreeable to my 
 promise, I now write ;" '* agreeably.'^ '* Thy exceeding great 
 reward:" When united to an adjective, or adverb not ending in 
 ly,the word exceeding has ly added to it: as, "exceedirigly dread- 
 ful, exceedingly great;" "exceedingly well, exceedingly more 
 active :" but when it is joined to an adverb or adjective, having 
 that termination, the ly is omitted : as, " Some men think ex- 
 ceeding clearly, and reason exceeding forcibly :" " She appeared, 
 on this occasion, exceeding lovely." " He acted in this business 
 bolder than was expected :" " They behaved the noblest, because 
 they were disinterested." They should have been, " more boldly; 
 most nobly.^^ — The adjective pronoun such Is often misapphed: 
 as, " He was such an extravagant young man, that he spent his 
 whole patrimony in a few years :" it sliould be, "50 extravagant 
 a young man,^"* '* I never before saw such large trees:" ^^ saw 
 trees so large.'''' When we refer to the species or nature of n 
 
Rule VIII.] SYNTAX. 1J8 
 
 Uiing, the word such is properly applied : as, ** Such a temper is 
 seldom found:" but when degree is signified, we use the word 
 80 : as, " So Iiad a temper is seldom found." 
 
 Adverbs are Hkewise iinpropeiiy used as adjectives : as, "The 
 tutor addressed him in terms rather warm, but suitably to his 
 offence^" '^suUalle.'' "They were seen wandering about soH- 
 t^irily and distressed;" '' solitary. ^^ "He hved in a manner 
 agreeably to the dictates of reason and rehgion ;'' ** agreealle.^* 
 **The si\<dy of syntax should be previously to that of punctua- 
 tion;" ^' previoiLsJ'^* 
 
 5 Double comparatives and superlatives should be avoided : 
 such as, "A worser conduct;" "On lesser ho[)es;" "A more 
 serener temper;" " The most straitest sect ;" " A more superior 
 work." They should be, "worse conduct;" "less hopes;" "a 
 more serene temjKir :" " the straitest sect ;" "a superior work." 
 
 G Adjectives that have in themselves a superlative significa- 
 tion, do not properly admit of the superlative or comparative 
 form superaddcu : S4ich as, " Chief, extreme, perfect, right, uni- 
 versal, supreme," &c. ; which are sometimes improperly written, 
 ** Chiefest, extiomesi, perfectest, rightest, most universal, most 
 supreme," ^c. The following expressions are therefore im- 
 proper. " He sometimes claims admission to the chiefest offices." 
 "The quarrel oecame so universal and national ;" "A method 
 of attaining the rightist and greatest happiness " The phrases, 
 so perfect, so right, so extreme, so universal, &c. are incorrect; 
 because they imply that one thing is less perfect, less extreme, 
 &c. than another, which is not povssible. 
 
 7 Inaccuracies are often found in the way in which the de- 
 grees of comparison are applied and construed. The following 
 are examples of wrong construction in this respect: "This no^ 
 ble nation hath, of all others, admitted fewer corruptions." 
 The woyA fewer is here construed precisely as if it were the 
 superlative. It should be, "This noble nation' hath admitted 
 fewer corruptions than any other." We commonly say, " This 
 is the weaker of the two ;" or, " The weakest of the two :" but 
 the former is the regular mode of expression, because there are 
 only two things compared. " The vice of covetousness is what 
 enters deepest into the soul of any other." " He celebrates the 
 church of England as the most perfect of all others." Both 
 these modes of expression are faulty : we should not say, " The 
 best of any man," or, " The best of any other man," for " the 
 beft of men." The sentences may be corrected by substituting 
 the comparative in the room of the superlative. " The vice, &c. 
 is what enters deeper into the soul than any other." "He cele- 
 brates, &c. as more perfect than any other." It is also possible 
 to retain the superlative, and render the expression grammatical. 
 " Covetousness, of all vices, enters the deepest into the soul." 
 " He celebrates, &c. as the most perfect of all churches." These 
 
 * For the rule to determine whether an adjective or an adverb is to ti ised 
 •ec English exercises, Sixteenth, or any siibseque r edition, page 140. 
 
 K2 
 
fl 
 
 114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule vii 
 
 sentences contain ctlier errors, against whic)! it is proper to 
 caution the learner. The words deeper and deepest^ being in- 
 tended for adverbs, should luive been more dceplij, most detpbj. 
 The phrases more perfect^ and most perfect, are improper ; because 
 perfection admits of no degrees of comparison. We may say 
 nearer or nearest to perfection, or more or less imperfect. 
 
 8 In some cases, adjectives should not be separated from their 
 substantives, even by words which modify their meaning, and 
 make but one sense with them : as, " A large enough number 
 surely." It should be, " A number large enough." " Tlie lower 
 sort of people are good enough judges of one not very distant 
 from them." 
 
 The adjective is usually placed before its substantive : as, " A 
 p^enerous man;" "How amiable a woman!" The instances in 
 which it comes after the substantive, are the following. 
 
 1st, When something depends upon the adjective ; and when 
 it gives a better sound, especially in poetry : as, " A man gene- 
 rous to his enemies;" "Feed me with food convenient for me;" 
 "A tree three feet thicks "A body of troops fifty thousand 
 strong ;" " The torrent tumbling through rocks abrupt,''' 
 
 2d, When the adjective is enjphatical: as, " Alexander the 
 Great f "Lewis the Bold;'' "Goodness infinite;'" "Wisdom 
 unsearcliahl'ey 
 
 3d, When several adjectives belong to one substantive : as, 
 *' A man just, wise, and charitable ;" " A woman modest, sensi- 
 ble, and virtuous." 
 
 4th, When the adjective is preceded by an adverb : as, " A 
 boy regularly studious ;" "A girl unaffectedly modest." 
 
 5th, When the verb to be, in any of its variations, comes be- 
 tween a substantive and an adjective, the adjective may fre- 
 quently either precede or follow it: as, " The man is happy; or, 
 happy is the man, who makes virtue his choice :" " The interview 
 was delightful ;" or, " delightful was the interview." 
 
 Cth, When the adjective expresses some cii'cumstance of a 
 substantive placed after an active verb : as, " Vanity often ren- 
 ders its possessor despicable," In an exclamatory sentence, the 
 adjective generally precedes the substantive : as, "How dtspica- 
 hie does vanity often render its possessor !" 
 
 There is, sometimes great beauty, as well as force, in placing 
 the adjective before the verb, and the substantive immediately 
 after it : as. " Great is the Lord ! just and true are thy ivays, 
 thou King- of saints!" 
 
 Sometimes the word all is emphatically put after a number of 
 particulars comprehended under it. "Ambition, interest, ho- 
 nour, all concurred." Sometimes a substantive, which likewise 
 comprehends the preceding particulars, is used in conjunction 
 with this adjective: as, "Royalists, republicans, churchmen, 
 eectaries, courtiers, patriots, all parties^ concurred in the illusion." 
 
 An adjective pronoun, in the jdural number, will sometime'* 
 
Rule IX.] SYNTAX. 115 
 
 properly associate Avith a singular noun : as, " Our desire, your 
 intention, their resignation." This association applies rather tc 
 things of an intellectual nature, than to those which are corpo 
 real. It forms an exception to the general rule. 
 
 A suhstantive with its adjective is reckoned as one compound- 
 ed word, whence they often take another adjective, and some- 
 times a third, and so on : as, '' An old man ; a good old man ; a 
 very learned, judicious, good old man." 
 
 Though the adjective always relates to a substantive, it is, in 
 many instances, put as if it were absolute ; especially where the 
 noun has been mentioned before, or is easily understood, though 
 hot expressed : as, " I often survey the green fields, as I am very 
 fond of green ;" "Tiic wise, the virtuous, the honoured, famed, 
 and great," that is, "persons;" '^The twelve," that is, *' aj)os- 
 tles ;" *' Have compassion on the poor; be feet to the lame, and 
 eyes to the blind. ^^ 
 
 Substantives are often used as adjectives. In this case, the 
 word so used is sometimes unconnected with the substantive to 
 which it relates ; sometinjes connected with it by a hyphen ; and 
 sometimes joined to it, so as to make the two words coalesce. 
 The total separation is proper, when either of the two words is 
 long, or when they cannot be fluently pronounced as one word : 
 aR, an adjective pronoun, a silver watch, a stone cistern: the hy- 
 phen is used, when both the words are short, and are readily 
 pronounced as a single word : as, coal-mine, corn-mill, fruit-tree : 
 the words coalesce, when they are readily pronounced together, 
 have a long established association ; and are in frequent use : 
 a.'i'. honeycomb, gingerbread, inkhorn, Yorksliire. 
 
 Sometimes the adjective becomes a substantive, and has ano 
 ther adjective joined to It: as, "The chief good;" "The vasi 
 immense of space." 
 
 When an adjective has a preposition before it, the substan- 
 tive being understood, it takes the nature of an adverb, and is 
 considered as an adverb: as, "In general, in particular, in 
 haste," &c. ; that is, " Generally, particularly, hastily." 
 
 Enow was formerly used as the plural of enough : but it is now 
 obsolete 
 
 RULE IX. 
 
 The article a or an agrees with nouns in the singular 
 number only, individually or collectively : as, " A christian, 
 an infidel, a score, a thousand." The definite article the 
 may agree with nouns in the singular and plural number : 
 as, " The garden, the houses, the stars." 
 
 The articles are often properly omitted : when used, they 
 should be justly applied, according to their distinct nature : 
 as, " Gold is corrupting ; the sea is green ; a lion is bold." 
 
 It is of the nature of both the articles to determine or liniit 
 tl»e thing spoken of. Jl determines it to be one single thing of 
 
116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule ix 
 
 the kind, leaving it still uncertain which: Oie determines which 
 it is ; or of many, which they are. 
 
 The following passage will serve as an example of the differ- 
 ent uses of a and /A-e, and of the force of the substantive without 
 any article. " Man was made for society, and ought to extend 
 his good will to all men : but a man will naturally entertain a 
 more particular kmdness for the men, with whom he has the 
 most frequent intercourse ; and enter into a still closer union with 
 the man whose temper and disposition suit best with his own." 
 
 As the articles are sometimes misapplied, it may be of som* 
 use to exhibit a few instances: " And J persecuted this way unto 
 the death.'* The apostle does not mean any particular sort of 
 death, but death in general : the definite article therefore is im- 
 properly used : it ought to be "unto death," without any article. 
 
 " When he, the Spirit of Truth, is come, he will guide you into 
 all truth ;" that is, according to this translation, "into all truth 
 whatsoever, into truth of all kinds ;" very different from the 
 meaning of the evangelist, and from the original, ''into all the 
 truth ;" that is, " into all evangelical truth, ail truth necessary 
 for you to know." 
 
 " Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel ?" it ought to be " the 
 wheel," used as an instrument for the particular purpose of tor- 
 turing criminals. '* The Almighty hath given reason to a man 
 to be a light unto him :" it should rather be, " to man,^^ in gene- 
 ral. "This day is salvation come to this house, forasmuch as he 
 also is the son of Abraham :" it ought to be, "a son of Abraham." 
 
 These remarks may serve to show the great importance of the 
 proper use of the article, and the excellence of the English lan- 
 guage in this respect ; which, by means of its two articles, does 
 most precisely determine the extent of signification of common 
 names. 
 
 1 A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made by the 
 use or omission of the article a. If 1 say, ** He behaved with a 
 little reverence ;" my meaning is positive. If I say, " He behaved 
 with little reverence ;" my meaning is negative. And these two 
 are by no means the same, or to be used in the same cases. By the 
 former, I rather praise a person ; by the latter, I dispraise him. 
 For the sake of this distinction, which is a very useful* one, we 
 may better bear the seeming impropriety of the article a before 
 nouns of number. When I say, "There were few men with 
 him;" I speak diminutively, and mean to represent them as in 
 considerable : whereas, when I say ; ^* There were a few men 
 with him ;" I evidently intend to make the most of them. 
 
 2 In general, it may be suflicient to prefix the article to the 
 former of two words in the same construction ; though the 
 French never fail to repeat it in this case. 
 
 " There were many hours, both of the night and day, which 
 he could spend, without suspicion, in solitary thought." It 
 might have been ** of the night and of the day." And, for the 
 fiake of emphasis, we often repeat the article in a series of epi 
 
Rule xJ SYNTAX. J 17 
 
 thets. "He hoped that this title wouIJ secure hjjii an am])le and 
 an independent authority." 
 
 3 In common conversation, and in familiar style, we frequent- 
 ly omit the articles, which might he inserted with propriety in 
 writing, especially in a grave style. "At worst, time miglit he 
 gained hy tliis expedient." "At i/je worst," would Iiave heeri 
 lietter in this place. " Give me here John Baptist's head." 
 There would have heen more dignity in saying, "John tht Bap- 
 list's head :" or, " The lieud of John the Baptist." 
 
 The article the has sometimes a good effect in distinguishing a 
 person hy an epithet. " In the history of Henry the fourth, hy 
 Father Daniel, we are surprised at not finding him the great 
 man." "I own I am often surprised that he should have treat- 
 ed so coldly, a man so much the gentleman." 
 
 This article is often elegantly pur, after the manner of the 
 French, for the pronoun possessive: as, "He looks him full in 
 ike face ;" that is, " in his face." " In his presence they were 
 10 strike the forehead on the ground ;" that is, " their foreheads ^ 
 
 We sometimes, according to the French manner, repeat the 
 same article, when the adjective, on account of any clause de- 
 pending upon it, is put after the suhstantive. " Of all the consi- 
 derahle governments among the Alps, a commonwealth is a con- 
 Btitution the most adapted of any to the poverty of those coun- 
 tries." ** With such a specious title as that of blood, which with 
 the multitude is always a claim, the strongest, and the most easily 
 comprehended." " They are not the men in the nation the most 
 difficult to be replace^." 
 
 RULE X. 
 One substantive governs another, signifying a diiferent 
 thing, in the possessive or genitive case : as, " My father s 
 house;" " Man's happiness ;" " Virtue's reward.'* 
 
 When the annexed substantive signifies the same thing as the 
 first, there is no variation of case : as, " George, king of Great 
 Britain, elector of Hanover," itc. ; " Pompey contended with 
 Caesar, the greatest general of his time ;" "Religion, the support 
 of adversity, adorns prosperity." Nouns thus circumstanced 
 are said to be in apposition to each other. The interposition of 
 n relative and verb will sometimes break the construction : as, 
 " Pompey contended with Caesar, who was the greatest general 
 of his time." Here the word general is in the nominative case, 
 governed by note 4, under Rule xi. 
 
 The preposition q/* joined to a substantive, is not always equi- 
 valent to the possessive case. It is only so, when the expression 
 can be converted into the regukir forni of the possessive case. 
 We can say, "The reward cf virtue," and "Virtue's reward:" 
 but though it is proper to say, "A crown of gold," we cannot 
 convert the expression into the possessive case, and say, " Gold's 
 crown." 
 
Substantives govern pronouns as well as nouns, in tlie posses- 
 sive case : as, " Every tree is known by its fruit ;" " Goodnesb 
 brings its reward ;" " That desk is mine,^^ 
 
 The genitive its is often improperly used for 'tis or ii is ; as, 
 " Its my book-:" instead of '* It is my book." 
 
 The pronoun to, when detached from the noun to which it 
 relates, is to be considered, not as a possessive pronoun, but as 
 the genitive case of the personal pronoun : as, *' This composition 
 i3 to." *' Whose book is that?" '^ iifi5." If we used the noun 
 itself, we should say, '* This composition is John's." " Whose book 
 is that ?" " Eliza's." The position will be still more evident, 
 when we consider that both the pronouns in the following sen 
 tences must have a similar construction : *' Is it her or his honour 
 that is tarnished .'" " It is not hers, but to." 
 
 Sometimes a substantive in the genitive or possessive case 
 stands alone, the latter one by which it is governed being un- 
 derstood : as, *' I called at the bookseller's," that is, ** at the 
 bookseller's shcp^ 
 
 1 If several nouns come together in the genitive case, the 
 apostrophe with s is annexed to the last, and understood to the^ 
 rest : as, *' John and Eliza's books :" " This was my father, ^, 
 mother, and uncle's advice." But when any words interi^ene, 
 perhaps on account of the increased pause, the sign of the . 
 possessive should be annexed to each : as, " They are John's as 
 well as EHza's books;" "I had the physician's, the surgeon's, 
 and the apothecary's assistance." 
 
 2 In poetry, the additional 5 is frequently omitted, but the 
 apostrophe retained, in the same manner as in substantives of 
 the plural nu/nber ending in s: as, "The wrath of Peleus' son." 
 This seems not so allowable in prose; which the following erro- 
 neous examples will demonstrate: "Moses' minister;" "Phine- 
 has' wife ;" "Festus came into Felix' room." " These answers 
 were made to the witness' questions." But in cases which would 
 give too much of the hissing sound, or increase the difficulty of 
 pronunciation, the omission takes place even in prose : as, ** For 
 righteousness' sake;" "For conscience' sake." 
 
 3 Little explanatory circumstances are particularly awkward 
 between a genitive case, and the word which usually follows it : 
 as, " She began to extol the farmer's, as she called him, excellent 
 understanding." It ought to be, " the excellent understanding 
 of the farmer, as she called him." 
 
 4 When a sentence consists of terms signifying a name and 
 an office, or of any expressions by which one part is descriptive 
 or explanatory of the other, it may occasion some doubt to which 
 of them the sign of the genitive case should be annexed ; or 
 whether it should be subjoined to them both. Thus, some 
 would say; " I left the parcel at Smith's the bookseller ;" others, 
 *' at Smith the bookseller's ;" and perhaps others, " at Smith*s 
 the bookseller's." The first of these forms is most agreeable to 
 the Knglish idiom ; and if the addition consists of two or more 
 
Rule x.J SYNTAX. 119 
 
 words, the case seems to be less dubious : as, " I left the parcel 
 at Smith's, the bookseller and stationer." But as this subject 
 requires a little further explanation to make it intelligible to the 
 learners, we shall add a few observations tending to unfold its 
 principles. 
 
 A phrase in vihich the words are so connected and dependent, 
 as to admit of no pause before the conclusion, necessarily re- 
 quires the genitive sign at or near the end of the phrase : as, 
 " Whose prerogative is it ? It is the king of Great Britain's;" 
 "That is the duke of Bridgewater's canal;" "The bishop U 
 LandafF's excellent book ;" ''The lord mayor of London's au- 
 thority ;" "The captain of the guard's house." 
 
 When words in apposition follow each other in quick succes- 
 sion, it seems also most agreeable to our idiom, to give the sign 
 of the genitive a similar situation ; especially if the noun vj^hich 
 governs the genitive be expressed : as, " The emperor Leo- 
 pold's ;" "Diouvsius the tyrant's;" "For David my servmiVs 
 sake ;" " Give me John the Baptist's head ;" " Paul the apostle's 
 advice." But when a pause is pro})cr, and the governing noun 
 not expressed; and w^hen the latter part of the sentence is ex- 
 tended ; it appears to be requisite that the sign should be applied 
 to the first genitive, and understood to the other; as, " I reside 
 at lord Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor ;" " Whose 
 glory did he emulate ? He emulated Cersar's, the greatest general 
 of antiquity." In the following sentences, it would be very 
 awkward to place the sign, either at the end of each of the 
 clauses, or at the end of the latter one alone: "These psalms 
 arc David's, the king, priest, and prophet of the Jewish people ;" 
 *' We staid a month at lord Lyttleton's, the ornament of his 
 country, and the friend of every virtue." The sign of the^enitive 
 case may very properly be understood at the end of these mem- 
 bers, an ellipsis at the latter part of sentences being a common 
 construction in our language; as the learner will see by one or 
 two examples : " They wished to submit, but he did not ;" that 
 is, " he did not wish to submit ;" " He said it was their concern, 
 but not his ;" that is, ^^ not his concern^ 
 
 If we annex the sign of the genitive to the end of the last 
 clause only, we shall perceive that a resting place is wanted, 
 and thtit the connecting circumstance is placed too remotely, 
 to be either perspicuous or agreeable : as, " Whose glory did he 
 emidate ?" "He emulated Caesar, the greatest general of anh*- 
 quity's ;'' "These psaln)s are David, the king, priest, and prophet 
 of the Jewish people's.'^ It is much better to say, "This is 
 PauVs advice, the Christian hero, and great apostle of the gen- 
 tiles," than, "This is Paul the Christian hero, and great apostle 
 of the gentiles^ advice." On the other hand, the application of 
 the genitive sign to both or all of the nouns in apposition, would 
 be generally harsh and displeasing, and perhaps in some cases 
 incor»-ect : as, " The emperor's Leopold's ;" " King's George's ;" 
 * Charles' the second's ;" " The parcel was left at Smith's the 
 
120 • ENGIJSII GRAMMAR. [RuleM 
 
 bookseller's and stationer's." The rules which we have endea- 
 voured to elucidate, will prevent the inconvenience of both these , 
 modes of expression ; and they appear to be simple, pers|icuoua, I 
 and consistent with the idiom of the language. 
 
 5 The English genitive has often an unpleasant sound ; so 
 that we daily make more use of the particle of to express tha 
 same relation. There is something awkward in the following 
 sentences, in which this method has not been taken. "The 
 general, in the army's name, published a declaration." " The 
 commons' vote." "The lords' house." "Unless he is very 
 ignorant of the kingdom's condition." It were certainly better 
 to say, " In the name of the army ;" " The vote of the commons ;" 
 " The house of lords ;" " The condition of the kingdom." It is 
 also rather harsh to use two English genitives with the same 
 substantive : as, " Whom he acquainted with the pope's and 
 the king's pleasure." " The pleasure of the pope and the king,' 
 would have been better. 
 
 We sonjetimes meet with three substantives dependent on one 
 another, and connected by the prejiosition of applied to each of 
 them : as, " The severity of the distress of the son of the ki:ig, 
 touched the nation ;" but this mode of expression is not to be 
 recommended. It would be better to say, " The severe distress 
 of the king's son, touched the nation." We have a striking 
 instance of this laborious mode of exj)ression, in the following 
 sentence : " Of some of the books of each of these classes of 
 literature, a catalogue will be given at the end of the work." 
 
 6 In some cases, we use both the genitive termination and the 
 preposition of: as, " It is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's." 
 Sometimes indeed, unless we throw the sentence into another 
 form, this method is absolutely necessary, in order to distinguish 
 the sense, and to give the idea of property, strictly so called, 
 which is the most important of the relations expressed by the 
 genitive case : for the expressions, " This picture of my friend," 
 and "This picture of my friend's," suggest very different ideas. 
 The latter only is that of property in the strictest sense. The 
 idea w^ould, doubtless, be conveyed in a better manner, by saying, 
 
 * This picture belonging to my friend." 
 
 When this double genitive, as some grammarians term it, is 
 not necessary to distinguish the sense, and especially in a grave 
 style, it is generally omitted. Except to prevent ambiguity, it 
 seems to be allowable only in cases which suppose the existence 
 of a plurality of subjects of the same kind. In the expressions, 
 " A subject of the: emperor's ;" " A sentiment of my brother's ;" 
 more than one subject, and one sentiment, are supposed to belong 
 to the Yiossessor. But when this plurality is neither intimated, 
 nor necessarily supposed, the double genitive, except as before 
 mentioned, should not be used : as, " This house of the govej'iior 
 is very commodious ;" " The crown of the king was stolen ;'* 
 "That privilege of the scholar was never abused." (See page 
 40.) But after all that can b^ said for this double genitive, as it 
 
Hulk xi.] SYNTAX. 121 
 
 is termed, some grammarians think that it would be better to 
 avoid the use of it altogether, and to give the sentiment another 
 form of expression. 
 
 7 When an entire clause of a sentence, beginning with a 
 participle of the present tense, is used as one name, or to express 
 one idea or circumstance, the noun on which it depends may be 
 put in the genitive case ; thus, instead of saying, " What is the 
 reason of this person dismissing his servant so hastily?'* that is, 
 " What is the reason of this person in dismissing his servant so 
 hastily ?" we may say, and perhaps ought to say, " What is the 
 reason of this person's dismissing of his servant so hastily ?'* 
 Just as we say, ** What is the reason of this person's hasty dis- 
 mission of his servant P' So also, we say, *' I remember it 
 being reckoned a great exploit ;" or more properly, " I remember 
 its being reckoned," &c. The following sentence is correct and 
 proper : '* Much will depend on ihepupiVs composing^ but more on 
 his reading frequently." It would not be accurate to say, ** Much 
 will depend on the pupil composing,''^ &c. We also properly 
 Bay ; ** This will be the effect of the pupiVs composing frequently j" 
 instead of, ** Of the pupil composing frequently." 
 
 RULE XI. 
 
 Active verbs govern the objective case : as, *' Truth en- 
 nobles her;" **She comforts me f* "They support us**; 
 ** Virtue rewards her followers.** 
 
 In English, the nominative case, denoting the subject, usually 
 goes before the verb ; and the objective case, denoting the ob- 
 ject, follows the verb active ; and it is the order that determines 
 the case in nouns ; as, " Alexander conquered the Persians." But 
 the pronoun having a proper form for each of those cases, is some- 
 times, when it is in the objective case, placed before the verb ; 
 and, when it is in the nominative case, follows the object and verb ; 
 as, " Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you." 
 
 This position of the pronoun sometimes occasions its proper 
 case and government to be neglected : as in the following in- 
 stances: "Who should I esteem more than the wise and good?" 
 * By the character of those who you cnoose for your friends, 
 your own is likely to be formed." *' Those are the persons who 
 he thought true to his interests." " Who should I see the other 
 day but my old friend." " Whoso<;ver the court favours." In 
 all these places it ought to be tvhom, the relative being governed 
 in the objective case by the verbs " esteem, choose, thought," 
 &c. *' He, who under all proper circumstances, has the boldness to 
 Fpeak truth, choose for thy friend *," It should be " him who," &c. 
 k Verbs neuter do not act upon, or govern, nouns and pronouns, 
 *' He sleeps ; they ?/iit5e," &c. are not transitive. They ore, 
 therefore, not followed by an objective case, specifying the object 
 of an action. But when this case, or an object of action, comes 
 after s'ich verbs, though it may carry the appearance of being go* 
 
 Li 
 
lai 
 
 ! 
 
 m ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule xi. 
 
 verned by them, it is affected by a preposition or some other 
 word understood: as, "He resided many years [tnat is, for or 
 during many years] in that street ; " He rode several miles [thai 
 is, for or through the space of several miles] on that day ;" " Hi 
 lay an hour [that is, during an hour] in great torture." In tl 
 phrases " To dream a dream," " To hve a virtuous Ufe," "To ru] 
 a race," " To walk the horse," " To dance the child," the verl 
 certainly assume a transitive form, and may not, m these casei 
 be improperly denominated transitive verbs. 
 
 1 Some writers, however, use certain neuter verbs as if the[ 
 were transitive, putting after them the objective case, agreeably 
 to the French construction of reciprocal verbs; but this custom 
 is so foreign to the idiom of the English tongue, that it ought not 
 to be adopted or imitated. The following are some instances ol 
 this practice. " Repenting him of his design." " The king soon 
 found reason to repent him of his provoking such dangerous ene- 
 mies." " The popular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on 
 the subject." " The nearer his successes approached him to the 
 throne." " Go fiee thee away into the land of Judah." " I think 
 it by no means a fit and decent thing to vie charities," &c. " They 
 have spent their whole time and pains to agree the sacred with 
 the profane chronology." 
 
 2 Active verbs are sometimes as improperly made neuter : as, 
 "I must premise with three circumstances." "Those that think 
 to ingratiate with him by calumniating me." 
 
 3 The neuter verb is varied like the active ; but, having in 
 some degree the nature of the passive, it admits, in many instances, 
 of the passive form, retaining still the neuter signification, chiefl}' 
 in such verbs as signify some sort of motion, or change of placo 
 or condition : as, " I am come ; 1 was gone ; I am grown ; I was 
 fallen." The following examples, however, appear to be errone 
 ous, in giving the neuter verbs a passive form, instead of an ac 
 tive one. " The rule of our holy religion, from which we are in 
 finitely swerved,'^'* " The whole obligation of that law and cove 
 nam was also ceased^ Whose number was now amounted to 
 three hundred." " This mareschal, upon some discontent, was 
 entered into a conspiracy against his master.'' " At the end of a 
 campaign, when half the men are deserted or killed." It should 
 be, " have swerved, had ceased," &c. 
 
 4 The verb to he, through all its variations, has the same case 
 after it, as that which next precedes it: "/ am he whom they 
 mvited;" " It may be (or might have been) he, but it cannot be 
 (or could not have been) /;" " It is impossible to be they ;" ** It 
 seems to have been he, who conducted himself so wisely ;" "il 
 appeared to be she that transacted the business ;" ** I understood 
 it 10 hQ him ;^^ " I believe i7 to have been themf^ "We at first 
 look it to be her ; but were afterward convinced that it was not 
 shey " He is not the person who it seemed he was." " He is 
 really the person who he appeared to be." " She is not now 
 the woman whom they represtJiUed hei to have been." " Wh(fyt% 
 
Rule xii.] SYNTAX. 123 
 
 do you fancy him to be ?'* By these examples, it appears that 
 this substantive verb has no government of case, but serves, in 
 all its forms, as a conductor to the cases; so that the two cases 
 wiiich, in the construction of the sentence, are the next before 
 and after it, must always be alike. Perhaps this subject will be 
 more intelligible to the learner, by observing, that the words in 
 the cases preceding and folio whig the verb to be, may be said to 
 be in apposition to each other. Thus, in the sentence, " I un- 
 derstood it to be him," the words it and him are in apposition ; 
 that is, " they refer to the same thing, and are in the same case." 
 
 The following sentences contain deviations from the rule, and 
 exhibit the pronoun in a wrong case : " It might have been him, 
 but there is no proof of it ;" " Though I was blamed, it could 
 not have been me ;" " I saw one whom I took to be she ;" " She 
 is the person who I understood it to have l^een ;" " Who do you 
 think me to l«^ ?'^ " JVhom do men say that I am .^" " And 
 ivhovi think ye that I am ?" — Ste the Octavo Grammar* 
 
 Passive, verbs which signify naming, &c. have the same case 
 before and after them: as, " He was called Caesar; She was 
 named Penelope ; Homer is styled the prince of poets ; James 
 was created a duke ; Tho general was saluted emperor; The 
 professor was appointed tutor to the prince." 
 
 5 The auxiliary let governs the objective case : as, ** Let him 
 beware ;" ** Let us judge candidly ;^' *' Let them not presume ;'* 
 •* Let George study bis lesson." 
 
 RULE XIL 
 
 One verb governs another that follows it, or depends upon 
 it, in the infinitive mood : as, *' Cease to do evil ; learn to do 
 well ;" " We should be prepared to rendar an account ol 
 our actions." 
 
 I'he preposition to, though generally used before the lat- 
 ter verb, is sometimes properly omitted ; as, " I heard him 
 say it ;" instead of '* to say it." 
 
 The verbs which have commonly other verbs following them 
 in the infinitive mood, without the sign to, are Bid, dare, need, 
 make, see, hear, feel ; and also, let, not used as an auxiliary ; and 
 perhaps a few others : as, " I bade him do it ;" " Ye dare not do 
 it;" " I saw him do it ;" " I heard him say it;" ** Thou lettest 
 him go." 
 
 1 \\\ the following passages, the word to, the sign of the infini 
 tive mood, where it is distinguished by Italic characters, is su 
 {)erfluous and improper. " I have observed some satirists to use," 
 &c. " To see so many to make so little conscience of so great 
 a sin." ** It cannot but be a delightful s])ectacle to God and an- 
 gels, to see a young person, besieged by powerful temptations on 
 every side, to acquit himself gloriously, and resolutely to hold out 
 against the most violent assaults; to behold one in the prime 
 and flower of jiis age, that is courted by pleasures and honours. 
 
124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule xiii 
 
 by the devil, and all tlie bewitching vanities of the world, to rMJ 
 ject all these, and to cleave steadfastly unto God." VI 
 
 This inood has also been improperly used in the following 
 places: *'l am not like otlier men, to envy the talents I cannot 
 reach." " Grammarians have denied, or at least doubted, them 
 io be genuine ;" " That all our doings may be ordered by thy 
 governance, to do always what is righteous in thy sight." 
 
 I 
 
 The infinitive is frequently governed b}^ adjectives, substa: 
 tives, and participles : as, '' He is eager to ieain ;'' " She is wo; 
 thy to be loved " " They have a desire to improve ;" Endeavoui 
 ing to persuade " 
 
 The infinitive mood has much of the nature of a substantiv 
 expressing the action itself which the verb signifies, as the parti- 
 ciple has the nature of an adjective. .Thus the infinitive mood 
 does the ofliice of a substantive in different cases : in the nomi- 
 native: as, "To play is pleasant:" in the objective : as, ** Boys 
 love to play f^ " For to ivill is present with me ; but to perform 
 that which is good, I find not." 
 
 The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used indepen- 
 dently on the rest of the sentence, bapplying the place of the 
 conjunction that with the potential mood : as, " To confess the 
 truth, I was in fault ;" " To begin with the first ;" " To pro 
 ceed;" " To conclude ;" that is, " That I may confess," &(i 
 
 RULE XIIL 
 
 In the use of words and phrases which, in point of time, 
 relate to each other, a due regard to that relation should be 
 observed. Instead of saying, " The Lord hath given, and 
 the Lord hath taken away ;" we should say, " The Lord 
 gave, and the Lord halh taken away." Instead of, " I remem- 
 her the family more than twenty years ;" it should be, ** I 
 have remembered the family more than twenty years." 
 
 It is not easy to give particular rules for the management of 
 the moods and tenses of verbs with respect to one another^ so 
 that they may be proper and consistent. The best rule that can 
 be given, is this very general one : '• To observe what the sense 
 necessarily requires." It may, however, be of use to give a few 
 examples of irregular construction. "The last week I intended 
 to have wmtten,^'' is a very common ])Lrise; the infinit've being 
 in the past time, as well as the verb which it follows. But it is 
 certainly wrong ; for how long soever it now is since I thought 
 of writing, " to write" was then present to me, and must still he 
 considered as present, when 1 bring back that time, and the 
 thoughts of it. It ought, therefore, to be, " The last week I 
 intended to write,^^ The following sentences are also erroneous ; 
 " I cannot excuse the remissness of those wdiose business it 
 should have been, as it certainly was their interest, to have m^ 
 terposed their good offices," " There were two circumstaxices 
 
RcLEXiii.] SYNTAX 125 
 
 which made it necetssary for them to have lost no time." " His-* 
 tory painters would have found it difficult to have invented such 
 a species of beings." They ought to be, " io interposey to loscy to 
 invent,^^ "On tlie morrow, because he sliouJd have known the 
 certainty, wherefore he v/as accused of the Jews, he loosed him." 
 It ought to be, " because be would know,'" or rather, " hting 
 tvilling to knowy 
 
 " The blind man said unto him, Lord, that I might receive my 
 sight." "If by any means I might attain unto the resurrection 
 of the dead;" ^^ may,'' in both places, would have been better. 
 *'■ From his biblical knowledge, he appears to study the Scriptures 
 with great attention ;" " to have studied,'^ &c. " I feared tliat 1 
 should have lost it, before I arrived at the city ;" ^^ should lose it.'* 
 *' I had rather walk ;" It should be, " I would rather walk." "It 
 would have afforded me no satisfaction, if I could perform it:" 
 it should be, " if I could have performed it ;" or, " It would afford 
 ine no satisfaction, if I could perform it." 
 
 To preserve consistency in the time of verbs, we must re- 
 collect that, in the subjunctive mood, the present and imperfect 
 tenses often carry with them a future sense ; and that the aux- 
 iliaries should and would, in the imperfect times, are used to ex- 
 press the present and future as well as the past : for wdiich see 
 page 59. 
 
 1 It is proper further to observe, that verbs of the infinitive 
 mood in the following form ; " to write," " to be writing," and 
 " to be written," always denote sometliing contemporary ivith the 
 time of the governing verl), or subsequent to it: but when verbs 
 of that mood are expressed as follows ; " To have been writing," 
 " to have written," and " to have been written," they always 
 denote something antecedent to the time of the governing verb. 
 This remark is thought to be of importance ; for if duly attended 
 to, it will, in most cases, be sufficient to direct us in the relative 
 application of these tenses. 
 
 The following sentence is properly and analogically expressed: 
 * I found him better than I expected to find him." " Expected 
 to have found liim," is irreconcilable alike to grammar and to 
 Eense. Indeed, all verbs expressive of hope, desire, intention, 
 or command, must invariably be followed by the present, and 
 not the perfect of the infinitive. Every person would perceive 
 an error in this expression ; " It is long since I commanded him 
 to have done it :" Yet " expected to have found,^^ is no better. It 
 IS as clear that the finding must be posterior to the expectation, 
 as that the obedience must be posterior to the command. 
 
 In the sentence which follows, the verb is with propriety put 
 in the perfect tense of the infinitive mood ; " It wonld have 
 affiDrded me great pleasure, as often as I reflected upon it, /o have 
 been the messenger of such intelligence." As the message, in 
 this instance, was antecedent to the pleasure, and not contem- 
 porary with it, the verb expressive of the message must denote 
 that antecedence, by being in the perfect of the infinitive. If 
 
 L2 
 
1^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule x^| 
 
 the message and llie pleasure had been referred to aa contem- 
 porary, the subsequent verb would, with equal propriety, have 
 been put in the present of the infinitive: as, "It would have 
 afforded me great pleasure, to he the messenger of such intelli- 
 gence." In the former instance, the phrase in question is equi- 
 valent to these words ; ^^ If I had been the messenger ;" in the 
 jatter instance, to this expression ; '* Being the messenger.'* — 
 For a further discussion of this subject, see the Eleventh edition 
 lof the Key to the Exercises, p. GO, and the Octavo Grammar, 
 Role xiir. 
 
 It is proper to inform the learner, that, in order to express the 
 past time with the defective verb ought, the perfect of the infini- 
 tive must always be used: as, *' He ought to have done it." When 
 we use this verb, this is the only possible way to distinguish the 
 past from the present. 
 
 In support of the positions advanced under this rule, we can 
 produce the sentiments of eminent grammarians; amongst whom 
 are Lowth and Campbell. But there are some writers on 
 grammar, who strenuously maintain, that the governed verb in 
 the infinitive ought to be in the past tense, wdien the verb which 
 governs it, is in the past time. Though this cannot be admitted, 
 .*n the instances which are controverted under this rule, or in 
 any instances of a similar nature, yet there can be no doubt that, 
 m many cases, in which the thing referred to preceded the go* 
 verning verb, it would be proper and allowable. We may say ; 
 " From a conversation I once had with him, he appeared to have 
 studied Homer with great care and judgment." It would bo 
 proper also to say, " From his conversation, he appears to have 
 studied Homer with great care and judgment ;" " That unhappy 
 man is supposed to have died by violence." These examples are 
 not only consistent with our rule, but they confirm and illustrate 
 it. It is the tense of the governing verb only, that marks whi 
 is called the absolute time ; the tense of the verb governea, 
 marks solely its relative time with respect to the other. 
 
 To assert, as some writers' do, that verbs in the infinitive mood 
 have no tenses, no relative distinctions of present, past, and 
 future, is inconsistent with just grammatical views of the subject. 
 That these verbs associate with verbs in all the tenses, is no proof 
 of their having no peculiar time of their own. Whatever period 
 the governing verb assumes, whether present, past, or future, 
 the governed verb in the infinitive always respects that period, 
 and its time is calculated from it. Thus, the time of the infini- 
 tive may be before, after, or the same as, the time of the go • 
 verning verb, according as the thing signified by the infinitive 
 is supposed to be before, after, or present with, the thing denoted 
 by the governing verb. It is, therefore, with great propriety, 
 that tenses are assigned to verbs of the infinitive mood. The 
 pointof time from which they are computed, is of no consequence j 
 since present, past, and future, are completely applicable to thera* 
 
 We shall conclude our observations under this rule, by re- 
 
Rule xiv.] SYNTAX. 127 
 
 marking, that llioiigh it is often proper to use the perfect ot the 
 jnlinitivc after the governing verb, yet there are particular cases, 
 in v^'iiicli it would be better to give tlie expression a difl'erent 
 form. Thus, instead of saying, " I wish to liave written to him 
 gooner," " I then wished to have written to hi:n sooner," "He 
 will one day wish to have written sooner ;" it would be more 
 ( perspicuous and t'orcible, as well as more agreeable to the practice 
 I of good writers, to say ; *' 1 wish that I had written to him 
 sooner,*' " I then wished that I had written to him sooner," " He 
 will one day wish that he had written sooner." Should the 
 justness of tbese strictures be admitted, there would still be 
 numerous occasions for the use of the past infinitive ; as we may 
 perceive by a few examples. " It would ever afterwards have 
 been a source of pleasure to have found him wise and virtuous.*' 
 "To have deferred his repentance longer, would have disqualified 
 him for repenting at all." " They will then see, that to have 
 faithfully performed their duty, would have been their greatest 
 consolation."* 
 
 RULE XIV. 
 
