REESE LIBRARY P OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. MAR 141893 ^Accessions No. &0 6"Q Lfr Claxs No* MANUAL OP ENGLISH RHETORIC. BY A. D. HEPBURN, PROFESSOR IN DA VIDSON COLLEGE, N. C. NEW-YORK : CINCINNATI : CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY FROM THE PRESS OF VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG, A CO. COPYRIGHT, 1875, BY WILSON, HINKLE & CO. ECLECTIC PRESS: VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG ft CO., CINCINNATI. PREFACE. TX preparing this Manual, I have had in view the wants of classes in High Schools and Colleges. I have not thought it advisable to introduce into a text-book discussions of topics that belong properly to Psychology, Logic, and ^Esthetics, or to controvert, or even mention, opposing views. The prin- ciples and rules are stated briefly, and exemplified: the in- structor can expand, modify, and apply them according to the requirements of his classes. I am very largely indebted to the Lectures on the English Language by Hon. Geo. P. Marsh, to Dr. J. K. F. Einne's voluminous Theory of Style, to Dr. Karl Becker's philo- sophical treatise upon German Style, and to Vinet's Homi- letics. I have also freely used the results of the labors of many other writers. That a distinct acknowledgment of my indebtedness so seldom appears in the body of the work does not proceed from any wish to claim as my own what is an- other's. It was part of my original plan to give in each section full references to the various works in which its sub- On) iv PKEFACE. ject is treated of, but it was found that this could not be carried out with satisfactory thoroughness without adding too much to the size of the volume. And, indeed, the success of the few attempts that have been made to incorporate into a text-book the literature of the subject, has not been such as to encourage imitation., CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. Definition, Aim and Method of Study, Distribution, of Rhetwic. SECTION. PAGE 1. Definition of Rhetoric 13 2. Prose distinguished from Poetry 13 3. The Expression of thought subject to Laws . . . .14 4. Aim of the study of Rhetoric 15 5. Systematic Rhetoric must neither be neglected nor studied exclusively . 16 6. Original Composition 17 7. Exercises in which the matter is supplied : Paraphrase. Ab- stracts and Abridgments. Translation . . . .17 8. Study of Models. What to study. How to study . . 21 9. Distribution of Rhetoric. Different kinds of Matter. Differ- ent kinds of Discourse. This work distributed into Four Parts . ... ..... 23 PART I. THE PROCESSES CONVERSANT ABOUT THE MATTER OF A DISCOURSE. PRELIMINARY. 10. What are the processes conversant about the matter of a Discourse ? 25 11. The main and the subordinate ideas distinguished. Distribu- tion of Part First 26 CHAPTER I. The Subject of a Discourse. 12. The Subject either given or left to the writer's choice. Forms in which given. Rules to be observed 27 13. The Subject chosen by the Writer. Relation of the Subject to the Writer. Relation of the Subject to the Reader . 28 (v) Ti CONTENTS. SECT. PAGE 14. Determination of the Subject 30 15. The Theme. Its requisites 30 16. Hie Title. Rules for choosing 33 CHAPTER II. Invention. 17. Invention denned. Considered as a power of the Mind. Means of improving it. Invention differs from investiga- tion 34 18. Meditation. What included in? . . . . . .36 19. Recollection 37 20. Selection. Result of the process 38 21. Systematic Meditation. Topics. Their utility . . .40 22. Reading as an aid to invention. Method of Reading . 41 CHAPTER III. Disposition. 23. Disposition : Nature of. Importance of 43 24. Preparation of the Plan. Organic Parts of a Discourse. What contained in the Plan. Necessity of preparing one . 44 25. The laws of Disposition, general and special . . . .46 26. The Nature and Purpose of the Introduction . . . .46 27. Contents of the Introduction. Its structure. When to be prepared . . 48 28. The Body of the Discourse 49 29. Two methods of communicating thought. The Anatytic. The Synthetic 50 30. Comparative advantages of the two 53 31. General Rules for the Disposition of the Body of a Discourse. 54 32. The Conclusion. An essential part. Qualities of . . .55 33. Transitions. Essential qualities of. How found . . .56 CHAPTER IV. Amplification. 34. Nature of Amplification. Importance of 58 35. Means of Amplification. Enumeration. Examples. Causes and Effects. Comparison. Combination of several means. Accessory ideas 60 36. Rules of Amplification 63 CONTENTS. vii PART II. STYLE. CHAPTER I. The Qualities of Prose Style. SECT. . PAGE 37. Nature and conditions of Style. Its importance. Disregard of, among English Prose Writers 66 38. Fundamental qualities of Prose Style. Propriety . . . 68 39. Perspicuity. Spencer's law of economy of attention . . 69 40. Vivacity. Beaut y .71 41. The English language as to power of expression . . .72 42. Topics to be treated of in the Doctrine of Style ... 73 CHAPTER II. The Choice of Words. 43. Importance and difficulty of a proper choice of words . . 74 44. National use. Barbarisms. Provincialisms . . . .75 45. Present use. Obsolete words. Neologisms . . . .79 46. Moral Dignity. Direct expressions of what is base. Wan- ton misapplications designating moral qualities. Vulgar- isms 83 47. Propriety. Accuracy. Congruity 86 48. Conclusion . . 92 CHAPTER III. Figures of Speech. \ 49. Figures of Speech in general. Defined. Are natural and necessary. Their classification 92 50. Figures of Intuition 94 51. Tropes in general 94 52. Synecdoche . .95 53. Metonymy. Antonomasia 97 54. Metaphor. Three kinds of. Its force. Rules for its use . 98 55. Allegory. Parable. Fable 105 56. Personification. Cautions with respect to using it . . . 107 57. Ideal Presence. 1. The present tense used for a past or fut- ure. 2. Vision. 3. Apostrophe. 4. Sermocination . . 108 viii CONTENTS. SECT. PAGE 58. Simile. Different orders of Ill 59. Allusion 113 60. Epithets 114 61. Figures of Emphasis 116 62. Interrogation. Repetition. Exclamation .... 116 63. Hyperbole. Irony . . 118 64. Climax 119 65. Antithesis 120 CHAPTER IV. The Sentence. 66. Sentence defined. Division of Sentences 121 67. Characteristics of the English Sentence 122 68. The Structure of Sentences 124 69. Correctness 125 70. Unity 126 71. Clearness 130 72. Precision. 1. Tautology. 2. Pleonasm. 3. Verbosity . . 136 73. Energy. 1. Inversion. 2. Connectives: Asyndeton and Polysyndeton. 3. Periods and Loose Sentences . . . 139 74. Melody 145 CHAPTER V. The Paragraph. 75. Paragraph defined ......... 146 76. The Structure of Paragraphs 147 77. Unity. Continuity 147 78. Proportion. Variety 150 79. Announcing the Theme 153 80. Examples illustrating the foregoing rules 153 CHAPTER VI. Division of Style. 81. Recapitulation 156 82. Differences of Style 157 83. The Simple or Lower Style 158 84. The Grand or Higher Style 159 CONTENTS. ix SECT. PAGE 85. The Middle Style 160 86. Caution 160 87. Application of the Principles of General Rhetoric . . .161 PART III. THE ELEMENTARY FORMS OP-DISCOURSE. 88. Preliminary. What are the Elementary Forms of Discourse ? 1G2 CHAPTER I. Description. 89. Definition of Description : its objects 163 90. Requisites of a good Description 163 91. Difficulty of the art of Description 164 92. Rules of Description 164 93. Disposition of details 166 94. Auxiliaries. Rules of Expression 167 95. Description of Natural and Artificial Products. Physical Ap- pearances 167 96. Mental states. Characters. General Characters . . . 169 CHAPTER II. Narration. 97. Nature and aim of Narration 171 98. Selection of particulars 172 .99. Disposition of the incidents 173 100. Parts of a Narration 174 CHAPTER III. Exposition. 101. Exposition defined : its objects and aim 176 102. Verbal explication 177 103. Logical explication. Definition 177 104. Division. The Principle of Division. Laws of . . 179 x CONTENTS. PAGE 105. Exposition of a Notion in its relations 181 106. Additional instruments of exposition. 1. Examples. 2. Analogy . 182 107. A scheme of Exposition of a Notion 183 108. Exposition of a Proposition . . . . . . 184 CHAPTER IV. Argument. 109. Argument : what, and what implied in. Nature and degrees of Conviction. Argumentation either Positive or Negative. 185 110. Confirmation . . . 186 111. Preparation of the Question. Its importance. Mode of pre- paring the question 187 112. Invention of Arguments 190 113. Direct and Indirect Reasoning. Conditions of the validity of Indirect Reasoning. Comparative advantages of the two methods 190 114. Deductive Reasoning. Inductive Reasoning. 1. Induction in the limited sense of the word. 2. Analogy. Example. 3. Signs 192 115. Extrinsic Arguments. 1. Testimony. 2. Authority . . 195 116. Selection of Arguments 197 117. Arrangement of Arguments. Analytic and Synthetic order. Principal and Subordinate Arguments. Extrinsic and In- trinsic Arguments 198 118. The Syllogistic and the popular mode of reasoning . . 199 119. Refutation 200 120. Rules of Refutation 202 121. Scheme and Topics of an Argument 203 PART IV. THE PRINCIPAL FORMS OF PROSE. 122. Preliminary. Several divisions of Prose .... 206 CHAPTER I. The Dialogue and Epistolary Prose. 123. Introductory 207 1241 Dialogue. Characters. Subjects . . . . . . 207 CONTENTS. xl SECT. PAGE 125. Requisites of a Dialogue 208 126. Epistolary Prose 209 127. Its general characteristics 209 CHAPTER II. Didactic Prose. 128. What included in Didactic Prose. Its forms .... 210 129. Scientific Prose 211 130. Use of general terms. Technical terms. Sources of tech- nical terms. Under what conditions to be used . . . 212 131. Use of Figurative language 214 132. Kinds of Scientific Prose. 1. Text-books. 2. Disquisitions. 214 133. Popular Scientific Prose 215 134. Criticism 216 CHAPTER III. Historical Prose. 135. What is comprehended in History 217 136. Wrong methods of Historical composition .... 217 137. Genuine Historical method 218 138. Essential qualities. 1. Truth. 2. Local color. 3. Signifi- cance of facts exhibited. 4. Completeness .... 219 139. Historical Arrangement. Chronological Method. Topical Method. Pragmatic Method. Natural Method . . .222 140. Distribution into Periods 225 141. Introduction and Conclusion 226 142. Description. Reflections 226 143. Essential qualities of Historical Style 227 144. Division of History. Universal History. Special History. Biography. Special Histories of Institutions, Industries, Arts, etc 228 CHAPTER IV. Oratorical Prose. 1.45. Oratorical Discourse defined 231 146. Analysis of Persuasion , 231 147. Theme of an Oratorical Discourse 232 xii CONTENTS. SECT. PAGB 148. Description. Narration. Exposition. Argumentation . 232 149. Exhortation. On what does the power of moving the Pas- sions depend? 236 150. Rules for Exhortation. Allaying hostile feelings . . .238 151. Oratorical Disposition. Parts of an Oratorical Discourse .239 152. Exordium. Sources of 240 153. Qualities of an Exordium 242 154. Body of the Speech. Announcement of the Theme. An- nouncement of the Plan 243 155. Special rules for arranging the Arguments and Motives . . 245 156. Peroration. Qualities of 250 157. Characteristics of Oratorical Style. 1. Direct Address. 2. Popularity. 3. Simplicity. 4. Dignity. 5. Energy . . 253 158. Different kinds of Oratory 260 159. Political Oratory 260 160. Parliamentary Oratory. Its essential qualities. Popular Oratory 260 161. Judicial or Forensic Oratory. Compared with Political . 264 162. Means of accomplishing its end 267 163. Its style 269 164. Sacred Oratory .......... 269 165. Instruction an essential requisite 272 166. Religious exhortation 273 167. Familiarity 274 168. Religious Diction 275 169. Two kinds of religious oratorical Discourse. The Sermon. The Homily 276 170. Recapitulation 278 171. Miscellaneous Addresses . 278 172. Conclusion 279 ENGLISH RHETORIC. INTBODUCTIOtf. DEFINITION, AIM AND METHOD OF STUDY, DISTRIBUTION, OF RHETORIC. Section 1. Definition of Rhetoric. Elietoric is the Sci- ence of the Laws and Forms of Prose. It investigates the method and general principles to which every discourse must conform that is designed to instruct, convince, or persuade. 2. Prose distinguished from Poetry, The characteristic marks of prose as distinguished from poetry are the follow- ing: 1. Poetry belongs to what are called the fine arts, so called because their end is not any practical or material utility, but the expression of the beautiful. Its aim is not to communicate knowledge or to influence the will, but to rep- resent the products of the creative imagination in their appro- priate forms in language. It accomplishes all that can be demanded of it when it suits the idea to the form and the form to the idea. The beauty of the representation, or form, is thus the ultimate end of poetry. Prose, on the contrary, strives to accomplish some outward end. It does not describe or prove merely for the sake of (13) 14 INTRODUCTION. Sec. 2 describing or proving, but in order to influence the minds and wills of the readers and hearers. The discourse is thus but a means of producing certain effects, and owes its origin to the design of producing them. The ends of prose are reducible to three : (1) To explain something not known or not distinctly com- prehended 5 (2) To convince of the truth of some proposition that is either doubted or disbelieved j (3) To persuade to a determinate course of action. 2. Accordingly, while the poet yields to the free play of the imagination and emotions in clothing his idea in its suitable form, the prose writer is compelled to submit to many re- straints imposed by outward circumstances. He is obliged to consult the condition, requirements, and character of those for whom he writes, and to accommodate his discourse to them. 3. Conformity to actual facts is not required in poetry : it idealizes the actual, and represents it in vivid images to the imagination. But in prose the notions and judgments that are communicated must have, or seem to have, the character of real truth, and must be exhibited with clearness and method to the understanding. Prose, it is true, appeals to the imagi- nation also, but only to give greater clearness and force to its statements, arid obtain for them a readier acceptance. 4. To awaken the emotion of the beautiful is the supreme end of poetry, but only a subordinate one of prose. In the latter, the purpose which the discourse has to serve is of pri- mary importance ; when the gratification of the taste comes in conflict with this, it must be sacrificed. 5. Verse is incompatible with the nature and aim of prose 5 while, if not essential to poetry, it is peculiar to it. 3. The Expression of thought subject to Laws. The process of combining and expressing thoughts is subject to fixed laws inherent in the mind, which we are at liberty to violate, but, if we violate them, the discourse will fail to realize its end. We follow these laws unconsciously; as in Sec. 4 INTRODUCTION. 15 thinking wo obey the laws of logic, and in speaking, the laws of general grammar, without having present to our minds the principles we put in practice. We can ascertain these laws by reflecting on the operations of our minds, and by analyzing the works of eminent writers, and can reduce them to a system which has a valid claim to the name of Science. The exposition of the laws of the expression of thought in language constitutes the Science or Theory of Discourse. It is divided into two special theories Ehetoric and Poetic. These theories have much in common, but their points of difference are so numerous and marked that they ought to be studied separately. REMARK. The term discourse, in its widest signification, denotes tlie expression in language of a series of thoughts combined into a coherent whole. In this sense it includes all kinds of literary composition, of whatever extent, whether designed to be read or to be heard. It will be used in this very general sense in the present treatise. For the sake of* brevity the terms "writer" and "reader" will be used when the rules apply to discourse in general, as well as when they apply to written discourse exclusively. 4. The Aim of the study of Rhetoric. The aim of the study of Khetoric is practical. 1. It is a scientific introduction to tlie art of composition. The study of its rules and principles is chiefly valuable as a means toward acquiring skill and readiness in the effective communication of thought. We desire to learn not merely what are the essentials of a good style, but how to convey our thoughts in a manner appropriate to our subject and purpose. There is what is called natural Ehetoric, as there is natural Logic. Many who know nothing of rhetorical rules express their ideas clearly and forcibly. But in general, it is true of the art of discourse, as of all other arts, that before any con- siderable degree of perfection in it can be reached, the blind spontaneous process must be converted into a rational one, that is, into one regulated by a clear insight into its nature, end, and conditions. 1G INTRODUCTION. Sec. 4 We must not expect from Rhetoric what it does not profess to give, and can not give. It does not furnish the materials of a discourse, nor aid in distinguishing between what is true and what is false. It supposes that the writer has obtained knowledge from other sources, and confines itself to giving directions how to apply it for a definite purpose. 2. It is an introduction to the critical study of literary models. The study here meant is not for the sake of the thoughts which the work may contain, but one concerned with the manner of expressing the thoughts. It is directed to ascertain whether the work in its matter, arrangement, and style is adapted to its end, and conforms to the laws of the class to which it belongs. To conduct such an analytical study intelligently and successfully, we must be familiar both with the general principles of discourse and the special laws of its several classes. It follows from this, that Rhetoric is a necessary prepara- tory study to literary criticism and the history of literature. 5. Systematic Rhetoric must be neither neglected nor studied exclusively. The prevailing tendency is to neglect the study of systematic Rhetoric. The prejudice against it arises from a misapprehension of its nature and claims. It is not a system of minute technical and arbitrary rules, but of the general principles on which the communication of thought depends. It offers the results of the experience of those who have excelled in the art of convincing and persuading. The question then is, whether it is not more advantageous for the beginner to learn these principles from the experience of others, than to be taught them by the tedious and frequently mortify- ing lessons of his own experience. There can be but one answer to this question. General as the knowledge imparted must be, it will aid in the formation of good habits and in preventing the formation of bad ones ; will save from many a blunder; will confer that readiness and certainty which rest on the clear knowledge of the principles of the art ; and will Sec, 7 INTRODUCTION. 17 impart the sense of freedom which springs from the conscious submission to law. But to make the theory the exclusive, or even principal, object of study is as grave a mistake as to neglect it entirely. Something more than a mere knowledge of rules is necessary to enable us to write well. They must be so impressed on the mind and fused into our habits of thought that we can apply them when the occasion demands. To acquire such a facility we must combine the study of the rules and technicalities of Ehetoric with assiduous practice in composition, and with the critical study of works of literature. 6. Original Composition. This exercise is indispensable, but to be profitable it must conform to the following rules : 1. The composition must be on some definite subject. The rule is stated thus by Sir Wm. Hamilton: "The writing should be more or less limited, that is, be in answer to ques- tions more or less articulate. The student should not be left to roam at large ; but be made to think precisely and per- tinently, by confining him to certain definite points." 2. The exercises should be suited to the age and attain- ments of the pupil. 3. There should be variety in the subjects of the exercises in order to cultivate both the powers of thought and of expres- sion. Essays on historical, geographical, and literary subjects should be joined to those on political and moral. 4. The essays should be laboriously composed and carefully revised. By writing rapidly one can not learn to write well, but by writing well one learns to write rapidly. The eifort to express our thoughts in their proper order, and form is at first painful and discouraging. Every act requires deliberation and choice, but as by practice the habit is gradually formed, we proceed with increasing freedom and certainty, until, at last, we accomplish with ease and pleasure what, at the beginning, w r as forced and irksome. 7. Exercises in which the matter is supplied, To pre- Rhet. 2 18 INTEODUCTION. Sec. 7 vent the serious evils that result from attempting original composition before there is competent knowledge, it is advis- able to prescribe to the beginner exercises in which the matter is supplied, that is, to furnish him with the thoughts, and require him to express them in his own words. These exercises are of different kinds, some requiring a greater amount of intellectual effort than others, but in none is the writer called on to draw from his own stores; he has only to put the materials given him in a particular form, or adapt them to a special purpose. The most important are, Paraphrase, the preparing of Abstracts and Abridgments, and Translation. Paraphrase. This exercise consists in giving the contents of some work or passage of a work in other words in the same language. A paraphrase differs from a translation in not being a transfer from one language to another. When the transference is from poetry into prose, it is called Metaphrase. We generally associate with paraphrase the notion of an ex- pansion of the original thought by definitions, periphrasis, ex- amples, etc., with a view to making it more intelligible ; but this is not essential. Here is meant the simpler form, in which the pupil reproduces in his own words the complete thought of an author, without attempting to explain it or to imitate the style. It has been frequently urged against this exercise, that, in thus substituting other words for those of an accurate writer, we must necessarily choose such as are less expressive of the sense. It has, however, been defended by one of the greatest rhetoricians, Quintilian. The form of this exercise may be varied. One of the most improving, and not open to the objection just mentioned, is to prescribe passages from old English authors to be rendered into modern English according to the laws of style. Abstracts and Abridgments. Another exercise is to re- quire the pupil to give the substance of an entire work, or of Sec. 7 INTRODUCTION. 19 an extended portion of it, in narrower compass. The original text may be modified in various ways ; as, by abbreviating, condensing, substituting words and phrases, transposing sen- tences, etc. But whatever modifications are made in the matter and form of the text, the abstract should, 1. Contain nothing that is not found in the original ; 2. Give all the essential parts, omitting the details ; 3. Give them accurately and distinctly, and as concisely as is compatible with completeness and distinctness. The abstract may be either a bare enumeration of the main points expressed in a series of short disconnected sentences, or a connected presentation of them with greater fullness. They may be given in the words of the original or in the pupil's own words ; the latter method is to be preferred as a rhetorical exercise. These exercises are most important as aids in acquiring perspicuity and precision of style. They compel the pupil to discriminate between the principal and the subordinate ideas of a work ; to decide upon the relative importance of its parts; to attend to the arrangement of the thoughts ; and to present them in their most compact form. REMARK. Dr. Arnold in a letter to one of his former pupils writes : " I am very glad that you continue to practice composition, but above all I would advise you to make an abstract of one or two standard works. One, I should say in philosophy ; the other in history. I would not be in a hurry to finish them, but keep them constantly going on, with one page always clear for notes. The abstract itself practices you in con- densing and giving in your own words what another man has said ; a habit of great value, as it forces one to think about it, which extracting merely does not. It further gives a brevity and simplicity to your lan- guage, two of the greatest merits which style can have." [Stanley's Life and Correspondence of Arnold, i. 334.] Translation. In this exercise the thoughts are given in a foreign language, and the pupil has to render them with equal clearness, fullness, and force into his own. It is justly esteemed one of the best means of acquiring cor- rect habits of thought and expression. It aids in cultivating 20 INTRODUCTION. Sec. 7 the taste as well as the logical powers. It compels to a more minute study of the peculiarities of our native tongue, enlarges our vocabulary, gives readiness and skill in constructing sen- tences, and leads to a better acquaintance with the character- istics of the .different classes of compositions. The laws of translation are : 1. The translation must be an exact representation of the sense of the original, neither adding to it nor taking from it. 2. It must preserve the spirit and style of the original. A perfect translation should make the same impression upon its readers that the original work produced upon those for whom it was written. 3. It must be idiomatic: it must conform to the laws and idioms of the language in which it is written, both in the choice of words and phrases, and in the structure of sentences. It should have the freedom and grace of an original produc- tion. A perfectly adequate translation is impracticable. Every language has words and phrases for which another can supply no equivalents, and words have associations that can not be transferred to foreign ones. It seems that there must be a sacrifice in part either of fidelity to the original or of elegance of style. If the translator strives to give the exact meaning of the original, he is apt to neglect ease and grace of expres- sion ; if he is intent on giving to his work the graces of style, he will, very likely, fail to render the thought of the original with exactness. Two extremes are to be avoided. The one, that of servile literal translation, which is rather a translation of separate words than of entire thoughts. It adheres as closely as pos- sible to the number and order of words, and to the construction of the original; word corresponds to word, sentence to sen- tence. Translations made according to this method are neither accurate nor elegant ; they do not give the spirit and meaning of the original, are stiff and obscure, substitute foreign idioms Sec, 8 INTRODUCTION. 21 for native, and are mostly mere caricatures " which exemplify all the faults incident to language and exclude every excel- lence." The other extreme is that of a loose or excessively free translation ; one that renders the thought with great latitude and indulges freely in periphrasis, interpolations, and omis- sions. This method may present us with works written in idiomatic English and with great beauty of style, but they are unfaithful representations of the original ; in many cases they mutilate, if they do not misrepresent its meaning, and they never reproduce the nice shades of thought involved in par- ticular words and their arrangement. While it is the duty of a translator to conform always to his native idiom, it is also his duty to present faithfully the thoughts of the original without mutilation and without any admixture of his own views. And if ease and elegance are attainable only at the expense of fidelity, some degree of roughness is to be preferred. 8. Study of Models. The study of systematic Ehetoric and practice in composition will not accomplish to any adequate extent their end unless they are combined with the study of models of literary excellence. It is a great mistake to exclude this study from a course of rhetorical training, or to give to it a subordinate place. It is only by the constant application of the principles of Ehetoric to the masterpieces of genius and taste (which are the most perfect results of the processes whose laws it investigates), that it can be saved from becoming a collection of narrow artificial rules, and rhetorical practice be prevented from de- generating into a mechanical process. Without such a study of literary models, rhetorical rules and precepts can not be intelligible. Its relation to sys- tematic Ehetoric has been very aptly compared to that which the examination of the actual experiments of the philosopher bears to the abstract statements and formulas in which the results of the experiments are embodied. The necessity of 22 INTRODUCTION. Sec, 8 examining experiments is even greater in literary studies than in natural science. The benefits of an intelligent and prolonged study of the standards of taste are, that it both shows the pupil what real excellence is and incites him to seek it; leads him to the knowledge of his own peculiar tastes and aptitudes ; quickens his perception of what is correct and incorrect, beautiful and deformed ; and imparts a more vigorous and elevated mode of thinking. The beginner needs a judicious adviser to direct him what to study and how to study. What to Study. The works should be few, and those the most perfect of their kind. Writers whose style is bad are not suitable for beginners, whose taste is not yet formed, and who are more easily led astray by brilliant faults, than im- pressed by unobtrusive excellences. There should be a sufficient variety in the selection. Other- wise, the pupil will be in danger of servile imitation, and will lose the advantages that are derived from the comparison of different writers. He should not be confined to prose, but should become familiar with the standards in all departments of literature. "One can," says Hegel, "and one ought to become acquainted with all that is glorious in literature." The "volumes paramount" of our English literature should be unremittingly studied, those great national works "which have mingled with the life blood of the people, and from which all classes for generation after generation draw their views of nature and life, which form the bonds of intellectual and moral sympathy amongst all, in which all ranks may meet as in a church and all may feel at home." [Hare, Guesses at Truth.] How to Study. The student should analyze the works and apply to them, and test by them, the principles of literary criticism. He should endeavor to discover the writer's reasons for his choice and arrangement of words and his management Sec. 9 INTRODUCTION. 23 of the subject. And as it is impossible in one exercise to apply all the rhetorical principles to a composition of even moderate size, the same work should be made the object of repeated special examination. At one time, its general plan may be examined ; at another, the mode of amplifying some of the leading ideas ; at another, the structure of the sentences and paragraphs ; at another, the choice of words, etc. The attention of the student should be directed to the beau- ties of the work, not to its defects merely. The best criticism is that which finds out the excellence of a composition ; and it is by far the most difficult. It is the indication of sound judg- ment and refined taste. It should be remembered that our powers are improved by contemplating what is excellent, not what is deformed; and also that beginners are not prepared to point out defects. 9. Distribution of Rhetoric. We shall first treat of the general principles common to all forms of prose, and then apply these principles to the different kinds of matter and discourse. These principles relate to the matter of the discourse, i. e. f to the thoughts of which it is composed, and to the style, ' i. ., to the expression of the thoughts in language. The thoughts are principal, the language is but accessory ; but neither can be neglected by the writer. The merit of a literary work does not depend exclusively either on the quality of its matter or on its diction, but on the union of the two- There must be true and appropriate thoughts clothed in fitting words. A work in which great truths are communicated in obscure and confused language may be valuable as a work of science, but can not be ranked among works of literature. On the other hand, no artifices of diction can give value to a dis- course wanting in vigorous thought. Sound thought is the indispensable condition of good writing. The student's atten- tion is, accordingly, directed first to the mental processes con- cerned with the matter of the discourse, and afterwards to the laws for the expression of thought in Of THE UNIVERSITY 24 INTKODUCT10N. Sec. 9 Different kinds of Matter. The matter of discourse is of different kinds. In communicating knowledge, we may have an object to describe, an event to narrate, a general notion to explain, or a proposition to prove. Description, Narration, Exposition, and Argumentation are therefore the elements, or elementary forms, of all discourse. They must be considered separately, and the general principles be applied to each. Different kinds of Discourse. These elements are com- bined in different ways and modified according to the purpose of the writer. Thus arise distinct kinds or classes of discourse ; as, didactic, historical, oratorical; each of which, while it has much in common with the others, has its distinctive features and special laws. It is part of the office of Rhetoric to classify the leading forms of prose, and to exhibit their characteristic marks. This Work distributed into Four Parts. This treatise is distributed into four parts. The first part treats of the proc- esses conversant about the matter of a discourse; the second, of the principles of style; the third, of the elementary forms of a discourse ; the fourth, of the principal forms of prose. PART I. THE PROCESSES CONVERSANT ABOUT THE MATTER OF A DISCOURSE. PBELIMLNABY. 10. What are the processes conversant about the matter of a Discourse ? We are to investigate, first of all, the proc- esses concerned with the matter of discourse and their laws. AVe shall examine and exhibit in their natural order the various mental acts involved in the process of composition, from the finding of the subject to its complete development. This part might very appropriately be entitled, The Method of Compo- sition (excluding what is concerned with the expression of the thoughts in language). A preliminary caution is necessary. Any analysis of men- tal phenomena is defective and partially false, for it exhibits as separate what in nature are inseparable. The psychologist discusses separately thought, feeling, and volition, yet the three blend in every act. So in Bhetoric we separate thought and language, although they are mutually dependent, each supposing the other, and we consider as entirely distinct the finding of the thoughts and the arranging of them, whereas, in reality, the two processes often mingle. Still, as it is impor- tant that the student obtain a distinct view of the complex process, and as each part of it, though dependent on and im- plied in the others, has its distinctive features, it is necessary for the sake of clearness to examine each separately. AVlicn one wishes to accomplish some definite object *)y means of a discourse either spoken or written, he has, Rhet. 3 ('25) 26 MATTER OF A DISCOURSE. Sec. 10 1. To find some thought connected with this end or aim which will serve as the basis of his discourse ; i. e.j to find a subject. 2. To gather and select the ideas involved in, or associated with the subject that are needed to develop it adequately. 3. To arrange these ideas in the order required by the nature of the discourse and his special purpose. 