 Participles have the same government as the verbs have 
 from which they are derived : as, *' I am weary with hear- 
 ing him ;" *' She ic instructing us ;" " The tutor is admo- 
 mshing Charles,*^ 
 
 I Participles are sometimes governed by the article ; for the 
 present participle, with the definite article the before it, becomes a 
 substantive, and must have the prep(»sition o/ after it : as, " These 
 are the rules of grammar, by the observing of which, you may 
 avoid mistakes." It would not be proper to say, " by the ob- 
 serving which ;" nor, " by observing of which ;" but the phrase, 
 without either article or preposition, would be right : as, " by ob- 
 serving which." The article a or an, has the same eflect : as, 
 "This was a betraying of the trust reposed in him." 
 
 This rule arises from the nature and idiom of our language, 
 and from as plain a principle as any on which it is founded ; 
 namely, that a word which has the article before it, and thejios- 
 sessive preposition o/" after it, must be a noun : and, if a noun, it 
 ought to follow the construction of a noun, and not to have the 
 regimen of a verb. It is the participial termination of this son 
 of words that is apt to de-^.eive us, and make us treat them as if 
 they were of an amphibious species, partly nouns and partly 
 verbs. 
 
 The following are a few examples of the violation of this rule. 
 "He was sent to prepare the way by preaching of repentance ;'* 
 it ought to be, "by the preaching of repentance;" or, "by 
 preaching repentance." *'"By the continual mortifying our cor- 
 rupt affections j" it should be, " by the continual mortifying q/",** 
 
 * Sep Key to liie English Exercises, Eleventh Edit. Rule xiii. The Note. 
 
128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 
 
 or, " by continually mortifying our corrupt alTections.'* ** Tliey j 
 iaid out themselves towards //le advancing and promoting tho 
 good of il ;" " towards advancing land promoting the good.'- " It i 
 is an overvaluing ourselves, to reduce every thing to the narrow i 
 measure of our capacities ;" '•* it is overvaluing ourselves," or, "«» I 
 overvaluing o/ourselves." *' Keeping of one divj in seven," &c.'. ] 
 it ought to be, " ilie keeping" o/'onc day ;" or, " keeping one day.T 
 A plirase in which the ariicle precedes the present particijde 
 and the possessive preposition follows it, will not, in every in- 
 stance, convey the same meaning as would be conveyed by the 
 participle without the article and preposition. *' He expressed 
 the pleasure he had in the hearing of the philosopher," is capa- 
 ble of a different sense from, "He expressed the pleasure he had 
 in hearing the philosopher." When, therefore, we wish, for the 
 sake of harmony or variety, to substitute one of these phraseolo- 
 gies for the other, we should previously consider whether they 
 are perfectly similar in- the sentiments they convey. 
 
 2 The same observations which have been made respecting 
 the effect of the article and participle, appear to be applicable to 
 the pronoun aiid particiijle, when they are sunilarly associated : as, 
 " Much depends on their ohscrving of the rule, and error will be 
 the consequence of their neglecting of it," instead of "their ob- 
 serving the rule, and their neglecting it." We shall perceive this 
 more clearly, if we substitute a noun for the pronoun : as, "Much 
 depends upon Tyro^s ohserving of the rule," &c. But, as lliis 
 construction sounds rather harshly, it would, in general, be bet- 
 ter to express the sentiment in the following, or some other form : 
 " Much depends on the ruWs being observed ; and error will be 
 the consequence of its being neglected ;" or — " on observing the 
 rule; and — of neglecting it." This remark may be applied to 
 several other modes of expression to be found in this work ; 
 which, though they are contended for as strictly correct, are not 
 always the most eligible, on account of their unpleasant sound. 
 See pages 33, 55, 1 18— 121 . 
 
 We sometimes meet with expressions like the following : " T?i 
 forming of his sentences, he was very exact ;" " From calling of 
 names, he proceeded to blows." But this is ijicorrect language ; 
 for prepositions do not, like articles and y ronouns, convert the 
 participle itself into the nature of a substantive ; as we have 
 shown above in the phrase, " By observing which." And yet 
 the participle with its adjuncts, may be considered as a substan- 
 tive phrase in the objective case, governed by the preposition or 
 verb, expressed or understood : as, " By promising viuch^ and 
 'performing but little, we become despicable." "He studied to 
 avoid expressing himself too severely. ^^ 
 
 3 As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense are some- 
 times different in their form, care must be taken tjiat they be not 
 indiscriminately used. It is frequently said, " He begun," for 
 "he began;" "he run," for "he ran;" "He drujik," for "he 
 drank;" the participle being here used iustcad of the imperfect 
 
r.EXv. 1 SYNTAX. 129 
 
 riL^e : and much more frequently the imy)errect tense instead ol 
 lie ])arti(:iple: as, " \ had wrote," for " 1 liad written :" "I v/as 
 lidse," for, " 1 was chosen ;" " 1 have eat," for, '* i have eaten." 
 ' liis words were interwove witii sighs;" "were inttrwoven.^^ 
 
 • Uii would iiave s})oke ;" " spoken.'^ " He hath bore witness to 
 iji.-» faithful servants 5" " horne.^^ *' By this means he over-run hig 
 [iuide ;" " over-rany " The sun has rose ;" " ruen.'''' " His con- 
 stitution has been greatly ^hook^ but liis mind is too strong to be 
 ^liook b}^ such causes ;" "' shaken,^^ in both ]jkices. ** They were 
 verses wrote on glass ;" "ii^H/ie/j." "Philosophers have often 
 mistook the sourceof true happiness :" it ought to be ^^ mistaken.'*' 
 
 The participle ending in ed is often improperly contracted by 
 changing e^into t; as, "In good behaviour, he is not surpast by 
 any pupil of the school." " Slje was much disirest." They 
 ought to be '^ surpassedi^' " distressed.'''' 
 
 RULE XV. 
 
 Advtrbs, though they have no government of case, tense, 
 &;c. require an appropriate situation in the sentence, viz. 
 for the most part, before adjectives, after verbs active or 
 neuter, and frequently between the auxiliary and the verb: 
 as, "He made a very sensible discourse ; he spoke unaffeci' 
 €dly ^x\A forcibly , and zoas attentively heard by the whole 
 assembly." 
 
 A few instances of erroneous positions of adverbs may serve 
 to illustrate the rule. ** He must not expect to find study agree- 
 able always;" ''^always agreeable." "We always find them 
 ready when we want them ;" " we find them always ready," 
 &c. " Dissertations on the prophecies which have remarkably 
 been fulfilled ;" " which have been remarkably.'''' *' Instead ol 
 looking contemptuously down on the crooked in mind or in body, 
 we should look up thankfully to God. who hath made us better ;' 
 
 * instead of looking down contemptuously^ <fcc. we should thank 
 fSilly look up,^'' &c. " If thou art blessed naturally with a good 
 memory, continually exercise it ;" " naturally hlesscdj*^ &c. " ex 
 ercise it continually. "^^ 
 
 Sometimes the adverb is placed with propriety before the 
 verb, or at some distance after it; sometimes between the two 
 auxiliaries ; and sometimes after them both ; as in the following 
 example j^. " Vice always creeps by degrees, and insensibly 
 twines around us those concealed fetters, by which we are at 
 last completely bound." "He encouraged the English Barons to 
 carry their opposition farther.^^ ** They compelled him to de- 
 clare that he would abjure the realm for ever ;^' instead of, ** to 
 carry farther their opposition ;" and " to abjure for ever the 
 realm." " He has generally been reckoned an honest man." 
 " The book may always be had at such a ])lace ;" in preference 
 to " has been generally ;" and " may be always.'* " These 
 
adB 
 
 i30 ENGLISH GRAMMAll. [Rule x 
 
 rules will be clearly understood, after they hare been diligevJ.li 
 studied," are preferable to, " These rules will clearly be under- 
 stood, after they have diligently been studied." ~" 
 
 From the preceding remarks and examples, it appears that 
 exact and determinate rule can be given for the j)lacing of au 
 verbs, on all occasions. The general rule may be of considerable 
 use ; but the easy flow and pers[)icuity of the phrase, are the 
 things w^hicli ought to be chiefly regarded. 
 
 The adverb there is often used as an expletive, or as a word 
 that adds nothing to the sense ; in which case it precedes the 
 verb and the nominative noun, as, "There is a person at the 
 door;" " There are some thieves in the house ;" wljich would 
 be as well, or better, expressed by saying, *' A person is at the 
 door ;" " Some thieves are in the house." Sometimes, it is made 
 use of to give a small degree of emphasis to the sentence : as, 
 " There was a man sent from God, whose name was John.'* 
 When it is applied in its strict sense, it principally follows the 
 verb and the nominative case : as, " The man stands there.^^ 
 
 1 The adverb never generally precedes the verb : as, " I never 
 was there ;" " He never comes at a proper time." When an 
 auxiliary is used, it is placed indifferently, either before or after 
 this adverb : ais, " He was never seen (or never was seen) to 
 laugh from that time." 
 
 Jiever seems to be improperly used in the following i)assages. 
 " Ask me never so much dowry and gift." *' If I make my 
 hands never so clean." " Charm he never so wisely." The 
 word " eve?'" would be more suitable to the sense. 
 
 2 In imitation of the French idiom, the adverb of place ivhere^ 
 is often used instead of the pronoun relative and a preposition. 
 "They framed a protestation, where they repeated all their for- 
 mer claims ;" i. e. *' in which they repeated." " The king was 
 still determined to run forwards, in the same course where he was 
 already, by his precipitate career, too fatally advanced;" i.e. 
 " in which he was." But it would be better to avoid this mode 
 of expression. 
 
 The adverbs hence, thence, and whence, imply a preposition , 
 for they signify, *♦ from this place, from that place, from what 
 place." It seems, therefore, strictly speaking, to be improper to 
 join a preposition with them, because it is superfluous : as, 
 ** This is the leviathan, from whence the wits of our age are said 
 to borrow their weapons ;" " An'incient author prophesies from 
 hence." But the origin of these words is little attended to, and 
 the preposition /row so often used in construction with theni, thai 
 the omission of it, in many cases, would seem stiff, and be disa- 
 greeable. 
 
 The adverbs here, there, where, are often improperly applied to 
 verbs signifying motion, instead of the adverbs hither, thither, 
 whither: as, "He came /lere hastily ;" "They rode therewith 
 speed." They should be, ** He came hither ;" " Thev rode 
 thither " &c» 
 
LE XVI, xvH.] SYNTAX. 131 
 
 ;] We have some examples of adverbs behig used for substan- 
 tives: '* In 1687, he erected it into a community of regulars, 
 t:ince wherij it has begun to increase in those countries as a reli- 
 gious order;" i.e. '' since whichtime." " A httle while and I shall 
 ij not see you ;" i. e. " a short time.'^ *' It is vrorth their while ;'' 
 i i. e. •' it deserves their time and pains." But this use of the word 
 rather suits familiar than grave style. The same may be said 
 of the phrase, " To do a thing anyhow f i. e. *' in any manner ;" 
 or, " somehow ;" i. e. " in some manner." *' Somehow, worthy 
 as these people are, they are under the influence of prejudice " 
 
 RULE XVL 
 
 Two negatives, in English, destroy one another, or are 
 equivalent to an affirmative: as, *' jVbr did they not perceive 
 him ;" that is, ** they did perceive him." " His language, 
 though inelegant, is not ungrarnmaiical f' that is, " it is 
 grammatical." 
 
 It is better to express an affirmation, by a regular affirmative, 
 than by two separate negatives, as in th^ former sentence : but 
 when one of the negatives is joined to another word, as in the lat- 
 ter sentence, the two negatives form a pleasing and delicate va- 
 riety of expression. 
 
 Some writers have improperly employed two negatives instead 
 of one; as in fhe following instances: "I never did repent of 
 doing good, nor shall not now ;" " nor shall I now^ *' Never no 
 imitator grew up to his author;" ^^ never did any^^^ &c. ** I can- 
 not by no means allow him what his argument must prove ;" 
 ** I cannot by any means," &c. or, " I can by no means.'''' "Nor 
 let no comforter approach me ;" " nor let any comforter," &c. 
 " Nor is danger ever apjjrehended in such a government, no more 
 than we commonly apprehend danger from thunder or earth- 
 quakes :" it should be, '' any more.'*'' " Ariosto, Tasso, Galileo, 
 no more than Raphael, were not born in republics." " Neither 
 Ariosto, Tasso, nor Galileo, any more than Raphael, was born 
 ill a republic." 
 
 RULE XVIT. * 
 
 Prepo.Hitions govern the objective case : as, " I have 
 heard a good character of her ;" " From him that is needy 
 turn not away ;" " A word to the wise is ^w^xcieni for them f 
 ** We may be good and happy zoithout riches." 
 
 The following are examples of the nominative case being used 
 instead of the objective. " Who servest thou under ?" " Who do 
 you speak to?" ** We are still much at a loss who civil power 
 belongs to :" *' Who dost thou ask for ?" *' Associate not with 
 those who none can speak well of." In all these places it ought 
 to be " ?f?/iom," See JVoie 1. 
 
 The prepositions to mid for are often understood, chiefly before 
 
\n EiVGLTSH GRAMMAR. 'Rule xvii, 
 
 the pronouns: as, " Give me the book ;" " Get me some paper;" 
 that is, " to me ; for me.'* '' Wo is me ;" i. e. ''to me/' '* He was 
 banished England ;" i. e. ''from Enghmd." 
 
 1 The preposition is often separated from the relative wbicn 
 It governs ; as, *' Whom wilt thou give it to .^" instead of, ** To 
 ichom wilt thou give it?" '* He is an author whom I am much 
 delighted with ;" " The world is too polite to shock authors with 
 a truth, which generally their booksellers are the first that inform 
 them of." This is an idiom to which our language is strongly in- 
 clined ; it prevails in common conversation, and suits very well 
 with the familiar style in writing: but the placing of the prepo- 
 sition before the relative, is more graceful, as well as more per- 
 spicuous, and agrees much better with the solemn and elevated 
 style. 
 
 2 Some writers separate the preposition from its noun, in or 
 der to connect different prepositions with the same noun: as, 
 " To suppose the zodiac and planets to be efficient of and ante- 
 cedent /o, themselves." This, whether in the familiar or the so 
 lemn style, is always inelegant, and should generally be avoided. 
 In forms of law, and the hke, where fulness and exactnes of ex- 
 pression must take place of every other consideration, it may f| 
 admitted. 
 
 3 Different relations, and different senses, must be expressed 
 by different prej)ositions, though in conjunction with the same 
 verb or adjective. Thus we say, " to converse with a persoi> 
 upon a subject, in a house, &c." We also say, " We are disap* 
 pointed of a thing," when we cannot get it, " and disappointed 
 in it," rvhen we have it, and find it does not answer our expecta- 
 tions, l^ut two different prepositions must be improper in the 
 same construction, and in the same sentence : as, "The combat 
 between thirty French against twenty Englisli." 
 
 In some cases, it is difficult to say, to which of two preposi- 
 tions the preference is to be given, as both are used promis- 
 cuously, and custom has not decided in favour of either of them. 
 We say, "Expert at," and •' expert in a thing." *' Expert at 
 finding a remedy for his mistakes :" " Expert in deception." 
 
 When prepositions are subjoined to nouns, they are generally 
 the same that are subjoined to the verbs from which the nouns 
 are derived : as, "incompliance wilh^^^ " to comply tri/A ;" •^ A 
 disposition to tyranny," " disposed to tyrannize." 
 
 4 As an accurate and appropriate use of the preposition is of 
 great im])ortance, we shall select a considerable number of ex- 
 amples of imj)ropriety, in the application of this part of speech. 
 
 ist, With respect to the preposition o/— " He is resolved of 
 going to the Persian court ;" " 07i going," «fec. *' He was totally 
 dependent of the Papal crown ;" " on the Papal," &c. " To 
 call of a person," and " to wait of him," " on a person," &c. 
 " He was eager of recommending it to his fellow-citizens," "tn 
 recommending," &c. Of is sometimes omitted, and sometimes 
 inserted, after worthy: as, "It is worthy observatioji/' or, "of 
 
rLi:xvri.] SYNTAX. 133 
 
 .hservation." But it would have been better omitted in tlie ful- 
 inviiig sentences. ''The emulation, who should serve their 
 ( oimtry best, no longer subsists among them, but of who should 
 obtain the most lucrative command." *' The rain hath been fall- 
 ing of n. long time ;" " falling a long time." " It is situation 
 ciiiefly which decides of the fortune and characters of men ;" 
 " decides the fortune," or, " concerning the fortune." *' He found 
 the greatest difficulty of writing;" "in writing." ** It might 
 have given me a greater taste of its antiquities." A taste of a 
 thing implies actual enjoyment of it ; but a taste ybr it, implies 
 ordy a capacity for enjoyment. " This had a much greater share 
 of inciting him, than any regard after his father's commands*," 
 '- share in inciting," and "regard to his father's," ^c. 
 
 2d, With respect to the prepositions to and /or. — "You havfj 
 !)estowed your favours to the most deserving j)ersons ;" *' upon 
 the most deserving," &c. " He accused the ministers for be- 
 traying the Dutch :" "0/ having betrayed." *' His abhorrence 
 to that superstitious figure ;" "q/* that," &c. " A great change 
 ' to the better ;" '^for the better." " Your prejudice to my cause ;" 
 '•'' against^ " The English were very different people then lo 
 what the}^ are at present ;" ^\from what," &c. " In compliance 
 to tlie declaration ;" " mif/t," &c. *' It is more than they thought 
 for;" "tliought 0/." "There is no need for it ;" "q/*it." For 
 is superfluous in the phrase, " IVIore than he knowsybr." "No 
 ^liscouragement for the authors to proceed;" "^0 the authors," 
 &LQ. " It v/as perfectly in compliance to some persons ;" ^^ivith.^^. 
 " The wisest princes need not think it any diminution to their 
 greatness, or derogation to their sufficiency, to rely upon coun- 
 sel;" "diminution o/*," and " derogation yro/71." 
 
 3d, With respect to the prepositions with and upon, — ** Recon- 
 ciling himself with the king." "Those things which have the 
 greatest resemblance with each other, frequently differ the most." 
 '' That such rejection should be consonant with our common 
 nature." " Conformable with," &c. *' The history of Peter is 
 agreeable with the sacred texts." In all the above instances, it 
 should be, "fo," instead of " zrt7/i.." " It is a use that perhaps 
 I should not have thought on ;" " thought q/*." " A greater 
 quantity may be taken from the heap, without making any 
 sensible alteration upon it;" "i?i it." "Intrusted to persons 
 on whom the parliament could confide;" "in whom." "He 
 was made much on at Argos ;" " much q/*." " If policy can 
 prevail upon force ;" " over force." " I do likewise dissent with 
 the examiner ;" ^'from^' 
 
 4th, With respect to the prepositions vn, frorn, &lc. — "They 
 should be informed in some parts of his character;" ^^ about,** 
 or, " conccrnhigy " Upon such occasions as fell into their 
 cognizance ;" " under.'''' " That variety of factions into which 
 we are still engaged ;" " xn which." ** To restore myself into 
 the favour ;" " io the favour." "Could he have profited from 
 repeated experiences 3" *' %-" From seems to be saperflaoufl 
 
134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule xvin. 
 
 after forbear : as, •* lie could not forbear from appointing i\m 
 pope," &(;. ** A strict observance after times and fashions ;" " oj 
 times." "Tlie character which we may now value ourselves by 
 drawing ;" " upon drawing." " Neither of them shall make me 
 swerve out of tiie patii ;" ^^from the path." " Ye blind guides 
 which strain at a gnat, and swallow a camel ;" it ought to be 
 " which strain out a gn it, or take a gnat out of the liquor bl 
 straining it." The impropriety of the preposition has whoUj 
 destroyed the meaning of the phrase. \ 
 
 The preposition among generally implies a number of things 
 It cannot be properly used in conjunction with the word ever^ 
 which is in the singular number : as, *' Which is found amonJ 
 every species of liberty ;" " The opinion seems to gain grouni 
 among every body." 
 
 5 The preposition to is made use of before nouns of placd, 
 when they follow verbs and participles of motion : as, " I went '" 
 to London ;" ^' I am going to town." But the preposition at is 
 generally used after the neuter verb to be : as, '* 1 have been at 
 London ;" " I was at the place appointed ;" ** I shall be at Paris." 
 We likewise say: "He touched, arrived at any place." The 
 preposition in is set before countries, cities, and large towns : as, 
 *' He lives in France, in London, or in Birmingham." But before 
 villages, single houses, and cities which are in distant coun- 
 tries, at is used ; as, " He hves at Hackney ;" " He resides at 
 Montpelier." 
 
 It is a matter of indifference with respect to the pronoun one 
 another, whether the preposition of be placed between the two 
 parts of it, or before them both. We may say, ** They were 
 jealous of one another ;" or, '* They were jealous one of ano- 
 ther;" but perhaps the former is better. 
 
 Participles are frequently used as prepositions ; as, excepting, 
 respecting, touching, concerning, according. **They were all 
 in fault except or excepting him." 
 
 RULE XVIII. 
 
 Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of 
 Terbs and cases of nouns and pronouns : as, " Candour is 
 b he approved and practised ;" " If thou sincerely desire, 
 ind earnestly pursue virtue, she will assuredly be found by 
 ihee, and prove a rich reward :" " The master taught her 
 and me to write :" ** He and she were school fellows."* 
 
 A few examples of inaccuracy respecting this rule may further 
 display its utility. ** If he prefer u virtuous life, and is sincere 
 in his professions, he will succeed ;" " if he prefers.^^ " To 
 deride the miseries of the unhappy, is inhuman ; and wanting 
 compassion towards them, is unchristian ;" " and to want com- 
 passion." *' The parliament addressed the king, and has been 
 
 * This rule refers only lo nouns and pronouns, which have the same bearing 
 Of relationi with regard to other ptiits of the sentence. 
 
Rule xix.] SYNTAX. 135 
 
 prorogued the same day •/' ** and zvas prorogued." *"^II.s Avealtli 
 and him bid adieu to each other;" "and /le." "He entreated 
 us, my comrade and I, to Hve liarmoniously ;" "comrade and 
 wte." *" My sister and her were on good terms ;" " and 5/ie." " We 
 often overlook the blessings which are in our possession, and 
 are searching after those which are out of our reach :" it ought 
 to be, " and starch after." 
 
 1 Conjunctions are, indeed, frequently made to connect dif- 
 ferent moods and tenses of verbs : but in these instances the 
 nominative must generally, if not always, be repeated, which ii 
 not necessary, though it may be done, under the construction to 
 which the rule refers. We may say, " He lives temperately, and 
 he should live temperately;" "He may rehwn ^ hnt he will not 
 continue ;" " She was proud, though she is now humble :" but il 
 is obvious, that in such cases, the nominative ought to be re- 
 peated ; and that, by this means, the latter members of these 
 sentences are rendered not so strictly dependent on the preceding, 
 as those are which come under the rule. When, in the progress 
 of a sentence, we pass from the affirmative to the negative form, 
 or from the negative to the affirmative, the subject or nomina- 
 tive is always resumed : as, " He is rich, but he is not respect- 
 able." " He is not rich, but he is respectable." There appears 
 to be, in general, equal reason for repeating the nominative, and 
 resuming the subject, when the course of the sentence is diverted 
 by a change of the mood or tense. The following sentences 
 may therefore be improved. " Anger glances into the breast of 
 a wise man, but will rest only in the bosom of fools ;" " hut rests 
 only ;" or, " but it will rest only." "Virtue is praised by many, 
 and would be desired also, if her worth were really known ;" 
 " and she would." " The world begins to recede, and will 
 soon disappear ;" " and it will." See the Octavo Grammar, 
 Rule xviii. 
 
 RULE XIX. 
 
 Some conjunctions require the indicative, some the sub- 
 junctive mood, after them. It is a general rule, that when 
 something contingent or doubtful is implied, the subjunctive 
 ought to be used : as, *' If I zv ere to write, he would not re- 
 gard it ;" " He will not be pardoned, miUss he repent^ 
 
 Conjunctions that are of a positive and absolute nature 
 I'equire the indicative mood. " As virtue advances, so tice 
 recedes ;" " He is healthy, because he is temperate." 
 
 The conjunctions, i/*, though, U7iless, except, tohtther, &c. gene- 
 rally require the subjunctive mood after them : as, " If thou he 
 afflicted, repine not;" " Though he slay me, yet will I trust in 
 him;" "He cannot be clean, unless he ivash himself;" "No 
 power, except it were given from above ;" " Whether it were I or 
 they, so we preach." But even these conjunctions, when the 
 sentence does not imply doubt, admit of the indicative : asj 
 
J36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule xiy 
 
 * Though he is poor, he is rontented."— >SVe Subjunctive Mood 
 vage 53, and pages 139, 140. 
 
 The following example may, in some measure, serve to illus- 
 trate the distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative 
 moods. *' Though he ivere divinely inspired, and spoke therefore 
 as the oracles of God, with supreme authority; though he were 
 endued with supernatural powers, and could, therefore, have 
 confirmed the truth of what he uttered, by miracles ; yet, in 
 compliance with the way in which human nature and reasonable 
 creatures are usually wrought upon, he reasoned." That our 
 Saviour was divinely inspired, and endued with supernatural 
 powers, are positions that are here taken for granted, as not 
 admitting the least doubt ; they would therefore have been better 
 expressed in the indicative mood : " Though he wjs divinely 
 inspired ; though he teas endued with su{)ernatural powers." 
 The subjunctive is used in the like improper manner in the follow- 
 ing example : " Though he were a son, yet learned he obedience, 
 by the things which he suffered." But, in a similar passage, the 
 indicative, with great propriety, is employed to the same j)urpose ; 
 " Though he was rich, yet for your sakes he became poor." 
 
 1 Lest, and that, annexed to a command preceding, necessa- 
 rily require the subjunctive mood : as, '' Love not sleep, lest thou 
 com« to poverty ;" "Reprove not a scorner, lest he hate thee;" 
 ♦* Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob." 
 
 If with but following it, when fiiturity is denoted, requires the 
 subjunctive mood : as, ** If he do but touch the hills, they shall 
 smoke ;" " If he be but discrete, he will succeed." But the indi- 
 cative ought to be used, on this occasion, when future time is 
 not signified: as, "//*, in this expression, he does hut }est, no of- 
 fence should be taken ;" ''^ If she is but sincere, I am happy." 
 The same distinction applies to the following forms of expres- 
 sion : " If he do submit, it will be from necessity ;" " Though he 
 does submit, he is not convinced ;" " If thou do not reward this 
 service, he will be discouraged ;" " If thou dost heartily forgive 
 him, endeavour to forget the offence." 
 
 2 In the following instances, the conjunction that, expressed 
 or understood, seems to be improperly accom[)anied with the 
 subjunctive mood. '* So much she dreaded his tyranny, that the 
 fate of her friend she dare not lament." " He reasoned so artfully 
 that his friends would listen, and think [that] he z/;ere not wrong." 
 
 3 The same conjunction governing both the indicative and the 
 subjunctive moods, in the same sentence, and in the same cir- 
 cumstances, seems to be a great impropriety : as in these in- 
 stances. " If there be but one body of legislators, it is no better 
 than a tyranny ; if there are only two, there will want a casting 
 voice." " //* a m^n have a hundred slieep, and one of them is 
 gone astray," &c. 
 
 4 Almost all the irregularities, in the construction of any lan- 
 guage, have arisen from the ellipsis of some v ords, which were 
 originally inserted in the sentence, and made it regular ; and it 
 
RuLK XIX SYNTAX. 137 
 
 U probablcj that this lias generally been the case with respect to 
 tl»e conjunctive form of worths, now in use ; wltich will appear 
 from the following examples : " We .shall overtake him though 
 he run ;" that is, "though he should run ;" "Unless he act pru- 
 dently, he will not accomplish his purpose ;" that is, "unless he 
 shall act prudently." " If he succeed and obtain his end, he will 
 not be the happier for it ;" that is, " If he should succeed and 
 should obtain his end." These remarks and examples are design- 
 ed to show the original of many of our present conjunctive 
 forms of expression ; and to enable the student to examine the 
 propriety of using them, by tracing the words in question to their 
 proper origin and ancient (connexions. Uut it is necessary to be 
 more particular on this subject, and therefore we shall add a few 
 observations respecting it. 
 
 That part of the verb which grammarians call the present 
 tense of the subjunctive mood, has a future signification. 
 This is effected by varying the terminations of the second and 
 third persons singular of the indicative ; as will be evident from 
 the following examjdes: " If thou prosper, thou shouldst be 
 thankful;" "Unless he study more closely, he will never be 
 learned." Some writers however, would express these senti- 
 ments w^ithout those variations ; " If thou prosperest,^^ &c. "Un- 
 less he studies,'^ &c. : and as there is great diversity of practice 
 in this point, it is proper to offer the learners a few remarks, to 
 assist them in distinguishing the right apphcation of these diffei- 
 ent forms of expression. It may be considered as a rule, that 
 the changes of termination are necessary, when these two cir- 
 cumstances concur : 1st, When the subject is of a dubious and 
 contingent nature ; and 2d, When the verb has a reference to 
 future time. In the following sentences, both these circum- 
 stances will be found to unite : " If thou injure another, thoa 
 wilt hurt thyself ;" " He has a hard heart ; and if he continue 
 impenitent, he must suffer ;" " He will maintain bis principles, 
 though he lose his estate ;" " Whether he succeed or not, his in- 
 tention is laudable ;" " If he he not prosperous, he will not re- 
 pine;" " If a man smite his servant, and he rfie," &c. Exod. xxi. 
 5(J0. In all these examples, the things signified by the verbs are 
 uncertain, and refer to future time. But in the instances which 
 follow, future time is not referred to ; and therefore a different con- 
 struction takes place ; " If thou livest virtuously, thou art happy ;" 
 *' Unless he means what he says, he is doubly faithless ;" " If he 
 allows the excellence of virtue, he does not regard her precepts ;" 
 ** Though he seems to be simple and artless, he has deceived us;" 
 '* Whether virtue is better than rank or wealth, admits not of any 
 dispute;" ** If thou hdievest with all thy heart, thou mayst," &c. 
 •^cts viii. 37. — There are many sentences, introduced by con- 
 junctions, in which neither contingency nor futurity is denoted ; 
 BtS, " Though he excels her in knowledge, she far exceeds him in 
 virtue." ** I have no doubt of his principles : but if he helieveg 
 th» truths of religion, he does not act according to them." 
 
 M2 
 
138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rcle xix. 
 
 That both the circumstances of contingency and futurity are 
 necessary, as tests of the propriety of ahering the terminations, 
 will be evident, by inspecting the following examples; which 
 show that there are instances in v/hich neither of the circum- 
 stances alone implies the other. In the three examples foUow- 
 mg, contingency is denoted, but not futurity. " If he thinks as 
 ne speaks, he may safely be trusted." " If he is now disposed to 
 It, I will perform the operation." '^ He acts uprightly, unless lie 
 aeceives me." In the following sentences, futurity is signifirid. 
 but not contingency. "As soon as the sun sets, it will he 
 cooler." "As the autumn advances^ these birds will gradually 
 emigrate." 
 
 It appears, from the tenor of the examples adduced, that the 
 rules above mentioned may be extended to assert, that in cases 
 wherein contingency and futurity do not concur, it is not proper 
 to turn the verb from its signification of present time, nor to vary 
 its form or termination. The verb would then be in the indica 
 live mood, whatever conjunctions might attend it. — If these 
 rules, which seem to form the true distinction between the sub 
 junctive and the indicative moods in this tense, were adopted 
 and established in practice, we should have, on this point, a prin- 
 ciple of decision simple and precise, and readily applicable to 
 every case that might occur. — It wi41, doubtless, sometimes hap- 
 pen, that, on this occasion, as well as on many other occasions, 
 a strict adherence to grammatical rules would render the lan- 
 guage stiff and formal : but when cases of this sort occur, it is 
 better to give the expression a different turn, than to violate 
 grammar for the sake of ease, or even of elegance. See Rule 14. 
 JVote 2. 
 
 5 On the formof the auxiliaries in the compound tenses of the 
 subjunctive mood, it seems proper to make a few observations. 
 Some writers express themselves in the perfect tense as follows : 
 "If thou /lave determined, we must submit:" "Unless he have 
 coJisented, the writing will be void :" but we believe that few 
 authors of critical sagacity write in this manner. The proper 
 form seems to be, " If thou hast determined ; unless he has con- 
 sented," &c. conformably to what we generally meet with in the 
 Bible : ** I have surnamed thee, though thou hast not known me." 
 Isaiah xlv. 4, 5. " What is the hope of the hypocrite, though he 
 hath gained," &c. Job xxvii. 8. See also J3cts xxviii. 4. 
 
 6 In the pluperfect and future tenses, we sometimes meet with 
 such expressions as these ; " If thou had applied thyself diligent- 
 ly, thou wouldst have reaped the advantage ;" "Unless thou shall 
 speak the whole truth, we cannot determine;" "If thou it'i7/ un- 
 dertake the business, there is httle doubt of success." This mode 
 of expressing the auxiliaries does not appear to be warranted by 
 the general practice of correct writers. They should be hadsty 
 shalty and wilt, and we find them used in this form, in the sacred 
 Scriptures. 
 
 " If thou hadst known," &c. Luke xix. 47. " If thou hadst been 
 
LE XIX.] SYNTAX. 139 
 
 iiere," &c. John xi. 21. " If thou wilt^ thou canst make me 
 clean," Matt, viii. 2. See also, 2 Sam. ii. 27. Matt xvii. 4. 
 
 7 The second person singular of the imperfect tense in the 
 subjunctive mood, is also very frequently varied in its termina- 
 tion: as, "If thou loved him truly, thou wouldst obey him;'* 
 *'Tijong}i thou rfit/' conform, thou hast gained nothing by it." 
 This variation, however, apj)ears to be improper. Our present 
 version of the Scriptures, which we again refer to, as a good 
 grammatical authority in ])oints of this nature, decides against 
 it. *' If thou knewtst the gift," &c. John iv. 10. ** If thou didst 
 receive it, why dost thou glory ?" &c. 1 Cor. iv. 7, See also 
 Dan. V. 22. But it is proper to remark, that the form of the 
 verb to be, when used subjunctively in the imperfect tense, is in- 
 deed very considerably and properly varied from that which it 
 }ias in the imperfect of the indicative mood : as the learner will 
 perceive by turning to the conjugation of that verb. 
 
 8 It may not be superfluous, also to observe, that the aux- 
 iliaries of the potential mood, when applied to the subjunctive, 
 do not change the termination of the second person singular. 
 We properly say, " If thou mayst or canst go ;" " Though thou 
 mighist live;" "Unless thou couldst read;" "If thou wouldst 
 learn ;" and not '* If thou may or can go," &c. It is sufficient, 
 on this point, to adduce the authorities of Johnson and Lowth ; 
 *' If thou shouldst go ;" Johnson. " If thou mayst, mighist, or 
 couldst love ;" Lowth. Some authors think, that when that ex- 
 presses the motive or end, the termination of these auxiliaries 
 should be varied: as, "Iadvi.se thee, f/taA thou may beware;" 
 " He checked thee, that thou should not presume :" but there 
 does not appear to be any ground for this exception. If the 
 expression of " condition, doubt, contingency," <fec. does not 
 warrant a change in the form of these auxiliaries, why should 
 they have it, when a motive or end is expressed r The translators 
 of the Scriptures do not appear to have made the distinction 
 contended for. " Thou buildest the wall, that thou mayst be 
 their king," JsTeh. vi. 6. " There is forgiveness with thee, that 
 thou mayst be feared." Psalm cxxx. 4. 
 
 From the preceding observations under this rule, it appears, 
 that with respect to what is termed the present tense of any 
 verb, when the circumstances of contingency and futurity concur, 
 it is proper to vary the terminations of the second and third 
 persons singular ; that without the concurrence of those circum- 
 stances, the terminations should not be altered ; and that the 
 verb and the auxiliaries of the three past tenses, and the aux- 
 iliaries of the first future, undergo no alterations whatever: 
 except the imperfect of the verb to he, which, in cases denotmg 
 contingency, is varied in all the persons of the singular number. 
 See }jap;e 64. The JVote. 
 
 After perusing what has been advanced on this subject, :t will 
 be natural for the student to inquire, what is the extent ol vtt 
 eubjunctive mood ? Some gr«immarie3i5 thkik it 'sxl'sri.^i Pi * 
 
143 ENGLISH GRAMx^IAR. [Rule xinr. 
 
 to v/Iiat is called the present tense of verbs generally, under tlie * 
 circumstances of contingency and futurity ; and to tlie imperfect 
 tense of the verb to be, when it denotes contingency, &c. : be- 
 cause in these tenses only, the form of the verb admits of varia- 
 tion ; and they suppose that it is variation merely wbich con- 
 stitutes the distinction of moods. It is the opinion of other 
 grammarians, (in wliich opinion we concur,) that, besides the 
 two cases just mentioned, all verbs in the three past, and the 
 two future tenses, are i-n the subjunctive mood, when they de- 
 note contingency or uncertainty, though they have not any 
 change of termination ; and that, wiien contingency is not 
 signified, the verb, through all these five tenses, belongs to the 
 indicative mood, whatever conjunction may attend it. They , 
 think, that the definition and nature of the subjunctive mood, j 
 have no reference to change of termination, but that they refer 
 merely to the manner of the being, action, or passion, signified 
 by the verb ; and that the subjunctive mood may as properly 
 exist without a variation of the verb, as the infinitive mood, 
 which has no termination^ diflerent from those of the indicative. 
 The decision of this point may not, by some grammarians, be 
 thought of much consequence. But the rules which ascertain 
 the propriety of varying, or not varying, the terminations of the 
 verb, will certainly be deemed important. These rules may be 
 well observed, without a uniformity of sentiment respecting the 
 nature and hmits of the subjunctive mood. For further remarks 
 on the subject, see pages 57, 59 — 61, 72 — 74, 77 — 78.* 
 
 9 Some conjunctions have correspondent conjunctions belong- 
 ing to them, either expressed or understood : as, 
 
 1st, Though, — yet, nevertheless : as, *' Though he was rich, yet 
 for our sakes he became poor." " Though powerful, he was 
 meek." 
 
 2d, Whether — or : as, " Whether he will go or not, I cannot tell." 
 3d, Either— or : as, "I will either send it, or bring it myself" 
 4th, JVeither- — 7ior : as, ^^JVeither he nor I am able to compass it." 
 
 * We have stated, for the ■student's information, the different opinions of 
 grammarians, respecting the English Subjunctive Mood : First, that which sup- 
 poses there is no such mood in our language ; Secondly^ that which extends 
 It no farther than the variations of the verb extend ; Thirdly, that which we 
 have adopted, and explained at large ; and which, in general, corresponds with 
 the views of the most approved writers on English Grammar. We may add a 
 Fourth opinion; which appears to possess, at least, much plausibility. This 
 opinion admits the arrangement we have given, with one variation, namely, 
 that of assigning to the first tense of the subjunctive, two forms: 1st, that 
 which simply denotes contingency : as, " If he" desires it, I will perform the 
 operation :" that is, " If he noiy desires it ;" 2dly, that which denotes both con- 
 tingency and futurity; as, " If he desire it, I will perform the operation;" that 
 is," " If he should hereafter desire it." This last theory of the subjunctive mood, 
 claims the merit of rendering the whole system of the moods consistent and 
 jregular; of being more conformable than any other, to the definition oi" the 
 fiubiunctive; and of not referring to the indicative mood forms of expression, 
 winch ill accord with its simplicity and nature. Perhaps this theory wiU bear 
 a ftUrict examination. 
 
LKxix.l SYNTAX. Hi 
 
 5th, As — as: expressing a comparison of equality : as, "She 
 *- as arniuble as her sister; and as much respected." 
 
 (Uli, ./^^ — so: expressing a comparison of equahty : as, ^^Jls 
 ti\e stars, so shall thy seed be." 
 
 7 th, .4s — so : expressing a comparison of quality : as, "^s the 
 oiie dieth, so dietli the other." ^'j]s he reads, they read." 
 
 8.:h, So — as: vvith a verb expressing a comparison of quality: 
 as, " To see tliy gh)ry, so as I have seen thee in the sanctuary." 
 
 IJth, So— as: with a negative and an adjective expressing a 
 'Comparison of quantity ! as, " Pompey was not so great a generc^ 
 Gs Caesar, nor so great a man." 
 
 10th, So — thai: expressing a consequence: as,." He was so 
 fatigued, thai he could scarcely move." 
 
 The conjunctions or and nor may often be used, with nearly 
 equal propriety. "The king, whose character was not sufficiently 
 vigorous, nor decisive, assented to the measure." in this sen- 
 tence, or would perha[)s have been better: but, in general, nor 
 seems to repeat the negation in the former part of the sentence, 
 and therefore gives more emphasis to the expression, 
 
 10 Conjunctions are often improperly used, both singly and in 
 pairs. The following are examples of this impropriety. "The 
 relations are so uncertain, as that they require a great deal of 
 examination:" it should be, " if /lai they require,"' &^. "There 
 was no man so sanguine, who did not apprehend some ill conse- 
 quences:" it ought to be, "so sanguine as not to apprehend," 
 &c. ; or, "no man, how sanguine soever, who did not," &c. 
 "To trust in him is no more but to acknowledge his power." 
 '^ This is no other but the gate of paradise." In both these 
 instances, hut should be than, " We should sufficiently weigh 
 the objects of our hope ; whether they are such as we may rea- 
 .eonably expect from them what they propose,' &c. It ought 
 to be, " that we may reasonably," &c. '* The dune 'liad not 
 behaved with that loyalty as he ought to have done;" ^Uvitk 
 which he ought." " In the order as they lie in his preface:" it 
 should be, "in order as they lie;" or, "in the order in which they 
 lie." "Such sharp replies that cost him his life;" "a^ cost 
 him " &c. " If he were truly that scarecrow, as he is now com- 
 monly painted ;" ''^ such a scarecroAv," &c. "I wish I could do 
 that justice to his memory, to oblige the painters," &c. ; " do 
 /wc/i justice as to oblige," &c. 
 
 There is a peculiar neatness in a sentence beginning with the 
 conjunctive form of a verb. " Were there no difference, thers 
 would be no choice." 
 
 A double conjunctive, in two correspondent clauses of a sen- 
 tence, is sometimes made use of: as, ^^ had he done this, he had 
 escaped ;" " Had the limitations ou the prerogative been, in his 
 tin)P., quite fixed and certain, his integrity had made him regard 
 as sacred, the boundaries of the constitution." The sentence in 
 the common form would have read thus : " If the limitations ou 
 
1 
 
 149 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule xx 
 
 the prerogative had been, iScc. his integrity would have made 
 hirn regard," &c. 
 
 The particle as, when it is connected with the pronoun such, 
 nas the force of a relative pronoun : as, " Let such tis presume 
 to advise others, look well to their own conduct ;" which is 
 equivalent to, " Let them who presume," &c. But when used 
 by itself, this particle is to be considered as a conjunction, oi 
 perhaps as an adverb. See the Key. 
 
 Our language wants a conjunction adapted to familiar style, 
 equivalent to notwithstanding. The words for all that^ «eem to 
 be too low. "The word was in the moiuh of every one, Dut, for 
 all that, the subject may still be a secret." 
 
 In regard thai is solemn and antiquated ; because would do 
 much better in the following sentence. " It cannot be other 
 wise, m regard that the French prosody differs from that of every 
 other language." 
 
 The word except is far preferable to other than, "It admitted 
 of n© effectual cure other than amputation." Except is also to 
 be preferred to all but. " They were happy all but the stranger." 
 
 In the two following phrases, the conjunction as is improperly 
 omitted ; " Which nobody presumes, or is so sanguine a to hope." 
 *' I must, however, be so just a to own." 
 
 The conjunction that is often properly omitted, and under- 
 stood ; as, "I beg you would come to me ;" '.' See thou do it not ;" 
 instead of "that you would," "that thou do." But in the fol- 
 lowing and many similar phrases, this conjunction were much 
 better inserted : " Yet it is reason the memory of their virtues 
 remain to posterity." It should be, "yet it is just that the me- 
 mory," 6&c. 
 
 RULE XX. 
 
 When the qualities of difTerent things are compared, the 
 latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the conj unction 
 than or as, but agrees with the verb, or is governed by the 
 verb or the preposition, expressed or understood: as, " 'J'hou 
 art wiser than I ;" that is, " than I am." " They loved him 
 more than me ;" i.e. " more than they loved me." " The 
 sentiment is well expressed by Plato, but much better by 
 Solomon than him ;" that is, " than by him."* 
 
 The propriety or impropriety of many phrases, in the preced- 
 ing as well as in some other forms, may be discovered, by sup- 
 plying the words that are not expressed ; which will be evident 
 from the following instances of erroneous construction. *^ He 
 can read better than me." " He is as good as her." *' Whe 
 tlier I be present or no." " Who did this ? Me." By supplying 
 the words understood in each of these phrases, their impropriety 
 and governing rule will appear : as, "Better than I can read ;" 
 ** As good as she is ;" *^ Pres ent or not present;" " I did it." 
 
 * See the Tenth, or any subsequent edition, of the Key ; Rule xx. The Note* 
 
Rule :fxi ] SYNTAX. J43 
 
 1 By not attc-iding to this rule, many errors have been com- 
 miJ .ed : a number of which is subjoined, as a further caution 
 Qiid direction to the learner. " Thou art a much greater loser 
 than me by his death." '* She suffers hourly more than me.*' 
 " We contributed a third more than the Dutch, who were 
 obliged to the same proportion more than us." " King Charles, 
 and more than him, the duke and the poi)ish faction, were at li 
 Derty to form new schemes." " The drift of all his sermons was, 
 to prepare the Jews for the reception of a prophet mightier than 
 him, and whose shoes he was not worthy to bear." *' It was not 
 the work of so eminent an. author, as him to whom it was first 
 nnputed." " A stone is heavy, and the sand weighty ; but a 
 fool's wrath is heavier than them both." '* If the king give us 
 'eave, we may perform the office as well as them that do." In 
 these passages it ouglit to be, '* /, we, he, they, respectively." 
 
 When the relative ivko immediately follows than, it seems to 
 form an exception to the 20th rule ; for in that connexion, the re- 
 lative must be in the objective case ; as, "Alfred, than whom, a 
 greater king never reigned," &c. '* Beelzebub, than whom, Satan 
 excepted, none higher sat," &o. It is remarkable that in such 
 instances, if the personal pronoun were used, it would be in the 
 nominative case ; as, "A greater king never reigned than he;'** 
 that is, ^^thari he was.''^ ''Beelzebub, than /ie," «&sc. ; that is, 
 ** than he sat.'' The phrase than whom, is, however, avoided by 
 the best modern writers. 
 
 RULE XXI. 
 To avoid disagreeable repetitions, and to express our 
 ideas in few words, an ellipsis, or omission of some words, 
 is frequently admitted. Instead of saying, '' He was a learn- 
 ed man, he was a wise man, and he was a good man," we 
 make use of the ellipsis, and say, " He was a learned, wise, 
 and good man." 
 
 When the omission of words would obscure the sentence, 
 weaken its force, or be attended with an impropriety, they 
 must be expressed. In the sentence, " We are apt to love 
 who love us," the word them should be supplied. " A beau- 
 tiful field and trees," is not proper language. It should be, 
 "Beautiful fields and trees;" or, " A beautiful field and 
 fine trees." 
 
 Almost all compounded sentences are more or less elhptical; 
 some examples of which may be seen jander the different parts 
 of speech. 
 
 1 The ellipsis of the article is thus used ; " A man, woman, 
 and child:" that is, *' a man, a woman, and a child." ** A house 
 and garden ;" that is, "a house and a garden." " The sun and ' 
 moon ;" that is, '* the sun and the moon." "The day and hour ;'• 
 that is, " the day and the hour." In all these instances, the ar- 
 
1 
 
 M4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rulexx? 
 
 iicle being once expressed, the repetition of it becomes unneces- 
 sary. There is, however, an excej)tion to this observation, wlieu 
 some pecuUar emphasis requires a re})erition ; as in the foilovvin,/ 
 sentence. "Not only the year, but the day and the hour." la 
 this case, the ellipsis of the last article would be imj)roper. 
 When a different form of the article is requisite, the article ia 
 also properly repeated : as, ''a house and an orchard ;" instead 
 of, *' a house and orchard." 
 
 2 The noini is frequently omitted in the following manner. 
 * The laws of God and man ;" that is, "the laws of God and th': 
 'aws of man." In some very emphatical expressions, the ellip^ 
 should not be used : as, "Christ the ])ower of God, and the wi> 
 dom of God ;" which is more emphatical than, " Christ the 
 power and wisdom of God." 
 
 3 The ellipsis of the adjective is used in the following manner. 
 "A delightful garden and orchard ;" that is, " a delightful gar- 
 den and a delightful orchard;" "A little man and woman ;" thai 
 is, "A little man and a little woman." In such elliptical expres- j 
 sions as these, the adjective ought to have exactly the same sig- 
 nification, and to be quite as proper, when joined to the latter | 
 substantive as to the former ; otherwise the ellipsis should nf>» 
 be admitted. 
 
 Sometimes the ellipsis is improperly applied to nouns of di; 
 ferent numbers : as, " A magnificent house rjid gardens." In I 
 this case it is better to use another adjective ; as, " A magnificent 1 
 house and fine gardens." 
 
 4 The following is the ellipsis of the pronoun. " I love an(i 
 fear him;" that is, " I love him, and I fear him." " My house 
 and lands;" that is, " my house and my lands." In these in-« 
 stances the ellipsis may take place with propriety ; but if we 
 would be more express and emphatical, it must not be used: as, 
 " His friends and his foes ;" " 3Iy sons and my daughters." 
 
 In some of the common forms of speech, the relative pronoun 
 is usually omitted : as, "This is the man they love ;" instead of, , 
 "This is the man lohom they love." " These are the goods they > 
 bought ;" for, "These are the goods tvhich they l)ought." 
 
 In complex sentences, it is much better to have the relative 
 pronoun expressed : as it is more profier to say, " The posture in 
 which I lay," than, " In the posture I lay:" "The horse oil 
 which I rode, fell down ;" than " The horse I rode fell down." 
 
 The antecedent and the relative connect the parts of a sentence 
 together, and, to prevent obscurity and confusion, shoidd answer 
 lo each other with great exactness. " We sj)eak that we do I 
 know, and testify that vPe have seen." Here the ellipsis is mani- ! 
 festly improper, and ought to be supplied : as, " We speak that 
 which we <lo know, and testify that ivhich we have seen." 
 
 5 The ellipsis of the verb is used in the following instances. I 
 " The man was old and crafty;" that is, "The man was old, and ' 
 the man was crafty." " She was youijg, and beautiful, and good ;'' 
 that is, "She was young, she was beautiful, and she was good.'* 
 
RuLK XXI.] SYNTAX. 145 
 
 " Thou art poor, and wretched, and miserable, and blind, aKd na- 
 ked." If we woidd fill up the ellipsis in the last sentence, tJioit 
 art ought to be repeated before each of the adjectives. 
 
 If, in such enumeration, we choose to point out one property 
 above the rest, that property nmst be placed last, and the ellip 
 SIS supplied : as, "She is young and beautiful, and she is good." 
 
 " I went to see and hear him ;" that is, *' I went to see and I 
 went to hear him." In this instance* there is not only an ellipsis 
 of the governing verb I went, but likewise of the sign of the in- 
 finitive mood, which is governed by it. 
 
 jOo, didj have, had, shall, will, may, might, and the rest of the 
 auxiharies of the compound tenses, are frequently used alone, to 
 spare the repetition of the verb: as, "He regards his word, but 
 thou dost not :" i. e. " dost not regard it." " We succeeded, but 
 they did not ;" " did not succeed." " I have learned my task, but 
 thou hast not ;" '' hast not learned." *' They must, and they shall 
 be punished ;" that is, " They must be punished." See the Key. 
 
 6 TJ]e elhpsis of the adverb is used in the following manner. 
 "He spoke and acted wisely.;" that is, "He spoke wisely, and 
 he acted wisely." '* Thrice T went and offered my service ;" that 
 18, *' Thrice I went, and thrice 1 offered my service." 
 
 7 The ellipsis of the preposition, as well as of the verb, is seen 
 in the following instances: *' He went into the abbeys, halls, and 
 public buildings;", that is, 'Mie went into the abbeys, he went 
 into the halls, and he went into the pubhc buildings." "He also 
 went through all the streets and lanes of the city ;" that is, 
 " Through all the streets, and through all the lanes," &c. " He 
 epoke to every man and woman there," that is, " to every man 
 and to every woman." " This day, next month, last year ;" 
 that is, " on this day, in the next month, in the last year ;" **The 
 Lord do that which seemeth him good ;" that is, " which seem 
 eth to him." 
 
 8 The ellipsis of the conjunction is as follows: "They confess 
 the power, wisdom, goodness, and love, of their Creator ;" i. e. 
 "the power, and wisdom, and goodness, and love of," &c. 
 "Though I love him, I do not flatter him," that is, "Though I 
 love him, yet I do not flatter him." 
 
 9 The ellipsis of the in^erjech'on is not very common; it, how- 
 ever, is sometimes used : as, " Oh ! pity and shame !" that is, 
 "Oh pity ! Oh shame 1" 
 
 As the ellipsis occurs in almost every sentence in the English 
 language, numerous examples of it might be given ; but only a 
 few more can be admitted here. 
 
 In the following instance there is a very considerable one : 
 "He will often argue, that if this pa* of our trade were' well 
 cultivated, we should gain from one nation ; and if another, 
 from another ;" that is, " He w jU often argue, that if this part of 
 our tr*.Je were well cultivated, we should gain from one nation, 
 and if another part of our trade were well cultivated, we should 
 gain from another nation." 
 
 N 
 
140 ENGLISH GRAMMAll [VivLx xi ' 
 
 The following instances, though short, contain much of the ef 
 ipsis : " Wo is me ;" i. e. " wo is to me." "To let blood;" i. e 
 
 to let out blood." " To let down ;" i. e. " to let it fall or 
 slide down." " To walk a mile ;" i. e. " to walk through the 
 space of a mile." " To sleep all night ;" i. e. " To sleep through 
 all the night." " To go a fishing ;" " To go a hunting :" i. e. " ti 
 go on a fishing voyage or business ;" "to go on a hunting party.*' 
 "I dine at two o'clock;" i.'e. " at two of the clock." "By sea, 
 by land, on shore :" i. e. " By the sea, by the land, on the shore." 
 
 10 The examples that follow are produced to show the im- 
 propriety of ellipsis in some particular cases. " The land was 
 always possessed, during pleasure, by those intrusted with the 
 command;" it should be, ^' those persons intrusted ;" or, " those 
 who were intrusted." " If he had read further, he would have 
 found several of his objectipns might have been spared:" that >s, 
 " he Avould have found that several of his objections," &c. 
 " There is nothing men are more deficient in, than knowing 
 their own characters." It ought to be, " nothing in which men ;" 
 and, "than in knowing." " I scarcely know any part of na- 
 tural philosophy would yield more variety and use ;" it should 
 be, " ivhich would yield," &c. " In the temper of mind he was 
 then ;" i. e. " in which he then was." "The little satisfaction and 
 consistency, to be found in most of the systems of divinity I have 
 met with, made me betake myself to the sole reading of the 
 Scriptures :" it ought to be, " which are to be found," and ^^ which 
 I have met with." , " He desired they might go to the altar to- 
 gether, and jointly return their thanks to whom only they were 
 due ;" i. e. " to him to whom," &c. 
 
 RULE XXIL 
 
 All the parts of a sentence should correspond to each 
 other : a regular and dependent construction, throughout, 
 should he carefully preserved. The follow^ing sentence is 
 therefore inaccurate : ** He was more heloved, but not so 
 much admired, as Cinthio," It should be, " He was more 
 beloved than Cinthio, but not so much admired." 
 
 Th6 firi?t example under this rule, presents a most irregular 
 construction, namely, " He was more beloved as Cinthio." The 
 words more and so much, are very improperly stated as having 
 the same regimen. In correcting such sentences, it is not ne- 
 cessary to supply the latter ellipsis ; because it cannot lead to 
 any discordant or improper construction, and the supply would 
 often be harsh or inelegant. See p. 141. 
 
 As' the 22d Rule comptihends all the preceding rules, it may 
 at the first view, appear- to be too general to be useful. But b^ 
 ranginir under it a numb'^r of se'itences peculiarly constr»-:cted 
 ^ve shall perceive, that it is calculated to ascertain the true gram 
 matical construction of many modes of expression, which noxie 
 of the particular rules can sufficiently explain. 
 
Rule xxii.J SYNTAX. 147 
 
 " This dedication may serve for almost any book, that lm«, is 
 or sliall be published." It ought to be, '* that has been, (ft shall 
 be published." *' He was guided by interests always diiftrent, 
 sometimes contrary to, those of the community;" ** different 
 from ;" or, " always different from those of the community, and 
 sometimes contrary to tliem." "Willit be urged that those 
 books are as old, or even older than tradition .^" The words, "as 
 old," and "older," cannot have a common regimen; it should 
 be ** as old as tradition, or even older." " It requires few tal«nts 
 to which, most men are not born, or at least may not acquire ;" 
 " or which, at least they may not acquire." " The court of chan- 
 cery frequently mitigates and breaks the teeth of the common 
 law." In this construction, the first verb is said, "to mitigate 
 the teeth of the common law," which is an evident solecism. 
 " Mitigates the common law, and breaks the teeth of it," would 
 have been grammatical. 
 
 "They presently grow into good humour, and good language 
 towards the crown ;" "grow into good language," is very im- 
 proper, " There is never wanting a set of evil instruments, who 
 either out of mad zeal, private hatred, or filthy lucre, are always 
 ready," &c. We say properly, "A man acts out of mad zeal," 
 or, "out of private hatred;" but we cannot say, if we would 
 speak English. " he acts out of filthy lucre." " To double her 
 kindness and caresses of me ;" the word "kindness" requires to 
 be followed by either to or/o?*, and cannot be construed with the 
 prd^)osition of. "Never was man so teased, or suffered half the 
 uneasiness, as I have done this evening :" the first and third 
 clauses, viz. " Never was man so teased, as I have do^ie this 
 evening.'* cannot be joined without an impropriety ; and to con- 
 nect the second and third, the word that must be substituted for 
 as; "Or suffered half the uneasiness that I have done;" or 
 else, " half so much uneasiness as I have suffered." 
 
 The first part of the following sentence abounds with adverbs, 
 and tnose such as are hardly consistent with one another: " How 
 much soever the reformation of this degenerate age is almost ut- 
 ttrly to be despaired of, we may yet have a more comtbrtable 
 prospect of future times." The sentence would be more correct 
 in the following form : " Though the reformation of this degene 
 rate age is nearly to be despaired of," &c. 
 
 "Oh ! shut not up my soul with the sinners, nor my life with 
 the blood-thirsty ; in whose hands is wickedness, and their right- 
 hand is full of gifts." As the passage, introduced by the copula- 
 tive conjunction and, was not intended as a continuation of ne 
 principal and independent part of the sentence, but of the Je- 
 pendent part, the relative lohose shoul4have been used instead 
 of the possessive their ; viz. " and whose right-hand is full of gifts." 
 
 " Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into 
 the heart of man, the things which God hath prepared for them 
 that love him." There seems to be an impropriety in this in- 
 ft^nc^, jn which the same noun serves in a double capacity, per- 
 
148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 forming at the same time the offices belh of tlie nominative ami 
 objeftive cases. " Neither hath it entered into the heart of man, 
 to conceive the things," &c. would Jjave been regular. 
 
 "We have the power of retaining, altering, afid compounding 
 those images which wc liave once received, into all the varieties 
 of picture and vision." It is very proper to say, " altering and 
 compounding those images which we have once received, into 
 all the varieties of picture and vision ;" but we can with no pro 
 pwety say, " retaining them into all the varieties ;" and yet, ac 
 cording to the manner in which the words are ranged, this con- 
 struction is unavoidable: for *' retaining, altering,, and com- 
 pounding," are participles, each M" which equally refers to, and 
 governs the subsequent noun, those images ; and that noun 
 again is necessarily connected with the following preposition, 
 into. The construction might easily have been rectified, by dis- 
 joining the p^rJ.ic'ple retaining from the other two participles, in 
 this way : '" We have the poAver of retaining those images which 
 we have once received^ and of altering and compounding them 
 into all the varieties of picture and vision ;" or, perhaps, better 
 thus: '* We have the power of retaining, altering, and compound- 
 ing those images which we have once received, and of forming 
 them into all the varieties of picture and vision.^* 
 
 IjyTERJECTlON. 
 
 For the syntax of the Inteijection, see Rule v. Note 11, page 
 106, and Note 9, of Rule xxi. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR PARSING. 
 
 As we have finished the explan-it-or of the ditTerent parts ol 
 speech, and the rules for forming th<^ip into sentences, it is now 
 proper to give some examples of the ti7anner in which the learn- 
 ers should be exercised, in order to prove their knowlt»dge, and 
 to render it familiar to them. This is called parsing. The iia 
 ture of the subject, as well as the adaptation of it to learner.* 
 requires that it should be divided into two parts ; viz. parsini^, a^ 
 it respects etymology alone ; and parsing, as it respects boti» 
 etymology and syntax.* 
 
 SECTION I. Specimens of Etymological Parsing, 
 '•Virtue ennobles us." 
 
 Virtue is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, 
 third person, the singular number, and in tlie nominative case 
 Decline the noun.) Ennohles is a regular verb active, indicative 
 mood, present tense, and the third person singular. ^ [Repeat the 
 present tense, the imperfect tense, and the perfect participle.]) Us 
 is a personal pronoun, of the first person plural, and in the 
 objective case. [Decline it,) 
 
 » See the ** General Directions for using the English Exercises," prefixed to 
 the eighth and every subsequent edition of that book. 
 
 The learner should occasionally repeat all the moods and tenifes o! the verb. 
 
 I 
 
SYNTAX 149 
 
 " Goodness will be rewarded." ^ 
 
 Goodness is a common substantive, of the ne-iiter gender, the 
 t!iird person, the singular number, and in the nominative case 
 {Decline it.) IVill he reivarded is a regular verb, in the passive 
 voice, the indicative mood, the first future tense, and the third 
 person singular. (Repeat the present tense j the imperfect tense, and 
 the perfect participle.) 
 
 " Strive to improve." 
 
 Slnve is an irregular verb neuter, in the imperative mood, and 
 of the second person singular. [Repeat the present te^se^ ^c, 
 To improve is a regular verb neuter, and in the infinitive mood 
 [Repeat the present tcnse^ ^*c.) 
 
 " Time fijes, O ! how swiftly." 
 
 Time is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the third 
 person, the singular number, and in the nominative case. (i>e- 
 cline the noun.) Flies is an irregular verb neuter, the indicative 
 mood, present tense, and the third person singular. (Repeat the 
 present tense^ fyc.) 01 is an interjection. How and siviftly are 
 a<iverbs. 
 
 "Gratitude is a delightful emotion." 
 
 Gratiinde is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the 
 tlnrd person, the singular number, and in the nominative case. 
 ^Decline it.) Is is an irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, 
 present tense, and the third person singular. (Repeat the presem 
 tensCj Sfc.) A is the indefinite article. Delightful is an adjective 
 in the positive state. (Repeat the degrees of comparison.) Emo- 
 tion is a common substantive of the neuter gender, the third per- 
 8011, the singular number, and in the nominative case. (Decline it.\ 
 **They who forgive act nobly." 
 
 They'is a personal pronoun, of the third person, the plural 
 anmiber, and in the nominative case. (Decline it.) Who is a 
 relative pronoun, and the nominative case. (Decline it.) Forgive 
 13 an irregular verb active, indicative mood, present tense, and 
 the third person plural. (Repeat the present tense, ^'c.) Act is a 
 regular verb active, indicative mood, present tense, and the third 
 person plural. (i2e/?eaf,^c.) JVb6/t/ is an adverb of quality. (Re- 
 peat the degrees of comparison.) 
 
 " By living temperately, our health is promoted." 
 
 By is a preposition. Living is the present participle of the 
 regular neuter verb " to live." (Repeat the participles.) Tempe- 
 ratdy \s SLU adverb of quality. Onr is an adjective pronoun of 
 the possessive kind. (Decline it.) Health is a (!ommon sub- 
 stantive, of the third person, the singular number, and in the 
 nominative case. (Decline it.) Is promoted is a regular ver!^ 
 passive, indicative mood, present tense, and the third persaa 
 singular. (Repeat, ^-c.) 
 
 " We should be kind to them, who are unkind to us." 
 
 }Fe is a personal pronoun, of the first person, the plural nurn 
 her, and in the nominative case. (Decline it?} Shoxdd be is jj; 
 
 N2 
 
150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 irregular verb neuter, in the potential mood, the imperfect tense, 
 and the first person plural. {Repeat the present tense, ^-c.) Kinei 
 is an adjective, in the positive state. {Repeat the degrees of com- 
 parison.) To ,is a preposition. Then is a personal pronoun, of 
 the third person, the plural number, and in the objective case, 
 (Decline it.) Who is a relative pronoun, and in the nominative 
 case. {Decline it,) Are is an irregular verb neuter, indicative, 
 mood, present tense, and the third person plural. {Repeat, Ifc. 
 Unkind is an adjective in the positive state. [Repeat the degrets \ 
 of comparison.) To is a preposition. Us is a personal pronoun, I 
 of the first person, the plural number, and in the objective case. 
 (Decline it.) 
 
 SECTION II. Specimens of Syntactical Parsing. 
 *' Vice produces misery.'"' 
 
 Vice is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the third 
 person, the singular number, and in tne nominative case. Pro- 
 duces is a regular verb active, indicative mood, present tense, 
 the third person singular, agreeing with its nominative ** vict,'^ 
 according to Rule i. which says ; {here repeat the rule.) Misery 
 is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the third person, 
 the singular number, and the objective caj*e, governe<l by e 
 active verb ** produces," according to Rule xi. which says, &- 
 ** Peace and joy are virtue's crown.*' 
 
 Peace is a common substantive. {Repeat the gender, person^ 
 number, and case.) And is a copulative conjunction. Joy i« «-i 
 common substantive. (Repeat the person, number, and case.) Art 
 IS an irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, and 
 the third person plural, agreeing with the nominative case 
 " peace and joy," according to Rule ji. which says ; (here repeat ' 
 the rule.) Virtue*s is a common substantive, of the third person, 
 the singular number, and in the possessive case, governed by 
 the substantive " crown," agreeably to Rule x. which says, &c. 
 Crown is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the third 
 person, the singular number, and in the nominative case, agree- 
 ably to the fourth note of Rule xi. 
 
 " Wisdom or folly governs us." 
 
 Wisdom is a common substantive. ( Repeat the gender, person, 
 numher, and case. Or is a disjunctive conjunction. Folly is a 
 common substantive. (Repeat the person, number, and case.) 
 Governs is a regular verb active, indicative mood, present tense, 
 and the third person singular, agreeing wuh its nominative case, 
 " wisdom" or " folly," according to rule iii. which says, &c. 
 Us is a personal pronoun, of the first person, plural number, and 
 in the objective case, governed by the active verb " governs," 
 agreeably to rule xr. which says, &c. 
 
 *' Every heart knows its sorrows." 
 
 Every is an adjective pronou.'i of the distributive kind, agree- 
 ing with its substantive " heart," according to Note 2 under rulb 
 vui. which says, x^c. Heart is a common substantive. (Rf. 
 
SYNTAX. 151 
 
 j}€at the gender, person, number, and case.) Knows is au irregular 
 verb active, indicative mood, present tense, third person singu 
 lar, agreeing with its nominative case " heart," according *.n 
 RULE I. which says, &c. Its is a personal pronoun, of the thirj 
 person singular, and of tlie neuter gender, to agree with its sub- 
 stantive "heart," according to rule v. which says, &c. it is in 
 the possessive case, governed by the noun "sorrows," according 
 to RULE X. which says, &c. Soitows is a common substantive, 
 of the third person, the plural number, and the objective case, 
 governed by the active verb " knows," according to Rule xi 
 which says^ &c. 
 
 '* The man is happy who lives wisely." 
 The is the definite article. Man is a common substantive 
 (Repeat the per son, number, and case.) Is is an irregular verb neu 
 ter, indicative mood, present tense, and the third person singular, 
 agreeing with the nominative case " man," according to Rule i 
 which says, &c. Happy is an adjective in the positive state. 
 Who is a relative pronoun, which has for its antecedent, *' man," 
 with vvhich it agrees in gender and ndmber, according to Rule 
 
 V. which gays, &c. lAves is a regular verb neuter, indicative 
 mood, present tense, third person singular, agreeing with its no- 
 minative " who," according to Rule vi. which says, &c. Wisely is 
 an adverb of quality, placed after the verb, according to Rule xv 
 
 " Who preserves us ?" 
 Who is a relative pronoun of tlie iiiierrogative kind, and in 
 the nominative case singular. The word to which it relates, (its 
 subsequent,) is the noun or pronoun containing the answer to 
 the question ; agreeably to a note under Rule vi. Preserves is a 
 regular verb active, indicative mood, present tense, third person 
 fiingidar, agreeing with its nominative " who," according to Rule 
 
 VI. which says, &c. Us is a personal prortouu. {Repeat the per- 
 son,nnmber, case, and rule.) 
 
 " Whose house is that ? My brother's and mine. Who inhabit 
 it? We." 
 
 Whose is a relative pronoun of the interrogative kind, and re- 
 lates to the following words, '' Brother's" and " mine," agreeably 
 to a note under Rule vi. It is in the possessive case, governed 
 by " house," according to Rule x. which says, &c. House is a 
 coirunon substantive, {Repeat the gender, person, number, and case. ; 
 Is is an irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, 
 and the third person singular, agreeing with its nominative case 
 ' house," according to Rule i. which says, &c. That is an ad 
 jective pronoun of the demonstrative kind. My is an adjective 
 pronoun of the possessive kind. Bi'other^s is a common substan 
 live, of the third person, the singular number, and in the posses- 
 sive case, governed by "house" understood, according to Rule 
 X. and a note under Rule vi. And is a copulative conjunction. 
 Mine is a personal pronoun, of the first person, the siugular num- 
 ber, and in the possessive case, according to a note under Ruin 
 
152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
 
 X. and another under Rale vi. Who is a relative pronoun of the 
 interrogative kind, of the plural number, in the nominative case, 
 and relates to " we" following, accordi?ig to a note under Rule 
 VI. Inhabit is a regular verb active. (Repeat the mood^ tense, 
 person, &c.) It is a personal pronoun, of the third person, the 
 singular number, and in the objective case, governed by the ac- 
 tive verb "inhabit," according to Rule xi. which says, &c. We 
 is a personal pronoun, of the first person, the plural number, and 
 the nominative case to the verb " inhabit" understood. The 
 words " inhabit it" are implied after " we," agreeably to a note 
 under Rule vi. 
 
 " Remember to assist the distressed." 
 
 Remember is a regular verb active, imperative mood, the se- 
 cond person singular, and agrees with its nominative case " thou" 
 understood. To assist is a regular verb active, in the infini- 
 tive niood, governed by the preceding verb "remember," ac- 
 cording to Rule XII. which says, &c. The is the definite arti 
 cle. Digressed is an adjective put substantively. 
 " We are not unemployed." 
 
 JVe is a personal pronoun. (Repeat the person, number^ and 
 case,) Are ig an irregular verb neuter. (Repeat the mood, tense, 
 person, &c.) JVot isan adverb of negation. Unemployed ta an 
 adjective in the positive state. The two negatives not and mm, 
 form an affirmative, agreeably to Rule xvi. which says, &c. 
 
 *' This bounty has relieved you and us ; and has gratified tlie 
 donor." 
 
 This is an adjective pronoun of the demonstrative kind. Boun- 
 ty is a common substantive. (Repeat the person^ number, and 
 case.) Has relieved is a regular verb active, indicative mood, 
 perfect tense, third person singular, agreeing with its nominative 
 "bounty," according to Rule 1. which says, &c. You is a per- 
 sonal pronoun, of the second person plural, and in the objective 
 case. (Repeat the government and rule.) And is a copulative 
 conjunction. Us is a personal pronoun, in the objective case. 
 You and us are put in the same case, according to Rule xvin. 
 which says, &c. And is a copulative conjmiction. Has grati- 
 fied is a regular verb active, indicative mood, perfect tense, and 
 third person singular, agreeing with its nominative " bounty" 
 understood. " Has relieved,^'' and " has gratified,'''* are in the same 
 mood and tense, according to Rule xvni. which says. &c. The 
 is the definite article. Donor is a common substantive, of the 
 third person, the singular number, and the objective case, go _^ 
 verned by the active verb " has gratified," according to Rule x 
 which says, &c. See the Octavo Grammar, on Gender. 
 " He will not be pardoned, unless he repent." 
 
 He is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 
 masculine gender, and in the nominative case. Will be pardoned 
 is a regular passive verb, indicative mood, first future tense, aiirl 
 the third person singular, agreeing with its ruminative **h^,** 
 
SYNTAX. 153 
 
 Recording to Rule i. and composed of the auxiliaries '* will be," 
 and the perfect participle " pardoned." A^oi is a negative adverb. 
 Unless is a dir«junctive conjunction. He is a {)ersonal ])ronoun. 
 {Repeat the person^ number, gender, and case.) Repent is a regular 
 verb neuter, in the subjunctive mood, the present tense, the third 
 person singuhir, and agrees with its nominative case " he," ac- 
 cording to Rule I. which says, &:c. It is in the subjunctive mood, 
 because it implies a future sense, and denotes uncertainty signi- 
 fied by the conjunction "ui>less," agreeably to Rule xix. and 
 the notes. 
 
 " Good works being neglected, devotion is false." 
 
 Good ivo7'fcs heinfr neglected, Ijeing independent of the rest ot 
 the sentence, is the case absolute, according to the fifth note of 
 Rule I. Devotion is a common substantive, [Repeat the number, 
 verson, and case,) Is is an irregular verb neuter. (Repeat the 
 mood, tense, person, ^c.) False is an adjective in the positive 
 state, and belongs to its substantive " devotion" understood, 
 agreeably to Rule viii. which says, &c. 
 
 *'The emperor, Marcus Aurelius, was a wise and virtuous 
 prince." 
 
 The is the definite article. Emperor is a common substantive, 
 of the masculine gender, the third person, the singular number, 
 and in the nominative case. Marcus Aurelius is a propet* name 
 or substantive, and in the nominative case, because it is put in 
 apposition with the substantive " e«nperor," agreeably to the 
 first note of Rule x. Was is an irregular verb neuter, indicative 
 mood, imperfect tense, and the third person singular, agreeing 
 with its nominative case " emperor." A is the indefinite article. 
 Wise is an adjective, and belongs to its substantive *' prince." 
 And is a copulative conjunction. ^ Virtuous is an adjective, and 
 belongs, &c. Prince is a common substantive, and in the nomina- 
 tive case, agreeably to the fourth note of Rule xi. 
 *'To err is human." 
 
 To err, is the infinitive mood, and the nominative case to the 
 verb " is." Is is an irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, present 
 tense, and the third person singular, agreeing with its nomi- 
 native case " to err," agreeably to Note i. under Rule the first. 
 Huvian is an adjective, and belongs to its substantive "nature" 
 understood, according to Rule viii. which says, &c. 
 
 " To countenance persons who are guilty of bad actionSj rs 
 scarcely one remove from actually committing them." 
 
 To countenance persons who are guilLy of bad actions, is part of 
 a sentence, which is the nominative case to the verb "is." Is 
 is aairregular verb neuter, &c. agreeing with the aforementioned 
 part of a sentence, as its nominative case, agreeably to Note i. 
 under Rule the first. Scarcely is an adverb. One is a numeral 
 adjective agreeing with its substantive " remove." Remove is 
 a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the third person, 
 the singular number, and in the nominative ca.se, agreeably to 
 
I 
 
 154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 the fourth note of Rule xi. From is a preposition. Committing 
 IS the present participle of the regular active verb " to commit.'' 
 Them is a personal pronoun, of the third person, the plural 
 number, and in the objective case, governed by the parliciplo 
 " committing,'' agreeably to Rule xiv. which says, ^c. ~ 
 
 ** Let me proceed." 
 
 This sentence, according to the statement of grammarians in" 
 genertil, is in the im|)erative mood, of the first person, and the 
 singular number. The sentence may, however, be analyzed in 
 the following manner. Let is an irregular verb active, in the 
 imperative mood, of the second person, the plural number, and 
 agrees witli its nominative case "you" understood i* as, *' do you 
 let," Me is a personal pronoun, of the first person, the singular 
 number, and in the objective case, governed by the active verb 
 *• let," agreeably to Rule xi. which says, &c. Proceed is a regu- 
 lar verb neuter, in the infinitive mood, governed by the preceding 
 verb *'let," according to Rule xii. which says, &c. 
 
 '* Living expensively and luxuriously destroys health. By 
 living frugally and temperately, health is preserved." 
 
 Living expensively and luxuriously, is the nominative case to 
 the verb ** destroys," agreeably to Note i. under Rule i. Living 
 frugally and temperately, is a substantive phrase in the objective 
 case, governed by the preposition " by," according to Note ii, un- 
 der Rule XIV. 
 
 The preceding specimei^ of parsing, if carefully studied by 
 the lecirner, seem to be sufliciently explicit, to enable him to 
 comprehend the nature of this employment; and sufficiently di- 
 versified, to qualify him, in other exercises, to point out and 
 epj>ly the remaining rules, both principal end subordinate. 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 rRosonr. 
 
 Prosody consists of two parts : the former teaches the 
 true PRONUNCIATION of words, comprising accent, quan- 
 tity, EMPHASIS, PAUSE, and TONE ; and the latter; the laws 
 
 of VERSIFICATION. 
 
 CHAPTER 1. 
 OF PROJSTUJ^CMTIOjY. 
 
 SECTION I. Of .Accent. 
 Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice, 
 on a certain letter or syllable in a word, that it may be 
 better heard than the rest, or distinguished from them * as^ 
 
Accent.] PROSODY. 155 
 
 in the word presume, the stress of the voice must be on the 
 letter ti, and second syllable, sume, which take the accent 
 
 As words may be formed of a different number of syllables, 
 from one to eight or nine, it was necessary to have some peculiar 
 mark to distinguish words froiri mere syllables ; otherwise 
 speech would be only a continued succession of syllables, with- 
 out conveying ideas; for, as words are the marks of ideas, any 
 confusion in the marks, must cause the same in the ideas for 
 which they stand. It was therefore necessary, that the mind 
 should at once perceive what number of syllables belongs to 
 each word, in utterance. This might be done by a perceptible 
 pause at the end of each word in sj)eaking, as we form a certain 
 distance between them in writing and printing. But this woukl 
 make discourse extremel}'^ ted.'ous ; and though it might rendei 
 words distinct, would make the meaning of sentences confused 
 Syllables might also be sufficiently distinguished by a certair 
 <;Ievation or dei;ression of voice upon one syllable of each word 
 which was the practice of some nations. But the English tongue 
 has, for this purpose, adopted a mark of the easiest and simples! 
 kind, which is called accent, and which effectually answers tht 
 iMid. 
 
 Every word in our language, of more than one syllable, has 
 one of them distinguished from the rest in this manner ; and 
 some writers assert, that every monosyllable of two or more let- 
 ters, has one of its letters thus distinguished. 
 
 Accent is either principal or secondary. The priiicipal accent 
 IS that which necessarily distinguishes one syllable in a word 
 from the rest. The secondary accent is that stress which we 
 may occasionally place upon another syllable, besides that which 
 htis the principal accent ; in order to pronounce every part of 
 the word more distinctly, forcibly, and harmoniously: thus, 
 "Complaisant, caravan," and " violin," have frequently an accent 
 on the first as well as on the last syllable, though a somewhat 
 less forcible one. The same may be observed of "Repartee, re- 
 feree, privateer, domineer," 6cc. But it must be observed, that 
 though an accent is allowed on the first syllable of these words, 
 it is by no means necessary ; they may all be pronounced with 
 one accent, and that on the last syllable, without the least devia- 
 lion from propriety. 
 
 As emphasis evidently points out the most significant word in 
 a sentence ; so, where other reasons do not forbid, the accent al- 
 ways dwells with greatest force on that part of the word which, 
 from its importance, the hearer has always the greatest occasion 
 to observe : and this is necessarily the root or body of the word. 
 But as harmony of termination frequently attracts the accent 
 from the root to the branches of words, so the first and most na- 
 tural law of accentuation seems to operate less in fixing the 
 stress than any other. Our own Saxon terminations, indeed, 
 with perfect uniformity, leave the principal part of the word in 
 
156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Sdct. i 
 
 quiet possession of what seems its lawful property ; but Latiti 
 and Greek terminations, of wiiith our language is full, assume a 
 right of preserving their original accent, and subject almost every 
 word they bestow upon us to then* own classical laws. 
 
 Accent, therefore, seems to be regulated in a great measure 
 ]>y etymology. In words from the Saxon, the accent is general- 
 ly on the root ; in words from ilie learned languages, it is gene- 
 rally on the termination ; and if to these we add the different 
 jiccent we lay on some words, to distinguish theai from others, 
 we seem to have the three great principles of accentuation.; 
 namely, the radical, the terminalional, and the distinctive. The 
 radical: as, ''Love, lovely, loveliness;" the terminational ; as, 
 *' Harmony, harmonious ;" the distinctive : as, *' Convert, to 
 convert." 
 
 Acctnt on Dissyllahles. 
 
 Words of two syllables have necessarily one of them accented, 
 and but one. It is true, for the sake of emphasis, we sometimes 
 lay an equal stress upon two successive syllables: as, " Di'-rect, 
 soine-times ;" but when these words are pronounced alone, they 
 have never more than one accent. The word "a-men," is the 
 only word which is pronounced with two accents when alone. 
 