11. The main and the subordinate ideas to be distin- guished. We find in every discourse certain thoughts that are more important than the rest; they are derived immedi- ately from the main idea, or subject, are indispensable parts of its development, constitute the grand divisions of the dis- course, and contain a number of thoughts under them. These are the main ideas of the discourse. There are others which sustain the same relation to the main ideas as these do to the subject; they are derived from them, and serve to explain, illustrate, and enforce them. These are called the subordinate ideas. It is important to distinguish between these. The main thoughts must always be found and arranged before the sub- ordinate ones can be selected. The labor of composing as well as of analyzing will be rendered much less tedious and per- plexing if this distinction is kept in view. Distribution of this Part. In accordance with what has just been said, this Part is divided into the following chap- ters : I. THE SUBJECT OF A DISCOURSE. II. INVENTION, or the finding of the main ideas of a dis- course. III. DISPOSITION, or the arranging of the main ideas. IY. AMPLIFICATION, or the finding and arranging of the subordinate ideas. Sec. 12 SUBJECT OF A DISCOURSE. . 27 CHAPTEE I. THE SUBJECT OF A DISCOURSE. 12. The Subject either given or left to the writer's choice. The subject of a discourse is the general idea or thought connected with the aim of the writer which he intends to present in some of its aspects. It may be given to him with more or less defiiiiteness, as in the eloquence of the senate and of the bar, in prize essays, and in many collegiate exercises ; or it may be left to his choice, as in the eloquence of the pulpit and in most kinds of composition. Forms in. which given. It may be expressed literally or figuratively ; in a single term or phrase ; in a sentence de- clarative, interrogative, or imperative or combination of sen- tences. In whatever form the subject is given, the writer can not enter on the work of composition until he has ascertained what is the precise idea that the words are intended to convey. His first task then is to weigh the terms and analyze the sentences in which his subject is expressed. Rules to be observed. The following rules should be ob- served : 1. Whatever notions are not sufficiently clear and distinct must be defined, or, at least, their essential qualities must be enumerated; poetic expressions should be converted into prose ; figurative, into literal. EXAMPLE. " The battle of Marathon, one of the decisive battles of the world." The meaning of the word decisive as used in this connection should be accurately determined. " Men's evil manners live in brass ; Their virtues we write in water." Men's evil deeds are remembered long after their good deeds are forgot- ten. *i 28 MATTER OF A DISCOURSE. Sec. 12 "Exercise thyself unto godliness." " Train thyself thy religious char- acter with an eagerness and activity, patience and perseverance like that of the athletes training their bodies for the games." 2. The relations of the several notions as limiting, qualify- ing, supplementing each other are to be carefully noticed, lest the subject be understood in a sense either too extensive or too - narrow, and a subordinate be taken for the main idea. Ex." The study of Mathematics as an exercise of mind." Not the science but the study; not the practical, material utilities of the study, but its utility as a means of intellectual discipline. "If it l)e possible, as much as lieth in you live peaceably with all men." The duty enjoined can not be exhibited in its entire extent and with its necessary limitations, if the qualifications contained in the words, "if it be possible" and "all" are not accurately weighed. 3. It must be ascertained whether the proposition contains several judgments or but a single one. If it is complex, it must be separated into the several judg- ments contained in it. Sometimes several distinct judgments can be combined, and a new one formed comprehending all of them. Ex. "The universality and evil effects of prejudice." Two distinct assertions are contained in this: (1) Prejudice is universal; (2) Its effects are injurious. "There is a tide in the affairs of men, Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune; Omitted, all the voyage of their life- Is bound in shallows and in miseries." The two assertions, that opportune moments occur in a man's life, and that the neglect to improve them brings disaster and suffering, may be embraced in the single imperative sentence, "Improve the present oppor- tunity." "Prove all things, hold fast what is good." The two commands may be reduced to one, "Avoid the extremes of credulity and skepticism." 13. The Subject chosen by the Writer. When the subject is left to the choice of the writer, he is often embarrassed in Sec. 13 SUBJECT OF A DISCOURSE. 20 /f J selecting from the crowd of thoughts presented to his mind , the one that is suited to his purpose. His range of choice will be limited by his special studies, his taste, the opportunity for preparation, etc. ; but that he may not err at the very outset, he must, in addition to these, take into consideration the rela- tion of the subject to himself and to the reader. The relation of the Subject to the Writer. It must be appropriate to his age and attainments, and one, of the truth and importance of which he is thoroughly convinced. Fullness of knowledge and thoroughness of conviction are the primary conditions of power in communicating thought. " Speak not at all, in anywise," says Carlyle, " until you have somewhat to speak; care not for the reward of your speaking, but simply and with undivided mind for the truth of your speaking. 77 The attempt to discuss a subject beyond the writer's ca- pacity and knowledge must end in failure. He does not know what to say ; he can not use the materials he has ; his pro- duction will be a series of vague general expressions conveying no distinct notions to himself or to the reader, a collection of second-hand sentiments and empty commonplaces strung to- gether in an artificial, frigid manner, which can neither inter- est nor affect others. That the 'writer should be convinced of the truth and im- portance of his subject is demanded on rhetorical grounds apart from moral. Our feelings exert a powerful influence upon our intellectual activities. A deep moral interest in the subject fixes the attention on it, calls up from memory related thoughts, and directs them to the main end for which the dis- course is made ; while the consciousness of insincerity distracts the mind and prevents the writer from yielding himself en- tirely to his subject. His meditation will be languid and painful and the coldness, artificial structure, and want of re -a! unity of the discourse will betray his un truthfulness. This explains why many discourses that have very great defects are nevertheless so convincing and persuasive, while 30 MATTER OF A DISCOURSE. Sec, 13 others, apparently correct and finished, are so feeble. The laws of discourse are the laws of sincere utterance, and can be obeyed only by the sincere. The relation of the Subject to the Reader. It must be suited to the character and condition of those to whom the discourse is addressed. The discourse is but a means to an end ; if its subject is not appropriate to the temper, feelings, intellectual and moral con- dition, and circumstances of the readers, it can not interest them and must fail to accomplish its purpose. 14. The determination of the Subject. The subject when first chosen by the writer has not the definite form and limits in which it will be presented in the discourse. In a well constructed work we find no difficulty in discovering its main idea, that to which the others are subordinate and of which they are only the development. But we must not suppose, that the form in which we thus find it is that in which it occurred originally to the writer. It was at first a somewhat vague and indefinite general idea, connected in some of its parts with his purpose, but containing also much that had no connection with it; it was related to a number of other sub- jects, and was equally suitable to discourses of various kinds and for different purposes. Prolonged reflection was necessary to limit this vague and indeterminate subject, and to adapt it to the special character and aim of the discourse. To effect this, it was necessary to contemplate it from a particular point of view, to dwell upon whatever it contained that related to the end to be realized, neglecting all that was irrelevant, however interesting and important in other respects it might be. This process is called determining the subject. 15. The Theme. When the subject is thus determined and is expressed as briefly and precisely as possible in language, it is called the theme. Sec. 15 SUBJECT OF A DISCOURSE. 31 The subject and the theme are usually regarded as iden- tical. The distinction between them is, however, real and important. The subject is a general thought connected with the aim of the writer; the theme is the subject limited and modified by the end in view, by the character of the discourse, and by the circumstances of the case. It is the clearest, brief- est, most precise statement of so much of the subject as the writer intends to develop in his work. A number of entirely different themes can be derived from the same subject. For example, several writers could discuss such a subject as Wealth or Labor, and no two of them have the same theme. One would confine himself to its econom- ical, another to its social, another to its religious aspects. Each would limit and modify the same general subject, and appropriate what suits his special purpose. Its requisites. The theme is the germ of the entire dis- course, for the discourse is only the explicit statement of what is contained implicitly in the theme. It is all important that the writer lay it down in his mind in its proper form ; if he neglect to do so he will inevitably fail to accomplish his end. If properly laid down, the theme should comply with the fol- lowing conditions : 1. It should grow naturally out of the study of the subject both in its real nature and in its relation to the object to be accomplished. If the subject is not mastered, the theme will be drawn from a superficial and erroneous view of it, will contain extraneous matter, and may have no connection what- ever with it. If the subject is carefully studied,, but without special reference to the application of it that we wish to make, the idea adapted to our purpose will not be found. In both cases the theme will be arbitrary. The writer must not be too precipitate in laying down his theme. He can not obtain it until the work of meditation is finished. 2. It should have unity. Unity is not simplicity. The theme may be a complex thought, but however complex, it should be but ojie thought. This is indispensable to the unity 32 MATTEK OF A DISCOURSE. Sec. 15 of the discourse, which is the result of the subordination of all its parts to one dominant idea. If the theme is composed of a number of distinct thoughts, the discourse, instead of being one complete, organic whole, will be a mixture of fragments of several discourses on different themes. 3. It must be neither too broad nor too narrow. When it is too broad, i. e., when it embraces more than is necessary any thing more than the aim and character of the work de- mands the writer, if he develops it naturally and correctly, is compelled to admit a great deal that is irrelevant, which, besides adding unnecessarily to the length of his production, withdraws the attention from the main point, and renders the total impression feeble and indistinct. When it is too narrow, i. e.j when it does not express the whole thought of the writer, and embrace all that is essential to his purpose, as he dare not admit into the development what is not contained in the theme, he can not communicate what he Avishes, or can do so only by abandoning his theme. 4. It should be comprehensive rather than extensive. Ex- tensive or very general themes such as cover a great deal of ground are, for the most part, less fertile than more compre- hensive or particular ones. The restricted view of a subject furnishes more abundant and valuable matter. In a broad theme, as the writer has not space to unfold and illustrate his statements, he is confined to vague generalities and trite remarks ; while in a less extensive theme, he is compelled to examine the details more thoroughly and to distinguish them more precisely, and so can present a greater variety of particu- lar ideas. 5. It must be clear and distinct. The writer must not be content with a mere general impression, but should state it with the greatest possible clearness and keep it constantly in view. Any uncertainty as to its meaning or extent, or indis- tinctness in the notions contained in it, will lead to the viola- tion of its unity by confounding it with connected or related yet different ideas, and to looseness and obscurity in its treat- ment. Sec. 16 SUBJECT OF A DISCOURSE. 33 16. The Title. The title is intended to convey to others a general idea of the nature and contents of the work. Its choice, especially in the more purely literary productions, is often a matter of considerable difficulty. Rules for the choice of. The rules to be observed in choosing a title are : 1. It should express the main idea of the work. A title drawn from a subordinate idea is idle and often misleading. Even those cases in which it is the purpose of the writer not to reveal at first the drift of his work are not exceptions to this rule. In all cases it is necessary that the appropriateness of the title, if not apparent at first, should become so in the course of the work. 2. It should not promise too much, and so raise expectations that will be disappointed. 3. It should be concise, readily understood, and easily re- membered. Verbosity and new or uncommon words are no- where more out of place than in the title. At the same time, whatever has the appearance of affectation, pedantry, and pre- sumption ought to be avoided. 4. When figurative expressions are used, the propriety of their application should be easily recognized. Objection, for example, has frequently been made to the title of Johnson's Rambler; as it suits neither the character of the work nor of the author. 5. An explanatory phrase or clause is sometimes annexed to a figurative or general title to prevent misconception of the scope of the work or to indicate it with more exactness. Ex. " Biographia Literaria ; or Biographical Sketches of my Literary life and opinions." (Coleridge.) "Social Statics; or the conditions es- sential to Human Happiness specified, and the first of them developed." (Herbert Spencer.) "Truth, Falsehood, and Fiction; an Allegory." (Johnson.) 34 MATTER OF A DISCOURSE. Sec, 17 CHAPTEE II. INVENTION. 17. Invention defined. Invention, in its widest significa- tion, includes all the processes involved in the conception, de- velopment, and arrangement of the matter of a discourse: we may be said to invent the subject and plan as well as the ideas. In its narrowest sense, it denotes the process or art of finding the main thoughts of a discourse. In this sense it is here employed. Invention as a power of the Mind. Xo system of max- ims or rules can teach one to find what suits^ his purpose. This is the act of an original power of the mind, which may be developed and strengthened by education, but can never be acquired. To the higher forms of this power of invention in science and art is given the name of genius. Minds differ greatly as to the kind of invention they possess: some have it in abstract subjects, others in concrete ; some in oratorical, others in historical, others in philosophical subjects. They are also very unequal with respect to fertility of inven- tion: one finds much that is new and valuable in a subject that to another affords only what is trivial and commonplace. So far as these diversities result from constitutional differences of mind, they can not be remedied by education. ]^o one can give himself a different kind of invention. But all may im- prove the kind they have. Means of improving it. This power is susceptible of a high degree of culture. We sometimes find those who can recall and apply their knowledge with promptness and cer- tainty whenever circumstances require it. Such ready and habitual fertility of invention is however a rare attainment : it is one of the last results of long and severe mental discipline. Some of the important means towards acquiring it are : 1. Extent of knowledge. The mind can not create: it Sec. 17 INVENTION. 35 must receive before it can produce. Varied knowledge both determines it to more vigorous energy and furnishes the ma- terials on which it can employ its powers; and, instead of being unfriendly to originality , is an aid to it. What Thom- son says of scientific discovery is equally true of rhetorical invention: "The suggestive power may be educated as cer- tainly as, though more gradually than, the critical. The dis- covery which we call a flash of genius, a happy thought, really depends as much upon previous acquirements, as the power of stating a case or applying a rule does." 2. Habits of methodical thought. Those have a great ad- vantage in invention who have formed the habit of associating their thoughts by their real and logical connections, and of referrring particular facts to general principles and illustrating principles by facts. By thus methodizing their ideas and mul- tiplying the number of relations between them, they retain them more firmly and can recall them more readily. Those, on the contrary, whose ideas are united by merely accidental associations and are thrown together in the mind without order or classification, have no control over their knowledge. When they would meditate upon a subject their thoughts are confused; many are suggested that have no real connection with the subject, while those that are appropriate remain con- cealed, or are discovered by accident only. 3. Exercise. -Like the other mental powers, it is improved . by exercise. The more frequently we apply ourselves to gath- ering and selecting thoughts for a special purpose, the greater facility do we acquire. To be profitable, the exercise should be regular, systematic, and painstaking. The power of inven- tion is feeble with most persons because it has never been properly exerted. Invention different from investigation. Invention differs, both in its aim and method, from scientific investigation. The scientific inquirer seeks to extend his knowledge and to give to it distinctness and harmony. He pursues his investigations for his own enlightenment only, without regard to the re- 36 MATTER OF A DISCOURSE. Sec. 17 quirements of others ; nor can lie always foresee what conclu- sions his inquiries will lead him to. It is very different with the writer who intends to communicate knowledge. He is supposed to be already in possession of what he wishes to convey to others. The process of investigation is completed, the facts and principles are already ascertained, before the work of composition begins. Invention, then, is not a process by which we extend our knowledge or give to it greater clear- ness and certainty, but one by which we gather from our own stores whatever can aid us in accomplishing our object. It is not a search for new truths; but for facts, principles, argu- ments, and motives to explain, establish, or enforce what we already know or believe. He who seeks to present truth in an intelligible and con- vincing manner to others must regard many things that ought never to influence him whose aim is to ascertain the truth. And it is not always the case, that one who has obtained clearness and certainty in his views has the skill to render them clear and certain to others. Invention differs from inves- tigation in not being regulated exclusively by the nature of the subject-matter; it is a process whose direction and limits are determined by the object of the waiter, by the kind of discourse he intends to make, and by the character and condition of those for whom he writes. 18. Meditation. Although we are supposed to be familiar with the subject upon wliich we propose to write, it is seldom that our knowledge is so completely under our control that we can recall it at once and present it in its appropriate form. Of what we have gathered at different times from various quarters, much lies dormant in the memory ; the full import of much is not unfolded; many of the facts and principles bearing upon our purpose lie disconnected, and their relation to each other and their importance are not recognized. It is necessary to cause the subject to pass before the mind; to render clear what is obscure, to recall what is latent, to bring together the scattered fragments, and thus obtain a general Sec. 19 INVENTION. 37 idea of the main thoughts which should constitute the develop- ment of the subject. The means by which this is accom- plished is called meditation. What included in ? It includes two distinct mental opera- tions : 1. Recollection, or the gathering of the facts and principles involved in the subject or connected with it. 2. Selection, or the choosing of such as are suited to the nature and end of the discourse. 19. Recollection. The first step of the writer, after choos- ing his subject, is to recall whatever he has read, or learned, or thought that relates to it, all the facts and principles in- volved in it or connected with it. This process is governed by what are called the laws of association. No thought arises in the mind entirely isolated; each brings with it a number of related ones. The thought of an effect suggests that of a cause, the thought of an end suggests that of a means, the thought of one object suggests another resembling it or differing from it, etc. When we concentrate our attention upon any subject, we bring it with greater distinctness and vividness before consciousness, and, at the same time, awaken a number of accessory ideas. Our success in gathering from the materials in our posses- sion what suits our purpose depends upon our power of con- tinuous thinking. The first suggestions are generally obscure, superficial, and commonplace. It requires perseverance to extort from the mind its treasures. By prolonged brooding over the subject our interest in it increases, and both the sug- gestive faculty and the judgment act more vigorously. Xew relations are detected, new combinations are formed, new applications are discovered, and the subject with all its quali- ties and parts and associated ideas is brought distinctly before the mind. The young writer needs to be cautioned against being over- scrupulous and systematic in conducting this process. He 38 MATTER OF A DISCOURSE. Sec. 19 should not allow the critical powers to cramp the suggestive. Having set clearly before himself the end he Avishes to realize, let him yield himself to the subject and to the impressions that it makes upon him, and abandon himself boldly to the current of his thoughts. They will not arise in the shape or order in which they will appear in the finished composition. Many of them will be incorrect, inappropriate, defective. But he should not chill the ardor of thought by pausing to separate the true from the false, the suitable from the unsuitable, or to estimate the importance of the several thoughts and to assign them their place. Let him first gather his materials ; afterwards he can examine and sift them. If he attempt to combine the two operations, the flow of ideas will be checked, and many valua- ble thoughts will be lost. It is advisable to write down the thoughts as they are suggested, to aid in remembering them and to facilitate the difficult process of selection. 20. Selection. By the process just described a great amount of materials has been accumulated, not all of which, however, can be incorporated into the discourse. The writer's next step is to select from this mass what suits his purpose. This is often a matter of great difficulty and frequent discour- agement; he does not know what to choose out of the crowd of particulars, and sees no way of bringing order out of the confusion. Selection is an act of the judgment. There are certain characteristics or qualities the presence of which in an idea justifies or requires its admission into, and the absence of which requires its exclusion from a discourse 5 selection con- sists in examining the various ideas that have been gathered to find whether they have these essential marks. The first inquiry is, Are they true ? The second, Are they adapted to the nature and end of the discourse I Whatever is false, or appears to be false, weakens, if it does not destroy, the effect of a production designed to enlighten, convince, or persuade. All the notions, judgments, and rea- Sec. 20 INVENTION. 39 soilings must be scrutinized, and the erroneous statements and fallacious reasonings be 'rejected. AVith these should be rejected also whatever is wanting in subjective truth, i. e., whatever is not in harmony with the writer's belief and feel- ings, or is contrary to his experience. It is not enough that the thoughts be true, they must also have the quality of adaptation. This includes several things : 1. Adaptation to the particular kind of discourse. The principle of selection is not the same for all kinds of composi- tion. The effect of a work is often injured by the intrusion of matter that is appropriate only to one of an entirely different nature 5 as, for instance, when purely didactic or purely poetical matter is introduced into a discourse the aim of which is to move the will. 2. Adaptation to the reader. A writer must choose what is suitable to the condition and requirements of those whom he addresses, and will often have to reject what to himself seems more important. The materials selected for an essay or trea- tise intended for popular instruction are different from those of a scientific work addressed to a limited class of intelligent readers. 3. The different thoughts are to be examined as to their mutual dependence. The scattered related thoughts are to be brought together and combined into more comprehensive state- ments. And from them are to be chosen the main ideas essential to the development of the subject. Result of the process. As the result of the whole process the writer obtains what is often called the idea of the dis- course, by which is meant a general view of the leading thoughts that should enter into it. These thoughts are still of a very general character, and are not in tlie order which the nature of the discourse requires. They are next to be suitably arranged and then expanded into their subordinate ideas. These two processes will be treated of under the heads of Disposition and Amplification. 4=0 MATTER OF A DISCOUESE. Sec. 21 21. Systematic Meditation. The process of meditation described above (Sees. 17-19) is called natural or free, because the order of thoughts is determined by the natural laws of the association of ideas. There is another kind of meditation called logical, or systematic, which is a regulated, methodical procedure. It consists in proposing a series of questions with reference to the subject and endeavoring to answer them. Topics. To aid in this, what are called topics are em- ployed. These are certain yery general notions which afford points of view from which to contemplate a given subject. By bringing these notions in succession before the mind and applying them to the subject to be examined, we can view it in its parts and relations. The topics are of two kinds, general and special. We can frame questions that are applicable to a great variety of ob- jects; e. #., What is it? by which we obtain its definition or description. What is its cause? With what can it be compared ? etc. Besides these general topics, there are others which are used in certain classes of subjects. One series of questions is used when the subject is an event, another when it is a person, another when it is a general notion. Thus, with reference to a person the questions would be concerning his nation, age, rank, employment, character, etc. With respect to an event, the questions would be as to time, place, parties engaged, causes, effects, attendant circum- stances, etc. Their utility. It is manifest that every one must use some of these topics in writing. But there is a great disagreement with respect to the utility of preparing and using full schemes or lists of topics. This artificial method of invention has a prominent place in the ancient rhetorics, but has been very generally excluded from the modern. There is no doubt, how- ever, that although it is liable to abuse, it can be employed with profit in a course of rhetorical discipline. The use of topics does not exempt from the necessity of Sec. 22 INVENTION. 41 patient reflection. They are not thoughts, but mere hints to guide our thinking, to indicate the direction in which we are to look for thoughts. They are of but little service to those who have already studied the subject scientifically, for these have a complete scheme of topics in the science ; but to begin- ners they are necessary. To them the subject is at first vague and confused : their greatest difficulty is to know what to look for. A properly prepared scheme of topics assists them in giving order and distinctness to their thoughts, by limiting the extent of the field, by making prominent the points to be noticed, and by marking out a path in which their thoughts may proceed. It is not meant that this topical meditation should be sub- stituted for the natural. Its use is, (1) to prepare for the natural by giving a general view of the subject, and by bring- ing to notice its different sides ; and (2) to supplement it, by discovering whether any essential points have been neglected. The use of topics will be explained in considering the ele- mentary forms of discourse. (Part III.) 22. Reading as an aid to Invention, When the subject admits of it, reading upon the same or upon related subjects should be connected with meditation. Its uses are : first, to stimulate the suggestive faculty ; secondly, to supply the defi- ciencies in our knowledge. Method of Reading. 1. The general rule is, that it should precede writing and follow meditation ; or as it is expressed by Jean Paul Eichter, " Never write upon a subject without having first read yourself full of it, and never read without having first thought yourself hungry." Gibbon gives the same advice. " After a rapid glance," he tells us, " on the subject and distribution of a new book, I suspend the reading of it, which I only resume after having examined the subject in all its relations ; after having called up in my solitary walks all that I have read, or thought, or learned in regard to the subject of the whole book or of some chapter in particular. I Rhet. 4 42 MATTER OF A DISCOURSE. Sec, 22 thus place myself in a condition to estimate what the author may add to my general stock of knowledge, and I am thus sometimes favorably disposed by the accordance, sometimes armed by the opposition of our views." By previous meditation, the end we have in view in reading is more firmly fixed, and the mind is less liable to be diverted to foreign matters, or into vague, general reading. Beading is also rendered more suggestive and profitable. When the mind is occupied with a subject, it detects quickly whatever is related to it, and finds materials in the most unexpected quarters. There are few books that will not suggest some- thing new and appropriate to a full mind. 2. The reading should be varied. By seeing how the same subject is treated by diiferent and opposing authors, new views are obtained, and our knowledge becomes more comprehen- sive. 3. The thoughts gathered or suggested should be written down in clear, precise statements. If only general impres- sions are received, reading will only confuse and burden the mind. 4. The materials gathered must be made our own by vigor- ous thought. They must be sifted; what suits our purpose must be selected, and, by prolonged meditation, be combined and brought into harmony with our own stores; be fused into them, modifying them and in turn being modified by them. In this way only can the thoughts of others become our own ; they are otherwise but lumber stored in the memory, and can not be transferred to our own writings without render- ing us liable to the charge of plagiarism. REMARKS. (1) To what extent we may avail ourselves of tlie mental possessions of others is a question of morals. The two extremes of false originality and of plagiarism are to be avoided. He who will make no use of what others have done will not be likely to give to the world any- thing valuable. Nothing is easier and more worthless than the originality of ignorance. Our greatest authors have borrowed most freely; but, as Dryden says of Ben Jonson, "they invade authors like monarchs." (2) "I call that the best theme/' says Dr. Arnold, "which shows that Sec. 23 DISPOSITION. 43 the boy lias read and thought for himself; that the next best which shows that lie has read several books, and digested what he has read ; and that the worst which shows that he has followed but one book, and that with- out reflection/' CHAPTER III. DISPOSITION. 23. Disposition, nature of. Disposition consists in arrang- ing the materials furnished by meditation in such an order and connection as correspond with the special character and aim of the discourse. It presupposes that the writer has gathered the main ideas, and decided on the form of composition in which lie will em- body them. He is now required to distribute them to their appropriate places, fix their limits, and combine them into a complete, harmonious whole. Importance of. There can be no discourse without order and proportion. A discourse is not a series of independent propositions, but the continuous development of a single theme; its effects are .produced by it as a whole, not by some separate part. However numerous the thoughts contained in it, they must all be subordinate to one leading thought, all be mutu- ally dependent as members of one organic whole. Only in this relation to each other and to the entire discourse, do they obtain their real significance. It is not sufficient then that the separate statements are intelligible ; they must be so arranged as to support and illus- trate each other, and that each shall contribute to the total impression, else the entire thought is not communicated and the full import of the parts can not be understood. REMARK. The importance of disposition in composition has been insisted upon both by the most competent teachers of rhetoric and by 44 MATTER OF A DISCOURSE. Sec. 23 the greatest masters of style. Rinne pronounces it " the heart of the theory of style;" and the famous discourse of Bufibn on style is but an expansion of the same idea; he defines style, as the order and movement we give to our thoughts. Originality, according to Pascal, consists not so much in the newness of the individual thoughts as in their combination. "The disposition of the materials," he says, "is something new. In playing tennis both use the same ball, but one places it better than the other. It might as well be objected that I use current words ; as if the same thoughts did not form a different body of discourse by a different arrangement, just as the same words differently disposed form different thoughts." To the same effect Vinet says: "Good thoughts, as Pascal says, are abundant. The art of organizing them is not so common. It requires sometimes a greater capacity to find the relations arid appropri- ate places of these organic molecules. We should perhaps be within bounds in saying that disposition in a discourse is not of more secondary importance than the mode of aggregation of molecules in a physical sub- stance ; this mode in a great measure constitutes the nature of the body." [Homiletics, Skinner's translation, p. 264.] So also Whateley: "Ar- rangement is a more important point than is generally supposed ; indeed, it is not perhaps of less consequence in composition than in the military art ; in which it is well known, that with an equality of forces, in num- bers, courage, and every other point, the manner in which they are drawn up, so as either to afford mutual support, or, on the other hand, eve* to impede or annoy each other, may make the difference of victory or defeat." [Rhetoric, p. 168.] 