 Of dissyllables, formed by affixing a ternjination, the former 
 syllable is commonly accented: as, ''Childish, kingdom, actest, 
 ycted, toilsome, lover, scoffer, faiVer, foremost, zealous, fulness, 
 meekly, artist." 
 
 Dissyllables formed by prefixing a syllable to the radical 
 word, have commonly the accent on the latter: as, ** To beseem, 
 to bestow, to return." 
 
 Of dissyllables, which are at once nouns and verbs, the verb has 
 commonly the accent on the latter, and the noun on the former 
 syllable : as, " To cement, a cement ; to contract, a contract ; to 
 presage, a presage." 
 
 This rule has many exceptions. Though verbs seldom have 
 their accent on the former, yet nouns often have it on the latter 
 syllable : as, " Delight, perfume." Those nouns which, in the 
 common order of language, must have preceded the verbs, often 
 transmit their accent to the verbs they form, and inversely. 
 Thus, the noun " water" must have preceded the verb '' to water," 
 as the verb " to correspond," must have preceded the noun "cor- 
 respondent:" and "to pursue" claims priority to "pursuit." So 
 that we may conclude, wherever verbs deviate from the rule, it 
 is seldom by chance, and generally in those words only where a 
 superior law of accent takes place. 
 
 All dissyllables ending in ?/, our, ow, le, ish, ck, ier, age, en, et . 
 as, " Cranny, labour, willow, wallow ;" except " allow, avow, 
 endow, below, bestow ;" " battle, banish, cambric^ batter, cou- 
 rage, fasten, quiet ;" accent the former syllable. 
 
 Dissyllable nouns in ^r, as, *• Canker, butter," have the accent 
 on the former syllable. 
 
 Dissyllable verbs, terminating in a consonant and c final, as, 
 
I Accent.] PROSODY. 157 
 
 **Coiijpnsej escape;" or having a di[>fitliong in the last syllable, 
 ' as, *' A}>pease, reveal ;" or ending in tw^o consonants ; as, " At • 
 tend ;" have tlie accents on the latter syllable. 
 
 Dissyllable nouns, having a diphthong in the latter syllable, 
 have commonly their accent oh the latter syllable ; as, " Ap- 
 plause ;" except some v^^ords in ain : as, "Villain, curtain, 
 mountain.'* 
 
 Dissyllables that have two vowels, which are separated m the 
 pronunciation, have always the accent on the first syllable : as, 
 ** Lfon, riot, qui'et, h'ar, ruin ;" except '* create." 
 
 •Accent on THsyllables. 
 
 Trisyllables formed by adding a termination, or prefixing a 
 syllable, retain the accent of the radical word : as, '* Loveliness, 
 tenderness, contemner, wagoner, physical, bespatter, comment- 
 ing, commending, assurance." 
 
 Trisyllables ending in onSj al, ion : as, ** arduous, capital, 
 mention," accent the first. 
 
 Trisyllables ending in ce, ent, and ate, accent the first syllable: 
 as," Countenance, cuntinence, armament, utiminent, elegant, pro- 
 pagate ;" unless they are derived from words having the accent 
 on the last : as, ** Connivance, acquaintance ;" and unless the 
 middle syllable has a vowel before two consonants : as, *' Pro- 
 mulgate." 
 
 Tri .llables ending in y, as, *' entity, specify, liberty, vfctory, 
 jubsidy," commonly accent the first syllable. 
 
 Trisyllables ending in re or /e, accent the first syllable : as, 
 ** Legible, theatre ;" except *' Disci'ple," and some words which 
 have a preposition: as, " Example, indenture." 
 
 Trisyllables ending in w</c, commonly accent the first syllable, 
 as, " Plenitude, habitude, rectitude." 
 
 Trisyllables ending in ator, have the accent on the middle 
 syllable ; as, " Spectator, creator," &c. : except " orator, senator, 
 barrator, legator." 
 
 Trisyllables which have in the middle syllable a diphthong, 
 as, " Endeavour;" or a vowel before two consonants ; as, *' Do- 
 mestic;" accent the middle syllable. 
 
 Trisyllables that have their accent on the last syllable, are 
 commonly French: as, *' Acquiesce, repartee, magazfne;" or 
 they are words formed by prefixing one or two syllables to a 
 long syllable : as, **LTimature, overcharge." 
 
 •Accent on Polysyllables, 
 
 Polysyllables, or words of more than three syllables, generally 
 follow the accent of the words from which they are derived 
 as, " arrogating, continency, incontinently, commendable, com- 
 rmlnicableness." 
 
 Words ending in ator have the accent generally on the penul- 
 timate, or last syllable but one : as, " Emendator, gladiator 
 equivocator, prevaricator " 
 
 Words ending in le commonly have the accent on the first sy 
 
 O 
 
158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Sect, a 
 
 lable: as, "amicable, despicable :'* unless the second syllable has 
 a vowel before two consonants : as, " Combustible, condemnable/' 
 
 Words ending in ion, ous, and ty, have their accent on th« 
 antepenultimate, or last syllable but two : as, ** Salvation, vie 
 torious, activity." 
 
 Words which end in la, lo, and cal, have the accent on the 
 antepenult: as, "Cyclopaedia, punctilio, despotical." 
 
 The rules respecting accent, are not advanced as complete or 
 infallible ; they are merely proposed as useful. Almost every 
 rule of every language has its exceptions ; and, in English, as in 
 other tongues, much must be learned by example and authority. 
 
 It may be further observed, that though the syllable on which 
 the principal accent is placed, is fixed and certain, yet we may, 
 and do, frequentl}'^ make the secondary principal, and the prin- 
 cipal secondary: thus, "CaraVan, complaisant, violin, repartee^ 
 referee, privateer, domineer," may all have the greater stress on 
 the first, and the less on the last syllable, without any violent 
 offence to the ear: nay, it maybe asserted, that the principal 
 accent on the first syllable of these words, and none at all on the 
 last, though certainly improper, has nothing in it grating or dis- 
 cordant ; but placing an accent on the second syllable of these 
 words would entirely derange them, and produce great harsh- 
 ness and dissonance. The same observations may be applied 
 to " demonstration, lamentation, provocation, navigator, propa- 
 gator, aUigator," and every similar word in the language, 
 
 SECTION II. Of quantity. 
 
 The quantity of a syllable is that tinie which is occupied 
 in pronouncing it. It is considered as long or short. 
 
 A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the 
 vowel ; which occasions it to be slowly joined in pronun- 
 ciation with the following letters : as, " Fall, bale, m65d, 
 house, feature." 
 
 A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant ; 
 which occasions the vowel to be quickly joined to the suc- 
 ceeding letter : as, " ant, bonnet, hunger." 
 
 A long syllable generally requires double the time of a 
 short one in pronouncing it : thus, " Mate" "and " Note" 
 should be pronounced as slowly again as '* Mat" and "Not.** 
 
 Unaccented syllables are generally short : as, ** §.dmire, bold- 
 ness, sinner." But to this rule there are many exceptions: as, 
 * also, exile, gangrene, umpire, foretaste," &c. 
 
 When the accent is on a consonant, the syllable is often more 
 oi ess short, as it ends with a single consonant, or with more 
 than one : as, " Sadly, robber ; persist, matchless." 
 
 When the accent is on a semi-vowel, the time of the syllable 
 may be protracted, by dwelling upon the semi-vowel : as, ^ Cur' 
 can", fulfir ;'* but when the accent falls on a mute, the syll) ' " 
 
^ 
 
 Quantity,] PROSODY. 159 
 
 cannot be lengthened in the same manner : as, " Biibhle, cap- 
 tain, totter." 
 
 i'he quantity of vowels has, in some measure, been considered 
 under the first part of grammru', which treats (^f the different 
 >iounds of the letters; and therefore' we shall dismiss this subject 
 with a few general rules and observations. 
 
 1st, All vowels under the principal accent, before the termi- 
 nations ra, 10, and lo/i, preceded by a single consonant, are pro- 
 nounced long: as, " Regalia, folio, adhesion, explosion, confu- 
 sion :" except the vowel i, which in that situation is short : as, 
 * Militia, punctilio, decision, contrition." The only exceptions 
 to this rule seem to be *■*■ Discretion, battalion, gladiator, nation- 
 h1, and rational." 
 
 2d, All vowels that immediately precede tbe terminations ity 
 and ety^ are pronounced %ng : as, " Deit3% piety, spontaneity." 
 But if one consonant precedes these terminations, every pre- 
 ceding accented vov/el is short : except w, and the a in '* scarci- 
 ty," and '* rarity;" as, ** Polarity, severity, divinity, curiosity; — 
 impunity." Even u before two consonants contracts itself: as, 
 ** Curvity, taciturnity," &c. 
 
 3d, Vowels under the principal accent, before the termina- 
 tions ic and ical, preceded by a single consonant, are pronounced 
 short; thus, " Satanic, pathetic, elliptic, harmonic," have the 
 vowel short ; while *^ Tunic, runic, cubic," have the accented 
 vowel long: and " Fanatical, poetical, levitical, canonical," Jiave 
 the vowel short ; but " Cubical, musical," &c. have the u long. 
 
 4th, The vowel in the antepenultimate syllable of words, with 
 the following terminations, is always i)ronounced short. 
 
 loquy ; as, obloquy. parous; as, oviparous. 
 
 strophe; as, apostrophe. cracy ; as, aristocracy. 
 
 meter ; as, barometer. g''>^jy ; as, cosmogony. 
 
 gonal; as, diagonal. phony; as, symphony. 
 
 vorous ; as, carnivorous. nomy ; as, astronom}'. 
 
 ferons : as^omniferous. tomy ; as, anatomy. 
 
 Jluous ; as, superfluous. paihy ; as, antipathy 
 
 faent ; as, mellifluent. 
 
 As no utterance which is void of proportion," can be agreeable 
 to the ear; and as quantity, or proportion of time in utterance, 
 greatly depends on a due attention to the accent; it is absolutely 
 necessary for every person who would attain a just and pleasing 
 delivery, to be master of that point. Sec this section in the Octavy 
 Grammar, 
 
 SECTION in. Of Eviphasts, 
 
 By emphasis is nieant a stronger and fuller sound of voice, 
 by which we distinguish some word or words on which we 
 design to lay particular stress, and to show how they aflfect 
 the rest of the sentence. Sometimes the emphatic words 
 must be distinguished by a particular tone of voico, as well 
 as by a greater stress. 
 
160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Sect, fll 
 
 On die riglit management of tbe emphasis depends tlie life of^ 
 pronunciation. If no emphasis be })laccd on any words, not 
 only will discourse be rendered heavy and lifeless, Ijut the mean 
 ing often left a'.nbiguous. If llie emphasis be i^laced wrong, we 
 shall pervert and confound uie meaning wholly. To give a 
 common instance: such a simple question as this, "Do you ride 
 to town to-day?" is capable of no fewer than four different ac 
 ceptations, according as the emphasis is difierently placed on 
 the words. If it be pronounced thus: '' Do t/om ride to town 
 to-day .?" the answer may naturally be, *'No, we send a servant 
 in our stead." If thus : " Do you ride to town to-day?" answer, 
 ** No, we intend to walk." " Do you ride to town to-day ?" • ** No, 
 we ride into the country." *' Do you ride to town to-day T' 
 ** No, but we shall to-morrow." In like manner, in solemn dis- 
 course, the whole force and beauty of^n expression often depend 
 on the emphatic word ; and we may present to the hearers quite 
 diffelrent views of the same sentiment, by y)lacing the emphasis 
 differentl3^ In the following words of our Saviour, observe in 
 what different lights the thought is placed, according as the 
 words are pronounced. " Judas, betrayest thou the son of man 
 with a kiss?" ^^ Betrayest thou," makes the reproach turn on 
 the infamy of treachery. ** Betrayest thou^^* makes it rest upon 
 Judas's connexion with his master. " Betrayest thou the son oj 
 mariy^^ rests it upon our Saviour's personal character and emi- 
 nence. " Betrayest thou the son of man ivith a kissT* turns il 
 upon his prostituting the signal of peace and friendship to tho 
 purpose of destruction. 
 
 The emphasis often lies on the word that asks a question 
 as, *' fVho said so ?" " When will he come ?" *' IVhat shall I do ?" 
 " W hither sh'dW I go ?" " Why dost thou weep ?" And when two 
 words are set in contrast, or in opposition to one another, they 
 are both emphatic ; as, " He is the tyrant, not the father, of his 
 people ;" " His subjects/ear him, but they do not love him." 
 
 Some sentences are so full and compreli^nsiv^, that almost 
 every word is emphatical : as, **Ye hills and dales, ye rivers, 
 woods, and plains :" or, as that pathetic expostulation in the 
 prophecy of Ezekiel, " Why will ye die !" In the latter short 
 sentence, every word is emphatical ; and on which ever word 
 we lay the emphasis, whether on the first, second, third, or 
 fourth, it strikes out a different sense, and opens a new subject 
 of moving expostulation. 
 
 As accent dignifies the syllable on which it is laid, and makea 
 It more distinguished by the ear than the rest ; so emphasis en 
 nobles the word to which it belongs, and presents it in a stronger 
 /ight to the understanding. Were there no accents, words would 
 be resolved into their original syllables: were there no emphasis, 
 sentences would be resolved into their original words; and, in 
 this case, the hearer would be under the painful necessity, first, of 
 making out the words, and aflerwards, their meaning. 
 
 Kmphasia is of two kinds, simple and complex. Simple, whecf 
 
Emphasis.] PROSODY. 161 
 
 It serves to point o\it only the plain meaning of any proposition ; 
 com})lex, when, besides the meaning, it marks also some affection 
 or emotion of tlie mind ; or gives a meaning to words, which 
 they would not have in their usual acceptation. In the former 
 case, empliasis is scarcely more than a stronger accent, with 
 little or no cl»ange of tone; wljen it is complex, besides force, 
 there is always superadded a maniftjst change of tone. 
 
 The following sentence contains an exam})le of simple empha- 
 Bis: "And Nathan said to David, 7Viou art the man." The 
 emphasis on thou^ serves only to point out the meaning of the 
 speaker. But in the sentence which follows, we perceive an 
 emotion of the speaker superadded to the simple meaning : '* Why 
 will ye die!" 
 
 As the emphasis often falls on words in different parts of the 
 «ame sei;tence, so it is frequently required to be continued, with 
 a httle variation, on two, and sometimes three words together. 
 The following sentence exemplifies both the parts of this posi- 
 tion : *' If you seek to make one rich, study not to increase his 
 stores, but to diminish his desires^ Emphasis may be further 
 distinguished, into the weaker and the stronger emphasis. In 
 the sentence, " Exercise and temperance strengthen the con- 
 stitution ;" we perceive more force on the word strengthen^ than 
 on any other; though it is not equal to the stress which we 
 apply to the word indifferent, \i\ the following sentence : " Exer- 
 cise and temperance strengthen even an i/j/ii^ercni constitution.'* 
 It is also proper to remark, that the words exercise, temperance^ 
 constitution, in the last example but one, are pronounced with 
 greater force, than the particles and and the ; and yet those words 
 cannot properly be called emphatical : for the stress that is laid 
 on them, is no more than sufi.cient to convey distinctly the mean- 
 ing of each w^ord. — From these observations it appears, that the 
 smaller parts of speech, namely, the articles, conjunctions, pre- 
 positions, A:c. are, in general, obscurely and feebly expressed ; 
 that the substantives, verbs, and more significant words, are 
 firmly and distinctly pronounced ; and that the emphatical words, 
 those which mark the meaning of a phrase, are pronounced with 
 peculiar stress and energy, though varied according to the 
 degree of their importance. 
 
 Emphasis, besides its other offices, is the great regulator of 
 quantity. Though the quantity of our syllables is fixed, in 
 words separately pronounced, yet it is mutable, when these worda 
 are ranged in sentences; the long being changed into short, the 
 short into long, according to the importance of the words with 
 regard to m.eaning : and as it is by emphasis only^ that the mean- 
 ing can he pointed out, emphasis must be the regulator of the 
 quantity. A few examples will make this point very evident. 
 Pleas'd thou shalt hear — and learn the secret power, A^, 
 PleasM thOQ shalt hear — and thou alone shalt hear — 
 Pleas'd thou shalt hear — in spite of them shalt hear — 
 rieas'd thou shalt hear — though not behdld the fair— 
 02 
 
162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Sect, uh ^ 
 
 In the first of these instances, the words pUas^d and Maty be- 
 ing equally eniphatical, are both long; whilst the two interme- 
 diate words, thou and shdlt, being rapidly passed over, as the 
 sense demands, are reduced to a short quantity. 
 
 In the second instance, the word thou by being the most im 
 portant, obtains the chief, or ratlier tbe sole emphasis ; and thus, j 
 it is not only restored to its natural long quantity, but obtains 
 from emphasis a still greater degree of length, tlian when pro- 
 nounced in its separate state. This greater degree of length, 
 is compensated by the diminution of quantity in the words jy/ca^-rf 
 and hear^ which are sounded sliorter than in the preceding in- 
 stance. The word shalt still continues short. Here we may 
 also observe, that though thou is long in the first part of the 
 verse, it becomes short when repeated in the second, on account 
 of the more forcible emphasis belonging to the word almtt^ which 
 follows it. 
 
 In the third instance, the word shalt having the emphosis, 
 obtains a long quantity. And though it is impossible to pro- 
 long the sound of this word, as it ends in a pure mute, yet in 
 this, as in all similar instances, the additional quantity is to be 
 made out by a rest of the voice, proportioned to the importance 
 of the word. In this instance, we may also observe, that tha 
 word shalt^ repeated in the second part of the line, is reduced 
 again to a short quantity. 
 
 In the fourth instance, the word Mar placed in opposition to 
 the word behold, in the latter part of the line, obtains from the 
 sense the chief emphasis, and a proportionate length. The words 
 Ihou and shaltj are again reduced to short quantities ; and the 
 word pleased lends some of the time which it possessed, to the 
 more important word hear. 
 
 From these instances, it is evident, that the quantity of our 
 syllables is not fixed ; but governed by emphasis. — To observe a 
 due measurement of time, on all occasions, is dotJbtless very 
 difiicult ; but by instruction, attention, and practice, the difficulty 
 may be overcome. 
 
 Emphasis changes, not only the quantity of words and sylla- 
 bles, bat also, in particular cases, the seat of the accent. This is 
 demonstrable from the following examples. 
 
 " He shall i7icrease, but T shall c^^crease." ** There is a differ- 
 ence between giving and /(irgiving." " In this species of com- 
 position, ^/aiisibility is much more essential than probability." In 
 these examples, the emphasis requires the accent to be placed on 
 syllables, to which it does not commonly belong. 
 
 In order to acquire the proper management of the emphasis, 
 the great rule, and indeed the only rule possible to be given, is, 
 tliat the speaker or reader study to attain a just conce})tion of the 
 force and spirit of the sentiments which hC is to pronounce. For 
 to lay the emphasis with exact propriety, is a constant exercise 
 of good serine and attention. It is far from being an inconsidyra- 
 ble attainment. It is one of the greatest trials of a true and just 
 
pAtsEs.] PROSODY. 163 
 
 taste : and must arise from feeling delicately ourselves, and from 
 judging accurat(dy, of what is fittest to stiike the feelings of others. 
 
 There is one error, against which it is particularly proper to 
 caution the learner ; namely, that of multiplying emphatical 
 words too much. It is only by a prudent reserve in the use of 
 them, that we can give them any weight. If they recur too often ; if 
 H speaker or reader attempts to render every thing which he ex- 
 presses of higli importance, hy a multitude of strong emphases, 
 we soon learn to pay little regard to them. To crowd every 
 sentence with em})hatical words, is like crowding all the pages 
 af a book with Italic characters, which, as to the effect, i» jusi the 
 Bame as to use no such distinctions at all. 
 
 SECTION IV. Of Pauses. 
 
 Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total ces- 
 sation of the voice, during a perceptible, and, in many 
 cases, a measurable space of time. 
 
 Pauses are equally necessary to the speaker, and the hearer. 
 To the speaker, that he may take breath, without which he can- 
 not proceed far in delivery ; and that he may, by these temporary 
 rests, relieve the organs of speech, which otherwise would be soon 
 dred by continued action ; to the hearer, that the ear also may 
 1)6 relieved from the fatigue, which it would otherwise endure 
 from a continuity of sound ; and that the understanding may have 
 sufficient time to mark the distinction of sentences, and their se- 
 veral members. 
 
 There are two kinds of pauses: first, emphatical pauses; and 
 next, such as mark the distinctions of the sense. An emphatical 
 pause is made, after something has been said of peculiar moment, 
 and on which we desire to fix the hearer's attention. Sometimes, 
 before such a thing is said, we usiier it in with a pause of this na- 
 ture. Such pauses have the same effect as a strong emphasis; 
 and ai'e suT)ject to the same rules; especially to the caution just 
 now given, of not repeating them too frequently. For as they 
 excite uncommon attention, and of course raise expectation, if 
 the importance of the matter is not fully answerable to such ex- 
 pectation, they occasion disappointment and disgust. 
 
 But the most frequent and the ])rincipal use of pauses, is, to 
 mark the divisions of the sense, and at the same time to allow 
 the speaker to draw his breath ; and the proper and delicate ad 
 justment of such pauses, is one of the most nice and diflicult ar 
 tides of delivery. In all reading, and public speaking, the ma 
 nagement of the breath requires a good deal of care, so as not tc 
 oblige us to divide w^ords from one another, which have so inti 
 mate a connexion, that they ought to be pronounced with the 
 same breath, and without the least separation. Many seniencea 
 are miserably mangled, and the force of the emphasis totally lost, 
 by the divisions being made in the wrong place. To avoid this, 
 every one, while he is speaking or reading, should be very care- 
 iul K provide a full supply of breath for what he is to utter. Itii 
 
164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Sect. ir. 
 
 n great mistake to imagine, that the breatli must be drawn only 
 at tiiC end of a period, wlien the voice is allowed to fall. It may 
 easily be gathered at the intervals of the period, when the voice 
 is only suspendeu for a monicnt ; and, by this management, one 
 may always have a sufficient stock for carrying on the longest 
 sentence, without improper interruptions. 
 
 Pauses in reading, and public discourse, must be formed upon 
 the manner in which we utter ourselves in ordinary, sensible 
 conversation ; and not upon the stiff artificial manner which we 
 acquire, from reading books according to the common punctua 
 tion. It will by no means be sufficient to attend to the points used 
 in printing; for these are far from marking all the pauses which 
 ought to be made in speaking. A mechanical attejition to these 
 resting-places has perhaps been one cause of monotony, by lead- 
 ing the reader to a similar tone at every stop, and a uniform ca 
 dcnce at every period. The primary use of points is, to assist the 
 reader in discerning the grammatical construction ; and it is only 
 as a secondary object, tliat they regulate liis pronunciation. 
 
 To render pauses pleasing and expressive, they must not only 
 be made in the right place, but also accompanied with a proper 
 tone of voice, by which the natuie of these pauses is intimated ; 
 much more than by the length of them, which can seldom be 
 exactly measured. Sometimes it is only a slight and simple sus • 
 pension of voice that is proper ; sometimes a degree of cadencf 
 in the voice is required ; and sometimes that peculiar tone an-i 
 cadence which denote the sentence to be finished. In all these 
 cases, we are to regulate ourselves, *by attending to the manner 
 in which nature teaches us to speak, when engaged in real and 
 earnest discourse with others. 
 
 It is a general rule, that the suspending pause should be used 
 "wlien the sense is incomplete; and tl)e closing pause, when it is 
 finished. But there are phraseS; in which, though the sense ia 
 not completed, the voice takes the closing, rather than the sus- 
 pending pause ; and others, in which the sentence finishes by the 
 pause of suspension. 
 
 The closing pause must not be confounded with tha4: fall of the 
 voice, or cadence, with which many readers uniformly finish a 
 sentence. Nothing is more destructive of propriety and energy 
 than this habit. The tones and inflections of the voice at the 
 close of a sentence, ought to be diversified, according to the 
 general nature of the discourse, and the particular construc- 
 tion and meaning of the sentence. In j)lain narrative, and es- 
 pecially in argumentation, a small attention to the manner in 
 which we relate a fact, or maintain an argument, in conversa- 
 tion, will show, that it is frequently more proper to raise the 
 voice, than to let it fall, at the end of a sentence. Some sen- 
 tences are so constructed, that the last words require a stronger 
 emphasis than any of the preceding ; while others admit of being 
 closed with a soft and gontle sound. Where there is nothing in 
 tbe sense which requires the last sound to be elevated or em* 
 
roiTBS.] PROSODY. 165 
 
 pliaticul, an easy fall, sufficient to show that the sense is finislied^ 
 »vill be pro[»er. And in })?. letic jjieces, especially those of the 
 plaintive, tender, or solemn ki^id, the tone of the passion will of- 
 ten require a still greater cadence of the voice. The best me- 
 thod of correcting a uniform cadence, is frequently to read «eZec/ 
 untenccs, in which the style is pointed, and in which antitheses 
 are frequently introduced: and argumentative pieces, or such as 
 abound with interrogatives, or earnest exclamation. 
 
 SECTION V. Of Tones. 
 Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses; 
 consisting in the modulation of the voice, the notes or vari- 
 ations of sound which we employ in the expression of our 
 sentiments. 
 
 Emphasis affects particular words and phrases with a degree 
 of totie or inflection of the voice; but tones, peculiarly so called, 
 affect sentences, paragraphs, and sometimes even the whole oi 
 a discourse. 
 
 To show the use and necessity of tones, we need only observe, 
 that the mind, in communicating its ideas, is in a continual state 
 of activity, emotion, or agitation, from the different effects which 
 those ideas produce in the speaker. Now the end of such cum- 
 luunication being, not merely to lay open the*ideas, but also the 
 different feelings which they excite in him who utters them, 
 there must be other signs than words, to manifest those feelings j 
 as words uttered in a monotonous manner, can represent only a 
 similar state of mind, perfectly fre^ from all activity or emotion. 
 As tbe comnmnication of these internal feelings, was of much 
 more consequence in our social intercourse, than the mere con- 
 veyance of ideas, the Author of our being did not, as in that 
 conveyance, leave the invention of the language of emotion, to 
 man ; but impressed it himself upon our nature in the same man- 
 ner as he has done with regard to the rest of the animal world ; 
 all of which express their various feelings, by various tones. 
 Ours indeed, from the superior rank that we hold„ are in a high 
 degree more comprehensive ; as there is not an act of the mind, 
 an exertion of the fancy, or an emotion of the heart, which has 
 not its peculiar tone, or note of the voice, by which it is to be ex- 
 pressed ; and which is suited exactly to the degree of internal 
 feeling. It is chiefly in the proper use of these tones, that the 
 life, spirit, beauty, and harmony of delivery consist. 
 
 An extract from the beautiful lamentation of David over Saul 
 and Jonathan, may serve as an example of what has been said 
 on this subject. "The beauty of Israel is slain upon thy high 
 places. How are the mighty fallen ! Tell it not in Gath ; publish 
 it not in the streets of Askelon : lest the daughters of the Philis- 
 tines rejoice ; lest the daughters of the uncircumcised triumph. 
 Yo mountains of Gilboa, let there be no dew, nor rain upon you. 
 oor fields of offerings; for there the shield of the mighty was 
 
.66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [VERsincATiorf 
 
 vilely cast away ; the shield of Saul, as though he had not beei? 
 anointed with oil !" Tiie. first of these divisions expresses sorrow 
 and lamentation ; therefore the note is lo.w. The next contains 
 a spirited command, and should be pronounced much higher, 
 The other sentence, in which he maizes a pathetic address to the 
 mountains where his friends were slain, must be expressed in a 
 note quite different from the two former; not so low as the first, 
 nor so high as the second, in a manly, firm, and yet ])laintive tone.* 
 
 This correct and natural language of the emotions, is not so 
 difficult to be attained, as most readers seem to imagine. If we* 
 enter into the spirit of the author's sentiments, as well as into 
 the meaning of liis words, we shall not fail to deliver the words 
 in properly varied tones. For there are few people, wiio speak 
 English without a provincial tone, that have not an accurate use 
 of emphasis, pauses, and tones, when they utter their sentimewts 
 in earnest discourse : and the reason that they have not the same 
 use of them, in reading aloud the sentiments of others, may be 
 traced to the very defective and erroneous method, in which thr? 
 art of reading is taught ; whereby all the various, natural, ey 
 pressive tones of speech, are suppressed, and a few artificial, 
 unmeaning, reading notes, are substituted for them. 
 
 But when we recommend to readers an attention to the tone 
 and language of emotions, we must be understood to do it with 
 proper limitation. * Moderation is necessary in this point, as it 
 is in other things. For when reading becomes strictly imitative, 
 it assumes a theatrical manner, and must be highly improper, as 
 well as give offence to the hearers ; because it is inconsistent 
 with that delicacy and modesty, wiiich, on all occasions, ai« 
 indispensable. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 OF VERSIFICATION 
 
 As there are few persons *who do not sometimes read poetical 
 composition, it seems necessary to give the student some idea of 
 that part of grammar, which explains the principles of versifi- 
 cation ; that, in reading poetry, he may be the better able to 
 judge of its correctness, and relish its beauties. When this lively 
 mode of exhibiting nature and sentiment, is perfectly chaste, it 
 is often found to be highly interesting and inf?tructive. 
 
 Versification is the arrangement of a certain nuniber 
 and variety of syllables, according to certain laws. 
 
 Rhyme is the correspondence of the last sound of one 
 verse, to the kst sound or syllable of another. 
 
 Feet and pauses are the constituent parts of verse. We 
 shall consider these separately. 
 
 OF POETICAL FEET. 
 
 A certain number of syllables connected, form a foot. They 
 are c all ed /ce^, because it is by their aid that the voice, as it wer e, 
 
 » Herries. ^ 
 
VERsiFicATiaN.] PROSODY. 107 
 
 Bteps along through the verse, in a measured pace ; and it is 
 necessary that the syllables which mark this regular movement 
 of the voice, should, in some manner, be distinguished from the 
 others. This distinction was made among the ancient Romans, 
 by dividing their syllables into long and short, and ascertaining 
 iheir quantity by an exact proportion of time in sounding them ; 
 the long being to the short, as two to one ; and the long syllables, 
 being thus the more important, marked the movement. In Eng 
 lish, syllables are divided into accented and unaccented ; and the 
 accented syllables being as strongly distinguished from the unac- 
 cented, by the peculiar stress of the voice upon them, are equally 
 capable of marking the movement, and pointing out the regular 
 paces of the voice, as the long syllables were by their quantity, 
 among the Romans. 
 
 When the feet are formed by an accent on vowels, they are 
 exactly of the same nature as the ancient feet, and have the same 
 Ms-t quantity in their syllables. So that, in this respect, we have 
 m11 that the ancients had, and something which they had not. 
 We have in fact duplicates of each foot, yet with such a difference, 
 83 to fit them for different purposes, to be applied at our pleasure. 
 
 Every foot has, from nature, powers peculiar to itself; and it 
 IS upon the knowledge and right application of these powers, 
 that the pleasure and effect of numbers chiefl}^ depend. 
 
 All feet used in poetry consist either of two, or of three sylla- 
 bles ; and are reducible to eight kinds ; four of two syllables, and 
 four of three, as follows : 
 
 DISSYLLABLE. TRISYLLABLE. 
 
 A Trochee - u A Dactyl - w w 
 
 An Iambus w- An Amphibrach v-w 
 
 A Spondee — An Anapaest vy w - 
 
 A Pyrrhic ^ ^ A Tribrach o u ^ > 
 
 A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unac- 
 cented: as, " Hateful, pettish." 
 
 An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last ac- 
 cented : as, " Betray, consi'st." 
 
 A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented : as, "The 
 pale moon." 
 
 A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented : as, 
 " on the tali tree." 
 
 A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two latter 
 unaccented: as, "Labourer, possible." 
 
 An Amphibrach has the first and last syllables unaccented : 
 and the middle one accented : as, "Delightful, domestic." 
 
 An Anapaest has the two first syllables unaccented, and the 
 last accented : as, " Contravene, acquiesce." 
 
 A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented : as, " Nomerabld, 
 conquerable." 
 
 Some of these feet may be denominated principal feet; as 
 pieces c/ poetry may be wholly, or chiefly formed of any of them* 
 
168 ENGLJSU GRAMMAR. [Vi^Rij/irATior 
 
 Such are the Iambus, Trochee, Dactyl, an(? Ar?9pcr8t. TIhi 
 others may be termed secondary feet; because their chief ^se iw 
 to diversity the numbers, and to improve the v*»,rse. 
 
 We shall first explain the nature of the principal feet. 
 
 IAMBIC verses may be divided into several species, according 
 to the number of feet or syllables of which they are composed. 
 
 1 The shortest form of the English Iambic consists of an 
 Iambus, with an additional short syllable ; as, 
 
 Disdaining, 
 
 Complainmg, 
 
 Consenting, 
 
 Repenting, 
 We have no poeni of this measure, but it may be met with in 
 stanzas. The Iambus, with this addition, coincides with the 
 Amphibrach. 
 
 2 The second form of our Iambic is also too short to be continu 
 ed through any great number of lines. It consists of <tro Iambuses 
 
 What place Ts here ! 
 What scenes appear ! 
 To me the rose 
 No longer glows. 
 It sometiaies takes, or may take, an additional short syllable ; ag* 
 Upon a mountain 
 Beside a fountain. 
 
 3 The third form consists of three Iambuses. 
 
 In places far or near, 
 Or famous or obscure, 
 Where wholesome is the air, 
 Or where the most impure. 
 It sometimes admits of an additional short syllable : as, 
 Our hearts no longer langtiish. 
 
 4 The fourth form is made up of four Iambuses. 
 
 And may at l?st my weary age. 
 Find out the peaceful hermitage. 
 
 5 The fifth species of English Iambic, consists of Jive Iambuses. 
 
 How lov'd, how valu'd once, avails thee not, 
 
 To whom related, or by whom begot : 
 
 A heap of dust alone remains of thee; 
 
 'Tis all thou art, and all the proud shall be. 
 
 Be wise to-day, ^tis madness to defer : 
 
 Next day the fatal precedent will plead ; 
 
 Thus on, till wisdom is pushed out of life. 
 This is called the Heroic measure. In its simplest form !i 
 Bists of five Iambuses ; but by the admission of other feet, at 
 Trochees, Dactyls, Anapaests, &c. it is capableof many varieties 
 Indeed, most of the English common measures may be varied in 
 the same way, as well as by the different position of their pauses. 
 
 6 The sixth form of our Iambic is commonly caUed the Jllev* 
 amdrine measure. It consists of six Iambuses. 
 
 For thOu ^rt bQt of dOst ; be humbi^ and be wise. •« 
 
 t 
 
Versification.] PROSODY. 160 
 
 The Alexandrine is sometimes introduced into heroic rliyme , 
 and when used sparingly, and with judgment, occasions an 
 agreeable variety. 
 
 The seas shall waste, the skies in smoke decSy, 
 Rocks fall to dust, and mountains melt away ; 
 But fixVl his word, his saving pow'r remains : 
 Thy realm for ever lasts ^ thy own Messiah reigns* 
 7 The seventh and last form of our Iambic measure, is made 
 up of seven Iambuses. 
 
 The Lord descended from abOve, 
 And bowM the heavens high. 
 This was anciently written in one line ; but it is now broken 
 into two ; the first containing four feet, and the second three . 
 When fill thy mercies, O my God ! 
 
 My rising soul surveys. 
 Transported with the view, I'm lost 
 In wonder, love, and praise. 
 In all these measures, the accents are to be placed on even syl- 
 lables ; and every line considered by itself, is, in general, more 
 melodious, as this rule is more strictly observed. 
 
 TROCHAIC verse is of several kinds. 
 
 1 The shortest Trochaic verse in our language, consists of 
 one Trochee and a long syllable. 
 
 Tumult cease, 
 
 Sink to peace. 
 This measure is defective in dignity, and can seldom be used on 
 serious occasions. . 
 
 2 The second English form of the Trochaic consists of two 
 feet ; and is likewise so brief, that it is rarely used for any very 
 serious purpose. 
 
 On the mountain 
 
 By a fountain. 
 It sometimes contains two feet or trochees, with an addition&l 
 long syllable : as. 
 
 In the days of old 
 
 Fables plainly told. 
 
 3 The third species consists of three trochees : as, 
 
 When our hearts are mourning : 
 or of three trochees, with an additional long syllable ; as, 
 Restless mortals toil for nought ; 
 Bliss in vain from earth is sought ; 
 Bliss, a native of the sky, 
 Never wanders. Mortals, try; 
 There you cannot seek in vain ; 
 For to seek her is to gain. 
 
 4 The fourth Trochaic species consists of four trochees: aa 
 
 Round us roars the tempest louder. 
 This form may take an additional long syllable, as follows 
 
i 
 
 170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. LVERsincATio.f 
 
 Idle after dinner In Ii^s chair, 
 Sat a farmer, ruddy, fat, and fair. 
 But this measure is very uncommon. 
 
 5 The fifth Trochaic species is likewise uncommon. It is 
 composed of Jive trochees. ■■ 
 
 All that walk on foot or ride in chariots, II 
 
 All that dwell in palaces or garrets. 
 
 6 The sixth form of the English Trochaic consists of sit 
 trochees : as, 
 
 On a mountain, stretch'd beneath a hoary willow 
 Lay a shepherd swain, and view'd the rolling billow. 
 This seems to be the longest Trochaic line that our language 
 admits. 
 
 In all these Trochaic measures, the accent is to be placed on 
 the odd syllables. 
 
 The DACTYLIC measure being very uncommon, we shall 
 give only one example of one species of it: 
 
 From the 16 av pleasures of this fallen nature, 
 Rise we to higher, &c. 
 ANAPJESTIC verses are divided into several species. 
 
 1 The shortest anapaestic verse must be a single anapaest: as, 
 
 But in vain, 
 They complain. 
 This measure is, however, ambiguous ; for, by laying the stress 
 of the voice on the first and third syllables, we might make a 
 trochaic. And therefore the first and simplest form of our ge- 
 nuine Anapaestic verse, is made up of ^u>o Anapa?sts: as, 
 But his courage 'gan fail, 
 For no arts could avail. 
 This form admits of an additional short syllable. 
 Then his courage 'gan fail him, 
 For no arts could avail him. 
 
 2 The second species consists of three Anapaests. 
 
 O ye woods, spread your branches apace ; 
 To your deepest recesses I fly ; 
 would hide with the beasts of the chace ; 
 I would vanish from every eye. 
 This is a very pleasing measure, and much used, both in so 
 lemn and cheerful subjects. 
 
 3 The third kind of the English Anapaestic, consists of /oi*^. 
 Anapaests. fl 
 
 May I govern my passions with absolute BWfty ; " 
 
 And grow wiser and better as life wears av^ay. 
 This measure will admit of a short syllable at the end : as, 
 On the warm cheelf of yOuth, smiles and roses are blending. 
 The preceding are the different kinds of the principal feet, in 
 their more simple forms. They are capable of numerous varia- 
 tions, by the intermixture of those feet with each other; ?nd bv 
 the admission of the secondary feet. j^ 
 
• Tersification.] prosody. 17! 
 
 We have observed, that English verse is comr^oscd of feet 
 formed by accent ; and that when the accent falls on vowels, the 
 feet are equivalent to those formed by quantity. That the stu- 
 dent may clearly perceive this difference, we shall produce a 
 specunen of each kind. 
 
 O'er heaps of rCnns stalk'd the stately li'nd. 
 
 Here we see the accent is upon the vowel in each second sylla- 
 ' ble. In the following line, we shall find the same Iambic move- 
 ment, but formed by accent on consonants, except the last syl- 
 'able. 
 
 Then rustling, crackling, crashing thunder down. 
 
 Here the time of the short accented syllables, is compensated 
 by £t short pause, at the end of each word to which they belong. 
 
 We now proceed to show the manner in which poetry is va- 
 ried and improved, by the admission of secondary feet into its 
 composition. 
 
 Murmuring, and with him fled the shades of night. 
 
 The first foot here is a Dactyl ; the rest are Iambics. 
 O'er many a frozen, many a fiery Alp. 
 
 This line contains three Amphibrachs mixed with Iambics. 
 Innumerable before th' Almighty's throne. 
 
 Here, in the second foot, we find a Tribrach. 
 
 See the bold youth strain up the threat'ning steep. 
 
 In this line, the first foot is a Trochee ; the second a genuine 
 Spondee by quantity ; the third a Spondee 4)y accent. 
 
 In the following line, the first foot is a Pyrrhic, the second a 
 Spondee. 
 
 That on wfeak wings from far pursues your flight. 
 
 From the preceding view of English versification, we may 
 see what a copious stock of materials it possesses. For we are 
 not only allowed the use of all the ancient poetic feet, in our he- 
 roic measure, but wo have, as before observed, duplicates of 
 each, agreeing in movement, though diflTering in measure,* and 
 which make diflTerent impressions on the ear ; an opulence pe- 
 culiar to our language, and which may be the source of a bound- 
 less variety. 
 