24. Preparation of the Plan. The law of order extends to every portion of the composition; to the combination of ideas in the sentences as well as to the more complex combi- nations of the principal divisions. But before proceeding to the arrangement of the details, the writer must attend to the more general procedure of fixing the limits and determining the contents of the organic parts of the discourse, which is usually called preparing the plan. What are the organic parts of a discourse ? The organic- parts of a discourse are the introduction, the body of the dis- course, and the conclusion. These are all essential parts of an organic, indivisible whole. We are not to infer, because some precede and others follow and we can separate them in our analysis, that they are hide- Sec. 24 DISPOSITION. 45 pendent of each other, or that a discourse can be complete with some of them wanting. It is the same with a discourse as witli a syllogism. AVe can separate the propositions of the latter, and each will express a distinct and intelligible judg- ment, but it will have lost its peculiar force and meaning as a part of the syllogism. So the introduction, body of the dis- course, and conclusion, are all integrant parts of a complex but single and simultaneous thought; each has its special purpose to subserve, and is indispensable to the development of the theme; each is dependent on the others, and out of relation to them loses all its significance. What contained in the plan? The plan, or outline, con- tains a summary statement, in their proper order and connec- tion, of the essential ideas of the introduction, of the body of the discourse, and of the conclusion. What is merely explana- tory and illustrative is excluded, as attention to mwnticu will confuse and lead astray, and defeat the purpose for which the plan is made. But although the main points are given briefly, they must be given with the utmost clearness and precision. The divisions and subdivisions should be carefully marked, and be so formed that the relation of the parts to each other and to the theme can be easily perceived and remembered. The necessity of preparing one, Without a clearly con- ceived plan, a writer is not prepared to treat of a subject of any degree of complexity. He can not select from the thoughts that occur to him those that are appropriate, nor give them their place; he will omit many essential ideas and exhibit others of them imperfectly, while subordinate ones will be dis- proportionately expanded; he can not avoid wandering from his theme, and resorting to repetitions and digressions. The discourse, in its want of clearness, of unity, of completeness, and of progress, will be a faithful expression of the uncertainty and confusion in the writer's mind. But when he has a carefully traced plan he detects at once the omission of any essential point ; he can examine the parts 46 MATTER OF A DISCOURSE. Sec, 24 and divisions, and discover what transitions are needed to bind them together and secure a continuous movement of the thoughts ; he has before him all the main ideas by amplifying which he will give fullness arid life to the development of the theme ; and having determined the proportion of the various parts, he can give to both principal and accessory ideas their place and due prominence. He will proceed with ease and confidence, gaining strength as he advances; "he has only pleasure in writing," says Buffon, "ideas follow each other readily, style is natural and easy ; warmth, springing from this pleasure, diffuses itself every- where, and gives life to each expression ; all is more and more animated ; the tone rises ; the objects assume color ; and sentiment combining with light increases it, extends it, transfers it from what is said to what is to be said, and the style becomes interesting and lumi- nous." But to secure these advantages, the plan must not be pre- pared until after prolonged meditation. We can arrange only such matter as we have ; and if from the want of serious reflec- tion, our thoughts are few, or trivial, or obscure, the disposition can not but be imperfect and comparatively useless. 25. The laws of Disposition both general and special, Disposition is of different kinds according to the matter and class of discourse. A method of arrangement adapted to a scientific treatise will not suit an oration. A narration, a description, an exposition, and an argument, require each a different kind of disposition. The laws for these special modes of disposition will be given in their appropriate places. Here we shall treat of the general laws of disposition. These laws relate to the introduction, the body of a dis- course, the conclusion, and the transitions. 26. The nature and purpose of the Introduction. The introduction is a natural and necessary part of the discourse, although it is more prominent and extended in some works than in others. We see, for instance, in the briefest essay Sec. 26 DISPOSITION. 47 how much depends on the aspect of the subject that is first presented. The peculiar purposes of the introduction are : 1. To prepare the reader to apprehend the precise point to which his attention is to be directed, and to understand what is contained in the body of the discourse. Whether we describe, narrate, or prove, we must presuppose that our readers are acquainted with facts and principles con- nected with the theme, which can not form a part of the body of the discourse. AVithout this preliminary knowledge our statements, explanations, and arguments will be imperfectly understood. If then the development of the theme is to pro- ceed naturally and without interruption, those ideas and truths on which it depends must first be communicated to the reader. If Ave wish to describe an object, we may begin by giving the class to which it belongs; if we narrate an event, we may recount briefly what preceded; if we wish to establish the truth of a proposition, we may introduce the argument by stating some more general truth involving it or connected with it. Ex. Hallum in his Introduction to the Literature of Europe, in the 15th, 16th, and 17th Centuries, thus introduces his subject : " Although the subject of these volumes does not comprehend the lit- erary history of Europe anterior to the commencement of the fifteenth century ... it appears necessary to prefix such a general retro- spect of the state of knowledge for some preceding ages as will illustrate its subsequent progress." 2. To render the reader disposed to attend to the presenta- tion of the subject. The mind of the reader will, at first, often be occupied with other thoughts, and indifferent to the subject, and often will be prejudiced against it. It requires caution and skill to lead him into a new and foreign field of thought. Unless we can gain his attention, and render him favorably disposed, no ex- planations or arguments can produce any impression upon him. 48 MATTER OF A DISCOURSE. Sec, 27 27. We have to consider the rules for the contents of the introduction and for its structure : Contents of the Introduction. L The matter of the in- troduction must be an idea or thought that is closely connected with the theme, and will conduct to it by a short and natural process. It should not be one that belongs to the contents of the theme and has its place properly in the body of the discourse, rior one so general and remote as to require a long process of thought before the theme is reached; but one that is distinct from the main idea of the discourse, and, at the same time, in close contact with it. It must have a real connection with the main idea, and lead to it naturally without any appearance of artifice or force. When the connection is fanciful or arbitrary, it neither pre- pares for what follows nor contributes to the development of the subject, but rather diverts the mind from it. It is a mistake to suppose, that any striking thought may be adapted by the ingenuity of the writer to the purposes of an introduc- tion. It must not be too narrow ; it must prepare for the entire discussion and not for some division or head. It follows, that the same introduction can not be equally well suited to a number of discourses. The same general thought may be employed, but the application will give it, in each case, an individual character that makes it appropriate to the one discourse and to no other. 2. The introduction must contain only what is easily under- stood and will be readily admitted. What needs explanation and proof is not suitable. We must proceed from the known and admitted to the unknown and disputed. 3. It must awaken interest and curiosity, and direct the mind to what follows. The principal offenses against this rule are selecting trite reflections and mere truisms, and the oppo- site fault of choosing abstract ideas or what requires subtlety of thought. Concrete ideas, as they appeal n>ore directly to Sec. 28 DISPOSITION. 40 the imagination and feelings, are better suited to interest, and when circumstances allow, are to be preferred. Structure of the Introduction. The structure of the in- troduction should correspond to its purpose and subordinate rank. As it does not exist for itself, but only to prepare for what follows, its main idea should be expanded no further than is conducive to this end. An exhaustive, systematic presenta- tion of it would be out of place. The greatest possible con- ciseness and simplicity are required ; an undue expansion of a subordinate part destroys the harmony and proportion of the whole and detracts from the main idea. Its length will, of course, be determined by the nature and extent of the compo- sition ; it is always too long when it contains any thing that is unnecessary. The greatest difficulty in the art of framing an introduction is to secure a natural and easy transition to the body of the discourse. That is the most perfect out of which the theme seems immediately to grow. When to be prepared. The introduction is usually the last thing prepared. We can not be sure of selecting an appro- priate introductory idea until the subject has been carefully studied in its various parts and relations. Cicero tells us, and what he says applies to all kinds of composition, that it was his custom first to plan and digest all the materials of his dis- course, and last of all to consider with what he should begin ; giving as his reason, that whenever he endeavored to invent the introduction first, nothing occurred to him but what was trifling and commonplace. It is not meant that it should be written last. As a general rule, it is advisable in writing to finish the introduction before proceeding to the body of the discourse. 28. The Body of the Discourse. As the theme arises naturally out of the introduction, so the body of the discourse Rbet. 5 50 MATTEK OF A DISCOURSE. See. 28 is but the expansion of the theme. It contains the facts, prin- ciples, arguments, etc., that are needed to explain, prove, and enforce the main idea. It is the office of disposition to select the materials adapted to this part and to form them into a connected whole. It is concerned with the discovery and exhibition of the relations of thoughts. As these relations are infinitely various, it is evident that the principles to be laid down must be of the most general character. They may be embraced under two heads : 1. The two general methods of communicating thought. 2. Eules for the disposition of the body of the discourse. 29. Two methods of communicating thought. There are two general methods of communicating thought, the analytic and the synthetic. These include all the others ; whether we describe, narrate, explain, or prove, we can adopt one or the other. It is important that the student of rhetoric should understand their nature. The Analytic. This method is also called the regressive, and sometimes the inductive. It assumes various forms ac- cording to the nature of the subject. We may present first a complex whole, and then resolve it into its constituent parts or elements, just as the chemist analyzes a mineral. We may state the conclusion first and then inquire its reason, and then the reason of this premise, and continue the process until w r e have reached a premise that does not require proof. We may state particular facts and observations and ascend from them to general notions or truths, or to definitions. We may give results, and then investigate the causes, and follow T back the chain until we deem it unnecessary to proceed further. In all these w r e follow the Analytic method, which thus is seen to be the process by which we pass from facts to principles, from the particular to the general, from the complex and compound to the simple and elementary. The Synthetic. The synthetic method is precisely the re- Sec. 29 DISPOSITION. 51 verse. As in the analytic we proceed up the stream to the source, in the synthetic we descend the stream from the source. It is also called the progressive, sometimes, the deductive method. We may bring together the elements and cause them to combine into a whole, as the chemist causes certain physical elements to unite and form a compound substance. In geometry, for example, we begin with points, lines, and angles, and proceed to the complex figures. We may lay down a general principle and then deduce from it its consequences. We may give first a general notion and then proceed to the species contained under it and continue, if need be, until we reach the individual; or we may state the cause and then follow out its effects. Thus in synthesis we proceed from the elementary to the complex, from principles to facts, from cause to effect, etc. Ex. The following example, taken from Hoffman, exhibits the differ- ent methods. The theme being, " What were the effects of the Pelopon- nesian war upon Athens?" We suppose that the writer has by medita- tion and reading gathered as the main ideas the following : 1. Athens was obliged to change her constitution ; 2. The long walls were broken down ; 3. Her navy was reduced ; 4. She lost her allies ; 5. Her popula- tion was diminished; 6. Her commerce was destroyed; 7. The morals of the people were corrupted ; 8. She became dependent on Sparta. By comparing these separate propositions, he finds that he can classify them ; some of the effects refer to the internal condition of Athens, some to her foreign relations ; some to her material, others to her political, and others to her moral condition. By this process of comparing and combin- ing he ascends from particular to more general statements, until he reaches at length the general proposition, that all the effects were inju- rious. The process has been one of analytic thinking. If now the writer wishes to conduct his readers through a process similar to that by which he reached his conclusion, he will arrange his materials ill such an order as follows : The Peloponnesian War, a. Destroyed the commerce of Athens, b. Diminished her population, 1. And so weakened her material power. 52 MATTEE OF A DISCOURSE. Sec. 29 a. Corrupted the morals of her inhabitants, 5. Overthrew her constitution, 2. And so enfeebled her moral power. I. Hence the effects of the war on the internal condition of Athens were injurious. a. It diminished her navy, 1). Destroyed her ports, 1. And so exposed her to assaults from all her enemies. a. Deprived Athens of her allies, fc. Made her dependent upon Sparta, 2. And so degraded her from the leadership. II. Hence the effects of the war on the external relations of Athens were injurious. Consequently, the results of the war to Athens were only injurious. Here the method is rigidly Analytic. If the writer wishes to present his subject according to the Synthetic method, his mode of proceeding will be just the reverse. What formed the conclusion of the preceding process will now form the starting-point, and the disposition will be as follows : THEME. The effects of the Pelopoimesian war on Athens were all injurious ; for it, I. Enfeebled her internally : 1. In her material power. a. As to her wealth destroying her commerce. 1). As to her population diminishing it. 2. In her moral power. a. By the demoralization of the people, fc. By the change of her constitution. II. Enfeebled her in her foreign relations. 1. Destroyed her means of defense. a. By diminishing her navy. ~b. By the destruction of the long walls. 2. Deprived her of her place as leader. Sec. 30 DISPOSITION. 53 a. By tin* loss of her allies. Z>. By her dependence on Sparta. 30. Comparative advantages of the two methods. Both methods have their advantages and disadvantages. Which to prefer will be determined by our special object in writing. The analytic is the longer process and is liable to become tedious. It has the advantage of presenting truths in the order in which they are discovered. The reader begins with actual facts, and understands each step as he advances. He obtains a greater feeling of certainty, while at the same time his mind is stimulated to greater activity. There is also always intellectual pleasure in ascending from the particular to the general, and something of the pleasure of discovery when the final result is reached. It is specially suitable for introducing a science, as it begins with what is known, ex- hibits its general drift, and enables the student to understand the details. It is also the natural method for such works as propose to investigate notions and their relations, to resolve difficulties, to remove doubts and answer objections. The synthetic method has the disadvantage of beginning with the abstract and general ; the reader can not see the use of the elements that are given to him, and, not knowing their relation to the whole of which they are parts, can not fully comprehend them. It has the advantage of brevity, and is the mode best adapted to presenting knowledge in a systematic form so as to exhibit the relations of the separate facts and principles to each other and to the entire system. It is hence frequently called the scientific, systematic, or dogmatic method. It is specially suited to such works as aim to com- municate knowledge in a compendious form that can be re- tained in the memory. It is also the natural method of history, and the one usually employed in oratory. REMARK. The two methods may be united, and in works of any size generally are. The analytic method may be adopted for the general dis- cussion, and the synthetic for the treatment of the parts; or the reverse. This may be easily exemplified by using the scheme ^iven in section 29. 54 MATTEK OF A DISCOUKSE. Sec, 31 31. General rules for the disposition of the Body of the Discourse. The following general rules are to be observed in the disposition of the body of the discourse, whatever be the mode of presentation adopted : 1. It should omit nothing essential and contain nothing un- essential; nothing merely connected with the theme and not derived from it. For example, if the theme is, " Warnings against false conscientiousness," and the writer should treat first, of the nature of the error; secondly, of its signs and eifects 5 and, thirdly, of the reasons why it should be avoided, the division would violate this rule. The first and second heads are not contained in the theme which proposes only warnings against the error. So the third head is the theme itself. The division would have been a proper one, if the theme had been, " False conscientiousness ; " as it would have given first, its nature; secondly, its characteristics; thirdly, its eifects. 2. That is the best disposition which (provided the virtue of adaptation is not neglected) exhibits the theme from different points of view, and contains those main thoughts the develop- ment of which affords the greatest variety of new and impor- tant truths. There is a great difference among writers in this respect ; some give only superficial views, while others bring out all the riches of their subjects. 3. The disposition must be natural, prescribed by the nat- ure of the theme not imposed from without. This is required by the nature of prose. We can not enlighten, convince, or persuade when the connection between the thoughts is not recognized as real and necessary. This rule is violated by adopting one uniform mode of arrangement without regard to the matter; and also by a false symmetry which divides and combines arbitrarily, and seeks uniformity in the number and length of the divisions and subdivisions when the natural development of the subject does not require it. 4. It must be easily comprehended and remembered. A too great multiplication of divisions and subdivisions should be avoided, as it burdens the memory and prevents the mind Sec. 32 DISPOSITION. 55 from obtaining a clear view of the whole. The various parts should be distinct; one should not contain what belongs to another; and the limits and prominence given to each should be determined by its relative importance. Each part should contribute to the clearness, completeness, certainty, and force of the other, each being in the place prepared for it by what preceded, and where it will best prepare for what follows. 32. The Conclusion. The conclusion is that part of the discourse in which the development of the theme is brought to its suitable close, and a distinct impression of it as a whole is given to the reader. An essential part. Like the introduction, it is more prom- inent in some classes of compositions than in others. Its importance is greater and it demands a more elaborate prepa- ration in the extended discussion of complicated subjects and in oratorical discourse. But it is an essential part of every discourse. Without it the good impression made by the proper disposi- tion of the preceding parts is marred and many of its results are lost. There will be an abruptness, want of completeness, and want of symmetry, which will not only oifend the taste but also render the discourse less effective. It is the writer's aim to cause the reader to appropriate his entire thought and to feel the force of its complete presenta* tion. Without the conclusion this can not be effected. A number of thoughts have been crowded on the reader's mind, to each of which in succession he has given his attention. Should the discussion terminate suddenly he is left with his mind occupied with some subordinate part, some subdivision, and it can not be expected, that, without aid from the writer, he will recall the several parts and gain a vivid impression of them in their unity or practical bearings. It is the writer's duty to put him in a position to do this ; to enable him to gather up the results; to see what has been gone over, what has been gained, and how it has been gained; and thus to 56 MATTEK OF A DISCOURSE. Sec. 32 view the theme in the light thrown upon it by the previous discussion. This is the office of the conclusion. Qualities of, What is necessary to its perfection may be inferred from what has been said of its end. 1. It should accord with the nature of the subject, the aim of the discourse, and the manner of presentation. It should not be incongruous either in matter or form. 2. Its main thought should be one that concentrates in itself the force of all that precedes, or at least brings the view pre- sented, the proposition explained or proved, the resolution to be adopted, before the mind with all the vividness and force that can be derived from the entire discussion. In most cases, a condensed summary of what has been gained, or an exhibi- tion of the unity of the parts, forms the most appropriate con- clusion. 3. All abruptness or appearance of artifice in passing from the body of the discourse to the conclusion ought to be avoided. 33. Transitions. The work of disposition is not finished until suitable transitions have been formed. By transition, in its widest sense, is meant the passage from one part of a discourse to another, it may be from one organic part to the following, or from one division or subdivis- ion to another. In some cases the connection between the thoughts is so close and necessary that the following grows immediately out of the one that precedes it, and no intermediate idea is needed to show their relation. But this seldom occurs, never in extended discussions of complicated subjects, or long narra- tives, or where there are digressions and amplifications. There exists, it is true, a real and necessary connection between all the parts ; this is implied in the work of disposition, but it is not always easy to make this connection apparent. Usually, after having prepared his plan, the writer finds that the con- nection between the main thoughts is remote ; that they are Sec. 33 DISPOSITION. 57 by intervals, so that if left in this form the discourse would have a fragmentary character, and could not be readily understood or remembered. In order to give continuity to the discourse some thoughts must be discovered which will bind the parts together and unite them into one coherent whole. These intermediate ideas are called transitions, in the narrow sense of the term. They have been compared to the joints of the body. Vinet calls them " a land of punctuation on a large scale ; " as punctua- tion serves to mark the intervals and the relations of thoughts, so transitions serve the double purpose of distinguishing and uniting. The most important transitions are that from the introduc- tion to the body of the discourse, and that from the body to the conclusion. The former is the more difficult, and that in which most failures occur. Essential qualities of. A real connection betw r een the parts to be united is assumed. An attempt to show a connec- tion where none exists will but make the incoherence more glaring. 1. The transition must contain a real thought. A word caught up in passing from one division or paragraph to an- other, or the declaration that w r e now^ proceed to the next part or division is not a transition. It often consists in repeating what w r as said, or in a concession or qualification. 2. This thought should be one connected with the two which it is intended to unite. It must look to what precedes it and what follows. Its points of contact with both should be so plain that they can be instantly discovered. Whatever is abstruse, subtle, or far-fetched w^ould obscure the connection instead of making it apparent. 3. When the reader can easily supply the connecting thought it should be omitted. Even abruptness is better than empty commonplaces, which only burden the discourse and enfeeble the reader's attention. 4. The thought must not be expanded further than is neces- 58 MATTER OF A DISCOURSE. Sec. 33 saiy to accomplish the specific purpose for which it is used. When it passes beyond this it becomes a digression, and in- stead of promoting, interrupts the continuity of the discourse. How to be found. No rules can teach the art of finding suitable transitions. Much depends on the tact of the writer. The great source of the difficulty found by beginners in this part of the work of composition is the want of a mastery of their subject. When meditation has been prolonged and faith- ful, and the plan properly made, the connecting links will soon be found. CHAPTER IV. AMPLIFICATION. 34. Nature of Amplification. By the preceding processes of invention and disposition the main ideas of the discourse have been selected and arranged in due order; the course of thought in its beginning, middle, and end has been clearly marked out. But only a very general outline has been ob- tained ; the plan is but a meager summary of the points to be considered. This outline is now to be filled up. The writer must take up each of the main ideas laid down in a summary form in his plan, and subject it to the same processes as those to which he has subjected the original leading idea of the dis- course. He must meditate upon it and develop it; he must gather the subordinate ideas, i. e.j definitions, descriptions, explications, arguments, comparisons, etc., that are necessary to exhibit its full meaning and relative importance. By tliis means the meager abstract is converted into a full, vivid exhi- bition of the subject. This process is called amplification. It must not, as is too frequently the case, be confounded with exaggeration, idle repetition, or the heaping up of insignificant circumstances. It may be defined, the process of gathering Sec. 34 AMPLIFICATION. 59 and arranging such subordinate ideas involved in or connected with the main ideas given in the plan, as are necessary to present the subject with the greatest possible clearness, force, and completeness. Its importance. It is necessary in works of all kinds. 1. Abstract, summary statements are not intelligible to most persons, and can never affect the feelings and will. We demand, even in scientific treatises, that the writer give both logical clearness to his ideas by definitions and divisions, and aesthetic clearness by exhibiting the abstract in concrete forms by means of examples, focts, figures, etc. Ex. We may say, in brief abstract form, the Divine Being is omni- present and omniscient. The theologian gives logical clearness to the thought by enumerating the notions involved in omnipresence and omnis- cience ; as, presence in all space, knowledge of all things possible and actual, of objects animate and inanimate, thoughts, desires, etc. But the Psalmist exhibits the same thought with aesthetic clearness, in a concrete form, appealing directly to the imagination and the feelings: "Whither shall I go from thy spirit ? or whither shall I flee from thy presence ? If I ascend up into heaven, thou art there ; if I make my bed in hell, behold thou art there. If I take the wings of the morning and dwell in the utter- most parts of the sea ; even there shall thy hand lead me and thy right hand defend me. If I say surely the darkness shall cover me, even the night shall be light about me. Yea, the darkness hideth not from thee ; but the night sJiineth as the day ; the darkness and the light are both alike to thee." 2. The mind must dwell for some time upon a thought before it can receive a full and distinct impression of it. If we have an important truth to communicate, we can not content ourselves with a bare enunciation of it; we must fix the reader's attention upon it, and give him time to comprehend it and feel its truth. R EM ARK. The importance of amplification as a means of detaining the mind upon a subject, and so allowing the reader to yield to its influ- ence, is very well stated by Whateley : "It is remarked by anatomists that the nutritive quality is not the only requisite in food ; that a certain degree of distention of the stomach is required to enable it to act with its 60 MATTER OF A DISCOURSE. Sec. 34 full powers ; and that it is for this reason hay or straw must be given to horses, as well as corn, in order to supply the necessary bulk. Something analogous to this takes place with respect to the generality of minds, which are incapable of thoroughly digesting and assimilating what is pre- sented to them, however clearly, in a very small compass. Many a one is ciipable of deriving that instruction from a moderate sized volume which lie could not receive from a very small pamphlet, even more perspicuously written, and containing every thing that is to the purpose. It is neces- sary that the attention be detained for a certain time on the subject ; and persons of unphilosophical mind, though they can attend to what they read or hear, are unapt to dwell upon it in the way of subsequent medi- tation." 35. Means of Amplification. It is impossible to give a list of all the means of amplification. It would include all the ways by which logical clearness is imparted to a thought, and by which a thought can be represented vividly to the imagina- tion. A few of the more important are here given, which will serve to exhibit still further the nature and importance of the process. Enumeration. This consists in decomposing or analyzing the thought, and, instead of a bare statement, giving the details. If it is a notion, its qualities or parts are enumerated. We may define it, or if a logical definition does not answer the purpose, we may give a fuller enumeration of its qualities ; we may resolve it into the classes contained under it ; if a narra- tion or description, we may specify the particulars. Ex. 1. Freedom may be defined, " Exemption from the power and control of others." But such an abstract and general statement will not suit the purposes of the orator ; it is thus amplified by Fox in one of his speeches : " Freedom consists in the safe and sacred possession of a man's property, governed by laws defined and certain ; with many per- sonal privileges, natural, civil, and religious, which he can not surren- der without ruin to himself, and of which to be deprived by any other power is despotism.'' 2. Cicero, instead of simply asserting that Pompey was a great general, amplifies the notion by enumerating the qualities that constitute a gen- eral : " Those are not the only virtues of a general which are commonly thought so. It is not courage alone which forms a, great leader, but Sec. 35 AMPLIFICATION. 01 industry in business, intrepidity in dangers, vigor in acting, prudence in concerting, promptness in executing. All which characters appear with frreatcr luster in him than in all the other generals we ever saw or heard of." 3. The historian might briefly state the fact, that the fleet of William, after being for a short time in great danger, reached the harbor of Torbay in safety. But notice how Macaulay amplifies this by the enumeration of particulars: "The morning of the fifth of November was hazy. The pilot of the Brill could not discern the sea-marks, and carried the fleet too far to the west. The danger was great. To return in the face of the wind was impossible. Plymouth was the next port. But at Plymouth a garri- son had been posted under the command of the Earl of Bath. The land- ing might be opposed, and a check might produce serious consequences. There could be little doubt, moreover, that by this time the royal fleet had got out of the Thames, and was hastening full sail down the river. Russell saw the whole extent of the peril, and exclaimed to Bin-net, 'You may go to your prayers, doctor. All is over.' At that moment the wind changed, a soft breeze sprang up from the south, the mist dispersed, the sun shone forth, and, under the mild light of an autumnal noon, the fleet turned back, passed round the lofty cape of Berry Head, and rode safe into the harbor of Torbay." A general truth is amplified by enumerating the instances, or particular truths, on which it is founded. Ex. Addison thus amplifies the general truth, that all nature is full of life : " Every part of matter is peopled, every green leaf swarms with inhabitants. There is scarce a single humor in the body of a man, or of any other animal, in which our glasses do not discover myriads of living creatures. The surface of animals is also covered with other animals, which are in the same manner the basis of other animals, that live upon it. Nay, we find in the most solid bodies, as in marble itself, innumerable cells and cavities, that are crowded with such imperceptible inhabitants as are too little for the naked eye to discover. On the other hand, if we look into the more bulky parts of nature, we see the seas, lakes, rivers, teeming with numberless kinds of living creatures. We find every mount- ain and marsh, wilderness and wood, plentifully stocked with birds and beasts; and every part of matter affording proper necessaries and "con- veniences for the livelihood of multitudes which inhabit it." Examples, In some cases, one or two apposite examples or striking circumstances are more effective than a full enumera- tion of particulars. 62 MATTER OF A DISCOURSE. Sec. 35 Causes and Effects. In many subjects a very important means of amplification is that of giving the causes, or condi- tions on which the fact depends, and its effects. Ex. Thus Jeremy Taylor, in showing the evil nature of anger, dwells largely upon its sources and consequences. " It makes a man's body monstrous, deformed, contemptible ; the voice horrid ; the eyes cruel ; the face pale or fiery ; the gait fierce ; the speech clamorous and loud. It is neither manly nor ingenuous. It proceeds from softness of spirit and pusillanimity. ... It is troublesome, not only to those that suffer it, but to them that behold it. ... It turns friendship into hatred, it makes a man lose himself, and his reason, and his argument in disputation. It turns the desire of knowledge into an itch of wrangling,' 7 etc. Comparison. The object may be compared with others as to its qualities, causes, effects, etc. The comparison may ex- hibit either the resemblances between the objects or the points of difference. This is one of the most important means both of rendering an object more distinct and of affecting the feel- ings and passions. Ex. Similes, parables, and fables are forms of this mode of amplifica- tion. These will be considered in Par^ II. As an example of formal comparison is given the following extract from Johnson's comparison of Dryden and Pope, in which differences rather than resemblances are dwelt upon : " Poetry was not the sole praise of either, for both excelled likewise in prose ; but Pope did not borrow from his predecessor. The style of Dryden is capricious and varied ; that of Pope is cautious and uniform. Dryden observes the motions of his own mind ; Pope con- strains his mind to his own rules of composition. Dryden is sometimes vehement and rapid ; Pope is always smooth, uniform, and gentle. Dry den's page is a natural field rising into inequalities, and diversified bv tne varied exuberance of abundant vegetation ; Pope's is a level lawn, ..naved by the scythe and leveled by the roller." These methods may be combined, The nature of the thought and the end in view will determine what means of amplification are most suitable. It is seldom that a writer is restricted to any one of them. In most cases the different modes are combined. An example of this mixed form of amplification is St. Paul's delineation of Christian charity Sec, 36 AMPLIFICATION. 63 (I. Cor., xiii). This amplification consists chiefly of compari- son, enumeration, and statement of the effects. Accessory ideas. Another means of amplification is that of weaving into the development of the main idea related thoughts drawn from without and not contained in the subject. In meditating upon any subject we frequently establish a rela- tion between it and other objects, which, though entirely differ- ent, have nevertheless some points of contact with it. We thus gather from our reading and experience, facts, testimo- nies, striking sayings, or general principles of other sciences which we incorporate into the discourse. They may be given with various degrees of fullness. Sometimes only a light pass- ing reference is made ; it is then called an allusion : this is often put in a parenthesis. On other occasions the accessory idea may be dwelt upon 5 then it becomes a digression or epi- sode. To this mode of amplification belong the observations and reflections which are used so frequently in narration and description. These accessory ideas, when properly chosen and cautiously used, are of great service. They place the subject in different lights and bring out different sides of it. And while the writer keeps steadily in view the main idea, he is enabled to point out the relations of the subject to other objects and so present it more vividly, give an increased sense of its impor- tance, and stimulate the reader's powers. 36. Rules of Amplification. The general principle that underlies the rules of amplification is the fundamental one of literary composition; viz., that every discourse is an organic whole ; that it is the necessary result of the parts, and that the parts have no significance except in their relation to the whole. The entire discourse must be composed of inwardly related and reciprocally dependent thoughts ; nothing is admissible that does not contribute to the completeness and harmony of the whole. The rules of amplification are but special applications of this general principle. 64 MATTER OF A DISCOURSE. Sec. 36 1. The matter employed in amplification is never, nor in any degree, to be treated as independent; but always as subor- dinate to the end for which it js introduced; viz., to impart clearness, distinctness, and vividness to the main thought. Judgment is to be exercised in deciding what thoughts require amplification and what do not. A greater degree of expansion is necessary in oral than in written discourse; and in popular works than in purely scientific. A brief exposition may be sufficient for those who have some acquaintance with the subject, while in addressing those of less intelligence a greater fullness of details is necessary. It is always a most serious fault to dwell on what is unimportant, trivial, or what can be supplied by the reader ; it indicates a want of the power of just discrimination on the part of the writer. A careful selection is to be made from the various thoughts suggested ; only such are to be used as can be woven into the discourse and aid in the attainment of the end in view. This applies to all the modes of amplification: but caution is spe- cially necessary in introducing accessory ideas. Parentheses, digressions, and episodes are to be sparingly used, and ought to be incorporated into the development of the thought. Writers are often led astray by introducing quotations; the thought may be important and striking, but not appropriate, and so is superfluous and diverts the mind from the main point. There is also great danger in embodying in the dis- course detached passages that have been written without refer- ence to the treatment of the subject as a whole. They do not harmonize with the rest of the discourse, and have the appear- ance of independent discussions. When this rule is disregarded the materials of the composi- tion will be rather placed in juxtaposition than, to use Whate- ley's metaphor, be felted together. Whatever be the beauty of the details themselves, as they do not combine to produce one distinct, total impression, the work must be considered as badly constructed. 2. The details should be in harmony with the general tone of tlie discourse. The peculiar relation of the writer to the Sec. 36 AMPLIFICATION. 05 subject and to the circumstances necessarily gives a distinctive character to his mode of treatment, which should be recog- nized not only in the selection of the main ideas, but also in all the details. The same principle of selection should be em- ployed in choosing the principal and subordinate ideas. To change the principle of selection is as great a rhetorical fault, as in logic to change the principle of division. Examples of the grosser forms of the violation of this rule are flippant, ludicrous remarks in a serious discourse 5 abstract, speculative discussions in an oration, etc. 3. Every particular should be in its right place. There is properly but one place in the discourse for which a given par- ticular is fitted, and in which it can best produce its effects. It is implied in this that it should receive no greater expansion than its relative importance demands. By this means we give to a discourse its distribution of light and shade, bringing into relief what is important, while the parts which serve to support and explain are placed in a less conspicuous station. AVhen the process of amplification is finished, the theme has received its full and harmonious development. The next step is to embody the thoughts in language that will convey them to others. PART II. STYLE. CHAPTER I. THE QUALITIES OF PROSE STYLE. 37. The principles, according to which the materials already selected and arranged are expressed in language suited to their nature and the end to be achieved, are contained in the doctrine of Style, which forms the second part of Rhetoric. Nature and conditions of Style. Style is the peculiar manner of expressing thought that pervades an entire produc- tion. It depends partly on the nature and importance of the subject, but chiefly on the character and disposition of the writer. It has been called the physiognomy of the mind, as it reveals how one thinks as well as ichat one thinks. When the thoughts are trite, obscure, or badly arranged, clear and effective expression is impossible. While vigorous thought is an indispensable condition of a good style, it is not the only one. All great writers have been great thinkers, but the history of literature affords many in- stances to prove that not all great thinkers are great writers. We must embody what we wish to communicate in the forms offered to us by a particular language, and the though is will not avail without skill to use the instrument by which they are conveyed to others. He who wishes to excel in the art of expression must not only acquire habits of correct and compre- hensive thought, but also master the resources of his native (66) Sec. 37 QUALITIES OF PROSE STYLE. 67 tongue. He can not content himself with the few hundred trite, loosely applied words and phrases that suffice for the pur- poses of ordinary business, but must endeavor to gain an ample vocabulary of expressive, accurately discriminated terms, and readiness in combining them according to the laws of the lan- guage. To give to our thoughts their adequate expression is not an easy task; it demands care and perseverance. The greatest masters of style have composed slowly and laboriously. In the first place, it involves many subtle processes of thinking. When we seek fitting words and weave them into sentences and paragraphs, we are applying to the primary elements of the discourse the same processes of analysis and comparison that we had before employed in dealing with large masses of thoughts. The most delicate and exact discrimination is nec- essary to impart to them the requisite clearness and distinct- ness. Secondly, the imperfection of language makes the ex- pression of thought difficult. It suggests, does not convey, thought. The most perfect language contains but a compara- tively few symbols for the infinite variety of conceptions to be expressed. And of these no man has ever mastered all. Ac- cording to the estimate of Marsh, there occur in all the works of Shakespeare not more than .fifteen thousand words ; in the poems of Milton, not above eight thousand; few writers or speakers use as many as ten thousand words ; ordinary persons of average intelligence use not more than three or four thou- sand. It is by means of these few symbols that a writer con- veys new, complex, and subtle thoughts with all their parts in their exact relation to each other. Its importance. It ought not to be necessary to insist upon the importance of attention to style. All know that the favor- able reception of a truth is owing, not wholly to its importance, but in a great measure to the manner in which it is presented. The same facts and arguments which, when stated by one, gain the understanding and affections, will, as exhibited by another, produce weariness and disgust. The duty is enforced by the G8 STYLE. Sec. 37 precepts and example of eminent writers. No work takes a permanent place in literature that is not distinguished for the perfection of its style as well as the solidity of its thought. Disregard of Style among English prose writers. An inadequate appreciation of style, or an impatience of the re- straints of grammar and criticism, seems to be a characteristic of the English race. It has its origin partly in the practical disposition which prefers the matter to the form, but in a larger measure in that erroneous view of style (founded upon a false theory of language) which regards it as something distinct from and external to the thought: an error perpetuated by many of the metaphors we use 5 as, when we call language the close fitting dress of thought. It should be borne in mind, that thought and language are reciprocally dependent: one can not exist without the other. We do not by language cover and adorn our ideas, but reveal them; we embody them in their material signs, so that they can be recognized in their real nature and importance, and be appropriated by others. There are also at present special influences operating upon literature that strengthen the habit of disregard of the art of composition. The competition among writers by profession, the number of whom increases with the diffusion of reading, alloAvs no time for the patient labor so indispensable to stylistic excellence. Those who write to meet the demands of a rest- less, fickle public must seize the theme of the hour before the popular interest in it subsides, and are thus constrained to hasty composition, the effects of which are injurious in every respect. The result is, that while in the present century there are a few great prose writers not surpassed by the greatest of any former period of English literature such as Macaulay, Landor, De Quincey, Newman the mass of our prose is char- acterized by slovenliness, inaccuracy, exaggeration, and feeble- ness. 38. Fundamental qualities of Prose style. The funda- mental qualities of prose style are those which subserve the Sec. 39 QUALITIES OF PKOSE STYLE. GO ends of prose; these ends, as has been already shown, are, instruction, conviction, and persuasion. Rhetoricians enumer- ate many qualities ; they may be reduced to three propriety, perspicuity, and vivacity. Propriety. Propriety includes two requisites. 1. The language should be a just and complete expression of the thought; not conveying more than the writer's meaning, nor less ; not suggesting something different from what he in- tends, but giving the exact conception clearly discriminated from all related notions and with its essential marks. This conformity of the expression to the thought is a virtue difficult (especially where the notions to be conveyed are abstract and elementary), but not impossible to acquire. Wherever met with, it affords pure and intense intellectual pleasure, as the want of it always occasions perplexity and dissatisfaction. 2. The style should be appropriate to the nature, importance, and dignity of the subject. This rule is very generally vio- lated. A writer offends against truth and justness, on the one hand, when in treating of ordinary objects and occurrences, he adopts a technical, artificial diction instead of a familiar, idio- matic one, or employs the language of emotion and passion in addressing the understanding; on the other hand, when he presents serious and elevated subjects in such a manner as to awaken IOAV -and ludicrous associations. Both extremes are the indications of a lack of judgment, of taste, and of moral sensibility. Good sense and genuine culture reveal themselves in a style that shuns pedantry, affectation, bombast, and vul- garity ; that uses plain words for plain thoughts, and rejects what is extravagant or offensive to delicacy of feeling. 39. Perspicuity. Tt" should be easily understood by those to whom it is addressed. Perspicuity is a relative quality. Many subjects, in order to be understood, require much pre- vious information and habits of reflection, and can not by the most skillful use of language be made intelligible to those who are wanting in the requisite capacity and attainments. A 70 STYLE. Sec. 39 writer is not expected to render his meaning obvious to all. The degree of perspicuity of which the subject is susceptible and the character of the readers should be taken into considera- tion. The law of clearness demands that he do not add to the intrinsic difficulty of the subject by his mode of presenting it, but economize the attention of the reader by concentrating it upon the subject and allowing none to be lost in overcoming difficulties of expression. The writer who compels his readers to pause at words, to reread sentences, and painfully collect his meaning, should not be disappointed when he finds that his thoughts, although new and important, produce no impression. The power of attention is limited ; when it is divided among a number of objects, no distinct and vivid image of any one is obtained ; whatever is expended on the language is withdrawn from the thought, and weakens its force. Spencer's statement of the law of economy of attention. This law of economizing attention is made by Herbert Spencer the one general principle from which all the rules of composi- tion result. He says : " On seeking for some clue to the law underlying these current maxims, we may see shadowed forth in many of them the importance of economizing the reader's or hearer's attention. To so present ideas that they may be ap- prehended with the least possible mental effort, is the deside- ratum towards which most of the rules above quoted point. When we condemn writing that is wordy, or confused, or in- tricate ; when we praise this style as easy, and blame that as fcitiguing, we consciously or unconsciously assume this deside- ratum as our standard of judgment. Regarding language as an apparatus of symbols for the conveyance of thought, we may say, that, as in a mechanical apparatus, the more simple and the better arranged its parts the greater will be the effect produced. In either case, whatever force is absorbed by the machine is deducted from the result. A reader or listener has at each moment but a limited amount of mental power avail- able. To recognize and interpret the symbols presented to him, requires part of this power; to arrange and combine the Sec. 40 QUALITIES OF PKOSE STYLE. 71 images suggested requires a further part; and only that part which remains can be used for realizing the thought conveyed. Hence, the more time and attention it takes to receive and understand each sentence, the less time and attention can be given to the contained idea; and the less vividly Avill that idea be conceived. . . . Hence, carrying out the metaphor that language is the vehicle of thought, there seems reason to think that in all cases the friction and inertia of the vehicle deduct from its efficiency ; and that in composition the chief, if not the sole thing to be done, is, to reduce this friction and inertia to the smallest possible amount. Let us then inquire whether economy of the recipient's attention is not the secret of effect, alike in the right choice and collocation of words, in the best arrangement of clauses in a sentence, in the proper order of its principal and subordinate propositions, in the judicious use of simile, metaphor, and other figures of speech, and even in the rhythmical sequence of syllables." Essays, Moral, Po- litical, and Esthetic, pp. 11, 12. 40. Vivacity. The law of economizing attention is not en- titled to the rank of the supreme law of composition ; we must add to it another; viz., that the thoughts must be so presented as to call into vigorous energy the mental powers of the reader. Pain is the result of a want of a proper exertion of our faculties as well as of stimulating them beyond their natural limits. By forgetting this we may, in the endeavor to be perspicuous, become feeble, dull, heavy. It is necessary then to preserve the medium between the extremes of undue depression and over-exertion of the activities of the reader. This quality is called vivacity ; it may be described as such a presentation of thoughts as determines the reader to reproduce them instead of merely passively receiving them. Beauty. The combination of these qualities constitutes beauty of style ; which is not to be considered, as is generally done, a separate quality. This false notion has arisen from regarding style as something independent of the thought, and 72 STYLE. Sec. 40 lias led many writers astray. A style is beautiful so far as and only so far as it is the adequate expression of worthy thoughts. There is no means of securing it, except by aiming at the highest possible degree of propriety, perspicuity, and vivacity. 41. The English language as to its power of expres- sion. Languages differ in their power of expression. Each of the great languages of civilization has its peculiar advan- tages and difficulties. The English may be surpassed by some others in separate traits, but in the combination of the requi- sites of adequate expression it yields to none. It is a composite tongue ; it has not grown up from a few germs by the processes of derivation and composition, but is the result of the conflicts and mingling of different languages. While its groundwork is Anglo-Saxon, the building is com- posed of materials from many quarters. Its two chief elements are Anglo-Saxon and Latin, which are so united as to give almost a double language. The English language has suffered in the revolutions through which it has passed. It has lost most of its original inflections, and with them the liberty of position of words in the sentence ; it has lost also to a great extent the power of composition and derivation. The greatest loss is that of the primitive meaning and suggestiveness of its words. The language is crowded with barren, arbitrary symbols, which do not suggest the ideas with vivacity, and are especially liable to be misunderstood and misapplied. But its gains far exceed its losses. It possesses a copious vocabulary for all kinds of subjects and compositions. Its liter- ary diction was founded by Chaucer; its religious diction, at the same period, by Wycliffe; its philosophical dialect was perfected in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; and all have been enriched and invigorated by the great national con- troversies in religion and politics. It has also the means of supplying its deficiencies by appropriating from foreign sources, recalling words that have fallen into disuse, and drawing from Sec. 42 QUALITIES OF PEOSE STYLE. 73 provincial dialects. It affords the means of varying the style ; the writer may choose Latin words or Anglo-Saxon, or may combine them in different proportions; and according as lie selects the words may vary the structure of sentences, making them more periodic when the Latin element, more elliptical when the Saxon element predominates. It is surpassed by no language in its power of clear and precise expression; the number of duplicate words which it possesses enables it to mark the delicate shades of difference between ideas. At the same time, it can convey them with brevity and force. Not- withstanding the frequent accusation made against it of ex- treme harshness, in the hands of great masters it is susceptible of a high degree of harmony and melody. REMARK. Grimm speaks thus of it : " None of the modern languages has through the very loss and decay of all phonetic laws, and through the dropping of nearly all inflections, acquired greater force and vigor than the English; and from the fullness of those vague and indefinite sounds which may be learned but can never be taught, it has derived a power of expression such as has never been at the command of any human tongue. Begotten by a surprising union of the two noblest languages of Europe, the one Teutonic, the other Romanic, it received that wonderfully happy temper and thorough breeding, where the Teutonic supplied the material strength, the Romanic the suppleness and freedom of expression. Nay, the English language which has borne, not as it were by mere chance, the greatest poet of modern times, great in his very contrast with classical poetry I speak, ,of course, of Shakespeare, this English language may truly be called a world language, and seems, like England herself, but in a still higher degree, destined to rule over all the corners of the earth. In wealth, wisdom, and strict economy, none of the living languages can vie with it." Marsh says: "In fact, it has so completely adapted itself to the uses and wants of Christian society, as exemplified by the Anglo-Saxon race in the highest forms to which associate life has anywhere attained, that it well deserves to be considered the model speech of modern humanity, nearly achieving in language the realization of that great ideal which wiseA men are every-where seeking to make the fundamental law of political organization, the union of freedom, stability, and progress." 42. Topics to be discussed in the doctrine of Style. The hnvs for expressing thought ^ith Rhet. 7 74 STYLE. Sec. 42 and vivacity relate to the choice of words and their combina- tion. Words are either proper, literal expressions of ideas, or denote them analogically and figuratively. They are combined first into sentences, which may then be combined into a more complex unity, called the paragraph. The mode in which words are selected and combined gives rise to diversities of style, some of which it is expedient to describe. The topics to be considered are as follows : 1. The Choice of Words. 2. Figures of Speech. 3. The Sentence. 4. The Paragraph. 5. Division of Style. CHAPTER II. THE CHOICE OF WORDS. 43. Importance and difficulty of a proper choice of words. The selection of words demands special care. in Eng- lish composition. Owing to the comparatively little liberty allowed in arranging words in a sentence, a writer must de- pend mainly upon a judicious selection of them to give to his ideas their due importance and emphasis. The choice of words is often a matter of great difficulty. The English vocabulary is one of the most extensive possessed by any language ; it is widely diffused, and employed by per- sons in the greatest variety of occupations; so that it is not Always an easy matter to determine what words belong to the common stock from which alone a literary writer is permitted to draw. A great number of words in common use are im- ported from abroad. Two serious evils result from this, which add to the difficulties of an English writer. The first is, that the general principles and analogies governing the formation Sec. 44 THE CHOICE OF WORDS. 75 of words are obscured ; the second is, that, as these foreign words are not, like those of native growth, derived by fixed laws from well known roots, their primary meaning is not known to the most of those who use them; they convey no distinct ideas, arid are liable to be misunderstood and per- verted. We shall consider words with respect to National use, Present use. Moral dignity, Propriety. 44. National use. In the English language there are words and phrases which are understood and used by all edu- cated persons, and universally recognized as composing the national speech the common possession of all without respect to class, occupation, or abode. The words admitted into a composition should be drawn from this common stock; none should be used that belong to a foreign tongue or are current only in narrow circles. This rule is violated by the use of barbarisms and provin- cialisms. Barbarisms. Foreign words and phrases should not be employed except when the national language has no terms in common use that adequately express the thought. This rule does not prohibit absolutely the use of foreign terms. Purity must not degenerate into purism. It is no de- fect in a language to contain foreign ingredients, and no excel- lence to be without them. Our language, as it has been trans- mitted to us, contains a vast number of elements which can not be separated from it: and extended intercourse with other nations by commerce, immigration, study of their literatures, etc., is continually bringing new accessions. In addition to this, our language having lost to a great degree the power of forming new words from its own materials, is obliged to resort to foreign languages for aid. The foreign words in the language can be divided into three classes. 1. Such as are naturalized. They express notions current 76 STYLE. Sec, 44 among the people for which the vernacular has no other equally suitable designation ; by long use they have lost their foreign appearance, and have accommodated themselves to the native idiom. . The naturalization of a word is effected in different ways : (1) By change of accent 5 as, pretext', pre'text; essay 7 , es'- say, etc. (2) By change of spelling ; as, chirurgeon, surgeon ; vehicu- lum, vehicle; earriere, career; innocentia, innocence; per- ruque, periwig, wig. (3) By change of inflection ; for instance, instead of dog- mata, we say dogmas ; instead of epocha, epochs ; and instead of gymnasia, some of our best writers are using the form gym- nasiums. (4) By change of signification. Foreign words retain at first the sense they bore in the language from which they were taken; but by use the original meaning is lost or greatly changed, and a derivative or secondary signification becomes the leading one; as, contrition, tribulation, considerable, lu- natic. Words that have been naturalized are a portion of the na- tional language, and should be used in their 'popular form and meaning. It is mere pedantry and a violation of the purity of the language to attempt to restore them to their primitive form, pronunciation, or signification. 2. Words that retain their original form, and are recognized as foreign, but for which we have not any exact equivalents in English. Many of these are of technical import, designations of rank, of modes of life, and the like ; for instance, terminus, plural termini; phenomenon, phenomena; interregnum, de- sideratum. While in this form they may be looked upon as candidates for admission into the language. In time, they will either become fully naturalized or be supplanted by native terms. Their use is unavoidable, although it is allowed to propose substitutes for them. When employed they should appear in their original form. Sec. 44 THE CHOICE OF WORDS. 77 There are also many foreign phrases that have passed from the arts, sciences, and learned professions into popular use; for instance, bonn fide, rcrbatim et literal im, lajmw Ihiyuce, pro tcitiporCj rice rcrsdj etc. Most of these can he dispensed with ; their frequent use is a violation of purity and propriety. 3. Foreign words and phrases that can be replaced by equally expressive and euphonious English words in actual use. These are barbarisms, and should be unconditionally re- jected. They are superfluous, as they express no thought nor shade of thought which is not expressed altogether as well by current words ; and since superfluous words are not tolerated in a language, they can be retained only by dropping the more intelligible and suggestive native words. The result of this process, if long continued, is to render our classic authors anti- quated. They are prohibited because they are unintelligible to the mass of readers. Their introduction leads also to the cor- ruption of the syntax ; as words generally bring the foreign construction with them. They are to be rejected on aesthetic grounds ; the confusion of words of different languages in the same work is incompatible with simplicity and harmony, which are essential qualities of a literary production. REMARK. The tendency to introduce aliens to the exclusion of the natives is the result sometimes of ignorance, sometimes of pedantry, and sometimes of fashion and caprice. Most of the words thus introduced are drawn from the Latin and French languages. The works of many authors of former periods are crowded with Latin and Greek words. The fashion at present is to employ French. The following extracts from a discourse of Culverwell (1652) will illus- trate the style of many theological writers of that period : " For as in the most glorious creature as a creature there is alt quid nib Hi; so in the most contemptible creature as a creature there is aliquid Dei. I (ay) but the atheist he shuts his eyes, and quid cceco cum specula? what should a blind man do with a looking-glass?" and so on throughout the entire discourse. This appears barbarous; but it is not more so than the profuse em- ployment of French words which is admired by many as fine writing. This species of barbarism is exposed by a writer quoted by Dean Alford : " A class of writers has sprung up who appear to think it their special business to enrich the language by dragging into it, without any attempt 78 STYLE. Sec. 44 at assimilation, contributions from all the tongues of tlie earth. The result is a wretched piece of patchwork, which may have charms in the eyes of some people, but which is certainly an abomination in the eyes of the genuine student of language. We need only glance into one of the periodical representatives of fashionable literature, or into a novel of the day, to see how serious this assault upon the purity of the English lan- guage has become. . . . The heroes are always marked by an air distingue; the vile men are sure to be biases. . . . Then there is a bold man to describe. Having acquired the savoir faire, he is never afraid of making a faux pas, but no matter what kind of conversation is started plunges at once in medias res." And so on. The Queen's Eng- lish, pp. 266-268. A more dangerous form of barbarism is the adoption of foreign idioms ; as, " The king assisted [was present] at the ceremony." "Louis the Fourteenth had reason [was right] when he said, 4 The Pyrenees are removed.' " The use of such idioms perverts the meaning of the English words and changes the fabric of the language. We are threat- ened by this corruption from two quarters. First, the number of translations is continually increasing, most of which retain some of the constructions of the original. Secondly, the many foreigners who make use of the English language introduce their own idioms; although they employ English words they still retain the construction of their native tongue. From this source, many German idioms have gained admission into the popular dialect of portions of this country. Provincialisms. Provincialisms are words and phrases the use of which is confined to a particular district. They are not a part of the national language ; although readily understood in the region in which they are current, they are not intelli- gible beyond its limits. The wide extension of the English language will occasion many important local variations from the standard speech ; already in the United States, in India, and in Australia such differences appear. Those which are regarded as peculiar to the United States are called Americanisms. The difference between American and British English has Sec. 45 THE CHOICE OF WORDS. 79 been greatly overestimated. The words that are considered Americanisms may be classified as follows : (1) Such as were brought to this country from Great Britain by the colonists and have been retained by their descendants. Bartlett esti- mates that nine-tenths of the colloquialisms of Xew England belong to this class. These words are either such as were provincial at the time of the emigration and still are current in the same counties ; or such as were of reputable use, but have since become obsolete in England. (2) Words that owe their origin to the new objects, modes of life, and institutions of this country. These are either au- thorized words employed in a different sense from that in which they are used in their native country ; or new words, some of which are necessary, others useless. (3) Words that owe their origin to foreign influences. The numerous colonies Dutch, German, French, Spanish as also the negroes and Indians, have all introduced corruptions into the language, which at first were confined to particular locali- ties, but afterwards became more general. REMARK. The importance of local and provincial dialects as illustrat- ing our early language and literature is becoming more generally recog- nized, and a juster estimate of their nature is entertained. Our poetic diction has been enriched by many additions from this source. Prose is allowed less liberty in this respect; but no one nowadays would maintain that the adoption of a provincialism into the literary dialect is absolutely prohibited. 