 Of Poetical Pauses. 
 
 There are two sorts of pauses, one for sense, ann one tor me- 
 lody, perfectly distinct from each other. The former may bo 
 called senteniiaU the latter harmonic pauses. 
 
 The sentential pauses are those which are known to us by tht> 
 name of stops, and which have names given them ; as the comma, 
 semicolon, colon, and period. 
 
 The harmonic pauses may be subdivided into \\\q final pau&e, 
 and the cazsitral pause. These sometimes coincide with the sen- 
 tential pause, sometimes have an independent state, that is, exist 
 where there is no stop in the sense. 
 
 * iVIovement and measure are thus distinguKshed. Movement expresses tho 
 proj^ressive order of sounds, whether from strong to weak, from long to short, 
 9f vice versa. J^leasure signifies the proportion of time, hoth in sounds and pauses. 
 

 172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Versificatiojj 
 
 The final pause takes place at the end of the line, closes tli« 
 verse, and marks the measure : the caesural divides it into e([w 
 or unequal parts. 
 
 The final pause ])reserves the melody, without interfering wj 
 
 the sense. For the pause itself perfectly marks tlie hound of tlie 
 metre ; and being made only hy a suspension of the voice, not by 
 any change of note, it can never affect the sense. This is not 
 the only advantage gained to numbers, by this final pause or stop 
 of suspension. It also prevents that monotony, that sameness of 
 note at the end of lines, which, however pleasing to a rude, is 
 disgusting to a deHcate ear. For as this final pause has ho pe- 
 culiar note of its own, but always takes that which belongs to the 
 preceding word, it changes continually with the matter, ami is 
 as various as the sense. 
 
 It is the final pause which alone, on many occasions, marks the 
 difference between prose and verse ; which will be evident from 
 the following arrangement of a few poetical lilies. 
 
 "Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit of that forbidden 
 tree, whose mortal taste brought death into the world, and all 
 our wo, with loss of Eden, till one greater man restore us, and 
 regain the blissful seat, sing heavenly muse !" 
 
 A stranger to the poem would not easily discover that this was 
 verse ; but would take it for poetical prose. By properly adjusting 
 the final pause,we shall restore the passage to its true state of verse 
 Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
 Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
 Brought death into the world, and all our wo, 
 With loss of Eden, till one greater man 
 Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, 
 Sing, heavenly muse ! 
 These examples show the necessity of reading blank verse, m 
 euch a manner, as to make every line sensible to the ear ; for 
 what is the use of melody, or for what end has the poet composed 
 in verse, if, in reading his lines, we suppress his numbers, by 
 omitting the final pause ;. and degrade them, by our pronuncia- 
 t'on, into mere prose ? 
 
 The Caesura is commonly on the fourth, fifth, or sixth syllable 
 of heroic verse. 
 
 On the fourth syllable, or at the end of the second foot: as, 
 The silver eeK' in shining vohnnes roll'd, 
 The yellow carp^^ in scales be(lrop]>'d with gold. . 
 On the fifth syllable, or in the middle of the third foot: as, 
 Round broken cohunns'' clasping ivy twinVl, 
 O'er heaps of ruin'' stalk'd the stately hind. 
 On the sixth syllable, or at the end of the third foot : as, 
 Oh say what stranger cause'' yet unexplor'd. 
 Could make a gentle belle" reject a lord. 
 A line may be divided into three portions, by two cofsuras: 
 Outstretch'd he lay" on the cold ground" and oft" 
 Look'd up to heav'n. 
 
 ^ 
 
 I 
 
Versificatiow.] prosody. 173 
 
 There is another mode of dividing lines, well suited to the na- 
 t'jre of the couplet, by introducing semi -pauses, which divide the 
 i fine into four pauses. This semi-pause may be called a deini-ccesura. 
 The following lines admit of, and exemplify it. 
 
 PGlows^ while he reads'' but trembles' as he writes. 
 Reason' the card" but passion' is the gale. 
 Rides^ in the whirlwind" and directs' the storm. 
 
 Of Mtlodijy Harmony^ and Expression. 
 
 Having shown the general nature of feet and pauses, the con- 
 r tuent pans of verse, we shall now point out, more particularly, 
 t.<«ir use and importance. 
 
 - Melody, harmony, and expression, are the three great objects 
 of poetic numbers. By melody, is meant, a pleasing effect pro- 
 duced on the ear, from an apt arrangement of the constituent 
 parts of verse, according to the laws orf measure and movement. 
 By harmony, an effect produced by an action of the mind, in com- 
 paring the different members of a verse with each other, and 
 perceiving a due and beautiful proportion between them. By 
 expression, such a choice and arrangement of the constituent 
 parts of verse, as serve to enforce and illustrate the thought oi- 
 the sentiment. 
 
 We shall consider each of these three objects in versification, 
 both with respect to the feet and the pauses. 
 
 1st. With regard to melody. 
 
 From the examples which we have given of verses composed 
 in all the principal feet, it is evident that a considerable portion 
 of melody is found in each of them, though in different degrees. 
 Verses made up of pure Iambics have an excellent melody. 
 
 That the final and cajsural pauses contribute to melody, cannot 
 be doubted by any person who reviews the instances which we 
 have already given of those pauses. To form hues of the first 
 melody, the caesura must be at the end of the second, or of the 
 ttiird foot, or in the middle of the third. 
 
 2d, With respect to harmony. 
 
 Verses composed of Iambics have indeed a fine harmony ; but 
 as the stress of the voice, in repeating such verses, is always in 
 the same places, that is, on every second syllable, such a unifor- 
 mity would disgust the ear in a long succession ; and therefore 
 such changes were sought for, as might introduce the pleasure 
 of variety, without prejudice to melody ; or which might even 
 contribute to its improvement. Of this nature was the introduc 
 tion of the Trochee, to form the first foot of an heroic verse: as, 
 Favours to none, to all she smiles extends, 
 O'ft she rejects, but never once offends. 
 
 Each of these lines begins with a Trochee ; the remaining 
 feet are in the Iambic movement. In the following line of the 
 same movement, the fourth foot is a Trochee. 
 
 All these our notions vain, sees and derides. 
 The next change admitted ior the sake of variety, without 
 
 P 2 
 
i 
 
 LtG 
 
 174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Versificatjo 
 
 prejudioe to melody, is the intermixture of Pyrrhics and Spon^ 
 <lees ; in whicl), two impressions in the one foot make up for th< 
 want of one in the other; and two long syllables compensate 
 two short ones, so as to make the sum of the quantity of the two 
 feet, equal to two Iambics. 
 
 On the green bank to look uito the clear 
 Smooth lake that to me seem'd another sky. 
 Stood rfd'd stood vast, infinitude confin'd. 
 The next variety admitted is that of the Amphibrach. 
 
 Which many a bard had chaunted many a day. 
 In this line, w^e find that two of the feet are amphibrachs; and 
 three, Iambics. 
 
 We have before shown that the caesura improves the melody 
 of verse; and we shall now speak of its other more important 
 office, that of being the chief source of harmony in numbers. 
 
 Tlie first and lowest perception of harmony, by means of tho 
 caesura, arises from comparing two members of the same line 
 with each other, divided in the manner to be seen in the in- 
 stances before mentioned ; because the beauty of proj)ortion in 
 the members, according to each of these divisions, is founded in 
 nature ; being as one to two — two to three — or three to two. 
 
 The next degree arises from comparing the members of a cou 
 plet, or two contiguous lines: as. 
 
 See the bold youth^' strain up the threatening steep, 
 Rush through the thickets'' down the valleys sweep 
 Here we find the caesura of tlie first line, at the end of the 
 second foot ; and in the middle of the third foot, in the last line. 
 Hang o'er their coursers' heads'' with eager speed. 
 And earth rolls back" beneath the flying steed. 
 In this couplet, the Caesura is at the end of the third foot, in 
 the first line ; and of the second, in the latter line. 
 
 The next perception of harmony arises from comparing a 
 greater number of lines, and observing the relative proportion of 
 the couplets to each other, in point of similarity and diversity, as : 
 Thy forests Windsor" and thy green retreats. 
 At once the monarch's" and the muse's seats, 
 Invite my lays." Be present Sylvan maids, 
 Unlock your springs" and open all your shades 
 Not haif so swift" the trembling doves can fly, 
 When the fierce eagle" cleaves the liquid sky ; 
 Not half so swiftly" the fierce eagle moves, 
 When through the clouds" he drives the trembhng doves. 
 In this way, the comparison of lines variously apportioned by 
 the diflferent seats of the three caesuras, may be the source of a 
 great variety of harmony, consistent with the finest melody 
 This is still increased by the introduction of two caesuras, ana 
 much more by that of semi-pauses. The semi-pauses double 
 every where the terms of comparison ; give a more distinct view 
 of the whole and the i)arts j aflTord new proportions of measure- 
 
'^ERsiFicAtioN.] PROSODY. 175 
 
 sttent, and an ampler scope for diversity and equality, those 
 oources of beauty in harmony. 
 
 Warms' in the sun'' refreshes' in the breeze, 
 Glows' in the stars" and blossoms' in the trees ; 
 Lives' through all life" extends' through all extent, 
 Spreads' undivided" operates' unspent. 
 3d, The last object in versification regards expression. 
 When men express their sentiments by words, they naturally 
 fall into that sort of movement of the voice, which is consonant to 
 that produced by the emotion in the mind ; and the Dactylic or 
 Anapaestic, the Trochaic, Iambic, or Spondaic, prevails even in 
 connnon discourse, according to the diflferent nature of the sen- 
 timents expressed. To imitate nature, therefore, the poet, in 
 arranging his words hi the artificial composition of ver^c, must 
 take care to make the movement correspond to the sentiment, 
 by the proper use of the several kinds of feet: and this is the 
 first and most general source of expression in numbers. 
 
 That a judicious management of the feet and pauses, may be 
 peculiarly expressive of particular operations and sentiments, 
 will sufficiently appear to the learner, by a few select examples 
 under each ofjhose heads. 
 
 In the following instance, the vast dimensions of Satan are 
 shown by an uncommon succession of long syllables, which de- 
 tain us to survey the huge arch fiend, in his fixed posture. 
 So stretch'd out huge in length the arch fiend lay. 
 The next example affords instances of the power of a Trochee 
 beginning a line, when succeeded by an Iambus, 
 
 and sheer within 
 
 Lights on lus feet: as when a prowhng wolf 
 Leaps o'er the fence with ease into the fold. 
 The Trochee which begins the line shows Satan in the act o 
 lighting : the Iambus that follows, fixes him — " Lights on his feet." 
 The same artifice, in the beginning of the next line, makes us 
 see the wolf—" leap o'er the fence." — But as the mere act of 
 leaping over the fence, is not the only circumstance to be 
 attended to, but also the facility with which it is done, this is 
 strongly marked, not only by the smooth foot which follows — 
 ** with ease." — itself very expressive, but likewise by a Pyrrhic 
 preceding the last foot — " into the fold." — which indeed carries 
 the wolf— ^' with case into the fold." 
 
 The following instances show the effects produced by caesuras, 
 so placed as to divide the line into very unequal portions : such 
 as that after the first, and before the last semipede. 
 
 thus with the year 
 
 Seasons return, but not to me returns 
 Day" or the sweet approach of even or morn. 
 Here the caesura after the first semipede Day^ fx>m ^is udcix 
 pectedly, and forcibly impresses the imagination » « Mf f h» 
 ness of the author's loss, the loss of sight. 
 
n 
 
 I 
 
 17(5 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 No sooner had tli' Almi<^hty ceas'd, but all 
 
 The multitude of angels, witli a shout 
 
 Loud^' as from numbers without number'^ sweet 
 
 As from blest voices uttering joy.— 
 
 There is something very striking in this uncommon caesura, 
 
 -which suddenly stops the reader, to reflect on the importance o! 
 
 a particular word. 
 We shall close the subject, with an example containing the united 
 
 powers of many of the principles which have been explained. 
 Dire was the tossing"^^ deep the groans'' Despair'^ 
 Tended the sick'' busiest from coiich to coilcl/ 
 And over them triumphant death"' his dart'' 
 Shook"' but delay'd to strike. 
 Many of the rules and observations respecting Prosody, are 
 
 taken from "Sheridan's Art of Reading ;" to which book the 
 
 Compiler refers the ingenious student, for more extensive infor 
 
 mation on the subject. 
 
 PUNCTUATION.* 
 
 Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composition 
 into sentences, or parts of sentences, by points or stops, for 
 the purpose of marking the different pauses which the 
 sense, and an accurate pronunciation require. 
 
 The Comma represents the shortest pause ; the Semico- 
 lon, a pause double that of the comma ; the Colon, double 
 that of the semicolon ; and the Period, double that of the 
 colon. 
 
 The precise quantity or duration of each pause, cannot be 
 defined ; for it varies with the time of the whole. The same 
 composition may be rehearsed in a quicker or a slower time ; but 
 the proportion between the pauses should be ever invariable. 
 
 In order mors clearly to determine the proper application of 
 the points, we must distinguish between an imperfect jihrase^ a 
 simple sentence, and a compound sentence. 
 
 An imperfect phrase contains no assertion, or does not amount 
 to a proposition or sentence : as, ** Therefore ; in haste ; studi- 
 ous of praise." 
 
 A simple sentence has but one subject, and one finite verb, 
 ex[)ressed or implied : as, " Temperance preserves health." 
 
 A compound sentence has more than one subject, or one finite 
 
 * As punctuation is intended to aid both the sense, and the pronunciation o/ 
 a sentence, it couid not have been exclusively discussed under the part of Syn 
 lax, or of Prosody. The nature of the subject, its extent and importance, an', 
 ihe grammatical knowledge which it presupposes, have induced us to make it a 
 distinct and subsequent arlicJe. 
 
Comma.] PUNCTUATION. 177 
 
 verb, either expressed or understood ; or it consists of two or 
 more simple sentences connected together : as, ** Good nature 
 mends and beautifies all objects;" ** Virtue refines the aflfections, 
 but vice debases them." 
 
 In a sentence, the subject and the verb, or either of them, 
 may be accompanied with several adjuncts : as, the object, the 
 end, the circumstance oftimo, place, manner, and the like: and 
 the subject or verb may be either immediately connected with 
 them, or mediately ; that is, by being connected with something 
 which is connected with some other, and so on : as, **The mind, 
 unoccupied with useful knowledge, becomes a magazine of tri 
 Acs and follies." 
 
 Members of sentences may be divided into simple and com 
 t)ound members. See page 96, 
 
 CHAPTER L Of the Comma. 
 The Comma usually sepai:ates those parts of a sentence, 
 which, though very closely connected in sense and con- 
 struction, require a pause between them. 
 
 Ride L With respect to a simple sentence, the several words 
 of which it consists have so near a relation to each other, that, in 
 general, lao points are r<equisite, except a full stop at the end 
 of it: as, "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." 
 "Every part of matter swarms with hving creatures." 
 
 A simple sentence, however, when it is a long one, and the 
 nominative case is accompanied with inseparable adjuncts, may 
 admit of a pause immediately before the verb ; as, " The good 
 taste of the present age, has not allowed us to neglect the culti- 
 vation of the Enghsh language :" " To be totally indiflferent to 
 praise or censure, is a real defect in character." 
 
 Rule IL When the connexion of the different parts of a sim- 
 ple sentence is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, a comma is 
 usually introduced before the beginning, and at the end of this 
 phrase : as, " T remember, with gratitude, his goodness to me :" 
 ' His work is, in many respects, very imperfect. It is, therefore, 
 not much approved." But when those interruptions are slight and 
 unimportant, the comma is better omitted: as, "Flattery is cer- 
 tainly pernicious ;" "There is surely a pleasure in beneficence." 
 
 In the generality of compound seJitences, there is frequent oc- 
 casion for commas. This will appear froia the following rules; 
 tf<*m€ of which apply to simple, as well as to compound sentences. 
 
 Rule III. When two or more nouns occur in the same con- 
 struction, they are parted by a comma : as, "Reason, virtue, an- 
 swer one grftat aim :" " The husband, wife, and children, sufl?er- 
 jd extremely :"* " They took away their furniture, clothes, and 
 
 * As a considei-al)le pause in pronunciation, is necessary between the last 
 oun and the v«rb, a comma should be inserted to denote it. But as no pause 
 i allowable between the last adjective and the noun, under Rule IV. the coin- 
 Ut IS ther« properly oinitterL See WALKER's ELements ofFJocution. 
 
178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Comm!^| 
 
 gtock in trade :" *' He is alternately supported by his father, his 
 uncle, and his elder brother." 
 
 From this rule there is mostly an exception, with regard to 
 two nouns closely connected by a conjunction : as, " Virtue and 
 vice form a strong contrast to each other:'* *' Libertines call re- 
 ligion bigotry or superstition;" "There is a natural difference 
 between merit and demerit, virtue and vice, wisdom and folly/' 
 But if the parts connected are not short, a comma may be in- 
 serted, though the conjunction is expressed: as, "Romances 
 may be said to be miserable rhapsodies, or dangerous incentives 
 to evil ;" " Intemperance destroys the strength of our bodies, and 
 the vigour of our minds." 
 
 Mule IF. Two or more adjectives belonging to the same sub 
 stantive are likewise separated by commas: as, "Plain, honest 
 truth, wants no artificial covering;" " David was a brave, wisi , 
 and pious man;" "A woman, gentle, sensible, well-educate<i. 
 and religious ;" " The most innocent pleasures are the sweetest, 
 the most rational, the most affecting, and the most lasting." 
 
 But two adjectives, immediately connected by a conjunction, 
 are not separated by a comma : as, " True worth is modest and 
 retired ;" "Truth is fair and artless, simple anrf sincere, uniform 
 and consistent." " We must be wise or foolish ; there is no 
 medium." 
 
 Mule V, Two or more verbs, having the same nominative case, 
 and immediately following one another, are also separated by 
 commas : as, " Virtue supports in adversity, moderates in pros- 
 perity ;*' " In a letter, we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, 
 and discuss." 
 
 Two verbs immediately connected by a conjunction, are an 
 exception to the above rule : as, " The study of natural history 
 expands a?i(/ elevates the mind ;" " W^hether we eat or diink, la- 
 bour or sleep, we should be moderate." 
 
 Two or more participles, are subject to a similar rule, and except 
 tion: as, **A man, fearing, serving, and loving his Creator;" 
 *^ He was happy in being loved, esteemed, and respected ;" " By 
 being admired and flattered, we are often corrupted." 
 
 Mule VJ. Two or more adverbs immediately succeeding one 
 another, mvist be separated by commas : as, '' We are fearfully, 
 wonderfully framed ;" " Success generally depends on acting pru- 
 dently, steadily, and vigorously, m what we undertake." 
 
 But when two adverbs are joined by a conjunction, they are 
 not parted by the comma : as, '' Some men sin deliberately and 
 presumptuously ;" " There is no middle state ; we must live virtu 
 ously or vitiously.*' 
 
 Mule VIL When participles are followed by something thai 
 depends on them, they are generally separated from the rest of 
 the sentence by a comma: as, "The king approving of the plan, 
 put it in execution ;" " His talents, formed for great enterprises^ 
 could not fail of rendering him conspicuous ;" " All mankind com- 
 pose om family, assembled under the eye of one common Father.' 
 
Comma,] PUNCTUATION. 179 
 
 Rule VIIL When a conjunction is divided by a phrase or sen 
 tence from the verb to w^hich it belongs, such intervening phrase 
 has usually a comma at each extremity : as, " They set out early, 
 c?iJ, before the close of the day, arrived at the destined place." 
 
 Rule IX. Expressions in a direct address, are separated from 
 the rest of the sentence by commas: as, " My son, give me thy 
 heart :" " 1 am obliged to you, my friends, for your many favours." 
 
 Rtile X. The case absolute, and the infinitive mood absolute, 
 are separated by commas from the body of the sentence: as, 
 " His father dying, he succeeded to the estate ;" " At length, their 
 ministry performed, and race well run, they left the w^orld in 
 peace ;" " To confess the truth, I was much in fault." 
 
 Rule XL Nouns in apposition, that is, nouns added to other 
 nouns in the same case, by way of explication or illustration, 
 when accompanied with adjuncts, are set off by commas: as, 
 ** Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal an<l 
 knowledge;" ''The butterfiyj^ child of the summer, flutters in 
 the sun." 
 
 But if such nouns are single, or only form a proper name, they 
 are not divided : as, " Paul the apostl-o ;" " The emperor Anto- 
 ninus wrote an excellent book." 
 
 Rule XII. Simple members of sentences connected by compa- 
 ratives, are for the most part distinguished by a comma: as, ".^5 
 the hart panteth after the water brooks, so doth my soul pant af- 
 ter thee ;" '''-Better is a dinner of herbs with love, than a stalled 
 ox and hatred with it." ^ 
 
 If the members in comparative sentences are short, the comma 
 is, in general, better omitted: as, " How much hetter is it to get 
 wisdom than gold I" " Mankind act oftener from caprice than rea- 
 son." 
 
 Rule XIIL When words are placed in oi)position to each 
 other, or with some marked variety, they require to be distin- 
 guished by a comma : as, 
 
 " Tho' deep, yet clear ; tho' gentle, yet not dull ; 
 Strong, without rage; without overflowing, full." 
 *' Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found, not 
 only in union ivith, but in opposition to, the views and conduct 
 of one another." 
 
 Sometimes when the word with which the last preposition agrees, 
 is single, it is better to omit the comma before it : as, " Many 
 states were in alliance with, and under the protection q/'Rome." 
 
 The same rule and restrictions must be applied when two or 
 more nouns refer to the same preposition ; as, " He was com- 
 posed both under the threatening, and at the approach of a cruel 
 and lingering death ;" " He was not only the king, but the fa- 
 ther o/his people." 
 
 Rule XIF, A remarkable expression, or a short observation, 
 Bomewhat in the manner of a quotation, may be properly marked 
 with a comma : as, *' It hurts a man's pride to say, I do not 
 ki.ow;" ''Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves." 
 
IgO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Comma 
 
 Rule XV. Relative pronouns are con»ective words, and gene- 
 rally admit a comma before them : as, '* He preaches sublimely, 
 who lives a sober, righteous, and pious life ;" '^^ There is no charm 
 in the female sex, which can supply the place of virtue." 
 
 But when two members, or phrases, are closely connected by 
 a relative, restraining the general notion of the antecedent to a 
 particular sense, the comma should be omitted : as, " Self-denial 
 is the sacrifice which virtue must make ;" " A man who is of a 
 detracting spirit, will misconstrue the most innocent words that 
 can be put together." In the latter example, the assertion is no! 
 of" a man in general," but of " a man wh6 is of a detracting 
 spirit ;'* and therefore they should not be separated. 
 
 The fifteenth rule applies equally to cases in which the relative 
 is not expressed, but understood : as, '' It was from piety, warm 
 and unaffected, that his morals derived strength.^' *' This senti- 
 ment, habitual and strong, influenced his whole conduct." In both 
 of these examples, the relative and verb ivhich wcls, are understood. 
 
 Rule XVL A simple member of a sentence, contained with- 
 m another, or following another, must be distinguished by the 
 comma : as, *' To improve time whilst we are blessed with health, 
 will smooth the bed of sickness." ^^ Very often, while we are 
 complaining of the vanity, and the evils of human life, we make 
 that vanity, and we increase those evils." 
 
 If, however, the members succeeding each other, are yery 
 closely connected, the comma is unnecessary: as, "Revelation 
 tells «s how we may attain iiappiness." 
 
 When a verb in the infinitive mood, follows its governing 
 verb, with several words between them, those words should 
 generally have a comma at the end of them ; as, " It ill becomes 
 good and wise men, to oppose and degrade one another." 
 
 Several verbs in the infinitive mood, having a common depen- 
 dence, and succeeding one another, are also divided by commas : 
 as, " To relieve the indigent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect 
 the innocent, to reward the deserving, are humane and noble 
 employments." 
 
 Rule XVIL When the verb to he is followed by a verb in the 
 infinitive mood, which, by transposition, might be made the nomi- 
 native case to it, the former is generally separated from the latter 
 verb, by a comma : as, " The most obvious remedy is, to with- 
 draw from all associations with bad men." " The first and most 
 obvious remedy against the infection is, to withdraw from all 
 associations with bad men." 
 
 Rule XyilL When adjuncts or circumstances are of impor- 
 tance, and often when the natural order of them is inverted, 
 they may be set off by commas: as, " Virtue must be formed 
 and supported, not by unfrequent acts, but by daily and repeated 
 exertions." " Vices, hke shadows, towards the evening of life, 
 grow^ great and monstrous." " Our interests are interwoven by 
 tVneads innumerable ;" " By threads innumerable, our interests 
 are interwoven." 
 
S£MicoLo>.] PUNCTUATION. 181 
 
 Rule XIX, Where a verb is understood, a comma may often 
 be properly introduced. This is a general rule which, besides 
 comprising some of the preceding rules, will apply to many cases 
 not determined by any of them : as, " From law arises security; 
 from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, knowledge." In this 
 example, the verb "arises" is understood before " curiosity*' 
 and "knowledge;'' at which words a considerable pause is 
 necessary. 
 
 Ride XX. The words, nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, for 
 merly, now^ lazily, once more, above all, on the contrary, in the next 
 vlace, in short, and all other words and phrases of the same kind, 
 Hiust generally be separated from the context by a comma: as, 
 * remember thy best and first friend ; yb7*77ier?3/, the supporter of 
 chy infancy, and the gviide of thy childhood ; noiv, the guardian 
 of thj' youth, and the hope of thy coming years." " He feared 
 tvcnt, ^.e?icc, he overvalued riches." "This conduct may heal 
 {he diiferonce, fiay, it may constantly prevent any in future." 
 '^ Finally, I shall only repeat what has been often justly said." 
 ** If the spring j)ut forth no blossoms, in summer there will be no 
 beauty, and in autumn, no fruit ; so, if youth be trifled avray 
 without improvement, riper years may be contemptible, and old 
 age miserable. 
 
 In many of the foregoing ritles and examples, great regard 
 must be paid to the length of the clauses, and the proportion 
 which they bear to one another. An attention to the sense of 
 any passage, and to the clear, easy communication of it, will, 
 it is presumed, with the aid of the procedmg rulesj enable the 
 student to adjust the proper pauses, and the places for inserting 
 the commas. 
 
 CHAPTER 11. Of the Semicolan. 
 The Semicolon is used for dividing a compound sen* 
 tcnce into two or more parts, not. so closely connected as 
 those wliich are separated by a comma, nor yet so little 
 dependent on each other, as those which are distinguished 
 by a colon. 
 
 The Semicolon is sometimes used, when the preceding member 
 of the sentence does not of itself give a complete sense, but de- 
 pends on the following clause : and sometimes when the sense 
 of that member would be complete without the concluding one: 
 as in the following instances: "As the. desire of approbation, 
 vvhen it works according to reason, improves the amiable part 
 of our species in every thing that is la-udable ; eo nothing is more 
 destructive to them when it ifi governed by vanity and folly." 
 
 *' Experience teaches us, that an entire retreat frotli worldly 
 affairs, is not what religion requires ; nor does it even onjoin a 
 long retreat from them." 
 
 " Straws swim upon the surface : but pearls lie at the bottom.' 
 
 ** Philosophers assert, that Nature is unlimited in her opera 
 
182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [CoLOt*. 
 
 tions; thai ubo has inexhaustible treasures in reserve ; that know- 
 ledge will always be progressive ; and that all future generation* 
 will continue to nnake discoveries, of which we have not the- 
 least idea." 
 
 CHAPTER III. Of the Colon. 
 The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more 
 parts, less connected than those which are separated by a 
 semicolon ; but not so independent as separate distinct 
 sentences. 
 
 The Colon may be properly applied in the three following cases* 
 
 1 When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but fol- 
 lowed by some supplemental remark, or further illustration oi 
 the subject : as, " Nature felt her inability to extricate herself 
 from the consequences of guilt : the gospel reveals the plan of 
 Divine interposition and aid." " Nature confessed some atone- 
 ment to be necessary : the gospel discovers that the necessary 
 atonement is made." 
 
 2 When several semicolons have preceded, and a still greater 
 pause is necessary, in order to mark the connecting or concluding 
 sentiment: as, "A divine legislator, uttering his voice from 
 heaven ; an almighty governor, stretching forth his arm to punish 
 or reward ; informing us of perpetual rest prepared hereafter 
 for the righteous; and of indignation and wrath awaiting the 
 wicked : these are the considerations which overawe the world, 
 which support integrity, and check guilt." 
 
 3 The Colon is commonly used when an example, aquotation» 
 or a speech is introduced : as, "The Scriptures give us an amia- 
 ble representation of the Deity, in these words : * God is love.' '^' 
 
 He was often heard to say : * I h-^ve done with the world, and I 
 am willing to leave it.' " "^ 
 
 The propriety of using a colon, or semicolon, is sometimes 
 determined by a conjunction's being expressed, or not expressed : 
 as, "Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of perfect happi- 
 ness : there is no such thing in the world.'* " Do not flatteif 
 yourselves with the hope of perfect happiness ; for there is no 
 such thing in the world." 
 
 CHAPTER IV. Of the Period, 
 When a sentence is complete and independent, and not 
 connected in construction with the following sentence, it 
 IS marked with a Period. 
 
 Some sentences are independent of each other, both in their 
 sense and construction : as, "Fear God. Honour the king. Have 
 charity towards all men." Others are independent only in their 
 grammatical construction : as, "The Supreme Being changes not, 
 either in his desire to promote our happiness, or in the plan of 
 his administration. One light always shines upon us from above 
 One clear and direct path is always pointc^d out to man." 
 
fNTERRo<3AioN.] PUNCTUATION. 18a 
 
 A period may sometimes be admitted between two sentences, 
 though they are joined by a disjunctive or copulative conjunction. 
 For th<i quality of the point does not always depend on the con- 
 tiective particle, but on the sense and structure of sentences : as, 
 *' Recreations, though they may be of an innocent kind, require 
 i!teady government, to k^ep them within a due and limited pro- 
 vince. But such as are of an irregular and vitious nature, are 
 not to be governed, but to be banished from every well-regulated 
 mind." 
 
 **He who lifts himself up to the observation and notice of the 
 world, is, of all men, the least likely to avoid censure. For he 
 draws upon himself a tliousand eyes, that will narrowly inspect 
 <iim in every part.*^' 
 
 The period should be used after every abbreviated word : as, 
 **M. S. P. S. N,B. A. D. O. S. N. S." &c. 
 
 CHAPTER V. Of the Dash, JSTotes of Initrrogaiion and 
 E^claiuaiion, fyc^ 
 
 The Dash. 
 The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and inco- 
 lierent writers, may be introduced with propriety, where the 
 fsentence breaks off abruptly ; where a significant pause is i;e- 
 quired^ or where there is an unexpected turn in the sentiment : 
 as, *' If thou art he, so much respected once — but, oh ! how fallen ! 
 bow degraded !" "If acting conformably to the will of our Cre- 
 ator ; — if promoting the welfare of mankind around us ; — if scr 
 curing our own happiness ; — are objects of the highest moment: 
 —then we are loudly called upon, to cultivate and extend the 
 great interests of religion and virtue." 
 
 " Here lies the great False marble, where ? 
 
 Nothing but sordid iust lies here." 
 Besides the points which mark the pauses in discourse, there 
 are others, which denote a different modulation of voice, in 
 ^correspondence to the sense. These are. 
 
 The Interrogation point, ? 
 The Exclamation point, *, 
 The Parenthesis. ( ) 
 
 Interrogation. 
 
 A note of Interrogation is used at the end of an interrogative 
 sentence ; that is, when a question is asked : as, " Who will ac- 
 company hfie ?" " Shall we always be friends ?" 
 
 Questions which a person asks himself in contemplation, 
 ought to be terminated by points of interrogation : as, ** Who 
 adorned the heavens with such exquisite beauty ?" ** At whose 
 command do the planets perform their constant revolutions ?" 
 
 A point of interrogation is improper after sentences which are 
 not questions, but only expressions of admiration, or of noaift 
 Qiher emotion 
 
in 
 
 184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Exclamation. 
 
 "How many instances bave we of chastity and excellence in 
 the fair sex !'' 
 
 " With what prudence does the son of Sirach advise us in tli 
 choice of our companions !" 
 
 , A note of interrogation should not be employed, in cases where 
 it is only said a question has been asked, and where the words 
 are not used as a question. " The Cyprians asked me, why 1 
 wept." To give this sentence the interrogative form, it should 
 be expressed thus : " The Cyprians said to me, ' Why dost 
 thou weep.^' " 
 ' Exclamation. 
 
 The note of Exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden 
 emotion, surprise, joy, grief, &c. and also to invocations or 
 addresses: as, "My friend! this conduct amazes me !" ** Bless 
 the Lord, O my soul ! and forget not all his benefits !" 
 " Oh! had we both our humble state maintained, 
 And safe in peace and poverty remain'd !" 
 
 **Hear me O Lord ! for thy lovingkindness is great !** 
 
 It is difficult, in some Cases, to distinguish between an interro- 
 gative and exclamatory sentence; but a sentence, in which any 
 wonder or admiration is expressed, and no answer either ex 
 pected or implied, may be always properly terminated by a not« 
 of exclamation : as, " How much vanity in the pursuits of men !** 
 ** Who can sufficiently express the goodness of our Creator!** 
 "What is more amiable than virtue !" 
 
 The interrogation and exclamation points are indeterminate 
 as to their quantity or time, and may be equivalent in that re- 
 spect to a semicolon, a colon, or a period, as the sense may re- 
 quire. They mark an elevation of the voice. 
 
 The utility of the points of Interrogation and Exclamation ap- 
 pears from the following examples, in which the meaning ia 
 signified and discriminated solely by the points. 
 " What condescension !" 
 *' What condescension ?" 
 " How great was the sacrifice !" 
 " How great was the sacrifice ?'* 
 
 Parc7ithesis. 
 A Parenthesis is a clause containing some necessary informa 
 tion, or useful remark, introduced into the body of a sentence 
 obliquely, and which may be omitted without injuring the gram- 
 matical construction : as, 
 
 " Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
 
 Virtue alone is happiness below."' 
 " And was the ransom paid ? It was ; and paid 
 (What can oxak his bounty more?) for thee." 
 "To gain a posthumous reputation, is to save four or five 
 letters (for what is a name besides ?) from oblivion." " Know 3'e 
 not, brethren, (for I speak to them itiat know the law,) how that 
 the law hath dominion over a man as lonj? as he liveth ?'* 
 
Parenthesis. &c.] PUINCITATION. 185 
 
 If the incidental clause is short, or perfectly coincides with the 
 rest of th« sentence, it is not proper to use the parenthetical cha- 
 racters. The following instances are therefore improi>er uses 
 of the parenthesis. *' Speak you (who saw) his wonders in the 
 deep." ** Every planet (as the Creator has made nothing in 
 vfiin) is most probably inhabited.'* "lie found them asleep 
 again ; (for their eyes w^re heavy ;) neither knew they what to 
 answer him." . > 
 
 The parenthesis marks a moderate depression of the voice, 
 and may be accompanied with every point which the sense 
 would require, if the parenthetical characters were omitted. It 
 ought to terminate with the same kind of stop which the member 
 has, that precedes it ; and to contain that stop within the paren 
 thetical marks. We must, however, except cases of interroga 
 tion and exclamation: as, "While they wish to please, (and 
 why should they not wish it ?) they disdain dishonourable means." 
 *' It was represented by an analogy, (Oh, how inadequate !) which 
 was borrowed from paganism." See the Octavo Grammg^r, on 
 this subjecL 
 
 There are other characters, which are frequently made use of 
 in composition, and which may be explained in this place, viz. 
 
 An Apostrophe, marked thus ' is used to abbreviate orshorteti 
 a word : as, His for it is ; tho^ for though ; e^en for even ; judged 
 forjudged. Its chief use is to show the genitive case of nouns* 
 as, " A man's property ; a woman's ornament." 
 
 A Caret, marked thus a is placed where some word happens 
 to be left out in writing, and which is inserted over the line. 
 This mark is also called a circumflex, when placed over a parti- 
 cular vowel, to denote a long syllable : as, " EuphrSites." 
 
 A Hyphen, marked thus - is employed in connecting conr 
 pounded words ; as, " Lap-dog, tea-pot, pre-existence, self-love, 
 to-morrow, mother-in-law." 
 
 It is also used when a word is divided, and the former part 
 written or printed at the end of one line, and the latter part at the 
 beginning of another. In this case, it is placed at the end of the 
 first line, not at the beginning of the second. 
 
 The Acute Accent, marked thus " : as, ** Fdncy,^^ The Grave 
 thus ' : as, *' Favour,^'* 
 
 In English the Accentual marks are chiefly used in spelling- 
 books and dictionaries, to mark the syllables which require a 
 particular stress of the voice in pronunciation. 
 
 The stress is laid on long and short syllables indiscriminately, 
 In order to distinguish the one from the other, some writers of 
 dictionaries have placed the grave on the former, and the acute 
 on the latter, in this manner : ** Minor, mineral, lively, hVid, 
 rival, river." 
 
 The proper mark to distinguish a long syllable. Is this" : 
 as, *' Rosy :" and a s^jOK one tnis ** : as, " Folly " Thia ^trf 
 Tiark is called a breve. 
 
186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 A DiEeresis, thus marked " , consists of two points placed over 
 one of the two vowels that would otherwise make a diphthong, and 
 parts them into two syllables : as, *' Creator, coadjutor, aerial." 
 
 A Section, marked thus §j is the division of a discourse, or 
 chapter, into less parts or portions. 
 
 A Paragraph H denotes the beginning of a new subject, or a 
 sentence not connected with the foregoing. This character j« 
 chiefly used in the Old, and in the New Testaments. 
 
 A Quotation " ". Two inverted commas are generally ])laced 
 at the beginning of a phrase or a passage, which is quoted or 
 transcribed from the speaker or author in his own words ; and 
 two apostrophes in their direct position, are placed at the conclu 
 sion: as, 
 
 " The proper study of mankind is man.'* 
 
 Crotchets or Brackets [] serve to enclose a sentence, which is 
 to be explained in a note, or the explanation itself, or a word or 
 a sentence which is intended to supply some deficiency, or to 
 rectify some mistake. 
 
 An Index or hand QJ^ points out a remarkable passage, w 
 something that requires particular attention. 
 
 A Brace > is used in poetry at the end of a triplet or three 
 
 lilies, which have the same rhyme. 
 
 Braces are also used to connect a number of words with one 
 common term, and are introduced to prevent a repetition in 
 writing or printing. 
 
 An Asterisk, or little star*, directs thereailei to some note iu 
 the margin, or at the bt)ttom of the page. Two or three aste- 
 risks generally denote the omission of some letters in a word, orot 
 some bold or indelicate expression, or some defect in the numu 
 script. 
 
 An Ellipsis — is also used, when some letters in a word, or some 
 words in a verse, are omitted : as, *' The k — g," for " the king." 
 
 An Obelisk, which is marked thus f, and Parallels thus |j, toge- 
 ther with the letters of the Alphabet, and figures, are used as 
 references to the margin, or bottom of the page. 
 Paragraphs. 
 
 It may not be improper to insert, in this place, a few general di- 
 rections respecting the division of a composition into paragraphs. 
 
 Different subjects, unless they are very short, or very nurne^ 
 rous in small compass, should be separated into paragraphs. 
 
 When one subject is continued to a considerable length, the 
 larger divisions of it should be put into paragraphs. And it will have 
 a good effect to form the breaks, when it can properly be done 
 at sentiments of tlTe most weight, or that call for pecuhar attention. 
 
 The facts, premises, and conclusions, of a subject, sometimes 
 naturally point out the separations into paragraphs: and each 
 of these, when of great length, will again rcquii-te subdivisions a i 
 their most distinctive n)arts. 
 
 h\ axjsGS which require a conaecied subject to be formed L 
 
PUNCTUATION. 187 
 
 sevdral paragraphs, a suitable turn of expression, exliibiting the 
 connexion of the broken parts, will give beauty and force to the 
 division. Ste. the Octavo Grammar. 
 
 Directions respecting the use of Capital Letters. 
 It w^as formerly the custom to begin every noun vs^ith a capi- 
 tal : but as this practice was troublesome, and gave the writing or 
 printing a crowded and confused appearance, it has been discon- 
 tinued. It is however, very proper to begin with a capital, 
 
 1 The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or an 
 other i)iece of writing. 
 
 2 The first word after a period ; and, if the two sentences are 
 totally independent, after a note of inierrogation or exclamation. 
 
 But if a number of interrogative or, exclamatory sentences, are 
 thrown into one general group ; or if the construction of the lat 
 ter sentences depends on the former, all of them, except the first, 
 may begin w ith a small letter : as, " How long, ye simple ones, 
 will ye love simplicity? and the scorners delight in their scorn- 
 ing? and fools hate knowledge?" "Alas! how dificrent ! yet 
 liow like the same !" 
 
 3 Tlie a[)pellations of the Deity : as, " God, Jehovah, the Al 
 mighty, the Supreme Being, the Lord, Providence, the Messiah, 
 the Holy Spirit. 
 