45. Present use. The language of living men undergoes a constant change. Words become old and disappear, and new ones are introduced. The laws of style require that the words employed in composition shall be such as are in use. This rule prohibits obsolete words and neologisms. Obsolete words. Obsolete words are such as were once current, but have disappeared from use. There is no standard by which to decide whether a word has become obsolete. In reference to many there can be no doubt 5 they are at once pro- 80 STYLE. Sec, 45 nounced to be no longer a part of the current language. But as to others there is no agreement. Campbell would consider as obsolete those words and idioms which have been disused by all good authors for a period longer than the age of man extends to. It is not possible to apply tliis test ; no one is able to survey the whole field of contempo- rary literature. Again, it is not safe ; the mere passing from actual use does not justify us in considering a word as perma- nently obsolete. Words that have been condemned by the critic as obsolete or obsolescent often revive and take their place in the current language. Few of the present day will accept the decision, that words which have not been used within the knowledge or remembrance of those now living are no longer a part of our intellectual coin, and can not be em- ployed without violating the laws of good taste. The only test is the subjective one. If the word would not naturally find a place in prose writings of the present day, or if it appears strange when met with in earlier authors, it may be regarded as obsolete. This test can be applied only by those who have been long familiar with the best writers. ~No two would entirely agree in their decisions as to what are and what are not obsolete. No absolute rule can be laid down respecting the recalling of words that have fallen into disuse. Many deserved to be dis- carded ; they were defective in form and logical clearness, and have been replaced by better words, or were banished as coarse, or rejected as marking useless distinctions ; others were worn out by use; changes in the arts and employments caused the disappearance of whole classes. The language has not suffered by losing them. On the other hand, many valuable words have been lost, not by the progress of the nation in knowledge and refinement, but by its decline. In times when the na- tional spirit had decayed, foreign words were permitted to sup- pi ant native ; when the direction of mental activity is changed, and important fields of investigation are forsaken, the terms employed in these sciences are left to perish ; looseness of thinking, by neglecting the important distinctions indicated by Sec. 45 THE CHOICE OF WORDS. 81 words, renders many superfluous, and thus contributes to mak- ing them obsolete. To restore such words to their place will be a benefit to the language. With the quickening of intellectual and moral life, and the resuming of long abandoned studies and pursuits, many of them will be revived. The task of recalling obsolete and obsolescent words is committed mainly to poets ; the philosopher and historian are subjected to greater restric- tions. Neologisms. New words may be formed by composition and derivation from native or foreign materials. The privilege is to be used with great caution. The tendency at present is to recklessness in coining them ; a most important part of the work of verbal criticism is to guard against the corruption of the language by neologisms. To be entitled to a place in the language a word should comply with the following conditions : 1. It should denote a new and important conception that is not adequately expressed by any native or naturalized word. A term that brings to distinct consciousness a new combination of thoughts, or an important distinction, is an addition to the intellectual wealth of a people ; while one that merely disguises an old notion in a new dress, or denotes a low, trivial conceit, or a useless distinction, is a violation of good use ; as, author- ess, poetess, conductress, jeopardize, happify, donate. 2. It should be formed according to the analogy of the lan- guage. Anomalous words, L e., those violating the general analogy of the language, have a foreign, repulsive aspect. The force of the prefixes and suffixes must be carefully ob- served. By themselves they are without meaning, but have peculiar significance in composition and derivation: some are active, others passive; some can be used with but one part of speech, others with several. The suffix -able occasions a great deal of perplexity, as may be seen in the discussions on the word reliable : the suffix -ize is very improperly employed with all parts of speech ; for example, burglarize, experimentalize, funeralize, etc. 82 STYLE. Sec. 45 The analogy of the language is often violated by forming hybrids , i. e., compounds with parts derived from different languages ; one part may be Anglo-Saxon, the other Latin or Greek; or one may be Latin, the other Greek. Such com- pounds are not absolutely prohibited in the English language. The distinction between its different elements is riot so broad that each is left entirely to its own laws. The Latin has yielded in many cases to the Anglo-Saxon. Many hybrids have been received as a permanent part of the language and have become familiar to us, and new ones analogous to the old are formed. There are many words in which a native suffix is attached to a Latin root ; as, motion-less, pain-fulj but the analogy of the language does not favor the joining of a Latin suffix to an English root. As a general rule prefixes are of the same lan- guage as the word to which they are added. There are, how- ever, many exceptions, especially in the use of the negative prefix un-j which is of native origin, but is prefixed to Latin words; as unjust, unidiomatic. The tendency, however, at present is to substitute the Latin in- for ^ln- J in words of foreign extraction. In the word iin-grate-ful, we find a native prefix and suffix with a Latin root. The word linguistic, which seems to be naturalized in scien- tific nomenclature, is a hybrid compounded of a Latin noun and two Greek suffixes. 3. It should be euphonic. It is not a sufficient reason for rejecting a word otherwise unexceptionable, that it is some- what rough or harsh ; but if it is difficult of utterance it does not serve the purposes of speech, and has no good claim to be adopted. Words that are defective in respect to euphony are reduced by Campbell to the following classes : (1) When the syllables which immediately follow the ac- cented syllable are so crowded with consonants as of necessity to retard the pronunciation ; for example, questionless, remem- brancer. Sec. 46 THE CHOICE OF WORDS. 83 (2) When too many syllables follow the accented syllable ; for example, primarily, summarily. (3) When a short or unaccented syllable is repeated or fol- lowed by another short unaccented syllable very much resem- bling. This gives the appearance of stammering to the pro- nunciation ; for example, holily, sillily. 4. It should be intelligible at once to those for whom it is designed. A word needing a commentary is superfluous. " The true criterion," says Julius Hare, u of the worth of a new word is its having such a familiar look, and bearing its meaning and the features of its kindred so visible in its face that we hardly know whether it is not an old acquaintance. Then more especially is it likely to be genuine, when its author himself is scarcely conscious of its novelty. At all events, it should not seem to be the fruit of study, but to spring sponta- neously from the inspiration of the moment." Guesses at Truth. Our great writers are sparing in the use of new words; they accomplish their purpose by a felicitous selection and arrange- ment of old and familiar words. It is safer for the writer to be somewhat behind than in advance of the language. In respect to both old and new words, the rule given by Quin- tilian should be followed, to prefer the oldest of the new and the newest of the old. Or as it is expressed by Ben Jonson: u We must not be too frequent with the mint every day coin- ing, nor fetch words from the extreme and utmost ages. Words borrowed from antiquity do lend a kind of majesty to style, and are not without their delight sometimes; for they have the authority of years, and out of their intermission do win themselves a kind of grace-like newness. But the eldest of the present and the newest of the past language is best." 46. Moral Dignity. Both in what is spoken and in the manner in which it is spoken we should be governed by the moral purpose of language. All words or phrases that directly or by association are offensive to moral purity or delicacy of feeling are to be shunned. This rule prohibits : 84 STYLE. Sec. 46 1. Words and phrases that express directly and vividly what is base, vicious, coarse, and disgusting whatever is low, or becomes low by being spoken of. We can not always avoid mentioning such objects; when compelled to do so, we should employ euphemisms, that is, general or foreign terms, or circumlocutions which express the same idea but vaguely and less offensively. As a people ad- vances in refinement, its language purifies itself; many words arc banished as indecent that were formerly used without offense. We find in our earlier writers as Chaucer and Shakespeare a coarseness of phrase that would not be toler- ated in a writer of the present century. This is to be explained in part by the ruder manners of their times, and in part by the fact that the words had not then the ignoble associations that are now 7 connected with them. Words become degraded by use; being brought in contact with unworthy persons and themes, they lose their purity and elevation, and sink to the vulgar dialect. These authors are not to be judged by the present standard ; we should wrong them were we to attribute to them the depravity which would be justly attributed to a writer of the present day who should be guilty of like gross- ness. In shunning coarseness the writer must not run into the other extreme of scrupulousness and prudery. The ill-timed and excessive use of euphemisms is the indication of conscious impurity. A corrupt mind can defile the most innocent words. There are many objects which it is a transgression of conven- tional decorum to make the themes of conversation, but it is vulgar affectation in a writer, who finds it necessary to refer to them, to hunt for euphemistic expressions instead of using their proper and perfectly harmless names. 2. The wanton misapplication of terms that designate moral qualities. This pernicious conniption is becoming prevalent in popular, especially in humorous literature. One form of it is the use of words that conceal and palliate vice by representing it as trifling or innocent, thus subverting the dis- Sec. 46 THE CHOICE OF WORDS. 85 tinctions between right and wrong, which are clearly marked in every cultivated language. Another form is in making use of low, degrading terms when speaking of sacred objects and rela- tions. Another, and the most common form, is that of apply- ing the terms which are set apart to denote what is honorable, noble, and elevated, to vile and contemptible persons and objects. This abuse of language is the sign of the moral deterioration of a community, of the decay of self-respect and of reverence for, and belief in, what is highest and best, and is the most effective means of increasing the evil from which it springs. 3. Vulgarisms, or corruptions of language whether in the form of its words or in their application that are indications of ignorance? and want of culture. They offend against the structure, clearness, harmony, and dignity of the language, and are suggestive of what is low and mean ; they are, there- fore, violations of respectable use, and although admitted occa- sionally into conversation and familiar writings, they are ex- cluded from serious discourse, whether oral or written. Here belong (1) Colloquialisms. We tolerate in ordinary conversation anomalous words which betray capriciousness in their forma- tion; contractions and mutilations, trite and trivial expres- sions, and popular ephemeral words, which have no place in literary diction. (2) Skcmj. The use of slang is one of the characteristics of our popular prose style. Many think that they are thereby writing in an easy, familiar manner adapted to the taste and capacity of their readers. Slang consists of words and phrases, which in themselves may be either significant or meaningless, used in an arbitrary and, generally, ludicrous sense. They are often metaphorical and racy, but degrade a subject by low and unsuitable associations, and are therefore unfit expressions for serious thoughts. The}' are not a portion of the permanent language; they spring up one knows not where, are popular for a short time, and suddenly disappear. Occasionally, how- 86 STYLE. Sec. 46 ever, one is adopted by respectable usage and takes its place among the lawful words. (3) Cant. By cant is usually understood a vocabulary of words peculiar to, and characteristic of, a particular profession, trade, class, or sect. Its use beyond its proper sphere betrays the influence of occupation and external circumstances, is an obtrusion of the personal and professional, and the manifesta- tion of a contracted, vulgar mind. Properly, cant is a jargon composed of words that have lost their significance, and are used without any distinct meaning attached to them, which may mean any thing or nothing. Thus, much of the nomen- clature of philosophical and theological systems passes into cant. This form of cant is a violation of propriety rather than of the moral elevation of language. Its source, however, is un truthfulness ; those who do not write and speak from their own experience will almost inevitably fall into it. 47. Propriety. Propriety consists in employing words that express the exact ideas to be conveyed, and that are appropri- ate to the nature and purpose of the discourse. It is opposed to inaccuracy and incongruity. Accuracy. As every word is the representative of a defi- nite notion, we should select those which according to estab- lished usage are the authorized symbols of the thoughts which we wish to express. A writer is deficient in accuracy who chooses words that are significant of different ideas from those he means to suggest. It may seem superfluous to warn against using words that have no affinity in sense to those whose place they occupy, but the fault is a common one. He may also be deficient in accuracy by using terms that, instead of conveying his ideas precisely and completely, contain more or less than he intends. The principal sources of inaccuracy are: 1. The misapplication of words similar in sound, or derived from the same root, but of entirely different meaning; for ex- ample, observance for observation, conscience for consciousness, Sec, 47 THE CHOICE OF WORDS. 87 predicate for predict, demean for debase, corporeal punishment for corporal punishment, exceptionable for exceptional. 2. The want of exact discrimination in the use of synony- mous words. Synonyms are usually defined as words of the same lan- guage and same grammatical class, identical in meaning. There may be, especially in a composite language like the English, words that are precisely equivalent. But use will soon make a difference between them; for language tends always to reject what is useless. Some drop out of use, others are appropriated to poetry or science, while with others what Coleridge has called the desynonymizing process takes place; different shades of meaning are attached to the different words, and from being equivalent terms they become synonymous. Strictly, synonyms are words of the same language and gram- matical class that agree in their main idea, but differ in their subordinate and accessory ideas. They are not identical, but similar in meaning; the points of similarity are easily recog- nized, while great care is often required to discover the precise point of difference. With the improvement in knowledge and refinement the differences of objects are more carefully noticed and recorded in the language. The number of synonymous words is constantly increasing, and with their increase the language acquires greater perspicuity and precision. An acquaintance with the shades of meaning of these words is an indispensable condition of accurate thinking and writing. The writer must avoid confounding them with each other. By such a misapplication of them he fails to express his thought ; the general idea may be conveyed, but the secondary one, that limits and determines the general, will not. This promiscuous use of distinct words is also a corruption of the language, as it tends to destroy its logical clearness and precision. Some- times, however, it is not necessary to discriminate accurately between the various shades of meaning ; it answers the purpose of the writer to give merely the general idea; in such cases he can use different words to express the same thought. 88 STYLE. Sec. 47 The accumulation of synonymous words is also to be avoided. The effect is to perplex the reader, who naturally endeavors to discover a meaning in each of the words, whereas the writer has used them as equivalents ; as when the truth and veracity, or the courage and bravery of a person are spoken of. Synonyms are sometimes combined for the sake of complete- ness. One word does not give the thought, and two or more must be joined to express the full meaning. This is not a case of improper accumulation of synonymous words, but of bring- ing together several words to denote a single idea, which can not be expressed with sufficient fullness and accuracy by a single term. REMARK. The English language owes much of its richness in syno- nyms to its composite character and the readiness with which it admits foreign additions. The following examples will show from what sources our synonyms are chiefly derived. It will be seen that some belong to the same stock, others are drawn from different languages : Ex. 1. Mute, L.; Voiceless, A.-S. 2. Durable, L.; Lasting,- A.-S. 3. Bold, A.-S.; Brave, Fr. 4. Place, Fr.; Position, L. 5. Weariness, A.-S.; Fatigue, Fr.; Lassitude, L. 6. Trick, A.-S.; Finesse, Fr.; Arti- fice, L.; Device, Ital.; Stratagem, Gr. 7. Honesty and Integrity, L. 8. Mild, Soft, Meek, A.-S. 3. The use of equivocal terms. Equivocal terms are words and phrases that admit of being understood in a sense different from that in which the writer applies them. They are found in every part of speech, and are the converse of synonyms, being words identical in form but differing in meaning. The use of words having a plurality of meanings is una- voidable ; language is finite, while the thoughts to be expressed are of illimitable variety. ISTo language has a separate sign for every single notion; hence most words represent a cluster of related ideas; they are but hints which the writer must leave to the intelligence of his readers to interpret. He must enable them to do this with ease and certainty. It is a viola- tion of accuracy to suggest a wrong meaning, or to leave it doubtful which one of the ideas denoted by the word is intended to be conveyed. Sec. 47 THE CHOICE OF WORDS. 89 There are some words which with the same form signify totally different objects ; as, for example, the word rent, which signifies a rent caused by tearing, and rent paid for houses and land. Such words are not properly equivocal. Another class is composed of words which with identity of form denote different aspects, relations, and applications of the same notion. It is in this class that all the really important equivocal terms are found. Thus the same word, or rather the same combination of letters, may admit of being applied : (1) In a wide and in a narrow sense; for example, thought, in its wider sense, denotes all mental acts ; in its narrower, it is confined to the acts of the understanding. (2) Literally and figuratively ; as in the words, icalk, weigh, upright, etc. (3) Actively and passively ; for example, imagination signi- fies both the act of imagining and the result of the act ; so also perception, induction, deduction, inference, and many others of the same kind. (4) Subjectively and objectively ; for example, a fearful heart (subjective), & fearful height (objective); so also terms denoting both a sensation and its cause ; as, for example, heat, cold, and others. (5) Absolutely and relatively; for example, oldest inmate, oldest scholar, etc. Is it meant that he is the oldest inmate, i. e., has been longest time in the establishment "? or that he is the oldest person among the inmates or scholars'? In the first sense it is used relatively ; in the latter, absolutely. There are many words that are so indefinite as to be a source of great confusion and error when admitted into philosophical discussions. Thus the word nature is employed in a wide sense, as equivalent to the sum of created things, and in a nar- rower sense, as equivalent to material objects ; sometimes act- ively u Xature relieves disease, 77 sometimes passively ; in a figurative and literal sense, etc. Law is another of these very indefinite words; it does not mean the same thing in the phrases, law of nature, law of thought, moral law. Idea is another instance : " Word arid thing, 77 says Sir Wm. Hamil- Rhet. 8 90 STYLE. Sec. 47 ton, " ideas have been the crux pliilosopliorum^ since Aristotle sent them packing, to the present day." Congruity. The terms chosen should not only express the ideas accurately, but should at the same time be appropriate to their nature and importance, and to the purpose of the dis- course. This rule is violated in many ways $ only some of the most general offenses against it need be mentioned here. The first is the fault which has become prevalent of employ- ing a phraseology alien from the common forms of speech. It has been already shown that words and phrases are tolerated in conversation which are not admissible into a composition. But in the effort to avoid a coarse and too colloquial style, many go to the opposite extreme of an equally offensive fine writing. A genuine popular style is free from both pedantry and coarse- ness. The most cultivated writers incline to the plain and familiar ; they adapt the expression to the thought, and where choice is allowed select the common, idiomatic words. What should be the proportion of Saxon and foreign words in a discourse can not be fixed by any rule. The diction of a correct writer will vary with the subject he discusses ; when it is a question of science or criticism, the Latin element will preponderate ; and native terms, when it is a familiar object or occurrence. The general rule is, that, other things being equal, Saxon words are to be preferred. It may be adopted as a safe principle in writing, " that every Latinism which can be displaced by a Saxonism is a defect avoided, if not a beauty gained." The best writers of the present day recognize the importance of the native element of the language, and employ a larger proportion of Anglo-Saxon words than the writers of the last century. But with the greater number of writers the reverse is true. They make use of a latinized English, or an angli- cized Latin phraseology, whatever the subject and occasion. It is characteristic of this style to eschew the familiar expressive terms of daily life, and to employ on the most trivial themes sounding, uncommon words. It is supposed that the use of Sec. 47 THE CHOICE OF WORDS. 01 such terms gives greater dignity to style. On the contrary, it renders it formal and monotonous ; destroys all force and grace, which are inseparable from naturalness ; and frequently be- comes ludicrous from the contrast between the feeble, common- place thoughts and the labored, pompous expression. Ex. The following extract from a criticism in the London Times of one of Thackeray's works will exemplify the faults here condemned : " It lias been customary of late years for the purveyois of amusing literature to put forth opuscules denominated Christmas books, with the ostensible intention of swelling the tide of exhilaration or other expansive emotions incident on the exodus of the old, or the inauguration of the new year." This pretentious style, which Trench calls, " that worst and most offen- sive kind of bad English, which disguises poverty of thought, and lack of any real command over the language, by the use of big, hollow, lumbering Latin w r ords," has been treated of very fully by Dean Alford in his Plea for the Queen's English, and by Richard Grant White in his work upon Words and their Uses. A few examples from these works are here given. A man is an " individual," or a "person," or a "party;" a woman is a " female," a name which might belong to any animal tribe ; a child is a "juvenile," and children en masse are expressed by that most odious term, "the rising generation." A man going home is set down as "an indi- vidual proceeding to his residence." Instead of, most of the people of the place, we have, "the majority of the residents in the locality." Men nowadays "experience" a sensation; the weather "experiences" a change. It would be an unpardonable want of dignity to say : " When I came to the spot, I met a man running towards me with his hands held up." It must read, " When the very reverend gentleman arrived in close proximity to the scene of action, he encountered an individual proceeding at a rapid pace in the opposite direction, having both his hands elevated in an excited manner." Alford, p. '245 et seq. The following sentence is found in the report of a committeee of the legislature of New York on street railways : " It is not to be denied that any system which demands the propulsion of cars at a rapid rate, at an elevation of fifteen or twenty feet, is not entirely consistent, in public esti- mation, with the greatest attainable immunity from the dangers of trans- portation." Worth ami their Uses, p. 32. Another offense against congruity is exaggeration ; that is, the use of language? disproportionate to the importance of the ideas to be expressed. Such an inflated, overcharged style is characteristic of much of our popular prose. It is inconsistent 92 STYLE. Sec. 47 with truthfulness, as it gives a false view of the subject, or of the writer's feelings in reference to it. Though employed for the sake of emphasis its effect is the re verse 5 the endeavor to give importance to what is low and feeble by using strong lan- guage, only renders the feebleness more apparent. It destroys both the logical precision and the moral dignity of a language. The use of strong terms on ordinary subjects and occasions is a certain sign of poverty of thought and shallowness of feeling. Sobriety of judgment which sees things as they are and appre- ciates them at their real worth, and sincerity and earnestness of feeling, employ the language of moderation, such as ex- presses less than is felt rather than more. 48. Conclusion. The rules which have been given relate to words used in their literal, proper sense. By observing them we present a clear and truthful statement of our thoughts to the understanding. But when we aim at the highest possible degree of perspicu- ity and vivacity ; when we would call into activity the reader's powers in reproducing the ideas ; and when we would excite his feelings and passions and move his will, we must endeavor to bring the notions down from the abstract generality in which they are presented to the understanding in their appropriate signs, and exhibit them in sensible forms to the imagination. The means of doing this are the Figures of Speech, which will be considered in the next chapter. CHAPTER III. FIGURES OF SPEECH. 49. Figures of Speech in general Definition. Figures of speech are deviations from the strictly grammatical and logical modes of expression, by means of which ideas and thoughts are conveyed with vividness and force. Sec. 49 FIGURES OF SPEECH. 03 Are natural and necessary. The real nature of the rela- tion of figures to thought is very generally misunderstood. The majority of rhetoricians treat of them as mere ornaments, which render a discourse more pleasing, and which may be used or rejected at pleasure. Some writers as, for example, Locke condemn their employment in works intended to con- vey knowledge and truth ; they are pronounced inventions, which serve only to insinuate wrong ideas, move the passions, and mislead the judgment. But instead of being inventions of art, they are the natural, and therefore necessary and universal forms, in which excited imagination and passion manifest themselves. The young and the old, the barbarous and the civilized, all employ them uncon- sciously. Languages in their earlier state are highly figurative ; as they grow older they lose their natural picturesqueness and become collections of lifeless symbols. These abstract forms are regarded by rhetoricians and grammarians as the natural and ordinary forms of speech, and so they describe figures as departures from the usual forms of expression. They are, it is true, deviations from the forms in which cool, unimpassioned reflection expresses itself, but not from the ordi- nary forms of the expression of emotion and affection. Excited feeling manifests itself in the movements of the body ; much more will it leave its impress on language. For a person under great excitement to express the thoughts that agitate him in the ordinary logical forms, would be as unnatural as for one whose mind is perfectly calm to employ the language of passion. Nor is it true that the use of figures obscures the thoughts. Abstract ideas are communicated to the illiterate much more clearly by figurative expressions than by their appropriate gen- eral terms. Their classification. A great deal of ingenuity has been expended in discriminating and classifying the figures of speech. Almost every violation of strict grammatical law has been made a figure, and received a name. In this process of 94 STYLE. Sec. 49 endless division and subdivision their real nature and signifi- cance have been lost sight of. The numerous and complicated classifications of the older Ehetorics need not be enumerated, as they are of but little practical value, and at the present day are very generally neg- lected. It will enable us to understand better the nature and use of the figures of speech to keep in view the twofold purpose which they accomplish. In the first place, they reproduce ^ideas with something of the fullness and vividness of objects of sense; in the second place, they give emphasis to the thoughts the truth and importance of which the writer wishes to impress on his hearers. Some figures are better adapted to the first, others to the second of these purposes. We may therefore divide them into two main classes or divisions : 1. Figures of Intuition. 2. Figures of Emphasis. 50, Figures of Intuition, These figures present an idea or judgment in a sensible form to the imagination, either directly, by clothing abstract notions in a concrete image, by endowing inanimate objects with life and sense, and by bring- ing distant objects near and into living connection with us; or indirectly, by comparing them with familiar and striking objects. They give a distinct, vivid image from which the under- standing constructs the notion to be conveyed; at the same time they give emphasis to the notion. They are Tropes, Personification, Figures of Ideal Presence, Similes, Allusions, and Epithets. 51, Tropes in general. Tropes form that class of figures in which there is the substitution of one idea for another, with the transfer of the word denoting the one notion to the other. The word is thus no longer applied in its ordinary, established sig- nification, but in a derivative one. There must always be some relation existing between the ideas that justifies the ex- change. The use of tropes is only a particular manifestation of Sec. 52 FIGURES OF SPEECH. 05 the natural process by which the mind seeks to realize general notions ; the individual is substituted for the general, the con- crete for the abstract. The points to be noticed in all tropes are : 1st. The original, main thought, or the proper, literal signi- fication of the term. 2d. The substituted thought, or the derivative meaning of the term. 3d. The relation between the two, or the principle on which the transfer has been made. The relations which serve as foundations for this figure are those of the whole and its parts, cause and effect, resemblance and analogy, and all relations that determine the association of thoughts. The tropes are, Synecdoche, Metonymy, and Metaphor, representing single notions, and Allegory, represent- ing a judgment. 52. Synecdoche. Synecdoche is a trope founded on the relation of the whole to its parts, and consists in the substitu- tion of a part for the whole. There are various forms of synecdoche, answering to the different kinds of wholes and parts. 1. A species is put for the genus, an individual for the species; as, bread for food; silver and gold for riches; u They shall beat their sicords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning-hooJcs" swords and spears are here used for all weapons of war, plowshares and pruning-hooks for the imple- ments of the peaceful arts ; a Homer, instead of an epic poet ; a Demosthenes, instead of an orator. " Such an Orbilius mars more scholars than he makes" Orbilius, instead of a harsh school-master. Many of these tropes have become trite ; as, a Solomon, for a wise man ; a Judas, for a traitor. In introducing new ones care must be taken that their application be instantly recog- nized. 2. A quality or attribute of an individual object or person is put for the individual: "Thus spoke the tempter"; "the phi- 06 STYLE. Sec. 52 loHOphcr" for Aristotle. Although seemingly substituting the general for the particular, it really presents the individual with t;ome prominent characteristic, and thus makes the notion more distinct. 3. The matter of an object is put for the form; i. e., the material for the thing made: "The breathing marble arid the glowing canvas" ; so steel for sword, lead for bullet. The object is thus presented more vividly by suggesting some of its visible aspects. 4. A part of an integrate whole is given instead of the whole; as, fifty sail for fifty ships; the waves for the ocean; the head for the whole body. 5. A determinate number is put for an indeterminate, the singular for the plural, and, in general, a less for a greater; as, "ten thousand swords"; "an old man is venerable." The effects of this trope are owing to its conveying what is abstract and general by means of particular and individual notions that can be pictured in the imagination; and to its presenting, in sensible objects, those prominent, characteristic parts which suggest most naturally and readily the entire object. It is not, then, a matter of indifference what parts are chosen. That only should be chosen which is appropriate to the idea and purpose of the writer, and corresponds to what is said of the whole which it represents. "We descried a sail," is proper; but we can not say, "Our sails plowed the deep," as there is no connection between the sails and the act of plowing. " The enemy are in possession of the walls," conveys fully and appropriately their being masters of the city. We say roof for house, when the idea of shelter is the prominent one in the mind; as, "I adjure all roofs"; but hearth or fireside when the ideas of home intimacies and en- joyments are to be suggested. The converse of synecdoche is the substitution of the general for the particular;, as, the genus for the species, the whole for the part, the plural for the singular; for example, a vessel for a ship; the ignorance of mortals ; weapon for sword, etc. Its Sec. 53 FIGURES OF SPEECH. 07 effect is the opposite of the synecdoche, as it renders the im- pression less vivid. It is one of the usual forms of euphe- mism. 53. Metonymy. Metonymy is a trope founded upon the necessary relations of objects. It substitutes one notion for another that is closely connected with it. The principal of these relations are : 1. Cause and effect. The cause is put for the effect ; as, the author for his work, the inventor for his invention, the ances- tor for his descendants; for example, "I read Milton"] a ])a ry, for the safety-lamp ; Israel, for the Jews. Here belongs the use of mythological names ; as, Bacchus, for wine ; Cerex, for bread, and the like. Other examples of this form of me- tonymy are : He shall bear his iniquity; your sin will find you out ; he supports them by his labor; to bask in the sun. The effect is put for the cause; as, shade, for trees; drunken- ness, for wine ; to send death into the ranks of the enemy. Physical effects are put for the actions or mental states causing them ; as, tears, for sorrow ; sweat of his brow, for labor. A passion or emotion is put for its exciting cause, or the object on which it terminates ; as, the terror of the oppressed, i. c., he who inspires terror. The instrument is put for the agent, the process, or the effect; as, to write a good hand; the sword without; the- pen is mightier than the sword; "I will speak dayycrs to her, but use none." 2. Time and place. The time is put for what existed or happened in it ; as, antiquity, the nineteenth century, a refined or barbarous age, instead of the people then living. The name of a place for what is contained, or produced, or took place in in it; as, "the whole theater applauded"; " they devoured the land"] "he drank the fatal cup"; "to be fond of the bottle"; "France would not consent." Calico, demijohn, china, are metonymies of this class, which have lost their figurative meaning. 3. Possessor and tiling possessed. The owner is put for his property, and -vice versa; as, "to devour the families of the Rhet. 9 98 STYLE. Sec. 53 widow," instead of their means of subsistence; the land, house, farm, pays tax or rent, instead of the owner. 4. Sign and thing signified. Instead of naming purely in- tellectual objects their visible symbols are named; as, the laurel, instead of victory ; the olive branch, instead of peace ; the throne, the purple, the scepter; the crescent and the cross. The force of this trope is owing to its employing expressions that present the notion in a more concrete, particular form, than the proper name of the object. It loses its force when abstract and general notions take the place of the less general and sensible ; for example, the clouds drop blessings, for fruit- ful showers. A process of reasoning is required in such cases to gain the idea, and the attention is thus withdrawn from the thought. Antonomasia. - This trope is of the same nature as me- tonymy, although it can not be said to exhibit the idea more vividly. It consists in putting in place of a proper name, another notion which may be either in apposition to it or predi- cated of it. Its principal use is to avoid the repetition of the same name, and the too frequent use of the pronoun. The most frequent forms of it are, naming a person from his parent- age or country; as, Achilles is called Pelides ; Napoleon Bonaparte, the Corsican: or naming him from some of his deeds; as, instead of Scipio, fJie destroyer of Carthage; in- stead of Wellington, the hero of Waterloo. In making use of this trope such designations should be selected as are well known, or can be easily understood from the connection, and free from ambiguity, that is, are not equally applicable to other well known persons. 54. Metaphor. The metaphor is a trope founded upon re- semblance. It is the substitution of one notion for another in virtue of some resemblance or analogy between them. It is often called an abridged simile. It agrees with it in being founded upon resemblance, but differs from it in structure. In Sec. 54 FIGURES OF SPEECH. 99 the metaphor there is no explicit statement of comparison ; one object takes the place of the other ; in the simile we say that one object is like another ; as, " Man is as the flower of the field": in the metaphor w r e say that one is the other; as, "All llesh is grass." The resemblances upon which metaphors are founded are either direct or indirect. They are direct, when the objects are alike in certain common qualities or modes of action. It is enough to put one notion for the other 5 the resemblance is rec- ognized at once ; as when we say fa&fe-land, or to fly, instead of to move swiftly. They are remote, when the similarity is not of qualities, but of relation. We say, " the evening of life," and all under- stand that old age is meant. There is not any direct resem- blance between old age and evening, but the relation of the evening to the day is the same as the relation of old age to a man's life. We substitute the notion life, of the second term of the proportion, for day of the first part, and by so doing we change the signification of evening ; it loses its proper ordinary meaning and acquires a secondary metaphorical one. The qualifying phrase, of life, shows that the word evening is to be taken figuratively, and also explains it; it shows that we are to understand by it the close of a human life. At the same time the use of the word evening imparts a new character to the notion life ; it is no longer general and abstract, but is rep- resented to the imagination as a single day with its parts morn- ing, noon, evening, and followed by the night. The metaphor, u The ship plow r s the waves," is another example of remote resemblance. There is the transfer of the action of one object to a related one. There is no direct resemblance between a plow and a ship, but there is an analogy between their effects 5 what the action of the plow is to the ground, is the action of the ship on the waves. The metaphors from analogy, or remote resemblance, are the most frequent and important ; by many they are regarded as the only metaphors. Thus Bishop Copleston defines the meta- phor as " a contracted comparison in which two terms of the 100 STYLE. Sec. 54 analogy are omitted, and no mention is made of the simili- tude." Divided into three kinds. Metaphors are divided with re- spect to the objects between which the exchange is made into three classes. 1. Those in which the qualities and 1 acts of our intellectual and moral nature are represented by external, material objects; as, when we speak of weighing a matter, halting between two opinions. So, also, the light of knowledge, the darkness of superstition, a ray of hope, etc. The terms used to denote the acts of the mind are applied primarily to external objects ; as, spirit, reflection, attention, acuteness, sagacity, etc. Ex. " Philosophy, justly curious to observe the structure of our facul- ties, arid the nature of those wondrous operations by which man alone, of all creatures, has acquired a history, endeavors to untwine the finished web of thought, and lay out the variegated filaments, the warp of con- stant nature and the woof of flying experience, from which the texture seems to have been composed." "Outbursts of song and pulses of prayer are as successive strokes of the ever beating wing of aspiration." 2. Those in which physical properties are represented by in- tellectual and moral. As the former materializes the spiritual, this spiritualizes matter; gives life to what is inanimate, thought and feeling to the senseless ; as, the sun rejoices, the morning laughs, imperious ocean, angry flood. This meta- phor is the simplest form of personification. 3. Those in which both the objects belong to the same sphere both are material, or both spiritual; as, when the body is called the "soul's dark cottage"; the sun, "fair IN a t- ure s eye. 77 Its force. The metaphor is one of the most frequent and one of the boldest of the figures of speech. Its effect is not merely to render discourse intelligible, but to impart to it the greatest possible degree of vivacity. It accomplishes this end by giving the idea with greatest brevity calling up by a word Sec. 54 FIGURES OF SPEECH. 101 what would require otherwise a whole sentence to communi- cate ; by exhibiting the acts and qualities of living objects by means of other objects, which set them forth in livelier colors; and by presenting abstract notions, and ideas of a purely intel- lectual order in images that address the senses. It thus econo- mizes the attention, calls the imagination into activity, and (Mil ploys the understanding in tracing the resemblance, solving the apparent contradiction which it involves, and reproducing from the image the precise thought. Rules for its use. The improper employment of metaphors is one of the most frequent faults of style. The laws for their use and formation must be borne in mind. As metaphors are the natural expression of excited imagination and feeling, they must be judged by the laws of these powers. A cold, logical analysis would condemn some of the most noble and forcible. 1. There must be a real resemblance between the two ob- jects, and this resemblance must not be too close, nor in an accidental and insignificant quality. Where the objects are nearly related, and the points of similarity are numerous and apparent, nothing is gained by comparing them ; there must be resemblance in the midst of differences to give employment either to the imagination or the understanding. To substitute one member of a class for an- other of the same as one man, or one flower, for another seldom adds to the vivacity of the representation, while the interchange of objects of different species exhibits the thought in a stronger light. But while metaphors should be drawn from objects that differ in the main, they must not be founded on superficial qualities and relations. Their force depends on the intimacy of the relation between the notions compared. It is not meant that there must be a real analogy in essential points such as the understanding demands in the process of reasoning, but such a similarity as will enable the imagination naturally and easily to identify the two objects. Where this is not the case the slightness of the resemblance is only made more apparent 102 STYLE. Sec. 54 by the attempt to combine them ; and the metaphor is called forced, trivial, far-fetched; it may excite surprise, and can be used with effect in comic productions, but is unfit for serious discourse. Many metaphors, in which natural objects are represented by images drawn from artificial productions, are violations of this rule ; as when the heavens are spoken of as, " this gorgeous apparatus." The following from Addison, though pronounced by some beautiful and expressive, is exceptionable. Speaking of Milton's art, in the description of the descent of the band of angels into Paradise, after the Fall, he employs this meta- phor: "The whole theater of nature is darkened that this glo- rious machine may appear in all its luster and magnificence." Some metaphors violating this rule please by their inge- nuity, and are admissible in sprightly works addressing the fancy, although out of place in the more elevated productions of the imagination and of serious prose ; as when the dew is described as, " The tears of the day for the loss of the sun." 2. The metaphors must be true. They must not contradict what we know of the objects and events from which they are drawn ; as when one speaks of the " strings of an instrument touched by a tone"; or of "gathering the honey of earthly wisdom not from flowers, but from thorns." 3, A metaphor must have simplicity. This is opposed to abstruseness and want of intelligibility. The point of resem- blance must be obvious one that the persons addressed will perceive at once. A metaphor that can not be understood, or is understood only with difficulty, obscures the idea instead of illustrating it. Learned and technical metaphors are in most cases violations of this rule. Where there is danger of obscu- rity a writer may often prevent it by beginning with a simile and passing to the metaphor, or by inserting it as a parenthesis; sometimes a qualifying word removes the difficulty. Fre- quently he introduces a somewhat bold metaphor by an ac- knowledgment of its audacity or an apology for it; at other times he adds an explanation that serves to render it both clear and forcible. These bold metaphors are frequently em- Sec, 54 FIGURES OF SPEECH. 103 ployed, even in didactic discourse, to bring into prominence some important idea ; the necessity of explaining the metaphor fixes the attention upon the idea, and impresses it upon the mind. Ex. " The subsequent movement of the English speech has not been in a right line of recession from the scriptural dialect. It lias been rather a. curve of revolution around it. Were it not carrying the metaphor too far, I would say it is an elliptical curve, and that the speech of England has now been brought by it much nearer to that great solar center, the focus of genial warmth and cheerful light, than it was a century ago." 4. A metaphor must have unity. It must offer a distinct, consistent image to the imagination. The qualities and acts ascribed to the representative notion must be such as properly belong to it. The terms employed must be understood in their literal sense with respect to the representative object, and in their secondary, or figurative, sense with respect to the object represented. Unity is violated : (1) By combining the literal and the metaphorical. The metaphor must be altogether figurative; the attributes and predicates introduced must not be understood partly in their literal and partly in their figurative sense. Where the true and false are thus mingled no distinct image is offered, and the mind is confused in attempting to reduce the parts to unity. Ex. "My heart is turned to stone; I strike it and it hurts my hand." In the first clause " stone" is used figuratively ; in the second, it is taken literally. " Be Mowbray's sins so heavy in his bosom, that they may break his foaming courser's neck" Here " heavy " is first used in a figurative, then in a literal sense. In both examples the rule is violated which requires, that the terms employed be understood in their figurative sense with respect to the object represented. (2) By blending different and incompatible images. only must all the parts be figurative, but all must be parts of the same figure. The writer must end with the same meta- phor with which he began not begin with a storm and end 104 STYLE. Sec. 54 with a conflagration. Such mixed metaphors are very fre- quent. They present no distinct image, although we may guess the meaning. Ex. " There is not a single view of human nature which is not suffi- cient to extinguish the seeds of pride." Two incompatible images are here combined. Instead of the word " extinguish," there should be employed one that corresponds to the word " seeds." " We are constantly called upon to observe how the noxious passions, which spring up in the heart like weeds in a neglected garden, are dissi- pated by the liyht of truth." " Every religious idea has its season. It is as though the drops of light in the night heavens must wheel in their course before the sun can arise and smite them with death." " The religious idea wrapped in the shell of naturalism lay like a gland on the earth. The sun of prosperity shone on it, the dew of intelligence moistened it, the germ of life burst the hard casing which had imprisoned it, and became a vital religion flowering in polytheism, fruiting into mono- theism." It is difficult to apply this rule in all cases, and to decide what are and what are not mixed metaphors. Some critics are overfastidious. Many words have lost their figurative sense, and suggest directly the idea without the intervention of an image. These can be combined in a manner which, if we regard their literal meaning, would be incongruous. Others vacillate between their literal and figurative meaning, and still retain enough of the figurative to produce a confused, inconsist- ent image when combined. The words fertile and source have so far lost their figurative sense, that it would be hypercritical to object to the expression " fertile source." The inconsistency of the following is felt by all : " Upon the style it is that these perplexities depend for their illumination." 5. Metaphors should be suited to the nature and purpose of the discourse, and to the ideas to be illustrated. Many that are appropriate to poetry are unsuitable for prose ; and in oratory many are admissible that are excluded from didactic discourse. They must correspond to the importance of the subject, neither unduly elevating it nor sinking it below its proper dignity. Sec. 55 FIGURES OF SPEECH.. 105 Ex. "At length, however, it floated through both houses on the tide of a great majority, and steered into the safe harbor of royal approba- tion." ''Squeezing a parable." G. A metaphor should have novelty. In every language metaphorical expressions are current which no longer suggest an image, but which are not considered as proper terms; as, for example, "the mantle of charity," "the tooth of time." Such trite, stereotyped metaphors produce none of the effects of figurative language. They give a delusive appearance of novelty and vivacity, and leave the impression of feebleness of thought and coldness of feeling. There are other metaphors which, although not new, and riot calling up vividly any image, nevertheless suggest resem- blances and analogies, and thus impart some degree of vivacity to the style; as, "the evening of life." These may be occasionally used in ordinary moods, although out of place in the expression of strong passion and excited emotion. By the use of trite metaphors a writer is often betrayed into some of the grossest offenses against the law of unity; as, " We must keep the ball rolling until it becomes a thorn hi the side of Congress." " And now I must embark into the feature on which this question chiefly hinges." 7. A metaphor should awaken pleasing associations. This forbids all that are coarse and mean; such, for example, as are drawn from the animal nature, low employments, and disgust- ing objects. They are unnatural, as the state of mind that prompts to the use of metaphorical language is an elevated one, which seeks to dignify the idea instead of degrading it. 55. Allegory. Not only may we represent in sensible im- ages general notions, which are expressed by single terms, and form the subjects and predicates of propositions; but we may in the same manner convey general truths that is, facts and principles which are expressed by a proposition or series of propositions. Life, for example, is a single notion, which may be embodied in an image; as when I say, "the voyage of life," 106 STYLE. Sec. 55 or " the battle of life," etc. In this we have a metaphor. But when it is said, " Unity gives strength," or " Dissension brings weakness/ 7 a general truth is asserted. This truth may be conveyed figuratively, as in the story of the old man and the bundle of sticks; we have then an allegory. The essential difference between the allegory and the other tropes is, not that the former is extended while the latter are brief the allegory may be short, as in many proverbs but that the one is the figurative expression of a thought or general truth, the other of notions or general ideas. An allegory, then, is a continuous narration or description intelligible when taken literally, which is intended to inculcate a truth different from what is contained in the literal state- ment, but bearing some relation to it. It is like a hiero- glyphic one thing is said, another thing is meant. We are called upon to interpret it, and to collect from what appears that which the writer wishes us to understand. If we do not go beyond the literal statement, we know nothing of what is meant. The laws for the structure and use of tropes in general apply to allegories. 1. They must be perspicuous. " The allegory must dwell in a transparent palace." The relation of its two parts the image, or proper literal sense, and that which is intended to be declared, the secondary, allegorical sense must be such that the meaning can be immediately seized. 2. The various details of the image must have their counter- part in the fact which is to be set forth. This rule, however, must not be enforced too rigidly. Minor details are admitted for ornament, which are not to be considered as parts of the allegory. 3. The literal and figurative must not be mingled or con- fused. It must be in itself an intelligible, consistent state- ment. All the terms employed should be literally applicable to the image or representative subject ; no conditions or acts should be ascribed to it that are not in accordance with its real nature. Sec. 56 FIGURES OF SPEECH. 107 Parable, The parable is one form of the allegory. It is properly the exhibition of a religious truth by means of facts from nature and human life. It is not pretended, however, that the statements are historically true ; they are offered only as a means of conveying a higher general truth. But they are always true to nature; the laws of the nature of the different beings introduced are strictly observed, and the events are such as might have taken place. Fable. The fcible differs from the parable in this, that it attributes the actions and words of rational beings to what is inanimate and irrational. They are purely fictitious brutes and plants are made to think, and speak, and act like men. The laws of the nature of the actors in the fable are thus vio- lated, and what is ascribed to them could not take place. Allegory, parable, and fable are also distinct species of com- position, the nature and laws of which are treated of in the Theory of Poetry. Ex. The student may consult the following passages: Isa. v: 1-7; Ps. Ixxx: 8-16 ; the parable of Nathan, 2 Sam. xii : 1-4 ; and the parables of the Savior ; the fable of Jotkam, Judges ix : 7-15. 56. Personification. Personification consists in represent- ing inanimate objects and abstract notions as living, and ascrib- ing to them the actions of persons. The tropes give" to notions a visible form; this endows them with life, intelligence, and activity. The other figures tend to this, and blend with it, so that it is often an essential part of them. It is founded on the natural tendency of the mind when agi- tated by passion, to transfer to outward objects the mental and moral qualities of which it is conscious. Its force and beauty arise from its exhibiting lifeless things in a human form, and as possessing human sensibility and affection. The qualities and acts of inanimate things are sometimes described by attributes belonging to living and intelligent beings ; as when it is said, u a furious dart," u a raging tem- pest," u a frowning mountain." In such expressions we have 108 STYLE. Sec. 56 the germ of personification, but it is more convenient to class them with the tropes, and confine personification to those forms in which inanimate objects, physical phenomena, and mental processes and qualities are represented as performing the ac- tions of living persons. Thus, inanimate objects are exhibited as addressing us, or as addressed by us, or as acting like intel- ligent beings; abstract qualities, as hope, fear, death, religion, slander, etc., are represented with the form and qualities of persons. Ex. "O eloquent, just, and mighty Death! whom none could advise, thou Imst persuaded; what none hath dared, thou hast done; and whom all the world hath flattered, thou only hast cast out of the world and despised; thou hast drawn together all the far-stretched greatness, all the pride, cruelty, and ambition of man, and covered it all over with these two narrow words, hie jacet." Raleiyli. Cautions with respect to using it. 1. As the use of this figure is prompted by the instinctive craving of our nature for sympathy, no objects should be personified that are not of suffi- cient dignity and importance to awaken such feelings; not only low, trivial objects, but as a general rule artificial productions can not be personified with a good effect. 2. As each one is intended to gratify a particular passion, it should be confined to it, and whatever is contrary or foreign to it should b*e excluded. 3. There should be a perfect consistency of the parts; the qualities ascribed should all be such as belong to intelligent beings, and should harmonize in one character. 4. The higher forms of personification can be admitted only into the most animated prose; they are employed much more freely in poetry. The personification of abstract qualities is frequent even in didactic prose. 57. Ideal Presence. This includes several figures which represent objects distant in space or time as present. 1. The present tense used for a past or future. The low- Sec. 57 FIUUKKS OF SPEECH. 100 est form is that in which past or future events are narrated in the present tense, thus making the reader a spectator. This mode of narrating is especially adapted to discourses that address the passions, but it is also admissible in familiar dis- course. Its use is limited by the following conditions: (1) It should be justified by the subject and the writer's feel- ings. It produces an unpleasant effect when the subject does not call for such a degree of vivacity, or when there is a want of lively interest on the part of the writer. (2) It should not be too frequently employed nor too pro- longed. It becomes wearisome when excessive. Ex. "The circumstances now clearly in evidence spread out the whole scene before us. Deep sleep liad fallen on the destined victim, and on all beneath his roof. A healthful old man, to whom sleep was sweet, the first sound slumbers of the night held him in their strong- embrace. The assassin enters, through the window already prepared, into an unoc- cupied apartment. With noiseless foot he jpaees the lonely hall he winds up the ascent of the stairs, and readies the door of the chamber. Of this he moves the lock, by soft, continued pressure, till it turns on its hinges without noise, and he enters and beholds his victim before him. . . . The deed is done. He retreats, retraces his steps to the window, passes out through it as he came in, and escapes" Webster. 2. Vision. Another figure of this class is vision. In this the writer declares himself an eye-witness of some event, and depicts it as taking place in his presence. It is the expression of powerful emotion, and should be used but seldom and with greatest caution. Ex. From a speech against impressing seamen. "Would the learned gentleman not let one father, one brother, or one child escape in this gen- eral scene of oppression and injustice ? Methinks I hear the heartfelt shrieks of the miserable wife this instant piercing my ears, and entreating, in accents of rage and despair, the midnight ruffian not to drag from hei side the father of her children and her only support! I think I hear the aged, helpless parent, in accents of sinking woe r misery, and distress, bewailing the loss of his dutiful, affectionate son!" "Methinks I see in my mind a noble and puissant nation rousing herself like a strong man after sleep, and shaking her invincible locks; methinks I see her, as an eagle, mewing her mighty youth, and kindling 110 STYLE. Sec. 57 her undazzled eyes at the full midday beam ; purging and scaling her long abused sight at the fountain itself of heavenly radiance ; while the whole noise of timorous and flocking birds, with those also that love the twilight, flutter about, amazed at what she means, and in their envious gabble would prognosticate a year of sects and schisms." Milton. 3. Apostrophe. Another figure of this class is apostrophe, which consists in addressing the absent as though they were present. It brings those who are distant in time or place into our immediate presence, and represents them as listening to us. The figure receives additional force when the address takes the form of questions. We may thus address living persons who are absent, the dead, former ages, future ages ? and invisible beings. Ex. "But, alas, you are not all here. Time and the sword have thinned your ranks. Prescott, Putnam, Stark, Brooks, Read, Pomeroy, Bridge ! our eyes seek for you in vain amid this broken band. You are gathered to your fathers, and live only to your country in her grateful remembrance and your own bright example." Webster. " Yes, noble Galileo, thou art right, i It does move.' Bigots may make thee recant it, but it moves, nevertheless. . . . Close now, venerable sage, that sightless, tearful eye ; it has seen what man never before saw ; it has seen enough. Hang up that poor little spy-glass ; it has done its work. . . . Rest in peace, great Columbus of the heavens, like him scorned, persecuted, broken-hearted." Everett, 4. Sermocination. Still another of the same class is ser- mocination. In this figure absent, invisible, or supernatural beings are represented as addressing us. It may be combined with apostrophe ; the discourse then takes the form of animated dialogue. Ex. "Ask the very soul of Peter, and it shall undoubtedly make you itself this answer : l My eager protestations made in the glory of my ghostly strength, I am ashamed of; but those crystal tears wherewith my sin and weakness was bewailed have procured my endless joy ; my strength hath been my ruin, and my fall my stay.' " Hooker. "Suppose that God should address you in these words: 'O man, I would to-day take away this heart and give you another ; you have only the power of man, I will give you that of God.'" Sec. 58 FIGUKES OF SPEECH. 11 J 58. Simile. A simile is the explicit statement of the resem- blance between two objects or notions belonging to different classes. Like the metaphor, it renders a notion clearer and more vivid by comparing it with another that is better known, and can be more easily pictured in the imagination ; it differs from it in that it does not identify the two notions, but asserts explic- itly their similarity. Strictly speaking, a simile is composed of two members, one containing the notion to be illustrated, the other the illustrative notion j ordinarily the illustrative member introduced by like, a v? is regarded as the simile. The order of the arrangement of the members is not invariable ; whether the illustrative shall precede or follow that which contains the notion to be illustra- ted, is determined by rhetorical considerations. There may be also a difference in the prominence given to the different mem- bers. The main notion may be expanded and its likeness to the illustrative notion be but briefly indicated, or the reverse. In the older Rhetorics the former was called comparison, and the latter simile. The objects compared must belong to different classes. This constitutes the difference between a simile and an example. A comparison between two individuals of the same species, or between two species of the same genus, is not a simile. The objects must be dissimilar in their general nature, but have certain qualities in common which can be perceived imme- diately, or sustain similar relations. We have therefore two classes of similes those of direct resemblance and those of analogy. The objects may be both from the same sphere . both material or both spiritual, or from different spheres one spiritual, the other material. Ex. " The sun was now resting his huge disc upon the edge of the (. Loose Sentence and Period. In a loose sentence the parts are so connected that the construction will yield a com- Rhef. 11 122 STYLE. Sec. 66 pleie sense at some point before the close. Thus, in the fol- lowing example, there are several points where the reader may pause and have a complete thought : " The only light of every truth is its corresponding error ; | and, there- fore, in the contemplation and exhibition of truth, a philosopher should take especial care not to keep himself too loftily aloof from the contempla- tion and exhibition of error, | as these proud spirits, Plato, Spinoza, Leib- nitz, and Hegel most undoubtedly did, | much to the detriment of their own profound disquisitions, | and to the loss of mankind, | who, had their method been different, might have profited more largely by their wisdom.' 7 The parts of a loose sentence are not entirely independent of each other; if they were, we should have a series of distinct sentences. From the example it will be seen that while the words preceding a stop form a sentence grammatically perfect, those that follow do not, but depend on what goes before. A period is a complex sentence the members of which are so reciprocally dependent that no one of them by itself gives a complete sense ; they remain suspended in the mind until the whole is finished, when the meaning is flashed back from the conclusion to the commencement. Ex. "As for Jonson, to whose character I am now arrived, if we look upon him while he was himself (for his last plays were but his dotages), I think him the most learned and judicious writer which any theater ever had." " If grammar is learned by speaking and writing ; if a man can not become an orator without repeated efforts to speak in public, nor a poet without practicing the mechanism of verse till he can use it with ease, it seems absurd to expect that a course of lectures heard, with a string of definitions learned, will make a logician." 67. Characteristics of the English Sentence. Every lan- guage has its peculiar laws and forms for the collocation of words ; the sum of these syntactical forms and usages consti- tutes what is called the idiom of the lansruasre. O o The peculiarities of the sentence grow out of the general character of the language. The most important division of languages, so far as rhetoric is concerned, is into inflected and Sec, 67 THE SENTENCE. 123 miiiiflected. In inflected languages the relations of the words to each other in the sentence are indicated by modifications of their form by terminal syllables, which once had a signifi- cance, but have lost it, and serve merely to denote the relations of number, case, person, mode, tense, etc. Uninflected lan- guages iir not provided with a complete set of inflections, and the relations of words in the sentence are indicated by their position and by means of particles. The ancient languages were inflected. The tendency of the modern is to discard more and more the inflections they still retain. From the circumstances of its history, this tendency has been carried further in the English than in any other Eu- ropean language. The Anglo-Saxon had a tolerably complete system of inflections, but the revolutions through which our tongue has passed have deprived it of most of them. As con- sequences of this loss we find that our language has a large body of particles, which are indispensable to the construction of sentences of any length 5 that there is a prescribed order of arranging words in a sentence ; and that this order is what is called the grammatical, the nominative precedes the verb, the article and adjective precede the nominative, the objective fol- lows the verb. As some of the peculiarities of the English sentence, may be mentioned : 1. In order to understand a sentence, we are compelled to look not to the form of the words but to their meaning. The relation of the words is determined by the relation of the thoughts. The logical analysis of the sentence thus precedes the grammatical. While in the classical languages the atten- tion is directed mainly to the terminal syllables in order to dis- cover the relation of the words, in English it is directed to discovering the ideas which they signify. It is on this account that, as Marsh tl links, " the construction and comprehension of an English sentence demand and suppose the exercise of higher mental powers than are required for the framing or understand- ing of a proposition in Latin." 2. There is a greater liability in long sentences to equivoca- 124: STYLE. Sec. 67 tion. It is difficult to frame a long sentence in English winch is not at least grammatically ambiguous. 3. The relations which are expressed in the inflected lan- guages by the form of the words, are expressed in English by particles, which are syllables with no meaning of their own. They increase the number of words necessary to convey a thought, and often encumber the sentence and destroy its force and harmony. We are also often compelled to resort to awk- ward compound expressions. 4. Inversion is admissible only to a limited extent, and there is consequently often a want of harmony between the order of the words and the natural order of thought. We are often not able to give to the emphatic word the emphatic place. 5. The periodic structure is not adapted to the language, owing to the absence of the aids to attention given by inflec- tional endings, and to the limited extent to which inversions and transpositions are possible. 6. There is a greater liability to a uniform, monotonous structure. 