 4 Proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains, rivers, 
 Bhips : as, " George, York, the Strand, the Alps, the Thames, the 
 Seahorse." 
 
 5 Adjectives derived from the proper names of peaces: as, 
 Grecian, Roman, English, French, and Itahan." 
 
 6 The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or 
 when it is in a direct form : as, *' Always remember this ancient 
 maxim: * Know thyself.'" " Our great Lawgiver says, 'Take 
 'ip thy cross daily, and follow me.' " But wlien a quotation is 
 brought in obliquely after a comma, a capital is unnecessary : as, 
 * Solomon observes, * that pride goes before destruction.' " 
 
 The first woixi of an example may also very properly begin 
 with a ca})ital : as, " Temptation proves our virtue." 
 
 7 Every substantive and principal word in the titles of books : 
 as, *' Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language;" *'Thom 
 son^s Seasons ;" " Rollin's Ancient History." 
 
 8 The first word of every line in poetry. 
 
 9 The pronoun J, and the interjection O, are written in capi 
 ials: as, " I write :" *' Hear, O earth !" 
 
 Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with capitals, 
 when they are remarkably empbatical, or the principal subject 
 •f the com]>osition. 
 
[ 188 ] 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 
 CONTAINING RULES AND OBSERVATIONS FOR ASSISTING TOUNG 
 PERSONS TO WRITE WITH PERSPICUITY AND ACCURACY, TO BE 
 STUDIED AFTER THEY HAVE ACQUIRED A COMPETENT KNOW- 
 LEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 PERSPICUITY * 
 
 Is the fundamental quality of style : a quality so essential m 
 every kind of writi-ng, that for the want of it nothing can atone. 
 It is not to be considered as merely a sort of negative virtue, or 
 freedom from defect. It has higher merit : it is a degree of posi 
 tive beauty. We are pleased with an author, and consider him 
 as deserving praise, who frees us from all fatigue of searching 
 for his meaning ; who carries us tlirough his subject without any 
 embarrassment or confusion ; whose style flows always like a 
 limpid stream, through which we see to tlie very bottom. 
 
 Tlie study of perspicuity and accuracy of expression consists 
 of two parts : and requires attention, first, to Single Words and 
 Phrases ; and then, to the Construdiori of Sentences. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 Of Perspicuity and Accuracy of Expression, with respect to single 
 Words and Phrases. 
 
 These qualities orstyIe,*considered with regard to words and 
 phrases, require the following properties : purity, propriety, 
 and precision. 
 
 CHAPTER I. Of Purity. 
 
 Purity of style consists in the use of such words, and such 
 constructions, as belong to the idiom of the language which we 
 speak; in opposition to words and phrases that .are taken from 
 other languages, or that are ungrammatical, obsolete, new-coin- 
 ed, or used without proper authority. All such words and 
 phrases as the following, should be avoided : Quoth he; I ivist 
 not ; erewhile ; behest ; selfsame ; delicaiesse, for delicacy ; politesse, 
 for politeness ; hauteur, for haughtiness ; incumherinent, connexity 
 martyrised, for encumberance, connexion, martyred. 
 
 Foreign and learned words, unless where necessity requires 
 them, should never be admitted into our composition. Barren 
 languages may need such assistance, but ours is not one of these. 
 A multitude of Latin words, in particular, have, of late, been 
 poured in upon our language. On some occasions, they give an 
 appearance of elevation and dignity to style ; but they often 
 render it stiff and apparently forced. In general, a plain, nntive 
 style, is more ifitelligible to all readers ; and, by a proper manage 
 ment of words, it can be made as strong and expressive as this 
 Latinised English, or any foreign Idioms. 
 
PaopRiETY.] PERSriCUITY, fcc. ISO 
 
 CHAPTER II. Of Prnpriefi/. 
 
 Proprietv of language is the selection of such words as the 
 ie.st usage has appropriated to those ideas, wfiich we intend to 
 '•xpress by them ; in opposition to hjw expressions, and to words 
 nnd phrases which would be less significant of the ideas that we 
 mean to convey. Style may be pure, that is, it may be strictly 
 English, without Scotticisnis or Gallicisms, or ungrammatical, 
 irregular expressions of any kind, and mny, nevertheless, be defi- 
 cient in propriety : for the words may be ill chosen, not adapted 
 to the subject, nor fully expressive of the author's sense. 
 
 To preserve propriety, therefore, in our words and phrases, 
 we must avoid low expressions; supply words that are wanting , 
 be careful not to use the same word in different senses ; avoid the 
 injudicious use of technical phrases, equivocal or ambiguous words, 
 uninteUigibU expressions, and all such ivords and phrases as are 
 not adapted to our meaning. 
 
 1 Avoid low expressions : such as, *' Topsy tufvy, hurly burly, 
 pellmell ; having a month's mind for a thing ; currying favour 
 with a person ; dancing attendance on the great," &c. 
 
 ** Meantime the Britons, left to shift for themselves, were 
 forced to call in the Saxons for their defence." The phrase 
 ** left to shift for themselves,^'' is rather a low phrase, and too much 
 in the famihar style to be proper in a grave treatise. 
 
 2 Supply words that are wanting, " Arbitrary power I look 
 upon as a greater evil than anarchy itself, as much as a savage 
 is a happier state of life than a slave at the oar :" it should have 
 been, " as much as the state of a savage is happier than that of a 
 slave at the oar." "He has not treated this subject liberally, by 
 the views of others as well as his own ;" " By adverting to the 
 views of others," would have been better. *' This generous 
 action greatly increased his former services ;" it should have 
 been, ** greatly increased the ment of his former services." *' By 
 the pleasures of the ijuagination or fan-jy (which I shal' use 
 promiscuously) I here mean," <!^c. This passage ought to have 
 had the word "terms" supplied, which would have made it 
 correct : '^ terms whi(!h I shall use promiscuously." 
 
 It may be proper in this place to observe, that articles and 
 prepositions are sometimes improperly omitted ; as in the follow 
 ing instances : "How immense thje difterence between the piou:* 
 and profane !" "Death is the common lot of all ; of good men and 
 bad." They should have had the article and preposition repeated 
 *' How inuiiense the difference between the pi(5us and the profane."* 
 * Death is the common lot of all ; q/'good men and q/*bad." 
 
 The repetition of articles and preiK)sitions is proper, when we 
 mtend to point out the objects of which we speak, as distinguished 
 trom each other, or in contrast ; and when we wish tliat the read- 
 ers attention should rest on that distinction : as, " Our sight 'is 
 At once the most delightful, and the most useful of all our senses." 
 
 3 In the same sentence, be careful not to use the same ivord too 
 frequently, nor in different senses. '* One may have an air tchich 
 
i 
 
 (00 APPENDIX. [Propriety 
 
 proceeds from a just sufficiency and knowledge of the matter 
 before him, which may naturally produce some motions of his 
 Iiead and body, which n)ight become the bench better than the bar." 
 
 The pronoun tvhich is here thrice used, in tiuch a manner as to 
 throw obscurity over tiie Sentence. 
 
 ** Gregory favoured* the undertaking, for no other reason than 
 th]S, that the manager, in countenance, favoured his friend." 
 should have been, '* resembled his friend." 
 
 " Charity expands our hearts in love to God and man : it is by 
 the virtue of charity that the rich are blessed, and the poor sup[)li- 
 ed." In this sentence, the word ^'charity" is improperly used in two 
 different senses; for the highest benevolence, and for almsgiving 
 
 4 Avoid the injudicious use of technical terms. To inform those 
 who do not understand sea-phrases, that " We tacked to tiio 
 larboard, and stood off to sea," would be expressing ourselves 
 very obscurely. Technical phrases not being in current use, 
 but only the peculiar dialect of a particular class, we should ne*^er 
 use them but when we know they will be understood. 
 
 5 Avoid equivocal or ambiguous words. The following sentences 
 are exceptionable in this respect. "As for such animals a& are 
 mortal or noxious, we have a right to destroy them." *' 1 long 
 since learned to like nothing but what you rfo." *' He aimed at 
 nothing less than the crown," may denote either, " Nothing was 
 less aimed at by him than the crown," or " Nothing inferior to 
 the crown could satisfy his ambition." **/ will have mercy, and 
 not sacrifice." The first part of this sentence denotes, " I will 
 exercise mercy ;" whereas it is in this place employed to signify, 
 *' I require others to exercise it." The translation should there- 
 fore have been accommodated to these different meanings. 
 " They were both much more ancient among the Persians, than 
 Zoroaster or Zerdusht." The or in this sentence is equivocal. 
 It serves either as a copulative to synonymous words, or as a 
 disjunctive of different things. If, therefore, the student should 
 not know that Zoroaster and Zerdusht mean the same ])erson, 
 he will mistake the sense. *' The rising tomb a lofty column 
 bore:" "And thus the son the fervent sire addrest." Did the 
 tomb bear the column, or the column the tomb .^ Did the son 
 address the sire, or the sire the son ? 
 
 6 Avoid unintelligible and inco?isistent words or phiases, "1 
 have observed," says Steele, " that the superiority among these 
 r.ofteehouse politicians, proceeds from an opinion of gallantry 
 »nd fashion." This sentence, considered in itself, evidently con- 
 veys no meaning. First, it is not said whose opinion, their own, 
 or that of others: Secondly, it is not said what opinion, or of 
 what sort, favourable or unfavourable, true or false, but in gene- 
 ral, *' an opinion of gallantry and fashion," which contains no 
 definite expression of any meaning. With the joint assistance 
 of the context, reflection, and conjecure, we shall perhaj)S con- 
 clude that the author intended to say ; "Tiiat the rank amo»ig 
 these politicians vva.s determined by the opinion generally enttji 
 
Propriety.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 191 
 
 fainecl of the rank, in point of gallantry and fashion, that each of 
 Ihein had attained." 
 
 " This temper of mind," says an author, speaking of humility, 
 " keeps our understanding tight about us." Whether the author 
 had any meaning in this expression, or what it was, is not easy 
 to determine. 
 
 Sometimes a writer runs on in a specious verbosity, amusing 
 his reader with synonymous terms and identical propositions, 
 well-turned periods, and high sounding words , but at the same 
 time, using those words so indefinitely, that the reader can 
 either affix no meaning at all to them, or may a^x to them almost 
 any meaning he pleases. 
 
 " Jf it is asked," says a late writer, "whence arises the har- 
 mony, or beauty of language ? what are the rules for obtaining 
 it ? the answer is obvious. Whatever renders a period sweet 
 and pleasant, makes it also graceful. A good ear is the gift of 
 nature ; it may be much injproved, but not acquired by art. 
 Whoever is }>ossessed of it, will scarcely need dry critical pre- 
 cepts to enable him to judge of a true rhythmus, and melody of 
 composition. Just numbers, accurate proportions, a musical 
 synifiUony, magnificent figiu'es, and that decorum which is the 
 result of all these, are unison to tho human mind." 
 
 Tlie following is a poetical example of the same nature, in 
 which there is scarcely a glimpse of meaning, though it was com 
 posed by an eminent poet. 
 
 From harmony, from heavenly harmony, 
 This universal fraftie began : 
 From harmony to harmony 
 Thro' all the compass of the notes it ran, 
 The diapason closing full in man. 
 
 In general, it maj' be said, that in writ'ngs of this stamp, we 
 must accept of sound instead of sense ; being assured, that if we 
 meet with little that can inform the judgment, we shall at least 
 find nothing that will offend the ear. And perhaps this is one 
 eason that we |)ass over such smooth language, without sus- 
 pecting that it contains little or no meaning. In order to writ** 
 or speak clearly and intelligibly, two things are especially re- 
 quisite : one, that we have clear and distinct ideas of our subject ; 
 and the other, that our words be approved signs of those ideas. 
 That })ersons who think confusedly, should express themselves 
 'obscurely, is not to be wondered at ; for embarrassed, obscure, and 
 feeble sentences, are generally, if not always, the result of embar- 
 rassed, obscure, and feeble thought ; but that persons of judgment,! 
 who are accustomed to scrutinize their ideas, and the signification 
 of their words, should sometimes write without any meaning, is, at 
 first sight, matter of admiration. This, however, when further con- 
 sidered, appears to be an effect derived from the same cause, in- 
 distinctness of conception, and inattention to the exact import of 
 words. The occasions on which we are most apt to speak dnd 
 wTite in this unii>telligihle manner, are the three following. 
 
1 
 
 i92 APPENDIX. [PftOPKiEr 
 
 The first it?, where there is an exuberance of nietaj hor 
 Writers who are fond of the metaphoric style, are generally dis 
 posed to continue it too long, and to pursue it too far. 
 
 Tiiey are often misled by a desire of flourishing on the several 
 proj)ertics of a metaphor which they liave Ushered into the dis- 
 course, without taking the trouble to examine whether there are 
 any qualities in the subject, to which these properties can, with 
 justice and perspicuity, be applied. The following instance of thia 
 sort of writing is from an author of considerable eminence. 
 *^ Men must acquire a very peculiar and strong habit of turning 
 their view inwar^', in order to explore the interior regions and 
 recesses of the mind, the hollow caverns of deep thought, the 
 private seats of fancy, and the wastes and wildernesses, «i 
 well as the more fruitful and cultivated tracts of this obscure 
 climate." A most wonderful way of telling us, that it is difficult 
 to trace the operations of the mind. The author having deter- 
 mined to represent the human mind under the metaplior of a 
 country, revolved in his thoughts the various objects which 
 might be found in a country, without considering whether there 
 are any things in the mind properly analogous to these. Hence 
 the strange parade he makes with regions and recesses, hollow ca- 
 verns and private seats, wastes and wildernesses, fruitful and culti- 
 vated tracts ; words which, though they have a precise meaning, as 
 dip}>lied to country, have no definite signification, as applied to mind. 
 
 The second occasion of our being apt to write unintelligibly, is 
 that wherein the terms most frequently occurring, denote things 
 which are of a comphcated nature; and to which the mind is not 
 sufficiently familiarised. Of these the instances are numberless 
 in every tongue ; sucii as Government, church, state, constitution, 
 power, legislature, jurisdiction, &c. 
 
 The third and principal occasion of unintelligible writing, is, 
 when the terms employed are very abstract, and consequently of 
 very extensive signification. Thus the word lio7i is more dis- 
 tinctly apprehended by the mind than the word heast, beast than 
 animal, animal than being. 
 
 The 7th and last rule for })rescrving propriety in our words 
 and phrases, is, to avoid all those which are not adapted to the ideas 
 ice mean to communicate ; or which are less signifcarit than others, 
 of those ideas. " He feels any sorrow that can arrive at man ;" 
 better " happen to man." *' The conscience of approving one's 
 self a benefactor, is the best recompense for being sa;" it should 
 have been " conscio^isness.^^ *' He firmly believed the divine pre- 
 tept, ' There is not a sparrow falls to the ground,' " &c. It 
 shojild have been "t/odmie." 
 
 " It is but opening the eye, and the scene enters." A sceiie 
 cannot be said to enter : an alitor enters ; but a scene appears or 
 presents itself. 
 
 *' We immediately assent to the beauty of an object, without 
 inquiring into the causes of it:" it is proper to say, that we as- 
 sent to the truth of a proposition ; but it cannot so well be said, 
 
Precision.] PERSPICIJITY. &c. 103 
 
 that VV8 assent to the beauty'ofan object. Acknowledge would haTC 
 expressed the sense \'v idi propriety. 
 
 *'Tiie sense of feeling, can, indeed, give us'a notion of exten- 
 sion, shape, and all other ideas that enter at the eye, except co- 
 lours." Extension and shape can, with no pro])riety, be called 
 ideas ; they are properties of matter. Neither is it accurate, to 
 speak of any sense giving us a notion of ideas t our senses give 
 lis the ideas themselves. The meaning of the sentence would 
 have been proper, and much clearer, if the author had expressed 
 himself thus : " The sense of feehng can, indeed, give us the 
 idea of extension, figure, and all tne other properties of matter, 
 ■>vhich are perceived by the eye, except colours." 
 
 " The covetous man never has a sufficiency ; although he has 
 ivhat is enough for nature," is much inferior to,'* The covetous man 
 never has enough ; although he has what is sufficient for nature." 
 
 "A traveller observes the most striking objects he sees; a ge- 
 neral remarks all tl«e motions of his enemy ;" better thus ; '' A 
 traveller remarks,'^ &c. ; "A general observes,'''' &c. "This mea- 
 sure enlarged his school, and obhged him to increase the build- 
 uigs;"it should be, ^^ increased his school;" and ^^ enlarge the 
 'iuildings." 
 
 **He applied a medicine before the poison had time to work*" 
 etter thus: *' He applied an antidote,^^ &c. 
 
 " The poison of a suspicious temper frequently throws out its 
 bad qualities, on all who are within its reach ;" better, *' throws out 
 Its malignant qualities." 
 
 " I will go except I should be ill ;" *' T saw them all unless two 
 n three :" corrected thus ; *' unless I should be ill ;" '' excej/t two 
 or three." 
 
 A selection of words and phrases, which are peculiarly ex- 
 pressive of the ideas we design to communicate ; or which are as 
 particular and determinate in their signification, as is consistent 
 with the nature and the scope of the discourse ; possesses great 
 beauty, and cannot fail to produce a good effect. 
 CHAPTER III. Of Precision. 
 
 Precision is the third requisite of perspicuity with respect to 
 rvords and phrases. It signifies retrenching superfluities, and 
 pruning the expression, so as to exhibit neither more nor less 
 ihan an exact copy of the person's idea who uses it. 
 
 The words used to express ideas may be faulty in three re- 
 spects, 1st, They may not express the idea which the author in- 
 tends, but some other which only resembles it : secondly. They 
 may express that idea, but not fully and completely; thirdly, 
 They may express it, together with something more than is in- 
 tended. Precision stands opposed to these three faults, but chiefly 
 to the last. Propriety implies a freedom from the two former 
 faults. The words which are used may Le proper ; that is, they 
 may express the idea intended, and they may express it fully ; but 
 to be precise^ signifies that they express that idea and no more. 
 The use and importance of precision may be deduced from the 
 
 E 
 
194 APPENDIX. [PRECtsi05 1 
 
 nn.tiire of th^ human mind. It never can view, clearly and dis 
 tinctly, more than one object at a time. If it nnjst look at two 
 or three together, especially objects that have resemblance 
 or connexion, it finds itself confused and embarrassed. It can- 
 not clearly pe; ceive in what they agree, and in what they diffen 
 Thus, were any object, suppose some animal, to be presented to 
 my view, of whose structure I v^ished to form a distinct notion, I 
 should desire all his trappings to be taken off; I should require) 
 it to be brought before me by itself, and to stand alone, that there \ 
 might be nothing to divide my attention. The same rs the case j 
 with words. If, when any one would inform me of his meaning, j 
 he also tells me more than what conveys it ; if he joins foreign ; 
 circumstances to the pryicipal objects ; if, by unnecessarily va- i 
 rying the expression, he shitls the point of view, and makes me ; 
 see sometimes the object itself, and sometimes another thing that 
 is connected with it, he thereby obli/res me to look on several 
 objects at once, and I lose sight of the principal. He loads the ani- 
 mal he is show^ing me, with so many trappings and collars, that I 
 cannot distinctly view it ; or he brings so many of the same spe- 
 cies before me, somewhat resenjbling, and yet somewhat differ 
 ing, that I see none of them clearly. When an author tells me 
 of his hero's courage in the day of battle, the expression is pre- 
 cise, and I understand it fully : but if, from the desire of multiply- 
 ing words, he should praise his courage and fortitude; at the 
 moment he joins these words together, my idea begins to waver. 
 He means to express one quality more strongly, but he is in truth i 
 expressing two • courage resists danger ; fortitude supports pain. | 
 The occasion of exerting each of these qualities is different; and i 
 being led lo think of both together, when only one of them should j 
 be considered, my view is rendered unsteady, and my conception* 
 of the object indistinct. 
 
 All subjects do not equally require precision. It is sufficient, 
 on many occasions, that we have a general view of the meaning ; 
 The subject, perhaps, is of the known and familiar kind, and we 
 are in no hazard of mistaking the sense of th'e author, though 
 every word which he uses is not precise and exact. 
 
 Many authors offend against this rule of precision, A considera \ 
 ble one, in describing a bad action, expresseshimself thus: "It ista i 
 remove a good and orderly affection, and to introduce an ill or dis- | 
 orderly one • to commit an action that is ill, immoral, and unjust ; to 
 do ill, or to act in prejudice of integrity, good nature, and worth ' 
 
 A crowd of unmeaning or usele&s words is brought together 
 by some authors, who, afraid of expressing themselves in a 
 common and ordinary manner, and allured by an appearance 
 of splendour, surround everything which they mean to say wii' 
 a certain copious loquacity. 
 
 The great source of a loose style in opposition to precision, 
 the injudicious use of the words termed synonymous. They are 
 called synonymous, because they agree in expressing one prin- 
 
 t 
 
Precisiom.1 rERSriCUITY, &cc. 193 
 
 cipal idea; but, for the most part, if not always, they express ii 
 with some diverb-ity in the circumstances. 
 
 Tiic following instances siiow a difference in the meaning oi 
 words reputed synonymous, and point out the use of attending 
 with care and strictness, to the exact import of words. 
 
 Custovu habit. — Custom, res])ects the action ; habit, the actor 
 By custom, we mean the frequent repetition of the same act 
 liy iiabit, the effect which that repetition produces on the mind 
 or body. By the custom of walking often in the streets, one 
 acquires a habit of idleness. 
 
 Pride, vanity. — Pride makes us esteem ourselves ; vanity makes 
 us desire the esteem of others. It is just to say, that a man is 
 too proud to be vain. 
 
 Haughtiness, disdain. — Haughtiness is founded on the high 
 opinion we entertain of ourselves; disdain, on the low opinion 
 we have of others. 
 
 Only, alone. — Only, imports that there is no other of the same 
 kind ; alono, imports being accompanied by no other. An only 
 child, is one that has neither brother nor sister ; a child alone, is 
 one who is left by itself. There is a difference, therefore, in precise 
 language, between these two phrases : " Virtue only makes us 
 happy ;" and ""Virtue alone makes us happy." 
 
 JVisdom, prudence. — Wisdom leads us to speak and act what is 
 most proper. Prudence, prevents our speaking or acting im 
 properly. 
 
 Entire, complete. — A thing is entire, by wanting none of its 
 parts : complete, by wanting none of the appendages that belong 
 to it. A man may have an entire house to himself, and yet not 
 have one complete apartment. 
 
 Surprised, astonished, amazed, confounded. — T am surprised 
 with what is new or unexpected ; I am astonished at what is 
 vast or great ; I am amazed at what is incomprehensible ; I am 
 confounded by what is vshocking or terrible. 
 
 Tranquillity , J) eace, calm. — Tranquillity, respects a situation fvGQ 
 from trouble, considered in itself; peace, the same situation witli 
 respect to any causes that might interrupt it ; calm, with regard 
 to a disturbed situation going before or following it. A good 
 man enjoys tranquillity, in himself; peace, with others ; and 
 calm, after the storm. 
 
 These are same of the numerous instances of words, in our 
 language, whose significations approach, but are not precisely 
 the same. The mote the distinction in the meaning of such 
 words is attended to, the more clearly and forcibly shall we 
 speak or write. It may not, on all occasions, be necessary to 
 pay a great deal of attention to very nice distinctions ; yet the 
 foregoing instances show the utility of some general care to 
 understand the distinct import of our words. 
 
 While we are attending to precision, we must be on our guard, 
 I*»st, from the desire of pruning too closely, we retrench all 
 copiousness. Scarcely in any language are there two wordii 
 
196 APPENDIX. fCLEARNKS8. 
 
 that convey precisely the same idea ; a person thoroughly con 
 versant iu the propriety of the language, will alwayi^ be able to 
 observe something that distinguishes them. As they are like 
 different shades of the same colour, an accurate writer can 
 employ them to great advantage, by using them so as to heighten 
 and complete the object which he j)resents to us. He supplies 
 by one what was wanting in the other, to the strength, or to the 
 finishing, of the image which he means to exhibit. But, for this 
 purpose, he must be attentive to the choice of his words, and 
 not employ them carelessly, merely for the sake of filHng up a 
 period, or of rounding or diversifying his language, as if their 
 signification were exactly the same, while in truth it is not. To 
 unite copiousness and precision, to be full and easy, and at the 
 same time correct and exact in the choice of every word, is no 
 doubt one of the highest and most difficult attainments in writing. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Of Perspicuity and Accuracy of Expression, with respect to the 
 
 Construction of Sentences, 
 
 Sentences, in general, should neither be very long, nor very 
 short : long ones require close attention to make us clearly per- 
 ceive the connexion of the several parts ; and short ones are apt 
 to break the sense, and weaken the connexion of thought. Yet 
 occasionally they may both be used with force and propriety ; 
 as may be seen in the following sentences. 
 
 *' If you look about you, and consider the lives of others as 
 well as your own ; if you think how few are born with honour, 
 and how many die without name or children ; how little beauty 
 we see, and how few friends we hear of; how much poverty, and 
 how many diseases there g.re in the world ; you will fall down 
 upon your knees, and instead of repining at one affliction, will 
 admire so many blessings which you have received from the 
 Divine hand.'' This is a sentence composed of several members 
 linked together, and hanging upon one another, so that the sense 
 of the whole is not brought out till the close. The following is 
 an example of one in which the sense is formed into short, inde- 
 pendent propositions, each complete within itself. *' I confess 
 it was want of consideration that made me an author. I wrote, 
 because it amused me. I corrected, because it was as pleasant 
 to me to correct as to write. I published, because I was told I 
 might please such as it was a credit to please.*' 
 
 A train of sentences, constructed in the same manner, and 
 with the same number of members, should never be allowed to 
 succeed one another. A long succession of either long or short 
 sentences should also be avoided ; for the ear tires of either of 
 them when too long continued. 
 
 Whereas, by a proper mixture of long and short periods, and 
 of periods variously constructed, not only the ear is gratified ; but 
 animation and force are given to our style. 
 
 We now proceed to consider the things most essential to an 
 accurate and a perfect sentence. They appear to be the four 
 
Ct-EARNEss.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 197 
 
 following: 1. clearness. 2. unitf. 3. strength. 4. a judi 
 
 CIOUS USK OF THE FIGURES OF SPEECH. 
 
 CHAPTER I. Of the Cleanuss of a SeiHence, 
 
 Purity, propriety, ami jirecision, in words Jind phrases sepa 
 ralely coiisidercil,liave already beon explained, and shown to b» 
 necessary to j>erspicnous and accurate writini^. Tiie just rela- 
 tion of sentences, and the parts of sentences, to one another, and 
 the due arrangement of the whole, are tlie subjects which remain 
 to be discussed. 
 
 The first requisite of a perfect sentence is clearness. 
 
 Whatever leaves the mini'' 'n any sort of susjiense as to the 
 meaning, ought to be avoided. Obscurity arises from two causes ; 
 either from a wrong choice of words, or a wrong arrangenjenl 
 of them. The choice of words and phrases, as far as regards 
 pevs})icuity, has been already considered. The disposition of 
 ihem comes now undcrconsidcration. 
 
 The first thing to be studied here, is grammatical propriety. 
 But as the grammar of our language is coiriparatively not ex 
 tensive, there ma}' be an obscure order of words, where there is 
 no transgression of any granmiatical rule. The rclatious of words, 
 or members of a period, an?, with us, ascertained only by the 
 position in which they stand. 
 
 Hence a capital rule in the arrangement of sentences is, that 
 the words or members, most clearly related, shouhi be placed in 
 the sentence as near to each other as possible, so as to make their 
 mutual relation clearly appear. It will be proper to product/ 
 some instances, in order to show the importance of tiiis rule. 
 
 1 III the posiiion ofadvtrhs. " The Romans ujtuerstood liberty 
 at least, as well as we." These words are capable of two differenf 
 senses, according as the emphasis, in reading tliem, is laid upon 
 liherti/, or uf)on at least. The words should have been thus ar 
 tanged : "The Romans understood liberty as well, at least, as we^^" 
 
 "Theism can only be opposed to polytheism, or atheism." Is 
 it fneant that theism is capable of nothing else besides being 
 opposed to polytheism, or atheism ? This is what the words 
 literally import, through the wrong placing of the adverb only. 
 It should have been, ** Theism can be opposed only to polytheism 
 or atheism.'* 
 
 *' By the pleasures of the imagination, I mean only such plea- 
 sures as arise originally from sight." When it is said, ** I mean 
 only such pleasures^^'* it maybe remarked, that the adverb only is 
 not properly placed. It is not intended here to qualify the word 
 mean, but such pleasures ; and therefore should have been placed 
 in as close connexion as possible with the word which it limits 
 or qualifies. The style becomes more clear and neat, when the 
 words are arranged thus : " By the pleasures of the imagination, 
 I mean such pleasures only as arise from sight." 
 
 In the following sentence, the word more is not in its proper 
 place. " There is not, perha[)s, any real beauty or deformity 
 ^ore in one piece of matter than another." The phrase oughl 
 
i 
 
 198 APPENDIX. [Clkaeness 
 
 to have stood tlius : ** Beauty or deformity in one ])ieco of matter 
 more than in another." 
 
 2 In the position of circumstances, and of particular memhers. 
 
 An author, in his dissertation on parties, tlius expresses Itm 
 self: *' Are these designs whioh any man, who is horn a Brito 
 in any circumstances, in any situation, ouglit to he ashamed oi 
 afraid to avow ?" Here we are left at a loss, whether these wordi 
 '*in any circumstances, in any situation," are connected with *' 
 man born in Britain, in any circumstances or situation," or witiV 
 that man's *' avowing his designs in any circumstances or »itua- 
 tion into which he maybe brought." *' As it'is probable that the 
 latter was intended, the arrangement ought to have been con- 
 ducted thus: *' Are these designs which any man, who is bora 
 a Briton, ought to be ashamed or afraid, in any situation, in any 
 circumstances, to avow ?" 
 
 The following is another instance of a wrong arrangement of 
 circumstances. *' A great stone that I happened to find, after a 
 long search, by the sea shore, served me for an anchor." One 
 would think that the search was confined to the sea shore ; but 
 as the meaning is, that the great stone was found by the sea 
 shore, the period ought to have run thus : " A great stone, that, 
 after a long search, I happened to find by the sea shore, served 
 me for an anchor." 
 
 It is a rule, too, never to crowd many circumstances together 
 but rather to intersperse them in different parts of the sentence, 
 joined with the principal words on which they depend. For 
 instance: "What I had the opportunity of mentioning to my 
 friend, sometime ago, in conversation, was not a new thought." 
 These two circumstances, ** sompMme ago,^ and " in conversation,^^ 
 which are here put together, would have had a better effect 
 disjoined, thus : ** What I had the opportunity, sometime ago, of 
 mentioning to my friend in conversation, w^as not a new thought." 
 
 Here follows an example of the ^vrong arrangement of a mem- 
 ber of a sentence. *' The minister of state who grows less by 
 his elevation, like a little statue placed on a mighty pedestal, will 
 always have his jealousy strong about him." Here, so far as 
 can be gathered from the arrangement, it is doubtful whether the 
 object introduced, by way of simile, relates to what goes before, or 
 to what follows. The ambiguity is removed by the following order. 
 ** The minister of state who, like a little statue placed on a mighty 
 pedestal, grows less by'his elevation, will always," &c. 
 
 Words expressing things connected in the thought, ought to 
 be placed as near together as possible, even when their separa- 
 tion would convey no ambiguity. This will be seen in the fol- 
 lowing passages from Addison. " For the English are naturally 
 fanciful, and very often disposed by that gloominess and melan- 
 choly of temper which are so frequent in our nation, to many 
 wild notions and extravagancies, to which others are not so hable." 
 Here the vorb or assertion is, by a pretty long circumstance, 
 separated from the subject to whicb it refers. TJiis might havo 
 
Clearness.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 199 
 
 been easily prevented, by placing the ciiT.umstance before the 
 verb, thus ; " For the English are naturally fanciful, and by that 
 gloominess and melancholy of temper which are so frequent in 
 our nation, are often disposed to many wild notions," &c. 
 
 " For as no morta' author, in the ordinary fate and vicissitude 
 of things, knows to what use his works may, some time or other, 
 be applied," &.c. Better thus : *' For as, in the ordinary fate and 
 vicissitude of thin-gs, no mortal author knows to what use, some 
 time or other, his works may be applied," &ic. 
 
 From these examples, tlie folloAvini^ observations will occur: 
 that a circumstance ought never to be placed between two capital 
 iriBmbers of a period ; but either between the parts of the mem- 
 ber to which it belongs, or in such a manner as will confine it to 
 its proper niember. When the sense admits it, the sooner a cir- 
 cumstance is introduced, generally speaking, the better, thattlie 
 more important and significant words may possess the last place, 
 quite disencumbered. The following sentence is, in this respect, 
 faulty. " The emperor was so intent on the establishment of his 
 absolute power in Hungary, that he exposed the empire doubly 
 to desolation and ruin for the sake of it." Better thus: ** That, 
 for the sake of it, he exposed the empire doubly to desolation 
 and ruin." 
 
 This appears to be a proper place to observe, that when dif- 
 ferent things have an obvious relation to each other, in respect 
 to the order of nature or time, that order should be regarded, in 
 assigning them their places in the sentence ; unless the scope of 
 the passages require it to be varied. The conclusion of the 
 following hues is inaccurate in this respect: "But still there 
 will be such a mixture of delight, as is proportioned to the de- 
 gree in which any one of these qualifications is most conspicu- 
 ous and prevaihng." The order in which the two last words 
 are placed, should have been reversed, and made to stand, pre- 
 vailing and conspicuous. — They are conspicuous, because they 
 pi'evaiL 
 
 The following sentence is a beautiful example of strict con- 
 formity to this rule. " Our sight fills the mind with the largest 
 variety of ideas, converses with its objects at the greatest dis- 
 tance, and continues the longest in action, without being tired 
 or satiated with its proper enjoyments." This passage follows the 
 order of nature. First, we have the variety of objects mentioned, 
 which sight furnishes to the mind ; next, we have the action ot 
 sight on those objects ; and lastly, we have tht, time and continu 
 ance of its action. No order could be more natural or exact 
 
 The order which we now recommend, is, in single words espe- 
 cially, frequently violated for the sake of better sound ; but, 
 perhaps in no instances, without a deviation from the line of strict 
 propriety. 
 
 3 J71 the disposition of the relative pronouns^ who, which, what, 
 whose, ana of all those particles tMch express the conn€xi07i of 
 ihe parts of speech mth one another. 
 
200 APPENDIX. [Clearness 
 
 A small error in tlie position of these words may cloud the 
 meaning of tlio whole sentence ; and even where the meaning 
 is intelhgible, we always find something awkward and disjointed 
 in the structure of the sentence, when these relatives are out of 
 their proper place. *' This kind of wit," says an author, ♦* svas 
 very much in vogue among our conntnjmen, about an age or two 
 ago; who ^vd not practise it for any oblique reason, but purely 
 for the sake of being witty.*' We are at no loss about the niean- 
 ing here ; but the construction would evidently be mended by 
 disposing the circumstance, " about an age or two ago,'' in such 
 a manner as not to separate the relative who from its antecedent 
 our countrymen ; in this way: *' About an age or two ago, this 
 kind of wit was very much in vogue among our countrymen, 
 who did not practise it," &c. 
 
 The following passage is still more censurable. " It is follv 
 to pretend to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, by heap- 
 ing up treasures, which nothing can protect us against, but the 
 good providence of our Creator." Which always refers grammati- 
 cally to the substantive immediately preceding ; and that, in the 
 instance just mentioned, is " treasures." The sentence ought to 
 have stood thus : ** It is folly to pretend, by heaping up treasures, 
 to arm ourselves against the accidents of hfe, which nothing can 
 protect us against," &c. 
 
 With regard to relatives, it may be further observed that 
 obscurity often arises from the too frequent repetition of them, 
 particularly of the pronouns icho and they^ and thtvi and theirs^ 
 when we have occasion to refer to different persons ; as in the 
 following sentence of Tillotson. *' Men look with an evil eye 
 upon the good that is in others, and think that their reputation 
 obscures them^ and their commendable qualities stand in their 
 light ; and therefore they do what they can to cast a cloud over 
 them^ that the bright shining of their virtues may not obscure 
 them,'''* This is altogeth-er careless writing. When we find these 
 personal pronouns crowding too fast upon us, we have often no 
 method left, but to throw the whole sentence into some other 
 form, which may avoid those frequent references to persons who 
 have before been mentioned. 
 
 To have the. relation of every word and member of a sentence 
 marked in the most proper and distinct manner, not only gives 
 clearness to it, but makes the mind pass smoothly and agreeably 
 along all the parts of it. — See the Appendix to the Exercises, 
 
 CHAPTER II. OftheUnity of a Sentence. 
 The second requisite of a perfect sentence, is its Unity, 
 In every composition, there is always s6me connecting princi- 
 ple among the parts. Some one object must reign and be pre- 
 dominant. But most of all, in a single sentence, is required the 
 strictest unity. For the v^ery nature of a sentence implies that one 
 proposition is expressed. It may consist of parts, indeed, but 
 these parts must be so cloasly bound together, as to make the 
 
 1 
 
UifiTT.] PERSPICUITY, &c 201 
 
 impression upon the mind of one object, not of many. To preserve 
 this unity of a sentence, the following rules must be observed. 
 
 In the first place, During the couise of the sentence^ the scene 
 should be changtd as little as possible. We should not be hurried 
 by sudden transitions from person to person, nor from subject to . 
 subject. There is commonly, in every sentence, some person or 
 thing which is tlie governing word. This should be continued 
 80, if possible, from the beginning to the end of it. 
 
 The following sentence varies from this rule : " After we came 
 to anchor, ihey put me on shore, where I was welcomed by all 
 my friends, who received me with the greatest kindness." In 
 this sentence, though the objects contained in it have a sufficient 
 connexion with each other, yet, by this manner of representing 
 them, by shifting so often both the place and the person, we and 
 ^/icy, and /and ivho, they appear in so disunited a view, that the 
 sense of connexion is much impaired. Tiie sentence is restored to 
 its proper unity, by turning it after the following njanner. "Having 
 come to an anchor, I was put on shore, where I was welcomed 
 by all my friends, and received witli the greatest kindness.'* 
 
 Here follows another instance of departure from the rule. 
 ** The sultan being dangerously wounded, they carried him to hi» 
 tent ; and, upon hearing of the defeat of his troops, they put him 
 into a litter, which transported him to a place of safety, at the 
 distance of about fifteen leagues." Better thus: "The sultan 
 being dangerously wounded, was carried to his tent ; and, on 
 bearing of the defeat of his troops, was put into a litter, and 
 transported to a place oraafety about fifteen leagues distant." 
 
 A second rule under the head of unity, is, JVever to croiod into 
 one sentence, things which have so little connexion, that they could 
 bear to be divided into two or three sentences. 
 
 The violation of this rule tends so nmch to perplex and ob- 
 scure, that it is safer to err by too many short sentences, than by 
 one that is overloaded and embarrassed. Examples abound 
 in authors. "Archbishop Tillotr^on," says an author, "died hi 
 this year. He was exceedingly beloved by king William and 
 queen Mary, who nominated l)r. Tennison, bishop of Lincoln, 
 to succeed liim." Who would expect the latter part of this sen- 
 tence to follow in consequence of the former? '* He was exceed- 
 ingly beloved by both king and queen," is the proposition of the 
 sentence. We look for some proof of this, or at least something 
 related to it, to follow ; when we are on a sudden carried off to 
 a new proposition. 
 
 The following sentence is still worse. The author, speaking 
 of the Greeks under Alexander, says: "Their march was 
 through an uncultivated country, whose savage inhabitants fared 
 liardl\% having no other riches than a breed of lean sheep, whose 
 flesh was rank and unsavoury, by reason of their continual feed- 
 mg upon sea-fish." Here the scene is changed upon us again 
 and again. The march of the Greeks, the description of the in- 
 habitants through whose country they travelled, the account of 
 
202 APPENDIX. [IJnitt 
 
 their sheep, find the cause of their sheep being ill-tasted food, 
 form a jumble of objects, slightly related to each other, which 
 the reader cannot, without much difficulty, comprehend unde 
 one view. 
 
 These examples have been taken from sentences of no greai 
 length, yet very crowded. Writers v/ho deal in long sentences^ 
 are very apt to be. faulty in this article. Take, for an instance, 
 the following from Temple. *' The usual acceptation takes profit 
 and pleasure for two different things, and not only calls the fol- 
 lowers or votaries of them by the several names of busy and idle 
 men ; but distinguishes the faculties of the mind, that are con- 
 versant about them, caUing the operations of the first, Wisdom ; 
 and of the other, Wit; which is a Saxon word, used to express 
 what the Spaniards and Italians call Ingenio, and the French 
 Esprit, both from the Latin, though I think wit more particularly 
 signifies that of poetry, as may occur in remarks on the Runic 
 language." When the reader arriv^es at the end of this perplexed 
 sentence, lie is surprised to find himself at so great distance from 
 the object with which he set out. 
 