7. The language presents fewer difficulties ; the range of errors in syntax is a contracted one. But this less liability to error leads to carelessness : among English writers, more than among those of any other modern nation, there prevails gross negligence of the laws of syntax. The peculiarity of the Eng- lish sentence already mentioned, that the attention is fixed chiefly upon the ideas and the words representing them, seems to confirm the tendency to disregard the few syntactical laws which, our language yet retains. 68, The Structure of Sentences. The mental processes in- volved in combining notions into thoughts expressed in sen- tences, are identical in nature with those employed in building up thoughts into paragraphs and connected discourses. In the construction of sentences, then, the general laws of thought and style appear in their most elementary form. The qualities essential to a perfect sentence are, Correctness, Unity, Clearness, Precision, Energy, Melody. Sec. 69 THE SENTENCE. 125 69. Correctness. The most elementary rule for the struct- ure of sentences is that the collocation of words shall conform to the laws of syntax. Grammatical correctness is the neces- sary condition of the other graces of expression, and although in itself not a great virtue, the want of it is a great fault. Violations of grammatical propriety are frequent even among the best English writers. The simplicity of the structure of the language is one occasion of this 5 a writer can make him- self understood with but little labor, and at the same time the fewness of forms tends to produce carelessness in using them. The enumeration and classification of the violations of cor- rectness are given in the grammars under the head of syntax. Only a few of the most frequent need be mentioned, to call attention to the points in which writers are most liable to error. 1. Many mistakes occur in the use of pronouns. Especial caution is needed in employing the pronoun it. u Xever," says Cobbett, "put an it upon paper without thinking well what you are about. When I see many its in a page, I always tremble for the writer." The relative pronouns are also very often used improperly. Ex. "Let me see, who do I know among them. w "Precision imports pruning the expression so as to exhibit neither more nor less than an exact copy of his idea who uses it." " It is me." " Robert is there, the very outcome of him, and indeed of many generations of such as him. 11 " He thus succeeded in at last combating the revolution with its own weapons, and at the same time detaching from them the moral weakness under which it labored. He met it with its own forces ; but he rested their efforts on a nobler principle." 2. Mistakes in the use of verbs are of various kinds, as in the indiscriminate use of singulars and plurals, confounding preter- ites with past participles, employing the strong conjugation for -the weak, or the weak for the strong, the omission of a part of a compound tense, the use of the wrong auxiliary, etc. Ex. " The poetry and eloquence of the Augustan age was assiduously cultivated in Mercian and Northumbrian monasteries." " It was one of 12G STYLE. Sec, 69 the most important alliances that ever uvrs formed." " The use of fraud and perfidy, of cruelty and injustice, were often subservient to the propa- gation of the faith." "At present trade is thought to be in a depressed state if less than a million of tons are produced in a year." " He bowls along with ease in a vehicle which a few centuries ago would have beeti broken to pieces in a deep rut, or come to grief in a bot- tomless swamp." " I shall do all I can to persuade others to take the same measures for their cure which I have." 3. Other inaccuracies are found in the use of the degrees of comparison ; as, u That style of warfare is, of all others, the most barbarous"; in the use of than; as, "To reconstruct such a work in another language were business for a man of different powers than has yet attempted German translation among us." REMARK. The student will find a more complete enumeration of prevalent offenses against correctness in Breen's Modern English Litera- ture, from which most of the examples given above have been taken. The law of correctness must not be pressed so far as to ex- clude forms of expression which, though sanctioned by usage, are deviations from the syntax of the language. These depart- ures from strict grammatical law abound in every language, and are called Idiotisms. Frequently, also, we find a thought expressed in a condensed, energetic form that will not stand the test of grammatical analysis ; as, " Truth, like a torch, the more it's shook it shines." To reduce such expressions to grammatical correctness would destroy their force. 70. Unity. A sentence has unity when it is the expression of one leading thought, and all the particulars contained in it are exhibited in their relation to this main thought and to each other. This is an essential quality of a sentence. However long and complex it may be, it must set forth but one main thought, to which all the notions and judgments are subordinate. Sec, 70 THE SENTENCE. 127 Unity is violated: 1. By bringing into grammatical connection thoughts which have no real nor logical connection. Such heterogeneous mat- ter can not be reduced to the unity of a single judgment, and should therefore be expressed in separate sentences. Ex. "His own notions were always good; but he was a man of great expense." "Archbishop Tillotson died this year. He was exceedingly beloved both by King William and Queen Mary, who nominated Dr. Tennisotij Uitshop of Lincoln, to succeed him." " In this uneasy state both of his public and private life, Cicero was oppressed by a new and cruel affliction, the death of his beloved Tullia, which happened soon after her divorce from Dolabella, whose manners and humors u'ere entirely disagreable to her." The artificial union of incongruous or repugnant ideas may be considered as a violation of this rule. It is admissible for comic effect, but ought to be avoided in serious composition. Ex. " On every side they rose in multitudes, armed with rustic weapons and with irresistible fury" " Separated by mountains and by mutual fear" " To one so gifted with the prodigality of Heaven, can we approach in any other attitude than of prostration ?" "Of the nineteen tyrants who started up under the reign of Gallienus, there was not one who enjoyed a life of peace or a natural death." 2. By what is called shifting the scene of a sentence. The rule laid down by Kames, and repeated by all writers upon Rhetoric who have followed him, is liable to be misunderstood: " During the course of a period the scene ought to be continued without variation ; the changing from person to person, from subject to subject, or from person to subject, within the bounds of a single period, distracts the mind, and affords no time for a solid impression." This must not be interpreted as meaning that the same subject must be retained throughout an entire sentence. The fault intended to be pointed out is that of con- necting with a main proposition a series of accessory proposi- tions, in which the succeeding one is subordinated to the one 128 STYLE. Sec. 70 that immediately precedes it. This structure violates the unity of the sentence. There is no compact statement of a distinct thought, but a rapid enumeration of particulars, a constant transition from a higher to a subordinate thought. The end of such a process must be entirely arbitrary 5 and in many cases no connection can be discovered between the thought with which the sentence begins and that with which it closes. Ex. " After we came to anchor, they put me ashore, where I was wel- comed by all my friends, who received me witli the greatest kindness." " After a short time he came to himself; and the next day they put him on board his ship, which conveyed him first to Corinth. 7 ' " To the memory of Lord George Bentinck, second surviving son of Wiiriam Henry Cavendish Scott, whose ardent patriotism and uncompro- mising honesty were only equaled by the persevering zeal and extraor- dinary talents, which called forth the grateful homage of those who, in erecting this memorial, pay a heartfelt tribute to exertions which prema- turely brought to the grave one who might long have lived the pride of his native country." 3. By attaching to a sentence already complete, a clause which ought to have been inserted in the body of the sentence. Such appendages, presenting themselves to the reader when he supposes that the sentence is already finished, invariably pro- duce a disagreeable effect. He is compelled to take to pieces the thought which he has built up, and to incorporate into it the new elements given in the supplementary clause, and in doing so he often finds that the sentence obtains an entirely different meaning. Where the waste of attention is not so great, there is still a violation of unity by putting a merely ac- cessory circumstance in an emphatic position, thus destroying the distinction between the main and subordinate members of the sentence. Ex. " The French idea of liberty is the right of every man to be mas- ter of the rest ; in practice at least, if not in theory." In this sentence, the subordinate clause, beginning with " in practice," is an essential but subordinate part of the statement, and should be placed wh. 're it will contribute to build up the entire thought ; thus, " Whatever it may be in theory, it is clear that in practice the French idea of liberty is. tv e right of every man to be master of the rest." Sec. 70 THE SENTENCE. 129 4. By the improper use of parentheses. Parentheses are words and clauses which have no grammatical connection with any members of the sentence, and may be omitted without affecting its meaning. Their use is sometimes unavoidable; they often give emphasis to a word or clause, contain an ex- planation, or suggest important relations of a thought which however do not enter into its development. But great caution is needed in using them. They are not organic parts of the sentence, and are apt to withdraw attention from the main thought, and to interrupt its harmonious development. Their frequent use is an indication of the want of thorough mastery of the idea to be expressed. Many that are met with could be rejected as useless, and others, by a little care, could be worked into the fabric of the sentence. Parenthetic marks should not be inserted where there is no parenthesis; as in these: "Any two circumstances (not naturally connected) are more rarely to be met with." " The distribution of the predicate depends (not on the quantity, but) on the quality of the proposition." It is a graver abuse to make them a means towards conceal- ing a faulty construction; as in this example: "Our ancestors founded certain great schools (that now rear the nobles, the gentry, and the- merchants) for the benefit of the poor." If the parenthetic marks are removed, the statement will be, that the schools rear the nobles, the gentry, and the merchants for the benefit of the poor. A parenthesis should include nothing by the omission of which the sense of the proposition is left incomplete ; as in this example : " In Ben Jonson's * Tale of a Tub,' one (and more than one of the characters) speaks thus." 130 STYLE. Sec. 70 Parentheses that involve grammatical blunders, or contain other parentheses in them, or are composed of long and com- plex sentences, should be avoided. Ex. " Hume's Natural Religion called forth Dr. Beattie's (author of the Minstrel) able work." " When this parliament sat down (for it deserves our particular obser- vation that both houses were full of zeal for the present government and of resentment against the late usurpation), there was but one party in parliament." 71. Clearness. A sentence is clear when it expresses the exact thought of the writer and is understood without any un- necessary effort. The want of clearness may originate either in the thought or in the expression. A confused thinker may combine contra- dictory notions or such as stand in no perceivable relation to each other, and thus become unintelligible. On the other hand, the relations between thoughts may be real and impor- tant, but difficult to apprehend ; in this case the difficulty lies in the thought, and is not to be regarded as a fault. We are concerned here with violations of clearness or per- spicuity occasioned by the improper collocation of words. Of these there are several forms : 1. The sentence may convey no meaning. 2. The sentence may convey a wrong meaning. The words taken in their grammatical connection suggest a different sense from that which the writer wishes to express. He says one thing while meaning another. The mistake may be very soon corrected^ the suggested meaning may at once be seen to be absurd or not suited to the context. But as comparison and reflection were required to correct the error, the attention is drawn from the main thought, and the force of the presentation is weakened. 3. The sentence may be ambiguous; that is, it may be sus- ceptible of two or more interpretations, and may leave us in doubt which is to be preferred. The real ambiguities here spoken of must be distinguished from the so-called grammatical Sec. 71 THE SENTENCE. 131 ambiguities. There are few long sentences which by a little ingenuity can not be made to yield a double meaning. A writer is not expected to guard against such latent ambiguities. It is enough that the sentence be so framed that it can not be misunderstood by a candid and intelligent reader. 4. The sentence may want simplicity. It is not sufficient that we can at last discover its meaning by re-reading it, ana- lyzing it, and comparing it with the context 5 the sense should unfold gradually before us, and be exhibited in the clearest light as soon as the sentence is finished. The most frequent occasions of the want of clearness are the following : 1. The unnatural separation of related words. As in Eng- lish the relation of words is indicated by their position, qualify- ing words should be placed as near as practicable to the words they are intended to qualify. The following are instances of the wrong position of adjectives, adverbs, and adverbial phrases : "God heapeth favors on his servants ever liberal and faithful." The construction is ambiguous, as the adjectives may qualify either God or servants. "The salt merchants, the grocers, the confectioners conspired together to adulterate the articles in which they dealt in a thousand ways." The adverbial phrase, " iii a thousand ways," should be joined to the verb adulterate. "There is a copy in the British Museum ; and M. Raynouard has given a short account of one that he had seen in the Journal des Sarans for 1826." " In the Journal," etc., qualifies " has given." Wrong position of cases : " Do they call virtue there forgetfulness?" The writer intends to ask, Do they call forgetfulness virtue ? The opposite is expressed. " The ris- ing tomb a lofty column bore." 2. The double reference of a phrase. "A circumstance ought not to be placed between two capital members of a period ; for by such a situation it is doubtful to which of -;he 132 STYLE. Sec, 71 two members it belongs. In general, to preserve members distinct, that signify things distinguished in thought, the best method is to place first in the consequent member some word that can not connect with what precedes it." Kames. Ex. " Hence lie considered marriage with a modern political econo- mist as very dangerous," instead of " Hence he, with a modern political economist," etc. " The minister who grows less by his elevation, like a little statue on a mighty pedestal, will always have his jealousy strong about him." " When I hear a person use a queer expression, or pronounce a name in reading differently from It is neighbors, it always goes down in my esti- mate of him, with a minus sign before it." 3. The improper position of the limitative and exceptive par- ticles, such as only, alone, just, merely, at least. u Not only Jesuits can equivocate," means others besides the Jesuits can equivocate. "Jesuits can not only equivocate," means Jesuits can equivocate and do other things besides. The force of the particle varies with its position. In logical language, when it is annexed to the subject of the sentence, it distributes the predicate and limits it to the subject alone ; as, Only men, or men alone, are philosophers = All philosophers are men. Annexed to the predicate, it limits the subject to the predicate, without quantifying the predicate or excluding it from other subjects; as, "Jesuits can only equivocate" It is all that they can do, although others also may do the same. The fol- lowing examples can be tested and corrected by this rule : "One species of bread, of coarse quality, was only allowed to be baked ;" i. e., allowed and nothing more. " Theism can only be opposed to polytheism or atheism." " By greatness, I do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a whole view." 4. The frequent repetition of pronouns in a sentence in which several persons or things are spoken of, frequently causes am- biguity. It is better, in such cases, to change the construction or repeat the noun. Sec. 71 THE SENTENCE. 133 Ex. "Two other words occur to me which are very commonly man- gled by our clergy. One of these is ' covetous ' ami its substantive covet- ousness. I hope some who read these lines will be induced to leave off pronouncing them covetious and covetiousness. I can assure them that when they do thus call them one at least of their hearers has his apprecia- tion of their teaching disturbed." 5. The uncertain or wrong reference of pronouns, both de- monstrative and relative. Ex. " No one as yet had exhibited the structure of the human kidneys, Vesalius having only examined them in dogs." Note also the wrong posi- tion of only. "The professor soon perceived, however, that the intellectual qualities of the youth were superior to those of his raiment." "It is folly to pretend to arm ourselves against the accidents of life by heaping up treasures, which nothing can protect us against but the good providence of God." The relative should be placed as near as possible to its antecedent. In the sentence quoted the relative refers not to treas- ures, but to accidents. "A verdict was obtained against him (Wilkes) for No. 45 (of The North Briton), as well as for a piece called An Essay on Woman, an obscene and scurrilous libel in parody of Pope's Essay on Man, in which Lord Sandwich and Bishop Warburton had been reflected on and ridiculed." The relative refers to An Essay on Woman, and not, as from the arrange- ment would be naturally supposed, to Pope's Essay on Man. "The Earl ofFalmouth and Mr. Coventry were rivals who should have most influence with the duke, who loved the earl best, but thought the other the wiser man, who supported Pen, who disobliged all the courtiers, even against the earl, who contemned Pen as a fellow of no sense." " By the pleasures of imagination or of fancy (which I shall use pro- miscuously), I here mean such as arise from visible objects." The real antecedent is not expressed, viz., words. As it stands, the natural refer- ence is to pleasures. " I know that all words which are signs of complex ideas furnish mat- ter of mistake and cavil." The ambiguity of this sentence arises from our not knowing whether the relative clause is intended to limit its antece- dent, icorch, or simply to explain it. Is it meant that all words are signs of complex ideas, or that there is a certain class significant of complex ideas? In the former case, the relative is explicative; in the latter, de- terminative. This distinction is an important one, and should be borne in mind. Observe the difference in these sentences : " It is possible to express a 134: STYLE. Sec. 71 general truth in terms that shall be themselves highly concrete." The relative is determinative (in highly concrete terms). " Subordinate clauses, which must not by their length overwhelm the principal clause." Kelative is explicative (and they must not, etc.) " The court opposed, which was anticipated." " In narration, Homer is at all times concise, which renders him lively and agreeable." The relative should not, as in the last two examples, have a sentence as it& antecedent. 6. The equivocal signification of many of the conjunctions. The conjunction or particularly is equivocal. It may mean either, that the two notions are identical; as when I say, no- tion or concept, rhetoric or the theory of prose : or that they are different ; as, logic or rhetoric, history or philosophy. 7. The improper omission of words. Ellipsis may be earned too far and words be omitted so as to alter the meaning of the sentence or render it unintelligible. Ex. The omission of a preposition. " You will seldom find a dull fellow of good education but (if he happen to have any leisure on his hands) will turn his head to one of those two amusements for all fools of eminence, politics or poetry." Insert to before the words politics and poetry. Omission of a nominative with its verb. " South, as great a wit as a preacher, has separated the superior and the domestic." Insert he was between as and a preacher. Nominative without a verb. " The Germans of the present day, although greatly superior to their ancestors, there are who opine that they are still distant from that acme of taste which characterizes the finished compositions of the French and the English authors." The article omitted before adjectives connected with the same noun when the design is to express qualities of different objects, and not differ- ent qualities of the same object. "A cold and empty composition" means one composition that is both cold and empty. "A cold and an empty composition " means two compositions, one cold, Sec. 71 THE SENTENCE. 135 the other empty. When distinct objects are intended, the article, if used before one adjective, must be repeated before the others. " The logical and historical analysis of a language generally, in some degree, coincides." Two distinct kinds of analysis are spoken of. The article should be repeated before historical, and the verb be put in the plural. A compound sentence may be free from the faults just men- tioned and still be deficient in clearness. Too many ideas may be crowded into it ; and the reader, not being able to retain all of them in his memory, loses the connection, and is obliged to read the sentence over in order to comprehend it. More fre- quently the obscurity arises from the want of method in distrib- uting the materials. It often requires great skill to dispose the parts of a complicated thought. The great object is to avoid burdening the memory with a number of disconnected circum- stances, and to present the parts in such an order as will enable the reader to understand them as they are presented, to retain them in his mind, and to bind them together readily into one whole. To accomplish this we must avoid throwing together loosely a number of details. When it is necessary to admit them, they should be distributed among the members of the sentence. By this means the sentence is made more coherent and compact, and is more easily understood. The effects of a want of proper disposition' can be seen in the following example : "And that it was not peculiar to the gift of language or tongues only, to be given at the moment of its exertion, but common likewise to all the rest, will be shown probably on some other occasion more at large in a particular treatise, which is already prepared by me on that subject." A too frequent or a too prolonged suspension of the sense is fatal to clearness. It sometimes favors clearness arid force to introduce the qualifying circumstances first, reserving the prin- cipal member until the last. But the use of this construction is limited. When many qualifications are mentioned that are not intelligible until the qualified member is discovered, the suspense in which the mind is kept is painful, and soon breaks 136 STYLE. Sec. 71 down the power of attention. The mind can not carry so many disconnected statements, nor connect them so as to discover their meaning. An accumulation of negatives is another occasion of obscu- rity. The same thought may be expressed in an affirmative proposition and in a negative $ as, "I entertain a favorable opinion of him," and, " I entertain a not unfavorable opinion of him." The latter is called by Hamilton, an indirect and idle way of speaking. When many negatives are accumulated, the sentence is often unintelligible. Ex. " It is not to be denied that a high degree of beauty does not lie in simple forms." "As a general maxim, no epithet should be used which does not ex- press something not expressed in the context, nor so implied in it as to be immediately deducible." 72, Precision. Precision is the opposite of redundancy. It consists in rejecting all superfluous words and phrases. Su- perfluous words and phrases are those which are not necessary to complete the thought, to set it in a clearer light, or to pro- mote the end of the discourse. Precision is an essential quality of a well constructed sentence ; words that add nothing to the sense detract from the clearness and force of the expression. Like perspicuity, it is a relative quality ; the same degree of brevity is not adapted to all kinds of discourse. Before we can decide what words are superfluous and what are not, we must consider the nature and aim of the discourse, and the condition of those to whom it is addressed. The principal offenses against precision are : 1. Tautology, or the unnecessary repetition of a notion in different terms. The most common form of this fault is the coupling of synonyms. Writers frequently become so accus- tomed to linking together such words that when we meet with one of them we expect the other. This is sometimes the result of ignorance of the full meaning of the words, and sometimes of an eifort to secure greater clearness and precision. Such Sec. 72 THE SENTENCE. 137 expressions as, " plain and evident," "clear and obvious," "joy and satisfaction," "intents and purposes," and others which the student will recollect, are of frequent occurrence. The employ- incut of these stereotyped and unmeaning modes of speech is an offense not only against perspicuity and precision of style, but also against the standard of good taste. It must be distin- guished from the combining of synonymous terms with a view to completeness. Ex. " Particularly as to the affairs of this world, integrity hath many advantages over all tine and artificial ways of dissimulation and deceit ; it is much the plainer and easier, much the safer and more secure way of dealing with the world ; it has less of trouble and difficulty, of entangle- ment and perplexity, of danger and hazard in it." 2. Pleonasm, or the insertion of words designating notions that are already sufficiently implied in other words of the sen- tence. There are various forms of this fault. Many phrases are pleonastic ; as, "in so far as," " from whence." Expletives, as, do, did, there, are often redundant. They are not always to be struck out ; they sometimes serve to mark light shades of meaning, to express feeling, and to give empha- sis. Many epithets are pleonastic ; as, " the verdant green," " the azure sky." In the religious dialect many pleonastic ex- pressions taken from Scripture are used, which are not admis- sible into ordinary prose ; as, " We have heard with our ears," " we have seen with our eyes," "the birds of the air," "the fish of the sea." The nature of this fault and some of its most common forms will be learned from the following examples : " We are to act up to the extent of our knowledge ; but, in so far as our knowledge falls short," etc. " They returned back again to the same city from whence they came forth. 1 ' " Hence has ensued an entire change in our ivhole domestic policy." " The Inquisition arrested the progress of general intellectual advance- ment." " The whole sum total of information." "A chaos of confusion." Rliet. 12 138 STYLE. Sec. 72 " Trifling minutiae of style." " The universal love of all men." "His efforts were necessarily confined only to remonstrance and ex- hortation." 3. Verbosity, or unnecessary diffuseness. The words may be neither tautological nor pleonastic, but there may be too many of them. The other offenses against brevity may be cor- rected by striking out the unmeaning words ; but to correct this fault it is often necessary to alter the structure of the sen- tence to compress as well as to blot. Verbosity is generally connected with prolixity, which means the introduction of unimportant circumstances, or such as the reader can readily supply from his own knowledge or from the context. It is necessary for the writer to be so completely master of the thought he would express, that he can distinguish between what is relevant and what is irrelevant $ and to exer- cise a wise self-control, so as riot to be led astray by the desire to say all that he might say upon the subject. He must leave something to the reader's activity of mind. Circumlocution is often a species of verbosity. A length- ened, round-about mode of speech is allowable for the sake of variety or emphasis, or when a direct assertion might be offen- sive ; but when none of these ends is accomplished, it is feeble and affected. A profusion of adjectives is another form of verbosity. The use of epithets has already been considered; besides these, 'many expressions are current, which are supposed to give dig- nity and solemnity to the style, but which, as they have ceased to be any thing but meaningless ornaments, should be rejected. Instances will be found in letters of condolence, resolutions of sympathy, etc. The Paraphrase frequently degenerates into verbosity. Its aim is by expanding what is too concisely expressed to give greater perspicuity to the style ; but it too generally obscures and enfeebles by an excess of words. The brevity that has just been described is distinct from that form of conciseness which expresses the greatest amount of Sec, 73 THE SENTENCE. 139 thought in the fewest possible words. This laconic style is very energetic, presenting thoughts in a form that arouses the atten- tion and fixes them in the memory. It makes free use of ellip- ses and figures; even grammatical improprieties are allowed; as in this instance u Truth, like a torch, the more it's shook it shines." But such energetic brevity is not an essential quality of style: it is suited to proverbs, epigrams, detached thoughts, sentences, and the like ; but its frequent use in con- tinuous discourse is a fault. It makes the style obscure, frag- mentary, and unnatural. 73, Energy. The qualities mentioned in the preceding sec- tions are all necessary conditions of strength. A weighty thought when enunciated with clearness and precision can not fail to impress the mind of the reader. There are additional means towards the same end which are to be mentioned here. 1. Inversion. According to the English idiom, the subject precedes the predicate, the object follows the verb, and qualify- ing words are placed as near as practicable to the words quali- fied. This arrangement is observed so long as the natural order of thought coincides with the grammatical ; that is, so long as the grammatically important words are identical with the logically important. This is not always the case. It often happens tha't a word occupying an inferior position is the most prominent one in the thought, and the one to which the writer is specially desirous to direct attention. A speaker can effect this by emphasizing the word ; a writer, by such a collocation of words as will give the notion a conspicuous place in the sen- tence. The grammatical succession is changed ; the word to be emphasized is taken out of the position assigned it by the rules of syntax, and put in one in which it will attract atten- tion. There is thus a conflict between the syntactical order and the natural order of thought and feeling; to express suit- ably the latter, the former is violated. Such a departure from the strictly idiomatic arrangement of the members of a sen- tence for the sake of emphasis is called 140 STYLE. Sec. 73 Owing to the loss of inflectional forms, inversion is possible only to a limited extent in the English language. Our older writers, in imitation of classical models, allowed themselves a great deal of liberty in using it ; they sometimes, by this means, gave great strength and harmony to their style, but more fre- quently they rendered it stiff and obscure. Although the lib- erty of position is greatly abridged, we still have within limits the power of indicating, by the structure of the sentence, the emphatic word. The principal forms of inversion allowed are: The predi- cate (adjective, noun) may take the place of the subject; as, "Few and evil have the days of the years of my life been." "And the rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and beat upon that house ; and it fell, and great was the fall of it." " Nabal is his name and folly is with him." The verb precedes its subject $ as, " Then burst his mighty heart." " Then suddenly would come a dream of far different character." The object (accusative) precedes the governing verb ; as, " Silver and gold have I none." " Me he restored unto mine office, him he hanged." Adverbs of time, place, manner, and adverbial phrases are separated from the words they qualify and placed before them ; as, " In the integrity of my heart have I done this." " Into these dreams only it was, with one or two slight exceptions, that any circumstances of physical horror entered. All before had been moral and spiritual terrors. But here the main agents were ugly birds," etc. Infinitives and participles are placed before the auxiliary verb; as, "Go I must." "Avoid it I can not." " Blessed is he that considereth the poor." Sec. 73 THE SENTENCE. In the following example we have an inversion of an inter- rogative sentence : " Your fathers, where are they ? and the prophets, do they live for- To effect an alteration in the arrangement of a sentence, the words it and there are often employed, which serve to place the subject after the verb ; as, " There appeared unto them Moses and Elias." Compare these three sentences: "Cicero praised Caesar." " It was Cicero that praised Caesar." " It was Caesar that Cicero praised." Inversion should not be employed except in compliance with some necessity of thought or passion. To use it for its own sake, when strong emphasis is not required, is unnatural and often ludicrous. The following are instances of such trivial inversions : "Into this hole thrust themselves three Roman senators." "War at that time there was none." It should not be admitted when it would lead to ambiguity or obscurity. It should be used moderately. Inversion is to written discourse what emphasis is to spoken; to emphasize every word produces the same effect as to emphasize none. The allowable forms of inversion are few, and a writer should not venture upon novelties in the collocation of words. He should especially exclude the idioms of foreign languages. 2. Connectives. Asyndeton and Polysyndeton. The strength of a sentence depends greatly on the proper use of con- nectives, i. e., of words having no signification of their own, whose office it is to indicate the relations of words and clauses. They are to the sentence what transitions are to the entire dis- course, and are subject to the same general laws. 142 STYLE. Sec. 73 The shortest should be chosen. Most of them are monosyl- lables, but many are polysyllables; as, nevertheless, notwith- standing, furthermore. The length of the latter makes them too prominent, and attracts to them a disproportionate share of attention ; when it is possible, monosyllabic connectives should be substituted for them. The use of these drawling conjunc- tions is characteristic of our older writers ; they are rare in good modern writers. In some cases it is conducive to energy to omit the signs of connection between the different members of a sentence, leav- ing the reader to supply them ; while in other cases it is neces- sary to give to every member its appropriate connective. The former construction is called Asyndeton; the latter, Polysyn- deton. Both make conspicuous the relations of the notions to each other and to the main thought of which they are parts ; but with this difference, that in asyndeton the individual no- tions of the series are separated from each other by a pause, and each is made emphatic; in polysyndeton, on the other hand, we enumerate the different members and call attention to their multiplicity, but by inserting the conjunctions between them, contrary to ordinary usage, we indicate that they are parts of a more comprehensive notion ; this notion it is, and not the separate parts, that is made prominent. Ex. "Closing their shields, they were impelled, they fought, they slew, they were slain." " He was a cheerful, active, brave man, a kind father, a faithful friend." " For I am persuaded that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor things present." etc. "Over every form, and threat, and punishment, and dim sightless incarceration, brooded a killing sense of eternity and infinity." 