 Long, involved, and intricate sentences, are great blemishes 
 m composition. In writers of considerable correctness, we find a 
 period sometimes running out so far, and comprehending so many 
 particulars, as to be more properly a discourse than a sentence. 
 An author, speaking of the j)rogress of our languge after the time 
 of Cromwell, runs on in this manner : " To this succeeded that 
 licentiousness which entered with the restoration, and, from in- 
 fecting our religion and morals, fell to corrupt our language ; which 
 last was not like to be much improved by those who at that time 
 made up the court of king Charles the Second; either such as had 
 followed him in his banishment, or who had been altogether con- 
 versant in the dialect of these times, or young men who had been 
 educated in the same country : so that the court, which used to be 
 the standard of correctness and propriety of speech, was then, and 
 I think has ever since continued, the worst school in England for 
 that accomplishment ; and so will remain, till better care be 
 taken in the education of our nobility, that they may set out into 
 the world with some foundation of Uterature, in order to qualify 
 them for patterns of politeness." 
 
 The author, in place of a sentence, has here given a loose 
 dissertation upon several subjects. How many difl)3rent facts, 
 reasonings, and observations, are here presented to the mind at 
 once! and yet so linked together by the author, that they aK 
 make parts of n sentence, which admits of no greater division in 
 pointing than a colon, between any of its members. 
 
 It may be of use here to give a si)ecimen of a iong sentence, 
 broken down into several periods ; by which we shall more 
 clearly perceive the disadvantages of long sentences, and how 
 easily they may be amended. Here follows the sentence in its 
 original form : " Though in yesterday's paper we showed how 
 every thing that is great, new, or beautiful, is apt to affect thw 
 
 
Unitt.] perspicuity, &c. 203 
 
 imagination with jileasurc, we must own, that it is impossible for 
 US to assign the necessary cause of this i»leasure, because we 
 know neither the nature of an idea, nor the substance of a human 
 soul : and therefore, for want of such a light, all that we can do, 
 in speculations of this kind, is, to reflect on those operations of 
 the soul that are most agreeable ; and to range, under their pro- 
 per iieads, what is pleasing or displeasing to the mind, without 
 l)eing able to trace out the several necessary and efficient causes, 
 I'rom whence the pleasure or displeasure arises/* 
 
 The following amendment, besides breaking down the period 
 :nto several sentences, exhibits some other useful alterations: 
 ** In yesterday's pa})er, we showed that every thing which is great, 
 new, or beautiful, is apt to affect the imagination with pleasure. 
 We must own, that it is impossible for us to assign the efficient 
 cause of this pleasure, because we know not the nature either 
 of an idea, or of the human soul. All that we can do, therefore, 
 in speculations of this kind, is to reflect on the operations of the 
 soul which are most agreeable, and to range under proper heads 
 what is pleasing or displeasing to the mind.'* 
 
 A third rule for preserving the unity of sentences, is, to keep 
 clear of all unnecessary parentheses. 
 
 On some occasions, when the sense is not too long suspended 
 by them, and when they are introduced in a proper place, they 
 may add both to the vivacity and to the energy of the sentence. 
 But for the most part their effect is extremely bad. They are 
 wheels within wheels ; sentences in the midst of sentences ; the 
 •erplexed method of disposing of some thought, which a writer 
 ft'ants judgment to introduce in its proper place. 
 
 The parenthesis in this sentence is striking and proper ; 
 " And was the ransom paid ? It was ; and paid 
 " (What can exalt the bounty more ?) for thee." 
 But in the following sentence, we become sensible of an impro 
 priety in the use of it. ** If your hearts secretly reproach you 
 for the wrong choice you have made, (as there is time for repent- 
 ance and retreat ; and a return to wisdom is always honoura- 
 ble,) bethink yourselves that the evil is not irreparable." It 
 would be much better to express in a separate sentence, the 
 ' thoughts contained in this parenthesis ; thus: ** If your hearts 
 secretly reproach you for the wrong choice you have made, be- 
 think yourselves that the evil is not irreparable. Still there is 
 time for repentance and retreat ; and a return to wisdom is always 
 honourable." — See the Appendix to the Exercises, 
 
 CHAPTER III. Of the Strength of a Sentence, 
 The third requisite of a perfect sentence, is. Strength, 
 By this is meant such a disposition and management of the 
 several words and members, as shall bring out the sense to the 
 best advantage, and give every word and every member, its due 
 weight and force. 
 A sentence may be clear, it may also be compact in all its p^rts, 
 
204 APPENDIX. [Stre.xcth 
 
 or have the requisite unity, and yet, hy some circumstance in the 
 structure, it may fail in tiiat strengtli of impression, which a better 
 management won hi have profluced. 
 
 Thejlrst rule for ])romoting the strength of a sentence is, t4 
 prune it of all redundant words and members. 
 
 It is a genera] maxim, that any words which do not add somo 
 importance to the meaning of a sentence, always injure it. Care 
 should therefore be exercised \vith respect to synonymous words, 
 expletives, circumlocutions, tautologies, and the expressions cf 
 unnecessary circumstances. The attention becomes remiss, when 
 words are multiplied without a correspondent multiplication of 
 deas. *' Content with deserving a triumph, he refused the honour 
 of it ;" is better language than to say, " Being content with de- 
 serving it," &c. 
 
 *' In the Attic commonwealth," says an author, " it was the 
 privilege and birthright of every citizen and poet, to rail aloud and 
 in public." Better simply thus : " In ihe Attic commonwealth, it 
 was the privilege of every citizen to rail in public." 
 
 Another expresses himself thus : *' They returned back again 
 to the same city from whence the}'^ came forth ;" instead of, 
 '* They returned to the city whence they came." llie five words, 
 hack, again, same, from, and forth, are mere expletives, that have 
 neither use nor beauty, and are therefore to be regarded aa 
 encumbrances. 
 
 The word but is often improperly used with that : as, " There 
 can be no doubt but that he seriously means what he says." It 
 is nort only useless, but cumbersome : *' There can be no doubt 
 that he seriously means what he says." By transposing the parts 
 of the sentence, we shall immediately yierceive the propriety of 
 omitting this word : " That he seriously means what he says, 
 there can be no doubt." 
 
 *• I am honestly, seriously, and unalterably of opinion, that 
 nothing can possibly be more incurably and emphatically de- 
 structive, or more decisively fatal, to a kingdom, than the intro- 
 duction of thoughtless dissipation, and the pomp of lazy luxury." 
 Would not the full import of this noisy sentence be better ex- 
 pressed thus: " I am of opinion, that nothing is more ruinous to 
 a kingdom, than luxury and dissipation." 
 
 Some writers use much circumlocution in expressing their 
 ideas. A considerable one, for so very simple a thing as a man's 
 wounding himself, says, " To mangle, oj* wound, his outward 
 form and constitution, his natural limbs or body." 
 
 But, on some occasions, circumlocution has a peculiar force ; 
 as in the following sentence : *' Shall not the Judge of all the earth 
 do right ?" *<» 
 
 In the sentences which follow, the ill effects of tautology appear, 
 
 '* So it is, that I must be forced to get home, partly by stealth, 
 and partly by /orcc." 
 
 " Never did Atticus succeed better in gaining the universal love 
 and esteem of all men." 
 
The subsequent sentence contains several unnecessary circum- 
 stances. ** On receiving this inlbrnjation, lie arorse, went out, 
 saddled his horse, mounted him, and rode to town." Ail is im- 
 plied in saying, "On receiving this information, he rode to 
 town.'* 
 
 This manner, however, in a certain degree, is so strongly cha- 
 racteristic of the simple style of remote ages, that, in books of 
 the highest antiquity, particularly the Bible, it is not at all un- 
 graceful. Of this kind are the following scriptural phrases. 
 ■ He lifted up his voice, and wept.'* '* Pie opened his mouth, 
 a?:d said." It is true, that, in strictness, they are not necessary 
 to tbe narration, but they are of some importance to the compo- 
 sition as bearing the venerable signature of ancient simplicity. 
 It may, -^n this occasion, be further observed, that the language 
 of the present translation of the Bible, ought not to be viewed 
 in an exceptionable light, though some parts of it may appear to 
 I.e obsolete. From universal admission, this language has be- 
 come so familiar and intelligible, that in all transcripts and allu- 
 sicns, except where the sense is evidently injured, it ought to be 
 caiefuliy preserved. And it may also be justly remarked, that, 
 on leligious subjects, a frequent recurrence of scripture-language 
 is attended with peculiar force and propriety. 
 
 Though it promotes the strength of a sentence, to contract a 
 round-xbout method of expression, and to lop off excrescences, 
 yet we should avoid the extreme of pruning too closely : some 
 leaves should be left to shelter and surround the fruit. Even 
 synonym JUS expressions may, on some occasions, be used with 
 propriety. One is, when an obscurer term, which we cannot 
 well avoid employing, needs to be explained by one that is clearer. 
 The other is, when the language of the emotions is exhibited. 
 Emotion naturally dwells on its object, and when the reader also 
 feels interested, repetition and synonymy have frequently an 
 agreeable effect. 
 
 The following passage, taken from Addison, who delighted in 
 B full and flowing style, may, by some persons, be deemed not 
 vej-y exceptionable. *' But there is nothing that makes its way 
 more directly to the soul than beauty, which immediately diffuses 
 a s»'.cret satisfaction and complacency through the imagination, 
 and gives a finishing to any thing that is great or uncommon 
 The very first discovery of it strikes the mind with inward joy, 
 and spreads a cheerfulness and delight through all its faculties." 
 Some degree of verbosity may be discovered in these sentences, 
 as phrases are repeated which seem little more than the echo of 
 one another ; such as — diffusing satisfaction and comjilacency 
 through the imagination — striking the mind ivith inioard joy — 
 ^tpreading cheerfulness and delight through all its faculties. But, 
 perhaps, some redundancyls more allowable on such lively sub- 
 jects, than it would ^e on Other occasions. 
 
 After removing superfluities, the second rule for promoting the 
 strength of a t^entence, is, to attend particularhi to the use ofcopula" 
 
 S 
 
206 APPENDIX. [Strenot 
 
 I 
 
 iives, relatives^ and all the particles employed for transition a\ 
 connexion. 
 
 These little words, hut, nnd^ or, tvhicJi, ivhose^ ivhere, then, there- 
 fore, because, &c. are frequently the most important words of any , 
 they are the joints or hinges upon which all sentence.'^ turn ; and, 
 cf course, much of their strength must depend upon such parti- 
 cles. The varieties in using them are, indeed, so many, that no 
 particular system of rules respecting them can be given. Some 
 observations, tending to illustrate the rule, may, however, ht 
 mentioned. 
 
 What is called splitting particles, or separating a preposition 
 from the noua which it governs, is to be avoided. As if I should 
 say, " Though virtue borrows no assistance from, yet it may often 
 be accompanied by, the advantages of fortune." Here we are put 
 to a stand in thought, being obliged to rest a little on the prepo- 
 sition by itself, which, at the same time, carries no significancy, 
 till it is joined to its proper substantive. 
 
 Some writers needlessly multiply demonstrative and relative 
 particles, by the frequent use of such phraseology as this: ** There 
 is nothing which disgusts us sooner than the empty pomp of lan- 
 guage." In introducing a subject, or laying down a proposition, 
 to which we demand particular attention, this sort of style is 
 very proper ; but, on common occasions, it is better to express 
 ourselves more simply and briefly : '* Nothing disgusts us sooner 
 than the empty pomp of language." 
 
 Other writers make a practice of omitting the relative, where 
 they think the meaning can be understood without it : as, ** The 
 man I love ;" *' The dominions we possessed, and the conquests 
 we made." But though this elliptical style is intelligible, and is 
 allowable in conversation and epistolary writingj yet in all wri- 
 tings of a serious and dignified kind, it ought to be avoided. There, 
 the relative should always be inserted in its proper place, and 
 the construction filled up. *' The man whom I love." ** The 
 dominions which we possessed, and the conquests which we 
 made." 
 
 With regard to the copulative particle and, which occurs so 
 frequently in all kinds of composition, several observations are 
 to be made. First, it is evident, that the unnecessary repetition 
 of it enfeebles style. The following sentence from Sir William 
 Temple, will serve for an instance. He is speaking of the re- 
 finement of the French language : *' The academy, set up by 
 Cardinal Richelieu, to amuse the wits of that age and country, 
 and divert them from raking into his politics and ministry, 
 brought this into vogue ; and the French wits have, for this last 
 age, been wholly turned to the refinement of their style and lan- 
 guage ; and, indeed, with such success, that it can hardly be 
 equalled, and runs equally through their verse and their prose." 
 Here are no fewer thaa eight ands in on** sentence. Some 
 writers often make their sentences drag in this manner, by a 
 careless multiplication of copulatives. 
 
Strength.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 207 
 
 liut, in the next place, it is worthy of observation, thai tliou^h 
 tlie natural use of the conjunction and^ is to join objects together, 
 yet, in fact, by dropping the conjunction, we often mark a closer 
 connexion, a quicker succession of objects, t'lan when it is in- 
 serted between them. " I came, I saw, 1 conquered," expresses 
 *vith more force the rapidity and quick succession of conquest, 
 than if connecting" particles had been used. 
 
 On the other hand, when we seek to prevent a quick transi 
 lion from one object to another, when we are making some ejiu 
 nieration, in which we wish that the objects should appear as 
 distinct from each other as possible, and that the mind should 
 rest, for a moment, on each object by itself, copulatives may be 
 multipHed with peculiar advantage. As when an author says, 
 "Such a man might fall a victim to power; but truth, and rea 
 son, and liberty, would fall with him." Observe, in the following 
 enumeration made by the Apostle Paul, what additional weight 
 and distinctness are given to each particular, by the repetition 
 of a conjunction : " I am persuaded that neither death, nor life, 
 nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor things present, noi 
 things to come, nor height, nor depth, nor any other creature, 
 shall be able to separate us from the love of God." 
 
 The words designed to mark the transition from one sentence 
 to another, and the connexion between sentences, are sometimes 
 very incorrect, and perform their office in an imperfect and ob- 
 scure manner. The following is an example of this kind o1 
 inaccuracy. " By greatness, I do not mean the bulk of any 
 single object only, but the largeness of a whole view. Such are 
 the prospects of an open champaign country, a vast uncultivated 
 desert," &c. The word such signifies of that nature or quality, 
 which necessarily presupposes some adjectiv^e or word descrip- 
 tive of a quality going before, to which it refers. But, in the 
 foregoing sentence, there is no such adjective. The author had 
 spoken of greatness in the abstract only ; and, therefore, such 
 has no distinct antecedent to which we can i-^fer it. The sentence 
 would have been introduced with more propriety, by saying, To 
 this class belong, or under this head are ranged, the prospects, &c. 
 
 As connective prirticles are the hinges, tacks, and pins, by 
 which the words in the w«ame clause, the clauses in the same 
 mend)er, the members in the same sentence, and even the sen- 
 tences in the same discourse, are united together, and their rela 
 tions suggested, so they should not be either too frequently re 
 peated, awkwardly exposed to view, or made up of polysyllables, 
 when shorter words would as well convey the meaning. JVoi- 
 withstanding that, inscmitch that, forasmuch as, furthermore, &c. 
 are tedious words,which tend to overload and perplex a sentence. 
 We shall conclude this head with two remarks on the subject 
 of inserting or omitting the conjunctions. The first is, that the 
 illative ^conjunctions, the casual, and the disjunctive, when they 
 8ui* ^he sense, can more rarely be dispensed with than the copu- 
 latW^i The second is, that the omission of copulatives always 
 
succeeds best, when the connejLion of the thoughts is citlier verjBI 
 close, or very distant. It is mostly in the intermediate cases tha?" 
 the conjunction is deemed necessary. WJien the connexion in 
 thought is very distant, the copulative appears absurd ; and when 
 very close, superfluous. 
 
 The third rule for promoting the strength of a sentence, is, io 
 dispose of the capital wordy or words ^ so that they mafy make the 
 greatest impression. 
 
 That there are, in every sentence, such capital words on which 
 the meaning principally rests, every one must see ; and that these 
 words should possess a conspicuous and distinguished place, is 
 equally plain. For the most part, with us, the important words are 
 placed in the beginning of the sentence. So in the following pas- 
 sages : *' Silver and gold have T none; but such as I have, give 
 I unto thee," &c. ** Your fathers, where are they? and the pro- 
 phets, do they live for ever.^'* 
 
 Sometimes, however, when we intend to give weight to a sen 
 ten?.e, it is of advantage to suspend the meaning for a little, and 
 then bring it out full at the close. "Thus,'* says an author, "on 
 whatever side we contemplate this ancient writer, what principal- 
 ly strikes us, is his wonderful invention.'* 
 
 To accomplish this end, the placing of capital words in a con 
 spicuous part of the sentence, the natural order of our language 
 must sometimes be inverted. According to this natural order, 
 the nominative has the first place, the verb the second, and the 
 objective, if it be an active verb that is employed, has the third 
 Circumstances follow the nominative, the verb, or the objective 
 as they happen to belong to any of them. ** Diana of the Ephe- 
 sians is great," is the natural order of the sentence. But its 
 strength is increased by inversion, thus : " Great is Diana of the 
 Ephesians." " I profess, in the sincerity of my heart," Sz-c. is , 
 the natural order of a circumstance. Inverted thus: "In the 
 sincerity of my heart, I profess," &c. 
 
 Some authors greatly invert the natural order of sentences , 
 others write mostly in a natural style. Each method has its ad- 
 vantages. The inverted possesses strength, dignity, and varie- 
 ty : the other, more nature-, ease, and siraplif ity. We shall give 
 an instance of each method, taken from writers of considerable 
 eminence. The first is of the inverted order. The author ia 
 speaking of the misery of vice. "This, as to the complete im- 
 moral state, is, what of their own accord, men readily remark. 
 Where there is this absolute degeneracy, this total apostacy from 
 all candour, truth, or equity, there are few who do not see and 
 acknowledge the misery which is consequent. Seldom is the 
 case misconstrued when at worst. The misfortune is, that we 
 look not on this depravity, nor consider how it stands in l«ss de. 
 grees. As if, to be absolutely immoral, were, indeed, the great- 
 est misery ; but to be so in a little degree, should be no misery oi 
 harm at all. Which, to allow, is just as reasonable as to own, 
 that it is the greatest ill of a body to be in the utmost manner 
 
feTRE.^GTn.] rERSPICUlTY, iS^-. 209 
 
 maimed or distorted; but that to lose the use only of one limb, 
 or to be impaired in some single or«^an or member, is no ill wor 
 thy the least notice." Mere is no violence done to the language 
 though there are many inversions. 
 
 The following is an example of natural construction: "Our 
 sight is the most perfect, and the most delightful, ofall our senses. 
 It fills the mind with the largest variety of ideas, converses with 
 its objects at the greatest distance, and continues the longest in 
 auction, without being tired, or satiated with its proper enjoyment?. 
 The sense of feeling can, indeed, give us a notion of extension, 
 ehape, and all other ideas that enter at the eye, except colours; 
 but, at the same time, it is ver;/ much straitened and confined in 
 its operations,'' &c. 
 
 But whether we use inversion or not, and in whatever part of 
 the sentence we dispose of the capital words, it is always a point 
 of consequence, that these capital words should stand clear anj 
 disentangled from any other words that would clog them. Thus, 
 when there are any circumstances of time, place, or other limita- 
 tions, which the principal object of our sentence requires to have 
 connected with it, we must take care to dispose of them, so as 
 not to cloud that principal object, nor to bury it under a load of 
 circumstances. This will be made clearer by an example. '' If, 
 whilst they profess only to please, they secretly advise, and give 
 instruction, they may now perhaps, as well as formerly, be es- 
 teemed, with justice, the best and most honourable among au- 
 thors." This a well constructed sentence. It contains a great 
 many circumstances and adverbs necessary to qualify the mean- 
 ing ; only, secretly^ as well, pei'haps^ now, toiih justice, formerly ; 
 yet these are placed so properly, as neither to embarrass, nor 
 weaken the sentence ; while that which is the capital object in it, 
 viz. "being justly esteemed the best and most honourable among 
 authors," comes out in the conclusion clear and detached, and 
 possesvses its proper place. See, now, what would have been the 
 effect of a different arrangement: '* If, whilst they profess to 
 please only, they advise and give instruction secretly, they may 
 he esteemed the best and most honourable among authors, witli 
 justice, peihaps, now as well as formerly." Here we have pre- 
 cisely the same words, and the same sense ; but by means of tJie 
 circumstances being so intermingled as to clog the capital words, 
 the whole becomes feeble and perplexed. 
 
 The fvurth rule for promoting the strength of sentences, is, 
 that a weaker assertion or proposition should never come after a 
 stronger one ; and that, when our sentence consists of two members, 
 the longer should, s^enerally, he the concluding one. 
 
 Thus, to say, "When our passions have forsaken us, we flatter 
 ourselves with the belief that we have forsaken them," is both 
 more easy and more clear, than to begin with the longer part of 
 the proposition: "We flatter ourselves with the belief that we 
 have forsaken our passions, when they have forsaken us." 
 
 In general, it is agreeable to find a sentence rising upon us. 
 S 2 
 
210 APPENDIX. rSTRENGT«^ 
 
 and growing in its importance, to the very last word, when this 
 construction can be managed without affectation. ** If we rise 
 yet higher," says Addison, " and consider the fixed stars as so 
 many oceans of flame, that are each of them attended with a di^g|| 
 ferent set of planets ; and still discover new firmaments and neiJ^P^ 
 lights that are sunk further in those unfathomable depths of 
 ether : we are lost in such a labyrinth of suns and worlds, and 
 confounded with the magnificence and immensity of nature." 
 
 Thejijlk rule for the strength of sentences is, io avoid condudin^ 
 them with an adverb, a preposition, or any inconsiderable word. 
 
 Agreeably to this rule, we should not conclude with any of the 
 particles, of, to, -from, with, by. For instance, it is a great deal 
 better to say, "Avarice is a crime of which wise men are often 
 guilty," than to say, " Avarice is a crime which wise men are 
 often guilty of" This is a phraseology which all correct writers 
 shun; and with reason. For as the mind cannot help resting a 
 little, on the import of the word which closes the sentence, it 
 must be disagreeable to be left pausing on a word, which does 
 not, by itself, produce any idea. 
 
 For the same reason, verbs which are used in a compound 
 tense, with some of these prepositions, are, though not so bad^ 
 yet still not proper conclusions of a period : such as, bring about, 
 lay hold of, come over to, clear up, and many other of this kind 
 instead of which, if we can employ a simple verb, it always tcr 
 minntes the sentence with more strength. Even the pronoun tV, 
 should, if possible, be avoided in the conclusion: especially >*'heij 
 it is joined with some of the prepositions ; as, with it, in it, to it. 
 We shall be sensible of this in the following sentence. *' There 
 is not, in my opinion, a more pleasing and triumphant considera- 
 tion in religion, th-'n this, of the perpetual progress which ilie 
 soul makes towards the perfection of its nature, without ever ar- 
 riving at a period in it.^* Ho»v much more agreeaoic the sen- 
 tence, if it had been so constructed as to close with the word 
 period ! 
 
 Besides particles and pronouns, any phrase, f/hich expresses 
 a circumstance only, always appears badly in die rear of a sen- 
 tence. We may judge of this by the followwig passage : " Let 
 me therefore conclude by repeating, that division has caused all 
 the mischief we lament; that union alone can retrieve it; and 
 that a great advance towards this union, was the coalition of 
 parties, so happily begun, so successfully carried on, and of lat»H 
 so unaccountably neglected ; to say no worse." This last phraseJH 
 '* to say no worse," occasions a falling off at the end. The pro^^ 
 per disposition of such circumstances in a sentence, requires at 
 tention, in order to adjust them so as shall consist equally with 
 the perspicuity and the strength of the penod. — ^Though neces- 
 sary parts, they are, however, like irregular stones in a building, 
 which try the skill of an artist, where to place them with tliifl 
 least offence. But it must be rememberod, that the close is al<^| 
 ways an unsuitable place for them Notwithstanding what bat 
 
Strength.] PERSPICUITY, &:a 211 
 
 been said against concluding a period with an adverb, &c. this 
 must not be understood to refer to such words, when the stress 
 and significancy of the sentence rest chieiiy upon them. In this 
 case they are not to be considered as circumstances, but as the 
 principal objects : as in the folk)wing sentence. " In their pros- 
 perity, my friends shall never hear of me, in their adversity, al- 
 ways.*' Here, "never" and ^^ always''^ being emphatical words, 
 "were to be so placed as to make a strong impression. 
 
 The sixth rule relating to the strength of a sentence, is, that in 
 the members of a sentence, where two things are compared or con- 
 trasted with one another ; where either a resemblance or an opposi- 
 tion is intended to he expressed ; some resemblance, in the language 
 and construction, should be preserved* For when the things them- 
 selves correspond to each other, we naturally expect to find a similar 
 correspondence in the words. 
 
 Thus, when it is said, "The wise man is happy when he gains 
 his own approbation ; the fool, when he recommends himself to 
 the applause of those about him;" the opposition wou'd have 
 been more regular, if it had been expressed thus: ** The wise 
 man is happy when he gains his own approbation ; the fool, 
 when he gains that of others." 
 
 " A friend exaggerates a man's virtues : an enemy inflames his 
 crifnes." Better thus : " A friend exaggerates a man's virtues ; 
 an enemy, his crimes." 
 
 The following passage from Pope's Preface to his Homer, fully 
 exemplifies the rule just given : ** Homer was the greater genius ; 
 Virgil, the better artist: in the one we most admire the man ; in 
 the other the work. Honier hurries us with a commanding 
 impetuosity ; V^.rgil leads us with an attractive majesty. Homer 
 scatters with a generous profusion ; Virgil bestows with a care- 
 ful magnificence. Homer, like the Nile, pours out his riches 
 with a sudden overflow ; Virgil, like a river in its banks, with a 
 constant stream." — Periods thus constructed, when introduced 
 with propriety, and not returning too often, have a sensible 
 beauty. But we must beware of carrying our attention to this 
 beauty too far. It ought only to be occasionally studied, when 
 comparison or opposition of objects naturally leads to it. If 
 such a construction as this be aimed at, in all our sentences, it 
 leads to a disagreeable uniformity ; produces a regularly return- 
 ing clink in the period, which tires the ear ; and plainly discovers 
 affectation. 
 
 The seventh rule for promoting the strength and effect of sen 
 tences, is, to attend to the sound, the harmony and easy fiow, of the 
 words and members. 
 
 Sound is a quality much inferior to sense; yet such as must 
 not be disregarded. For, as long as sounds are the vehicle or con- 
 veyance for our ideas, there will be a very considerable connexion 
 between the idea which is conveyed, and the nat'^re of the 
 sound which conveys it. — Pleasing ideas, and forcibte :;easoning, 
 can hardly be transmitted to the mind, by means cf narsh anc^ 
 
disagreeable sounds. The mind revolts at such sounds, and th^ J 
 impression of the sentiment must consequently be weakened. 
 The observations which we have to make on this subject, respect 
 the choice of words; their arrangement; the order and disposi- 
 tion of the members ; and the cadence or close of sentences. 
 
 AVe begin with the choice of words. It is evident, tliat words 
 are most agreeable to the ear, when ihey are composed of smooth 
 and liquid sounds, in which there is a proper intermixture of 
 vowels and consonants ; without too many harsh consonants 
 rubbing against each other ; or too many open vowels in succes- 
 sion, to cause a hiatus, or disagreeable aperture of the mouth. 
 
 It may always be assumed as a principle, that whatever sounda 
 are difficult in pronunciation, are, in the same proportion, harsh 
 and painful to the ear. Vowels give softness ; consonants, strength 
 to the sound of words. The melody of language requires a just 
 proportion of each ; and the construction will be hurt, will be 
 rendered either grating or effeminate, by an excess of eiiiier. 
 Long words are commonly more agreeable to the car than mono- 
 syllables. They please it by the composition or succession of 
 sounds which they present to it ; and accordingly, the njost harmo- 
 nious languages abound most in them. Among words of any 
 length, those are the most melodious, which do not run wholly 
 either upon long or short syllables, but are composed of an inter- 
 mixture of them : such as j repent, profess, powerful^ velocitt/, celerity^ 
 independent, impetuosiiy. 
 
 If we would speak forcibly and effectually, we must avoid the 
 use of such words as the following ; 1. Such as are composed of 
 words already compounded, the several parts of which are not 
 easily, and therefore not closely united : as, *' Unsuccessful ness, 
 wrongheadedness, tenderheartedness :" 2. Such as have the sylla- 
 bles which immediately follow the accented syllable, crowded 
 with consonants that do not easily coalesce : as, " Q^uesiionlesSt 
 chroniclers, conventiclers ;" 3. Such as have too many syllables 
 following the accented syllable : as, " Primarily, ccsorily, suvi' 
 marily, peremptoriness :^^ 4. Such as have a short or unaccented 
 syllable repeated, or followed by another short or unaccented 
 syllable very much resembhng: as, ''^ Holily, sillily, lowlily, far- 
 riery^ A little harshness, by the collision of consonants, which 
 nevertheless our organs find no difficulty in articulating, and 
 which do not suggest to the hearer the disagreeable idea either 
 of precipitation or of stammering, is by no means a sufficient 
 reason for suppressing a useful term. The words hedg'^d,fedg^d, 
 wedg\l, drudged, grudged, adjudged, which some have thought 
 very offensive, are not exposed to the objeo' ions which lie against 
 the words above mentioned. We should not do well to introduce 
 such hard and strong sounds too frequently ; but when they are 
 used sparingly and properly, they have even a good effect. They 
 contribute to that variety in sound which is advantageous to 
 lang^uage. 
 
 The next head, respecting the harmony which results from & 
 
8TRENGTH.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 213 
 
 proper arrans^ement of words, is a point of greater nicety. For, 
 let the words themselves be ever so ^vell chosen, and well sound- 
 ing, yet, if they be ill disposed, the melody of the sentence is 
 utterly lost, or greatly impaired. That this is the case, the learners 
 will j)erceive by the following examples. "Pleasures simple and 
 moderate always are the best :" it would be better to say, *' Sim- 
 ple and moderate |)leasures are always the best." " Office or 
 rank may be the recompense of intrigue, versatility, or flattery ;" 
 better thus, '' Rank or office may be the recompense of flattery, 
 versatility, or intrigue." "A great recommendation of tha 
 guidance offered by iiitegrity to us, is, that it is by all men easily 
 nn<lerstood ;" better in this form ; '* It is a great recommenda- 
 tion of the guidance offered to us by integrity, that it is easily un-* 
 derstood by all men." In the following examples, the words are 
 neither selected nor arranged, so as to produce the most agree- 
 able effect. *' If we make the best of our bfe, it is but as a pil- 
 grimage, w^ith dangers surrounding it:" better thus, **Ourlife, 
 at the best, is a ]>ilgrimage, and dangers surround it." " We see 
 that we are encumbered with difficulties, which we cannot pre- 
 vent:" better, "We perceive ourselves involved in difncuiries 
 that cannot be avoided." ** It is plain to any one who views the 
 subject, even slightly, that there is nothing here that is without 
 allay and pure :" improved by this form ; " It is evident to the 
 lightest inspection, that nothing here is unallayed and pure." 
 
 We may take, for an instance of a sentence remarkably harmo 
 nious, the following from Milton's Treatise on Education : " We 
 shall conduct you to a hill-side, laborious indeed, at the first 
 ascent ; but else so smooth, so green, so full of goodly prospects 
 and melodious sounds on every side, that the harp of Orpheus* 
 was not more charming." Every thing in this sentence con- 
 spires to promote the harmony. The words are well chosen ; 
 full of liquids, find soft sounds; laborious^ smooth, green, goodly, 
 melodious, charming; and these words so artfully arranged, that 
 were we to alter the situation of any one of them, we should, 
 presently, be sensible of the melody's suffering. 
 
 To promote this harmonious arrangement of words, the fol- 
 lowing general directions will be found of some use. 1st, W^hen 
 the preceding word ends with a vowel, let the subsecjuent one 
 begin with a consonant; and vice versa. A true friend, a cruel 
 €ncmy, are smoother and easier to the voice, than a true union, a 
 cruel destroyer. 13ut when it is more perspicuous or convenient, 
 for vowels or consonants to end one word and begin the next, 
 it is proper that the vowels be a long and short one ; and that 
 the consonants be either a liquid and a mute, or liquids of dif- 
 ferent sorts: thus, a lovely offspring ; a purer design ; a calm re- 
 treat ; are more fluent than, a happy union, a brief petition, a cheap 
 triumph, a putrid distemper, a calm matron, a clean nurse. From 
 these examples, the student will perceive the importance of accu 
 rately understanding the nature of vowels and consonants, liquids 
 and mutes; with the connexion and influence which subsist 
 
214 APPENDIX. [STR2W0' H 
 
 amongst them. 2cl, In general, a considerable n'lmber of long 
 or short words near one another should be avoided. " Disap- 
 pointment in our expectations is wretchedness :" better thus ; 
 *' Disappointed hope is misery." '* No course of joy can please 
 US long :" better, '* No course of enjoyment can delight us long." 
 A succession of words having the same quantity in the accented 
 syllables, whether it be long or short, should also be avoided, 
 ** James was needy, feeble, and fearful :" improved thus, " James 
 was timid, feeble, and destitute." " They could not be happy ; 
 for he was silly, pettish, and sullen :" better thus ; *' They could 
 not be happy ; for he was simple, peevish, and gloomy." 3d, 
 Words which begin alike, or end alike, must not come together; 
 and the last syllable of the preceding word, should not be the 
 same as the first syllable of the subsequent one. It is not s«> 
 pleasing and harmonious to say, " This is a convenient contri- 
 vance ;" '* He is an indulgent parent ;" *' She behaves with uni- 
 form formality ;" as, *' This is a useful contrivance ;" " He is a 
 kind parent ;" *' She behaves with unvaried formality." 
 
 We proceed to consider the members of a sentence, with re- 
 gard to harmuny They should not be too long, nor dispropor- 
 tionate to each other. When they have a regular and piopor- 
 tional division, they are much easier to the voice, are more clear- 
 ly understood, and better remembered, than when this rule is 
 not attended to: for whatever tires the voice, and offends the 
 ear, is apt to mar the strength of the expression, and to degrade 
 the sense of the author. And this is a sufficient ground for 
 paying attention to the order and proportion of sentences, and 
 the different parts of which they consist. Th.e following passage 
 exhibits sentences in which the different members are proportion 
 ally arranged. 
 
 Temple, speaking sarcastically of man, says ; " But bis pride 
 IS greater than his' ignorance, and what he wants in knowledge 
 he supplies by sufficiency. When he has looked about him as 
 far as he can, he concludes there is no more to be seen; when 
 he is at the end of his line, he is at the bottom of the ocean ; 
 when he has shot his best, he is sure none ever did, or ever can, 
 shoot better, or beyond it. His own reason he holds to be the 
 certain measure of truth ; and his own knowledge, of what is 
 possible in nature." Here every thing is at once easy to the 
 breath, grateful to the ear, and intelligible to the understanding. 
 See another example of tne same kind, in th» I7th and J8ih 
 verses of the 3d chapter of the pro])het Habakkuk. We may 
 remark here, that our present version of the Holy Scriptures, 
 especially of the Psalms, abounds with instances of an harmoni- 
 ous arrangement of the words and members of sentences. 
 
 Tn the following quotation from Tillotson, we shall become 
 sensible of an effect very -different from that of the preceding 
 sentences. *' This discourse, concerning the easiness of the Di- 
 vine commands, does all along suppose and a-^.knowledge thd 
 difficulties of the first entrance upon a rciigiou^ course ; exrtspi 
 
PiauAKs.J PERSPICUirY,&c 215 
 
 only in those persons who have had the happiness to be trained 
 up to religion, by the easy and insensible degrees of a pious and 
 virtuous education," Here there is some degree of harshness 
 and unpleasantness, owing principally to this, that there is pro- 
 perly no uiore than one pause or rest in the sentence, falling be- 
 twixt the two nieuibers into which it is divided : each of which 
 is so long as to occasion a considerable stretch of the breath in 
 pronouncing it. 
 
 With respect to tlie cadence or close of a sentence, care should 
 be taken, that it be not abrupt, or unpleasant. The following 
 instances may be sufficient to show the propriety of some atten 
 rjon to this part of the rule. " Virtue, dihgence, and industry, 
 joined with good temper and prudence, are prosperous in gene- 
 ral." It would be better thus i "Virtue, diligence, and industry, 
 joined witli good temper and prudence, liave ever been found 
 the surest road to prosi)erity." An author speaking of the Trinity, 
 •expresses liimseif thus: "It is a mystery which we firmly be- 
 lieve the irutli of, and humbly adore the depth of." How much 
 better would it have been with this transposition : " It is a mys- 
 'ery, the truth of which we firmly believe, and the depth of which 
 we humbly adore." 
 
 In order to give a sentence this proper close, the longest inei— 
 6er of it, and the fullest words, should be reserved to the con- 
 clusion. But in the distribution of the members, and in the ca- 
 dence of the j)eriod, as well as in the sentences themselves, vari- 
 ety must be observed ; for the mind soon tires with a frequent 
 repetition of the same tone. 
 
 Though attention to the words and members, and the close 
 of sentences, must not be neglected, yet it must also be kept 
 within proper bounds. Sense has its own harmony ; and in no 
 instance should perspicuity, precision, or strength of sentiment, 
 be sacrificed to sound. All unmeaning words, introduced mere- 
 ly to round the period, or fill up the melody, are great blemishes 
 in writing. They are childish and trivial ornaments, by which a 
 sentence always loses more in point of weight, than it can gain 
 l)y such additions to its sound. See tht Octavo Grammar^ on this 
 chapter. 
 
 See also the appendix to the Exercises. 
 
 CHAPTER IV, Of Figures of Speech. 
 
 The fourth requisite of a perfect sentence, is a judicious use 
 of the Figures of Speech, 
 
 As figurative language is to be met with in almost every sen- 
 tence ; and, when properly employed, confers beauty and strength 
 on composition ; some knowledge of it appears to be indispen 
 sable to the scholars, who are learning to form their sentences 
 with perspicuity, accuracy, and force. We shall, therefore, enu- 
 merate the principal figures, and give them some explanation. 
 
 In general, P^gures of Speech imply some departure from 
 Bimplicity of expression ; the ido* which we mean to convey ia 
 
216 APPENDIX. [Figure*. 
 
 expressed in a particular manner, and with some circumstance 
 added, which is designed to render the impression more strong 
 and vivid. When I say, for instance, ''That a good man enjoys 
 comfort in the midst of adversity ;" I just express my thoughts 
 in the simplest manner possible : but when I say, " To the upright 
 there ariseth light in darkness ;" the same sentiment is expressed 
 in a figurative style ; a new circumstance is introduced ; " light,*' 
 is put in the place of '-comfort," and "darkness" is used to suggest 
 the idea of adversity. In the same manner, to say, "It is im- 
 possible, by any search we can make, to explore the Divine Na- 
 ture fully," is to make a simple proposition : but when we say, 
 " Canst thou, by searching, find out the Lord ? Canst thou find 
 out the Almighty to perfection ? It is high as heaven, what canst 
 thou do ? deeper than hel), what canst thou know ?" this intro- 
 duces a figure into style ; the proposition being not only expressed, 
 but with it admiration and astonishment. 
 
 But, though figures imply a deviation from what maybe reck 
 oned the most simple form of speech, we are not thence to con- 
 clude, that they imply any thing uncommon, or unnatural. On 
 many occasions, they are both the most natural, and the most 
 common method of uttering our sentiments. It would be very 
 difficult to compose any discoiu'se without using them often : 
 nav, there are few sentences of considerable length, in which 
 tliere does not occur some expression that may be termed a 
 figure. This being the case, we may see the necessity of somo 
 attention, in order to understand their nature and use. 
 
 At the first rise of language, men would begin with giving 
 names to the diflTerent objects which they discerned, or thought 
 of. The stock of words would, then, be very small. As men's 
 ideas multiplied, and their acquaintance with objects increased, 
 their store of names and words would also increase. But to the 
 vast variety of objects and ideas, no language is adequate. No 
 language is so copious, as to have a separate word for every 
 separate idea. Men naturally sought to abridge this labour of 
 multiplying words without end ; and, in order to lay less burden 
 on their memories, made one word, which they had already 
 appropriated to a certain idea or object, stand also for some other 
 *dea or object, between which and the primary one, they found, 
 or fancied, some relation. The names of sensible objects, were 
 he words most early introduced ; and were, by degrees, ex- 
 ended to those mental objects, of which men had more obscure 
 conceptions, and to which they found it more difficult to assign 
 distinct names. They borrowed, therefore, the name of some 
 sensible idea, where their imagination found some affinity. Thus, 
 we speak of a /7ierci?ig- judgment, and a dear head ; SiSofl or a hard 
 heart ; a rovgh or a smooth behaviour. We say, inflamed by anger, 
 warmed by love, swelled with pride, melted into grief; and these are 
 almost the only significant words whicli we have for such ideas. 
 
 The principal advantages of figures of speech, are the twofol 
 lowing". 
 
I 
 
 Fi(7tJRER.l PERSPICUITY, &c. 217 
 
 Firsts They enrich language, and render it more copk us. By 
 their means, words and phrases are multiplied, for expressing 
 all sorts of ideas ; for describing even the minutest differences 
 the nicest shades and colours of thought; which no language 
 could possibly do by proper words alone, without assistance from 
 Tropes. 
 
 Secondlyj They frequently give us a much clearer and more 
 sinking view of the principal object, than we could have, if it 
 were expressed in simple terms, and divested of its accessory 
 idea. By a well chosen figure, even conviction is assisted, and 
 the impression of a truth upon the mind, made more lively and 
 forcible than it would otherwise be. We perceive this in the 
 following illustration of Young: *' When we dip too deep in plea- 
 sure, we always stir a sediment that renders it impure and nox- 
 ious:" and in this instance : " A heart boiling with violent pas- 
 sions, will always send up infatuating fumes to the head." An 
 Image that presents so much congruity between a moral and a 
 sensible idea, serves, like an argument from analogy, to enforce 
 what the author asserts, and to induce belief. 
 
 Having considered the general nature of figures, we proceed 
 next to particularize such of them as are of the most importance; 
 viz. Metaphor, Allegory, Comparison, Metonymy, Synecdoche, 
 Personification, Apostrophe, Antithesis, Interrogation, Excla- 
 mation, Amplification or Climax, &c. 
 
 A Metaphor is a figure founded entirely on the resemblance 
 which one object bears to another. Hence, it is much allied to 
 simile or comparison, and is indeed no other than a comparison, 
 expressed in an abridged form. When I say of some great 
 minister, '*that he upholds the state, like a pillar which supports 
 the weight of a whole edifice," I fairly make a comparison : but 
 when I say of such a minister, *'That he is the pillar of the state," 
 it now becomes a metaphor. In the latter case, the comparison 
 between the minister and a pillar is made in the mind; but it is 
 expressed without any of the words that denote comparison. 
 
 The following, are examples of metaphor taken from Scripture : 
 " I will be unto her a wall of fire round about, and will be the 
 glory in the midst of her." *' Thou art my rock and my for- 
 tress." ''^ Thy word is a lamp to my feet, and a light to my path."^ 
 
 Rules to be observed in the use of metaphors. 
 
 1 Metaphors, as well as other figures, should, on no occasion, h& 
 stuck on profusely ; and should always he such as accord with the 
 strain of our sentiment. The latter part of the following passage, 
 from a late historian, is, in this respect, very exceptionable. He 
 is givmg an account of the famous act of parliament agafnst ir- 
 regular marriages in England. ^'The bill," says he, "under- 
 went a great number of alterations and amendments, which 
 were not effected without violent contest. At length, however, 
 U was floated through both houses on the tide of a great majori- 
 ty, and steered into the safe harbour of royal approbation." 
 t 2 Core should be taken that the resemblunce, which is Ih^ foun- 
 
 T 
 
218 APPENDIX. [FiGUREa 
 
 dation of the metaphor, he clear and perspicuous, not farfetched, nmB^ 
 difficult to discover. The transgression of this rule makes wh^" 
 are called harsh or forced metaphors; which are displeasing^ 
 because they puzzJe the reader, and instead of illustrating the 
 thought, render it perplexed and intricate. 
 
 3 In the third place, we should be careful, in the conduct of 
 metaphors, never to jumble metaphorical and plain language iog€ 
 iher An author, addressing himself to the king, says : 
 
 To thee the world its present homage pays ; 
 
 The harvest early, but matu re the praise. 
 It is plain, that, had not the rhyme misled him to the choice of 
 an improper phrase, he would have said, 
 
 The harvest early, but mature the crop ; 
 and so would have continued the .figure which he had begun. 
 Whereas, by dropping it unfinished, and by employing the lite 
 ral word ** praise," when we were expecting something that re 
 lated to the harvest, the figure is broken, and the two members 
 of the sentence have no suitable correspondence to each other. 
 
 4 We should avoid making two inconsistent metaphors meet 
 oil one object. This is what is called mixed metaphor, and is in- 
 deed one of the greatest misapplications of this figure. One may 
 be ** sheltered under the patronage of a great man :" but it would 
 be wrong to say, ^'sheltered under the mask of dissimulation;'* 
 as a mask conceals, but does not shelter. Addison in bis letter 
 from Italy, says : 
 
 I bridle in my struggling muse with pain, 
 That longs to launch into a bolder strain. 
 The muse, figured as a horse, may be bridled ; but when we 
 speak of launching, we make it a ship ; and by no force of ima- 
 gination, can it be supposed both a horse and a ship at one mo- 
 ment ; bridled, to hinder it from launchhig. 
 
 The same author, elsewhere, says, *' There is not a single view 
 of human nature, which is not sufficient to extinguish the seeds 
 of pride.'* Observe the incoherence of the things here joined 
 together ; making a view extinguish, and extinguish seeds. 
 
 As metaphors ought never to be mixed, so they should not be 
 crowded together on the same object ; for the mind has difliiculty 
 in passing readily through many diflferent views of the same ob- 
 ject, presented in quick succession. 
 
 The last rule concerning metaphors, is, that they he not too far 
 pursued. If the resemblance, on which the figure is founded, be 
 Jong dwelt upon, and carried into all its minute circumstances, 
 we tire the reader, who soon grows weary of this stretch of fancy ; 
 sj,nd we render our discourse obscure. This is called straining a 
 metaphor. Authors of a lively and strong imagination are apt to 
 run into this exuberance of metaphor. When they hit upon a 
 figure that pleases them, they are loth to part with it, and fre- 
 quently continue it so long, as to become tedious and intricate. 
 We luay observe, for instance, how the following metaphor is 
 spun out. 
 
PffiUREs.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 219 
 
 Thy tliouglits are vagabonds; all outward bound, 
 
 'Midst sands, and rocks, and storms, to cruise for pleasure ; 
 
 If gaia'd, dear bought ; and better miss'd than gainM. 
 
 Fancy and sense, from an infected shore, 
 
 Thy cargo bring ; and pestilence the prize : 
 
 Then such a thirst, insatiable thirst, 
 
 B}^ fond indulgence b.it infiam'd the more; 
 
 Fancy still cruises, when poor sense is tired. 
 An Allegory may be regarded as a metaphor continued : since 
 it is the representation of some one thing by another that re- 
 sembles it, and which is made to stand for it. We may take 
 from the Scriptures a very fine example of an allegory, in the 
 80th Psalm ; where the people of Israel are represented under the 
 image of a vine : and the figure is carried throughout with great 
 exactness and beauty. " Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt : 
 thou hast cast out the heathen and planted it. Thoupreparedst 
 room before it ; and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled 
 the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it : and the 
 boughs tiiereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent out her 
 boughs into the sea, and her branches into the river. Why hast 
 thou broken down hei hedges, so that all they which pass by the 
 way do pluck her.^ The boar out of the wood doth waste it, and 
 the wild beast of the field doth devour it. Return, we beseech 
 thee, O God of Hosts, look down from heaven, and behold, and 
 visit this vine !" See also Ezekiel, xvii. J22 — ^24. 
 
 The first and principal requisite in the conduct of an allegory 
 \s,ihat the figurative and the literal meaning he not mixed inconsist' 
 ently together. Indeed, all the rules that were given for meta- 
 phors, may also be applied to allegories, on account of the affinity 
 they bear to each other. The only material diflference betweei 
 them, besides the one being short and the other being prolonged, 
 IS, that a metaphor always explains itself by the words that 
 are connected with it in their proper and natural meaning : as, 
 when I say, " Achilles was a lion ;" " An able minister is the pil* 
 lar of the state ;" the *' lion" and the ** pillar" are sufiiciently 
 interpreted by the mention of ** Achilles" and the " minister," 
 which I join to them ; but an allegory is, or may be, allowed to 
 stand less connected with the literal meaning, the interpreta- 
 tion not being so directly pointed out, but left to our own re- 
 flection. 
 
 Allegory was a favourite method of delivering instruction in 
 ancient times ; for what we call fables or parables, are no other 
 than allegories. By words and actions attributed to beasts or 
 inanimate objects, the dispositions of men were figured ; and 
 what we call the moral, is the unfigured sense or meaning of the 
 allegory. 
 
 A Comparison or simile, is, when the resemblance between two 
 objects is expressed in form, and generally pursued more fully 
 than the nature of a metaphor admits : as when it is said, *'The 
 actions of princes are like those great rivers, the course of which 
 
220 APPENDIX. [FiGURiest 
 
 every one beholds, but their springs have been seen by few.** 
 "As the mountahis are round about Jerusalem, so the Lord is 
 round about his people/' *' Behold, how^ good and how pleasant 
 it is for brethren to dwell together in unity! It is like the pre- 
 cious ointment, &c. and as the dew that descended upon the 
 mountains of Zion." ' 
 
 The advantage of this figure arisen from the illustration which 
 the simile employed gives to the principal object ; from the 
 clearer view which it presents ; or the mo. e strong impression 
 which it stamps upon the mind. Observe ihe cfiect of it in the 
 following instance. The autlior is ex})laiiiing the distinction 
 between the powers of sense and imagination in the human 
 mind. ** As wax," says he, " would not be adequate to the pur- 
 pose of signature, if it had not the power to retain as well as to 
 receive the impression, the same holds of the soul with respect 
 to sense and imagination. Sense is its receptive power ; imagi- 
 nation, its retentive. Had it sense without imagination, it would 
 not be as wax, but as water, where, though all impressions are 
 instantly made, yet as soon as they are made, they are instantly 
 lost." 
 
 In comparisons of this nature, the understanding is concerned 
 much more than the fancy : and therefore the rules to be observed, 
 with respect to them, are, that they be clear, and that they be 
 useful ; that they tend to'render our conception of the principal 
 object more distinct ; and that they do not lead our view aside, 
 and bewilder it with any false light. We should always remem-; 
 ber that similes are not arguments. However apt they may be, 
 they do no more than explain the writer's sentiments, they do nolj 
 prove them to be founded on truth. 
 
 Comparisons ought not to be founded on likenesses'which are 
 too faint and remote. For these, in place of assisting, strain thof; 
 mind to comprehend them, and throw no light upon the subject^i 
 It is also to be observed, that a comparison which, in the prinr 
 cipal circumstances, carries a sufficiently near resemblance, may 
 become unnatural and obscure, if pushed too far. Nothing is 
 more opposite to the design of this figure, than to hunt after a 
 great number of coincidences in minute points, merely to show 
 how far the writer's ingenuity can stretch the resemblance. 
 
 A Miionymy is founded on the several relations, of cause antj, 
 effect, container and contained, sign and thing signified. When, 
 we say ; " They read Milton," the cause is put instead of the^ 
 effect ; meaning *' Milton's works." On the other hand, when, 
 it is said, *' Gray hairs should be respected," we put the effect^ 
 for the cause, meaning by '* gray hairs," old age, *' The kettle; 
 boils," is a phrase where the name of the container is substituted 
 for that of the thing contained. ** To assume the sceptre," is a^ 
 common expression for entering on royal authority ; the sig^ 
 being put for the thing signified. 
 
 When the whole is put for a part, or a part for the whole ; a 
 genus for a species, or a species for a genus ; in general^ wh«]^i 
 
FiouREs.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 221 
 
 any thing less, or any thing more, is put for the precise object 
 meant ; the figure is then called a Synecdoche or Comprehension 
 It is very common, for Instance, to describe a whole object by 
 Bome remarkable part of it : as when we say, " A fleet of twenty 
 saiW^ in the place of*' ships ;'" when we use the *'/iea(/" for the 
 ^^person,^^ the " tvaves^^ for the *' 5€a." In like manner, an attri 
 hitte may be put for a subject : as, ** Youth" for the " young," the- 
 " deep," for the " sea;" and sometimes a subject for its attribute. 
 Personification ov .Prosopopoeia, is that figure by which we 
 attribute life and action to inanimate objects. The use of this 
 figure is very natural and extensive : there is a wonderful prone- 
 ness iu human nature, under emotion, to animate all objects. 
 When we say, " the ground thirsts for rain," or, '* the earth 
 smiles with plenty;" when we speak of ** ambition's being rest- 
 less,^^ or, "a disease's being (£ecei(/MZ ;" such expressions shovir . 
 the facility with which tho mind can accommodate the proper- 
 ties of living creatures to things that are inanimate, or to abstract 
 conceptions of its own forming. The following are striking ex- 
 amples from the Scriptures : '* When Israel went out of Egypt, 
 the house of Judah from a people of strange language ; the sea 
 saw it, and fled: Jordan was driven back! The mountains skipped 
 like rams, and the little hills like lambs. What ailed thee, O thou 
 sea! that thou fleddest? Thou Jordan, that thou wast driven 
 back? Ye mountains, that ye skipped like rams; and ye little 
 hills, like lambs ? Tremble, thou earth, at the presence of the 
 Lord, at the presence of the God of Jacob." 
 
 " The wilderness and the sohtary place shall be glad for them 
 and the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose." 
 
 Milton thus describes the immediate eflfects of eating the for- 
 bidden fruit. Terror produces the figure. 
 
 Earth trembled from her entrails, as again 
 In pangs, and nature gave a second groan ; 
 Sky low'rM, and, mutt'ring thunder, some sad drops 
 Wept, at completing of the mortal sin. 
 The impatience of Adam to know his origin, is supposed to 
 prompt the personification of all the objects he beheld, in order 
 to procure information. 
 
 Thou sun, said I, fair light ! 
 And thou enlightened earth, so fresh and gay I 
 Ye hills and dales, ye rivers, woods, and plains, 
 And ye that live and move, fair creatures, tell. 
 Tell, if you saw, how came I thus, how here ? 
 We shall give a remarkably fine example of this figure, from 
 bishop Sherlock. He has beautifully personified Natural lleH- 
 gion: and we may perceive, in the })erson2fication, the spirit and 
 grace which the figure, when well conducted, bestows on dis- 
 course. The author is comparing together our Saviour and 
 Mahomet. ** Go (says he) to your Natural Religion : lay before her 
 Mahomet, and his disciples, arrayed in armour and blood, riding 
 in triumph over the spoils of thousands who fell by his victorious 
 
 T 2 
 
^^ APPENDIX. [Piouftcto 
 
 gwol-d. Show her the cities which he set in flames, the coun- 
 tries which he ravaged and destroyed, and the miserable distress 
 of all the inhabitants of the earth. When she has viewed him in 
 this scene, carry her into his retirement ; show her the Prophet's 
 chamber ; his concubines and his wives ; and let her hear him 
 alledge revelation, and a Divine command, to justify hia adultery 
 and lust." 
 
 " When she is tired with this prospect, then show her the 
 blessed Jesus, humble and meek, doing good to all the sons of 
 men. Let her see him in his most retired privacies; let her 
 follow him to the mount, and hear his devotions and supplica- 
 tions to God. Carry her to his table, to view his poor fare ; and 
 hear his heavenly discourse. Let her attendhim to the tribunal, 
 and consider the patience with which he endured the scofFs and 
 reproaches of his enemies. Lead her to his cross ; let her view 
 him in the agony of death, and hear his last prayer for his perse* 
 cutors ; * Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do. 
 — When Natural Religion has thus viewed both, ask her, wliich 
 is the Prophet of God ? — But her answer we have already had, 
 when she saw part of this scene, through the eyes of the Centu- 
 rion, who attended at the cross. By him she spoke, and said, 
 ' Truly this man was the Son of God.' " This is more than elegant : 
 it is truly sublime. The whole passage is animated ; and the 
 Figure rises at the conclusion, when Natural Religion, who, be- 
 fore, was only a spectator, is introduced as speaking by the 
 Centurion's voice. 
 
 This figure of speech is sometimes very improperly and ex- 
 travagantly applied. A capital error in personifying- objects, is, 
 to deck them with fantastic and trifling circumstances. A prac- 
 tice of this sort dissolves the potent charm, which enchants and 
 deceives the reader ; and either leaves him dissatisfied, or ex- 
 cites, perhaps, his risibility. 
 
 Another error, frequent in descriptive personifications, con- 
 sists in introducing them, when the subject of discussion is des- 
 titute of dignity, and the reader is not prepared to relish them. 
 One can scarcely peruse, with composure, the following use o/ 
 this figure. It is the language of our elegant poet Thomson, 
 who thus personifies and connects the bodily appetites, and thoit, 
 gratifications. 
 
 Then sated Hunger bids his brother Thirst 
 
 Produce the mighty bowl: 
 
 Nor wanting is the brown October, drawn 
 
 Mature and perfect, from his dark retreat 
 
 Of thirty years : and now his honest front 
 
 Flames in the light refulgent. 
 It is to be remarked, concerning this figure, and short metm 
 phors and simihes, which also have been allowed to be the pro 
 per language of high passion, that they are the proper expression 
 of it, only on those occasions when it is so far moderated as to 
 «id?»n q£ words* The first arid hi^htJst transports seem to ovf r- 
 
 omson. 
 id thoit_, 
 
 4 
 
FiGORtsO PERSPICUITY, &c. 25J3 
 
 wlielin the mind, and are denoted by silence or groans : next 
 succeeds the violent and passionate language, of which these 
 figures constitute a great part. Such agitation, however, can- 
 not long continue ; the passions having spent their force, the 
 mind soon subsides into that exhausted and dispirited state, in 
 which all figures are improper. 
 
 Apostropht is a turning oftYrom the regular course of the sub- 
 ject, to address some person or thing ; as, ** Death is swallowed 
 up in victory. O death ! where is thy sting ? O grave ! where 
 is thy victory ?" 
 
 The following is an instance of personification and apostrophe 
 united: "O thou sword of the Lord I how long will it be eVe 
 thou be quiet ? put thyself up into thy scabbard, rest and be still ! 
 How can il be quiet, seeing the Lord hath given it a charge 
 against Askelon, and against the ^ea-shore? there hath he ap- 
 pointed it." See also an extraordinary example of these figures, 
 in the 14th chapter of Isaiah, from the 4th to the 19th verse, 
 where the prophet describes the fall of the Assyrian empire. 
 
 A principal error, in the use of the Apostrophe, is, to deck the 
 object addressed with affected ornaments ; by which authors 
 rehnquish the expression of passion, and substitute for it the 
 language of fancy. 
 
 Another frequent error is, to extend this figure to too great 
 length. The language of violent passion is always concise, and 
 often abrupt. It passes suddenly from one object to another. 
 It often glances at a thought, starts from it, and leaves It unfinish- 
 ed. The succession of ideas is irregular, and connected by dis- 
 tant and uncommon relations. On all these accounts, nothing is 
 more unnatural than long speeches, uttered by persons under the 
 influence of strong passions. Yet this error occurs in several 
 poets of distinguished reputation. 
 
 The next figure in order, is Antithesis, Comparison is founded 
 on the resemblance ; antithesis, on the contrast or opposition f 
 two objects. Contrast has always the efiect, to make each of the 
 contrasted objects appear in the stronger light. White, for in- 
 stance, never appears so bright as when it is opposed to black ; 
 and when both are viewed together. An author, in his defence 
 of a friend against the chai'ge of murder, expresses himself thus : 
 "Can you believe that the person whom he scrupled to slay, 
 when he might have done so with fuil justice, in a convenient 
 place, at a proper time, with secure ir/ipunity ; he made no scruple 
 to murder against justice, in an unfiivourable place, at an unsea- 
 sonable time, and at the risk of capital condemnation?" 
 
 The following examples further illustrate this figure. 
 Tho' deep, yet clear ; tho' gentle, yet not dull ; 
 Strong, without rage ; without overflowing, full. 
 
 *'If you wish to enrich a person, study not to increase ills 
 Stores, but to diminish his desires." 
 
 *• If you regulate your desires according to the standard of na* 
 
224 APPENDIX. [Figures. 
 
 tiire, you will never be poor ; if according to the standard of 
 opinion, you will never be rich." 
 
 A maxim, or moral saying, very properly receives the form of 
 the two last examples ; both because it is supposed to be the fruit 
 of meditation, and because it is designed to be engraven on the 
 memory, which recalls it more ej^sily by the help of such con- 
 trasted expressions. But where such sentences frequently suc- 
 ceed each other; where this becomes an author's favourite and 
 prevaihng manner of expressing himself, his style appears too 
 much studied and laboured ; it gives us the impression of an au- 
 \hor attending more to his manner of saying things, than to the 
 things themselves. 
 
 The following is a beautiful example of Antithesis. "If Cato 
 maybe censured, severely in(jeed, but justly, for abandoning the 
 cause of liberty, which he would not, howev*er, survive; what 
 shall we say of those, who embrace it faintly, pursue it irreso- 
 lutely, grow tired of it when they have much to hope, and give 
 it up when they have nothing to fear?" — The capital antithesis 
 of this sentence, is instituted between the zeal of Cato for liberty, 
 and the indifference of some others of her patrons. But, besides 
 the leading antitJiesis, there are two subordinate ones, in the lat- 
 ter member : " Grow tired of Lt, when they have much to hope : 
 and give it up, when they have nothing to fear." 
 
 The eloquent Burke has exhibited a fine instance of this figure, 
 in his eulogium of the philanthropic Howard. 
 
 **He has' visited all Europe, — not to survey the sumptuousiess 
 of palaces, or the statcliness of temples; not to make accurate 
 measurements of the remains of ancient grandeur, nor to form a 
 scale of the curiosity of modern arts; nor to collect medals, or 
 collate manuscripts: — but to dive into the depths of dungeons; 
 to plunge into the infection of hospitals; to survey the mansions 
 of sorrow and pain; to take the gage and dimensions of misery, 
 depression, and contempt ; to remember the forgotten, to attend 
 to the neglected, to visit the forsaken, and compare and collate 
 the distresses of all men, in ali countries." 
 
 The next figure concerning which we are to treat is' called Hy- 
 perhole or Exaggeration. It consists in magnifying an object be- 
 yond its natural bounds. In all languages, even in common 
 conversation, hyperbolical expressions very frequently occur: as 
 swift as the wind ; as white as the snow ; and the like ; and the 
 common forms of compliment, are almost all of them extrava- 
 gant hyperboles. If any thing be remarkably good or great in 
 its kind, we are instantly ready to add to it some exaggerating 
 epithet, and to make it the greatest or best we ever saw. The 
 imagination has always a tendency to gratify itself, by magnify- 
 ing its present object, and carrying it to excess. More or less oi 
 this hyperbolical turn will prevail in language, according to the 
 liveliness of imagination among the people who speak it. Hence 
 young people deal much in hyperboles. Hence the language of 
 
PiGURE§.] PERSPICUITY, fee. ^25 
 
 the Orientals was far more hyperbolical, than that of the Europe- 
 ans, wiio are of more phlegmatic, or perhaps we may say, of 
 more correct imagination. Hence, among all writers in early 
 timeat and in the rude periods of society, we may expect this 
 figiiie to abound. Greater experience, and more cultivated so- 
 ciety, abate the warmth of imagination, and chasten the manner 
 of expression. 
 
 Hyperboles are of two kinds ; either such as are employed 
 in description, or such as are suggested by the wnrmth of pas- 
 sion. All passions without exception, love, terror, amazement, 
 Indignation, and even grief, throw the mind into confusion, ag- 
 gravate their objects, and of course prompt a hyperbohcal style. 
 Hence the following sentiments of Satan in MiUon, as strongly as 
 they are described, contain nothing,but what is natural and proper ; 
 tjxhibiting the picture of a mind agitated with rage and despai«* 
 
 Me, miserable! which way shall I fly 
 
 Infinite wrath, and infinite despair? 
 
 Which way I fly is Hell, myself am Hell ; 
 
 And in the lowest depth, a lower deep, 
 
 Still threatening to devour me, opens wide, 
 
 To which the Hell I suifer seems a Heaven. 
 The fear of an enemy augments the conceptions of the size of 
 their leader. *' I saw their chief," says the scout of Ossian, **tall 
 as a rock of ice ; his spear, the blasted fir ; his shield, the rising 
 moon : he sat on the shore, like a cloud of mist on the hill.** 
 
 The errors frequent in the use of Hyperboles, arise either 
 from ovei straining, or introducing them on unsuitable occasions. 
 Dryden, in his poem on the restoration of king Charles the Second, 
 comphments that monarch, at the expense of the sun himself. 
 
 That star at your birth shone out so bright, 
 
 It stain'd the duller sun*s meridian hght. 
 This is indeed mere bombast. It is difficult to ascertain, by 
 any precise rule, the proper measure and boundary of this figure. 
 Good sense and just taste must determine the point, beyoud 
 which, if we pas», we become extravagant. 
 
 Vision is another figure of speech, which is proper only in 
 anmiated and warm composition. It is produced when, instead 
 of relating something that is past, we use the present tense, and 
 describe it as actually passing before our eyes. Thus Cicero, in 
 his fourth oration against Catiline : " I seem to myself to behold 
 this city, the ornament of the earth, and th^ capital of all na- 
 tions, suddenly involved in one conflagration. I see before me 
 the slaughtered heaps of citizens, lying unburied in the midst of 
 their ruined country. The furious countenance of Cethcgus 
 rises to my view, while, with a savage joy, he is triumphing in 
 your miseries.'* 
 
 This manner of descri])tion supposes a sort of enthusiasm, 
 which carries the j>erson who describes, in some measure out of 
 himself; and, when well executed, must needs, by the force of 
 Bynipathy, impress the reader or hearer very strongly. But, in 
 
226 APPENDIX. [Figures. 
 
 order to a successful execution, it requires an uncommonly 
 warm imagination, and so happy a selection of circumstances, 
 as shall make us think we see before our eyes the scene that is 
 described. 
 
 Interrogation, The unfigured, literal use of interrogation, is 
 to ask a question : but when men are strongly moved, whatever 
 they would affirm or deny, with great earnestness, they naturally 
 put in the form of a question, expressing thereby the strongest 
 confidence of the truth of their own sentiment, and appealing to 
 their hearers for the impossibility of the contrary. TIjus Balaam 
 expressed himself to Balak. " The Lord is not a man that he 
 should lie, neither the son of man that he should repent. Hath 
 he said it ? and shall he not Jo it ? Math he spoken it ? and shall 
 he not make it good ?" 
 
 Interrogation gives life and spirit to discourse. We see this 
 in the animated, introductory speech of Cicero against Catiline : 
 " How long will you, Catiline, abuse our patience ? Do you not 
 perceive that your designs are discovered ?" — He might indeed 
 have said ' You abuse our patience a long while. You musl 
 be sensible tha your designs are discovered.'* But it is easy to 
 perceive how much this latter mode of expression falls short of 
 the force and vehemence of the former. 
 
 Exclamations are .he effect of strong emotions of the mind ; 
 such as, surprise admiration, joy, grief, and the like. **AVois 
 me that 1 sojourn in Mesech, that I dwell in the tents of Kedar I'* 
 Psaims 
 
 " O that my nead were waters, and mine eyes a fountain of 
 tears, that I mignt weep day and night, for the slain of the 
 daughter of my people ! O that I had m the wilderness a lodging- 
 place of wayfaring men !" Jeremiah, 
 
 Though interrogations may be introduced into close and earnest 
 reasoning, exclamations belong only to strong emotions of the 
 mind. When judiciously employed, they agitate the hearer or 
 the reader with similar passions : but it is extremely improper, 
 and sometimes ridiculous, to use them on trivial occasions, and 
 on mean or low subjects. The unexperienced writer often 
 attempts to elevate his language, by the copious display of this 
 figure : but he rarely or never succeeds. He frequently renders 
 Jiis composition frigid to excess, or absolutely ludicrous, by calling 
 on us to enter into his transports, when nothing is said or done 
 to demand emotion. 
 
 Irony is expresskig ourselves in a manner contrary to our 
 thoughts, not with a view to deceive, but to add force to our 
 observations. Persons may be reproved for their negligence, by 
 saying ; *' You have taken great care indeed." Cicero says of the 
 person against whom he was pleading; '* We have great reason 
 to believe that the modest man would not ask him for his debt, 
 when he pursues his Hfe." 
 
 Ironical exhortation is a very agreeable kind of figure ; whicli^ 
 after having set the inconveniences of a thing, in the clearest 
 
FicDRKs.j PERSPICUITY, &c. 227 
 
 light, concludes with a feigned encouragement to pursue it. 
 Such is that of Horace, when, having beautifully described the 
 noise and tumults of Rome, he adds ironically ; 
 
 " Go now, and study tuneful verse at Rome." 
 
 The subjects of Irony are vices and follies of all kinds : and 
 this mode of exposing them, is often more effectual than serious 
 reasoning. The gravest persons have not declined the use ©f 
 this figure, on proper occasions. The wise and virtuous Socrates 
 made great use of it, iu his endeavours to discountenance vicious 
 and foolish practices. Even in the sacred writings, we have a 
 remarkable instance of it. The prophet Elijah, when he chal- 
 lenged the priests of Baal to prove the truth of their deity, 
 ** mocked them, and said: Cry aloud for he is a god : either he 
 is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is in a journey, or peradventure 
 he sleepeth, and must be awaked." 
 
 Exclamations and Irony are sometimes united : as in Cicero's 
 oration for Balbus, where he derides his accuser, by saying ; "O 
 excellent interpreter of the law ! master of antiquity! corrector 
 lino amender of our constitution !" 
 
 The last figure of speech that we shall mention, is what writers 
 '.all Ani-pUfication or Climax. It consists in heightening all the 
 circumstances of an object or action, which we desire to place 
 n a strong light. Cicero gives a lively instance of this figure, 
 v^ hen he says ; '* It is a crime to put a Roman citizen in bonds ; 
 t is the height of guilt to scourge him ; little less than parricide 
 5o put him to death : what name then shall I give to the act of 
 ! rucifying him ?" 
 
 Archbishop Tillotson uses this figure very happily, to recom- 
 iTiend good and virtuous actions : " After we have practised good 
 actions awhile, they become easy ; and when they are easy, we 
 riegin to take pleasure m them ; and when they please us, we do 
 them frequently ; and by frequency of acts, a thing grows into 
 a habit ; and confirmed habit is a kind of second nature ; and so 
 fur as any thia^ is natural, so far it is necessary ; and wo can 
 hardly do otherwise ; nay, W8 do it many times when we do not 
 think of it." 
 
 We shall conclude this article with an example of a beautiful 
 climax, taken from the charge of a judge to the jury, in the case 
 of 'a woman accused of murdering her own child. ** Gentlemen, 
 if one man had any how slain another ; iffln adversary had 
 killed his opposer, or a woman occasionecflthe death of her 
 e^jemy ; even these criminals would have been capitally punished 
 by the Cornelian law ; but if this guiltless infant, that could , 
 make no enemy, had been murdered by its own nurse, what 
 punishment would not then the mother have demanded ? With 
 what cries and exclamations would she have stunned your ears ! 
 What shall we say then, when a woman, guilty of liomicide, a 
 mother, of the murder of her innocent child, hath comprised all 
 those misdeeds in one single crime ? a crime, in its own nature, 
 detestable ; in a womaoi prodigious ; in a mother, incredible 
 
fm APPENDIX. [FiGURi^ 
 
 and perpetrated against one whose age called for compassion, 
 whose near relation claimed afTection, and whose innocence de- 
 served the highest favour." 
 
 We have now finisiied what was proposed, concerning Perspi 
 cuity in single words and phrases, and the accurate construction 
 of sentences. The former has been considered under the heada 
 of Purity, Propriety, and Precision ; and the latter, under thoce 
 of Clearness, Unity, Strength, and the proper use of Figurative 
 Language. Though many of Uiose attentions which have been 
 recommended, may appear minute, yet their effect upon writing 
 and style, is much greater than might, at first, be imagined. A 
 sentiment which is expressed in accurate language, and in a pe- 
 riod, clearly, neatly, and well arranged, always makes a stronger 
 impression on the mind, than one that is expressed inaccurately, 
 or in a feeble or embarrassed manner. Every one feels this upon a 
 com])arison : and if the effect be sensible in one sentence, how 
 much more in a whole discourse, or composition that is made uj» 
 of such sentences ? 
 
 The fundamental rule for writing with accuracy, and into 
 >vhich all others might be resolved, undoubtedly is, io com- 
 Viu7iicatc, in correct language^ and in the clearest and most naturai 
 order J the ideas which we mean to transfuse into the minds of others. 
 Such a selection and arrangement of words, as do most justice 
 to the sense, and express it to most advantage, make an agree- 
 able and strong impression. To these points have tended all the 
 rules which have been given. Did we always think clearly, and 
 were we, at the same time, fully masters of the language in 
 which we write, there would be occasion for few rules. Our 
 sentences would then, of course, acquire all those pro])erties ol 
 clearness, unity, strengch, and accuracy, which have been re- 
 commended. For we may rest assured, that whenever we express 
 ourselves ill, besides the mismanagement of language, there is, 
 for the most part, some mistake in our manner of conceiving the 
 subject. Embarrassed, obscure, and feeble senttj»ices, are gene- 
 rally, if not always, the result of embarrassed, obscure, and 
 feeble thought. Thought and expression act and re-act upon 
 each other. The understanding and language have a strict con 
 nexion ; and they who are learning to compose and arrange 
 their sentences with accuracy and order, arc learning, at the 
 same time, to think with accuracy and order ; a consideration 
 which alone will ilfcompense the student, for his attention to thiei 
 branch of literature. For a further explanation of the Figures of 
 Spttch^ see the Octavo Grammar, on this subject. 
 
ADnRESS 
 
 TO YOUNG STUDENTS. 
 
 THfi Compiler of these elements of the English language, 
 ^c*?^« il will not be deemed inconsistent with the nature and 
 design i-C hi& work, to make a short address to the youn«» 
 persons engaged in tlie study of it, respecting their future 
 walks in the paths of lite*rature, and the chief purpose to which 
 they should apply their acquisitions. 
 
 In forming this Grammar, and the volume of Illustrations 
 connected with it, the author was influenced by a desire to fa- 
 cilitate your progress in learning, and, at the same time, to 
 ifiipreas on your minds principles of piety and virtue. He 
 wished also to assist, in some degree, the labours of those who 
 are cultivating your understandings, and providing for you a 
 fund of rational and useful employment ; an employment cai- 
 cwlai.ed to exclude those frivolous pursuits, and that love of 
 east anJ sensual pleasure, which enfeeble and corrupt the 
 mtn is of many inconsiderate youth, and render them useless 
 to f<ociety. 
 
 W thout your own best exertions, the concern of others for 
 yom welfare, will be of little avail : with them, you may fairly 
 promise yoiirselves succecs. The writer of this address, there- 
 fore, recommends to you, an earnest co-operation with the 
 endeavours of your friends to promote MMr improvement and 
 happiness. This co-operation, whilst it^Rures your own pro- 
 gress, will afford you the heart-felt satisfaction, of knowing 
 that you are cherishing the hopes, and augmenting the plea- 
 sures, of those with whom you are connected by the most 
 endearing ties. He recommends to you also, serious and ele- 
 vated views of the studies in which you may be engaged 
 Whatever may be your attainments, never allow yourselves 
 
23D ADDRESS TO TOU^Hl STUDENTS. 
 
 to rest satisfied with mere literary actjuisitions, nor with a 
 selfisli or contracted application of tijem. Wlien tliey ad 
 vancc only the interests of this stage of beinj^, and look no! 
 beyond the present transient scene, their influence is circuni 
 scribed within a very narrow sphere. The great business of thi< 
 life is to prepare, and qualify us, for the enjoyment of a bet 
 ler, by cultivating a pure and, humble state of mind, ana 
 cherishing habits of piety towards God, and benevolence to 
 men. Every thing that promotes or retardij this important 
 work, is of great moment to you, and claiuis your first anJ 
 most serious attention. 
 
 If, then, the cultivation of letters, and an advancement in 
 knowledge, are found to strengthen and enlarge your minds, 
 to purify and exalt your pleasures, and to dispose you to 
 pious and virtuous sentiments and conduct, they produce ex- 
 cellent effects ; which, with your best endeavours to improve 
 them, and the Divine blessing superadded, will not fail to ren- 
 ler you, not only wise and good yourselves, but also the 
 happy instruments of diffusing wisdom, religion, and good 
 ness around you. Thus improved, your acquisitions become 
 handmaids to virtue ; and they may eventually serve to in- 
 crease the rewards, which the Supreme Being has promised 
 to faithful and well-directed exertions, for the promotion ol 
 truth and goodness amongst men. 
 
 But if you counteract the hopes of your friends, and die 
 tendency of these attainments ; if you grow vain of your real 
 or imaginary distinctions, and regard with contempt, the vir- 
 tuous, unlettered mind ; if you suffer yourselves to be ab- 
 sorbed in over-curious or trifling specidations ; if your heart 
 and principles be debased and poisoned, by the influence ot 
 corrupting and pernicious books, for which no elegance ot 
 composition ^an make amends; if you spend so much of your 
 time in literary en^^ements, as to make them interfere wititi 
 higher occupationspKnd lead you to forget, that pious anJH 
 benevolent action is the great end of your being : if such 
 be the unhappy misapplication of your acquisitions and ad- 
 vantages, — instead of becoming a blessing to you, they will 
 prove the occasion of greater condemnation ; and, in the 
 hour of serous thought, they may excite the painful reflec- 
 tions, — that it would have been better for you, to have r>>^ 
 
ADDRESS TO YOtJ^a STUDENTS. Q31 
 
 maineil illiterate and niiaspiriiig ; to have been confined to the 
 humblest walks of life ; and to have been even hewers of 
 wood and drawers of water all yoi;r days. 
 
 Contemplating the dangers to wliich you are exposed, the 
 sorrows and dishonour which acconipany talents misapplied, 
 and a course of indolence and folly, may you exert your ut- 
 most endeavours to avoid them ! Seriously reflecting on the 
 great end for which you were brought into existence ; on 
 the bright and encouraging examples of many excellent young 
 persons ; and ou the mournful deviations of others, who once 
 were promising ; may you be so wise as to choose and follow 
 that path, which leads to honour, usefulness, and true enjoy-MJ 
 ment ! This is the morning of your life, in which pursuit is 
 ardent, and obstacles readily give way to vigour and perse- 
 verance. Embrace this favourable season ; devote yourselves 
 to the acquisition of knowledge and virtue ; and humbly pray 
 to God thst he may bless your labours. Often reflect on the 
 advantages you possess, and on the source from whence they 
 arc all derived. A lively sense of the privileges and ble^^ 
 eings, by which you have been distinguished, will induce you 
 to render to your heavenly Father, the just returns of grati- 
 tude and love : and these fruits of early goodness will be re 
 garded by him as acceptable offerings, and secure to you hi& 
 favour and protection. 
 
 Whatever difficulties and discouragements may be found in 
 resisting the allurements of vice, ycu may be humbly confi- 
 dent, that Divine assistance will be affbrded to all your good 
 and pious resolutions ; and that every virtuous effort ..will 
 mwe a correspondent rc^vard. You may rest assured too, 
 that all tile advantages arising from vicious indulgences, are 
 light and contemptible, as .well as exceedingly transient, com- 
 pared with the substantial enjoymcjnts, the present pleasures, 
 and the future hopes, which result from i^ty and virtue. 
 The Holy Scriptures assure us, that " ThHpays of wisdom 
 are ways of pleasantness, and that all her paths are peace :' 
 " that religion has the promise of the life that now is, and of 
 that which is to come :*' and that the truly good man, what- 
 ever may be the condition allotted to him by Divine Provi- 
 dence, ** in all things gives thanks, and rejoices even in tri- 
 bulation.*' — Some of these sentiments have been finely illua- 
 
232 At)DIl£SS TO tOUNa StUOKKTS. 
 
 trated by a celebrated poet. Tbe autbor of this addrfisi 
 presents tbe iihistrntion to you, as a striking and beautifu 
 portrait of vir4:ue: with his most cordial Avishes, that youi 
 hearts and lives may correspond to it ; and that your happi 
 ness here, may be an earnest of happiness? hereafter. 
 
 " Know then this truth, (enouj^li for man to know,) 
 Virtue alone is bafipiness below ; 
 The only point where liuman blins stands still ; « 
 And tastes the good, without the fall to ill : 
 Where only merit constant pay receivc;s, 
 Is bless'd in what it takes, and what it gives ; 
 The joy unequaird, if its end it gain, 
 And if it lose, attended with no pain : 
 Without satiety, though e'er so bless'd ; 
 And but more relishM as the more distress'd: 
 The broadest mirth unfeeling folly wears, 
 Less pleasing far than virtue's very tears : 
 Good, from each object, from each place acquirec 
 For ever exercisM, yet never tir'd ; 
 Never elated, while one man's oi)press'd ; 
 Never dejected, while another's bless'd : 
 And where no wants, no wishes can remain , 
 Since hut to wisii njore virtue, is to gain.— 
 For him alone hope leads from goal to goal| 
 And opens still, and opens on his soul ; 
 Till lengthen'd on to faith, and unconfinM, 
 It pours the bliss that fills up all the nundi^ 
 
 THE END. 
 

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 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA UBRARY 
 
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