3. Periods and loose sentences, The periodic structure promotes energy, as it preserves the unity of the sentence and concentrates its strength in a single point. But it has an arti- ficial appearance ; it is unfitted for some kinds of composition, and its frequent recurrence is always disagreeable. It is not easy, without more help than the English language furnishes, to enable readers to retain in their minds the members of a Sec. 73 THE SENTENCE. 143 complex thought, and at the close bind them easily and promptly into unity. To prevent obscurity and overtasking the attention, superfluous words and thoughts should be ex- cluded from a period, and the members and clauses should be few and short. In arranging the clauses of the members, the same rule must be followed that governs the arrangement of the members of the period ; the reader must not be led to suppose that the sentence is finished until it actually is so. When this rule is neglected, a period has the tediousness and feebleness of a badly constructed loose sentence. In the following example the periodic structure of the clauses is neg- lected: "Having already shown how the fancy is affected by the works of nature, and afterward considered, in general, botli the works of nat- ure and of art, \\ how they mutually assist and complete each other || in forming such scenes and prospects as are most apt to delight the mind of the beholder, I shall in this paper throw together some reflections on that particular art which has/' etc. The second clause, beginning with the words " and afterward consid- ered " and ending at " beholder," is defective ; Campbell proposes the following alteration: "And afterward considered, in general, how in forming such scenes and prospects as are most apt to delight the mind of the beholder, the works both of nature and of art mutually assist and complete each other." A loose sentence is not necessarily deficient in energy, By a judicious. choice and arrangement of words, the writer may keep the mind of the reader in suspense even in sentences that are grammatically complete before their close. A sentence may thus be loose and yet have the force of a period. Still, loose sentences are very liable to degenerate into incoherency and feebleness. To prevent these faults, the following cautions should be observed : 1. The sentences should not be too long. Long sentences are liable to vagueness and intricacy; but even when otherwise faultless, they may become feeble from the number and length of their parts ; the reader becomes impatient and is apt to rest at every pause that occurs. 2. The two modes of arrangement may be united in one sen- 144 STYLE. Sec, 73 tence ; the key word not being kept back until the close, but introduced at a convenient point, while, at the same time, the clauses of the members are arranged according to the laws of the period. 3. A complex sentence is often tedious and dragging from ending with a much longer clause than it began with. By reversing the order, the unpleasant effects are prevented. 4. Symmetry is conducive to energy, Resemblance and contrast between thoughts should be marked by similarity of structure. When the relations of thoughts are thus indicated, by framing the members of the sentence in the same manner and of the same length, they are made more conspicuous, and the thought, by the repetition of the form, is impressed on the memory. The resemblance or opposition should be real. This balanced structure of the sentence is puerile when it does not spring from a necessity of thought. The following are instances of balanced structure : " He remits his splendor, but retains his magnitude ; and pleases more, though lie dazzles less." "But, my lord, you may quit the field of business, though not the field of danger ; and though you can not be safe, you may cease to be ridiculous.''* The following are instances of the violation of the rule : " There may remain a suspicion that we overrate the greatness of his genius, in the same manner as bodies appear more gigantic on account of their being disproportioned and misshapen." Better: "in the same manner as we overrate the greatness of bodies that are disproportioned and mis- shapen." "If men of eminence are exposed to censure on the one hand, they are as much liable to flattery on the other. If they receive reproaches which are not due them, they likewise receive praises winch they do not deserve." Substitute for "liable," "exposed," and for "which they do not deserve," " which are not due." "The laughers will be for those who have most wit; the serious part of mankind, for those who have most reason on their side." Better: " the serious, for those W 7 ho have most reason on their side." Other emphatic verbal forms are given in the chapter on the Figures of Speech, sees. 61-05. Sec. 74 THE SENTENCE. 1-15 74. Melody. Prose, although not admitting of rhyme and meter, is susceptible of a melody which every writer should aim to attain. It is subordinate to the great ends of prose dis- course, and must not divert attention from the ideas to be pre- sented, nor be purchased at the cost of clearness and force. A vigorous roughness is to be preferred to a tame smoothness. I Jut a conflict between the logical perfections of language and melody is of rarer occurrence than most persons suppose. So intimate is the connection between sound and sense, that if we have chosen the fitting words, and connected our ideas accord- ing to both their main and their subordinate relations, our sen- tences will seldom offend the ear. Harmony and melody are not so much independent qualities, as the natural and necessary result of the conformity of language to thought and passion. Inharmonious sentences will generally be found to be deficient in correctness, clearness, precision, or energy; when the logical defects are remedied the disagreeable roughness disappears. Some of the offenses against melody and harmony are : (1) Using words that are hard to pronounce; such, for ex- ample, as contain a cumulation of consonants, or a succession of short unaccented syllables, or occasion a clash of vowels. (2) The frequent recurrence of the same sound, either from the repetition of the same syllable or the admission of rhyming words. Ex. "The rules of emphasis come in in interruption of your supposed general law of position." " This day we undertone to render account to the widows and orphans whom our decision will make; to the wretches that will be roasted at the stake," etc. The effect is still worse when there is a recurrence of metrical feet, thus: "When parallel rays come contrary ways, and fall upon opposite sides." (3) Disproportionate length of one of the members of the sentence; want of variety in the length and structure of the different members; want of symmetry when the thought re- quires it ; closing with an insignificant, unemphatic word. Rhet. 13 146 STYLE. Sec. 74 The following criticism (borrowed from Bain's Rhetoric) on a short sentence of Johnson's will suffice to illustrate the foregoing principles : "Johnson says : ' Tediousness is the most fatal of all faults.' The stiff- ness of this sentence is felt at once. On examination we note : 1st. The want of melody in the word tediousness, from the crowd of consonants, and the iteration of . 2d. The additional hissing consonant in is (al- though the hard sound z). 3d. The concurrence of four unemphatic syl- lables in succession ; namely, the last two in tediousness and is the. 4th. The additional s in most. 5th. The concurrence of consonants at the end of mont and the beginning of fatal; this can not always be avoided. 6th. The alliterations fataZ a?Z, /atal/aults, all faults, make the last few words singularly unmelodious." (4) The repetition of certain words in close succession. This is a frequent offense ; one from which good authors are not alto- gether free, and which those who are compelled to write hastily seldom avoid. has embodied in his views a more extensive view of "It soon appeared that these diplomatic courtesies meant more than appeared on the surface." "The few who regarded them in their true light were regarded as dreamers." " Wellington was anxious to be relieved of all anxiety in that quarter." "They consented to main- tain such troops in them as might be deemed necessary to maintain their tranquillity." " The proposal was no great violation of the liberties of the subject, for it only proposed to subject military persons to the trial of their military superiors." CHAPTEE Y. THE PARAGRAPH. 75. Paragraph defined. In the foregoing chapter we have treated of the rules for combining words and clauses into sen- tences. But sentences do not appear in a discourse as sepa- rate, independent enunciations of thought ; they are parts of a larger unity, each sustaining a definite relation to the one that Sec. 77 THE PARAGRAPH. 147 precedes and the one that follows. A connected series of sen- tences containing the development of a single topic is called a Paragraph. 76. The structure of Paragraphs. The general laws gov- erning the construction of a paragraph are the same as those governing the composition of an entire discourse. As it is a more or less full development of a complex thought, it may be regarded as a discourse in miniature, to which the same prin- ciples for preparing the theme, properly disposing the parts, and marking their connection are applicable, as are applied to an entire essay, oration, or treatise. The art of constructing them is not acquired without labor and patience. One may be skillful in framing sentences and not succeed in combining them into connected paragraphs. Exercises in constructing them, and in analyzing those of dif- ferent writers on different subjects, to learn their method of framing them, ought to have a prominent place in a rhetorical course. Such exercises are the most convenient means of ap- plying the general principles of style, and of cultivating correct habits of thinking and writing. Paragraphs are of different kinds according to their matter ; they may be narrative, descriptive, expository, or argumenta- tive. Hence they are subject to the special laws of the Ele- mentary Forms of Discourse (Part III). 77. The requisites of a paragraph are Unity, Continuity, ^ Proportion, Variety. Unity. This quality requires that a paragraph should have but a single theme ; that all the sentences should have a direct bearing on the theme, contributing to explain, illustrate, prove, or apply it ; that whatever is irrelevant be excluded ; and that it be not overloaded with details. Continuity. The exact relation of the constituent sentences to each other must be distinctly indicated. 148 STYLE. Sec. 77 The relations between the sentences may be of various kinds and of various degrees ; some of the sentences may be coordi- nate with those preceding ; some may be subordinate. But whatever the connection, however close or remote, it is indis- pensable to clearness and force that it be easily and certainly recognized. It will not suffice to present the details with clear- ness ; the reader must understand their significance and bear- ings, and obtain without too great an effort a view of the entire- structure of which they are parts. It is not always easy to comply with this rule. Accurate and often subtle thinking, and considerable practice in writing, are required to give facility in seizing the exact relations of thoughts and expressing them with clearness and accuracy. Careless and unpracticed writers often suggest, by the language they employ, connections of thought entirely different from those they intend, or leave the reader in doubt what is the con- nection to be expressed. Others, who are not guilty of so gross faults, fail to discern and bring out the more delicate and subtle relations upon which the force and elegance of style greatly depend. The connection between sentences is marked in various ways. 1. By conjunctions (copulative, illative, adversative, etc.) and by conjunctional phrases (add to this, on the contrary, in short, to conclude, so far, etc.) With respect to the use of conjunctions and conjunctional phrases, it is to be remarked, First, that they are not always necessary. Xo rule can be given to direct when to use and when to omit them. Our older authors used more conjunctions and used them more lavishly than is customary at the present day. They marked the minute relations of thoughts by different con- junctions, leaving nothing to the reader to supply, and thus made their style dragging and stiff. The tendency nowadays is to diminish the number of conjunctions by forcing one to perform the office of several, and to dispense as far as possible with the use of them. The style becomes thereby more Sec. 77 THE PARAGRAPH. 149 sprightly; but when the tendency is earned to excess, it breaks up the paragraph into short, independent sentences, between which no connection can be found, and which it is impossible to retain in the memory. Secondly. The frequent repetition of the same conjunction is a fault, amounting at times to offensive mannerism. It is generally connected with a defective structure of sentences resulting from slovenly thinking. Ex. "Augereau was soon, however, dismissed the corps for a serious offense, and returned to Paris penniless and in disgrace. There, however, his lofty stature and military air again attracted the attention of the recruiting sergeants, and he was enrolled in the regiment of carabineers commanded by the Marquis Poyanna. There, however, his mischievous disposition a second time broke out, and he was expelled from his new corps for carrying off his captain's horses to sell them in Switzerland." "It is true lie was an inveterate reader, amorously inclined towards vellum tomes and illuminated parchments, but he did not covet them, like some collectors, for the mere pride of possessing them ; bat gloried in feasting on their intellectual charms and delectable wisdom, and sought in their attractive pages the means of becoming a better Christian and a wiser man. But he was so excessively fond of books, and became so deeply engrossed with his book-collecting pursuits, that it is said some of the monks showed a little dissatisfaction at his consequent neglect of the affairs of the monastery ; but these are faults I can not find the heart to blame him for, bat am inclined to consider his conduct fully redeemed by the valuable encouragement he gave to literature and learning." Thirdly. The accumulation of conjunctions without necessity ought to be avoided. Two conjunctions may meet together at the beginning of a sentence when one connects the sentence with the preceding, and the other expresses the relation between two clauses of the sentence. Ex. "I go to prepare a place for you. And if I go and prepare a place for you, I will come again and receive you unto myself." "It is of the utmost importance to us that we associate principally with the wise and virtuous. When, therefore, we choose our companions, w* ought to be extremely careful in regard to the choice we make." Sometimes we find a sentence with three conjunctions in 130 STYLE. Sec. 77 succession. But such an accumulation is rarely compatible with clearness and force. Ex. "To those who do not love God, the enjoyment of him is unat- tainable. Now as that we may love God, it is necessary to know him; so that we may know God, it is necessary to study his works." 2. By the structure of the sentence. The relation of a sen- tence to the preceding may be distinctly indicated by means of inversion, contrast, and words referring to something that has gone before. By this means we may form a series of sentences in which the succeeding will appear to be suggested by some expression or turn of thought in the one preceding. In skillful hands this method imparts a high degree of beauty to the style, but with inferior writers it degenerates into feebleness and affectation. * The following sentences will illustrate the nature of this mode of refer- ence. The words of reference are in italics. "One day a Malay knocked at my door. What business a Malay could have to transact among the English mountains, I can not conjecture." " He lay down upon the floor for about an hour, and then pursued his journey. On Iris departure, I presented him with a piece of opium. To him, as an orientalist, I con- cluded that opium must be familiar," etc. (Notice the inversions.) 78. Proportion. The several thoughts which are brought together in one paragraph ought to be presented in their due relief. The important ones should have the conspicuous posi- tions ; the inferior should be put in the obscurer places. The main thoughts ought to be exhibited as such, and the subordi- nate be exhibited as subordinate. This rule is violated when a thought which ought to be con- tained in a principal member of a sentence is given in a sub- ordinate clause ; also when any of the details are too long dwelt upon, and thus raised out of their proper place. It is better to allow a subordinate thought to pass imperfectly exhibited, than by disturbing the relations of the parts to destroy the impres- sion of the whole paragraph. Sec. 78 THE PARAGRAPH. 151 Variety. Variety in the structure and length of the succes- sive sentences must be consulted. Uniformity is inconsistent with a just exhibition of the relations of the thoughts, exhausts the attention, and becomes intolerably irksome. One species of uniformity is produced when the series is com- posed of sentences of the same class ; as, when all are condi- tional or interrogative, loose, periodic, or balanced. Even to begin or end sentences too often in the same manner is objec- tionable. Another species is produced by a succession of sentences of the same length. Writers differ greatly as to the length of sentences ; some prefer long, others short. Short sentences are more lively and familiar, and better adapted to works of entertainment and popular instruction. Long sentences require a greater effort of attention, and are suited to weighty, abstruse, and elevated thoughts. Nowadays we incline to the use of short sentences. It is, however, often important to exhibit a complex thought with its necessary qualifications, limitations, circumstances, etc., in a single view ; to break it up into minute fragments would be to destroy it. In the higher forms of prose, both di- dactic and oratorical, long sentences are frequent and unavoid- J able. But whatever may be the respective advantages of brevity and length, they will be lost if a number of sentences of the same length, whether long or short, follow each other in the same paragraph. Although each separately taken may be un- derstood without an effort and produce a pleasing effect, the repetition of the same mental process in attending to the series inevitably engenders weariness. In a series of very short sen- tences in which the thought is distributed into disconnected portions, a painful effort is constantly required to make out the relation between them, to keep them in view, and to gather from them the leading idea. A series of long sentences leads to the same results in a different way ; the mind is exhausted by the uninterrupted effort of analyzing and remembering the complex presentations of thought. 152 STYLE. Sec. 78 Hence, a mixture of long and short sentences is necessary to prevent the languor resulting from uniformity ; it does not merely gratify the ear, it aids the mind in following and re- taining the train of thought. The style in which the sense is given in short sentences, each complete in itself, is called by the French the style coupe, and is distinguished from the style periodique, in which the sen- tences are longer and duly linked together. The following is an example of the style coupe: "From a political point of view, there is but one single principle : the sovereignty of man over himself. This sovereignty of myself over myself is called liberty. Where two or several of these sovereignties associate the state begins. In this association there is no abdication. Each sovereignty gives up a certain portion of itself to form the common right. That portion is the same for all. This identity of concession which each makes to all is called equality. The protection of all over each is called fraternity. The point of intersection of all these aggregated sovereignties is called society." / As a general rule, it is advisable to make the sentences at the beginning of a paragraph brief. As a sentence ought not to close with an insignificant word, so it is a fault to end a para- graph with a secondary, unimportant thought. The conclusion should be a leading thought, embodying the result of what has gone before, or preparing for what is to follow, and will usually be expressed in a sentence of some length. A very short sen- tence is not appropriate unless it be an energetic, condensed statement of a weighty truth. There are exceptions to the law of variety. To give to a thought its just expression, it is often necessary to study sym- metry in the structure of the paragraph, just as it is often nec- essary to study it in constructing sentences. When by preserv- ing uniformity of structure we can keep the main ideas in their proper position, bring out the points of resemblance and differ- ence of objects, and make important relations prominent, it would be a blunder to vary the construction. This would be to sacrifice the higher qualities to the sound. Ex. To vary the structure would weaken and obscure the following parallel : " Homer was the greater genius ; Virgil the better artist ; in Sec. 80 THE PAKAdUAPH. 1&5 tin* one, we most admire the man ; in the otlier, the work. Homer hurries us with a commanding impetuosity; Virgil leads us with an attractive majesty. Homer scatters with a generous profusion ; Virgil bestows with a careful magnificence. Homer, like the Nile, pours out his riches with a sudden overflow ; Virgil, like a river in its banks, with a constant stream." 79. Announcing the Theme. The theme of the paragraph ought to be distinctly indicated. Sometimes it is not explicitly stated, and the reader is left to gather it from the text. In some subjects this may be safely done, but it frequently pro- duces obscurity. When the theme is new or at all abstruse, it should be announced. It may be laid down in a brief sentence towards the begin- ning ; not necessarily in the first sentence ; for paragraphs are connected together as parts of a larger unity, and the opening sentence is often a transition, in the form of a summary of something previously given, connecting a paragraph with the preceding. Sometimes, instead of being stated at the beginning, it is withheld until the close. The author first enumerates the par- ticulars before announcing the general truth which he draws from them, or gives his arguments and prepares the way for the proposition before he brings it forward. Occasionally the theme is stated at the beginning, and is repeated at the con- clusion. To give due emphasis to the enunciation of the theme, it is sometimes repeated ; the second statement is often a condensed, figurative one. Ex. "The practical danger which lias sometimes been apprehended from metaphysical pursuits, has in reality only been found to follow from their stunted and partial cultivation. The poison has grown up ; the anti- dote has been repressed. " 80. Examples illustrating the foregoing rules. Those who wish to become familiar with the principles of the con- struction of paragraphs should study carefully passages taken from different authors, and from various classes of composi- !54 STYLE. Sec. 80 tion history, didactic treatises, and orations. The examples below will answer to illustrate the rules laid down, and will give the student some hints how to apply them. (1) "The other thing to be considered is, that in this great work, the understanding is chiefly at the disposal of the will. (2) For though it is not in the power of the will, directly either to cause or hinder the assent of the understanding to a tiling proposed, and duly set before it; yet it is antecedently in the power of the will to apply the understanding faculty to, or to take it off from the consideration of those objects to which, with- out such a previous consideration, it can not yield its assent. (3) For all assent presupposes a simple apprehension or knowledge of the terms of the proposition to be assented to. (4) But unless the understanding employ and exercise its cognitive or apprehensive power about these terms, there can be no actual apprehension of them. (5) And the understanding, as to the exercise of this power, is subject to the command of the will ; though as to the specific nature of its acts it is determined by the object. (6) As for instance, my understanding can not assent to this proposition, 'that Jesus Christ is the Son of God;' but it must first consider, and so appre- hend what the terms and parts of it are, and what they signify. (7) And this can not be done if my will be so slothful, worldly, or voluptuously dis- posed, as never to suffer me at all to think of them, but perpetually to carry away and apply my mind to other things. (8) Tims far is the un- derstanding at the disposal of the will." Dr. South's Sermons. This is an argumentative paragraph. It contains the proof and illustration of a single proposition, viz., that the assent of the understanding to the truths of religion is in a great meas- ure under the control of the will. Every sentence has a direct bearing on the theme. The theme is explicitly stated (1), and is repeated at the close (8). It is given due prominence throughout. To present it more distinctly and obviate all misunderstanding, the necessary qualifications are given, and the proposition maintained is put in contrast with the erroneous views with which it is liable to be confounded (2), (5). The sentences are closely connected. (2) is the statement of a general truth confirming (1). (3), (4), (5), are arguments proving (2). ((>), (7), are an illustration of the proposition. The connection of the sentences is carefully marked both by- Sec. 80 THE PARAGRAPH. 155 conjunctions and words of reference (in italics). The reason- ing would be more readily understood, if uniformity of .struct- ure had been preserved in (3), (4), and (5). The emphatic words in these sentences are, u assent apprehension," "appre- hension exercise of the understanding," u exercise of the un- derstanding command of the will." There is a mixture of long and short sentences. The next example is from Macaulay's Essay on Lord Bacon: (1) "The years during which Bacon held the great seal were among the darkest and most shameful in English history. (2) Every tiling at home and abroad was mismanaged. (3) First came the execution of Raleigh, an act which, if done in a proper manner, might have been defen- sible, but which, under all the circumstances, must be considered as a dastardly murder. (4) Worse was behind the war of Bohemia, the suc- cesses of Tilly and Spinola, the Palatinate conquered, the king's son-in- law an exile, the house of Austria dominant on the continent, the Protest- ant religion and the liberties of the Germanic body trodden under foot. (5) In the meantime, the wavering and cowardly policy of England fur- nished matter of ridicule to all the nations of Europe. (6) The love of peace which James professed would, even when indulged to an impolitic excess, have been respectable if it had proceeded from tenderness for his people. (7) But the truth is, that, while he had nothing to spare for the defense of the natural allies of England, he resorted without scruple to the most illegal and oppressive devices for the purpose of enabling Bucking- ham and Buckingham's relations to outshine the ancient aristocracy of the realm. (8) Benevolences were exacted. (9) Patents of monopoly w T ere multiplied. (10) All the resources which could have been employed to replenish a beggared exchequer, at the close of a ruinous war, were put in motion during this season of ignominious peace." The theme is announced in the opening sentence (1), and repeated in a more determinate form in (2). It is confirmed by an enumeration of particulars the murder of Raleigh (3); mismanagement abroad (4), (5); mismanagement at home ((>)- (9) ; closing with the comprehensive statement (10). The unity is complete ; the proportion of parts is observed ; the parts are closely connected by their relation to the common theme, and in most of the sentences by words of reference, etc. The sen- tences are short, but sufficiently varied. Notice the construc- tion of (4). 156 STYLE. Sec. 81 CHAPTER VI. DIVISION OF STYLE. 81. Recapitulation. The portion of rhetoric which has been gone over constitutes what may be called General Rhetoric, as it embraces the laws of prose composition in general without regard to the matter and aim of the particular discourse. Part First contains a description of the mental processes in- volved in the act of composition. The subject, which is either given to the writer or chosen by him, is at first vague and un- defined. The first step is to reduce it to a determinate, pre- cisely stated theme. The next step is to form an outline or skeleton of the discourse, which is done by gathering by medi- tation the main ideas, and then arranging them in such an order arid proportion as their logical relations and the necessi- ties of the discourse require. These main ideas are then to be developed; the ideas necessary to connect them (transitions) are found; and the thoughts necessary to explain, illustrate, and confirm them are gathered and arranged in due order. Thus the outline or rude scheme becomes a completed, well rounded, consistent whole. So far we have dealt only with the thought as it exists in the writer's mind. But this thought is to become external be imparted to others. It must, therefore, be embodied in language. Language was, of course, employed in the proc- esses of thinking which we have just described, for language and thought are inseparable; but the writer's attention was directed mainly to the invention and elaboration of ideas, with no special regard to the manner in which they should be ex- pressed so as to be understood by others. But having become master of his thoughts, his next task is to embody them in such language as will convey them to others, and bring their minds and wills into harmony with his; i. ., to give them an ade- quate expression. The rules for the adequate expression of thought have been given in the preceding chapters of this Second Part. Sec. 82 DIVISION OF STYLE. 157 To be adequate, the expression of thought must comply with two conditions. 1st. As to the matter: it must convey the exact thought in a manner corresponding to its importance. Ud. As to the hearer: it must call his powers of thought and feeling into free and unimpeded activity, neither stimulating them beyond, nor repressing their tendency toward their natu- ral limit. Hence it must both economize his attention and give free play to his activities. The essential qualities of style resulting from a compliance with these conditions are propriety, perspicuity, and vivacity. These qualities of style depend on the choice and arrange- ment of words. As to the words which are the proper, literal signs of ideas, those only are to be selected which are recog- nized as belonging to the common national speech ; are in current use ; are offensive neither to moral purity nor refined feeling: and are accurate, becoming expressions of the ideas to be conveyed. To secure the highest degree of vivacity, the figures of speech are employed, which serve to present ideas in a concrete, sensible form to the imagination, and with emphasis to the understanding and feelings. The words are combined into sentences to express thoughts. The requisites of a sentence, it has been shown, are correctness, unity, clearness, precision, energy, and melody. Sentences are combined to form a larger and more complex unity, called a Paragraph ; the essential qualities of which are unity, continuity, proportion, and variety. 82. Differences of Style. The qualities described in the foregoing chapters, and briefly mentioned in the last section, must appear in every composition on whatever subject it is written ; there can not be an adequate expression of thought where any one of them is lacking. But the manner of expression is modified by the matter and aim of the discourse and the peculiarities of the writer. If a man writes with simplicity and earnestness, his mental and moral character will reveal itself both in his thoughts and Ian- 158 STYLE. Sec. 82 guage. Where the stamp of individuality is wanting there is no style. Style, then, is as varied as human character, and it may be said that there are as many kinds of style as there are writers. But there are points of view from which we can contemplate this infinite variety, and reduce it to a few classes. It is plain that there are many divisions of style possible, since there are many qualities any one of which can serve as a principle of division. Thus, it may be divided with respect to the matter into his- torical, didactic, etc.; with respect to the number of words, into the concise, sententious, laconic, terse, copious, diffuse, verbose ; with respect to the use of figures, into the florid, ornate, plain, dry; with respect to the arrangement of words and clauses, into the natural, indirect, inverted, periodic, epigrammatic, flowing. The division adopted in most Rhetorics is one founded on the difference in the general character of style. The most gen- eral characteristics are chosen as the basis of classification, and no sharp discrimination is attempted. According to this divis- ion, there are three kinds or species of style, viz. : the simple or lower, the grand or higher, and the middle. 83. The Simple or Lower Style. It is characteristic of this style, that, without disregarding the difference of written and spoken discourse, it imitates the conversational language of cultivated society. It employs familiar words and idiomatic expressions ; prefers the figures of speech that give distinctness to the more brilliant and passionate ; the sentences are not often very long or complicated, and are loose or mixed, seldom peri- odic; rapidity and energetic condensation are foreign to it; some degree of diffuseness characterizes it, but not unnecessary wordiness. It is appropriate to discourses that address chiefly the understanding, but is not adapted to move the feelings and passions. It is employed in narrating the events and describ- ing the objects of ordinary life, and in communicating instruc- tion and information. The simple style ranges from the plain style, which rejects Sec. 84 DIVISION OF STYLE. 159 all ornament, allows many negligences, and approaches most nearly to the language of conversation to the elegant. It is susceptible of a high degree of beauty ; accurate knowledge, clear thinking, correct taste, and social refinement impart to it a classic elegance. The ideas are conveyed so clearly and with such an absence of effort, that the reader's attention is not attracted to the mode of expression, and he is apt to imagine that he would have employed the same. The difficulty of writing in such a style is know r n only to those who attempt it. The extremes to be shunned are: 1st. Dryness and lan- guor, arising from the use of abstract and commonplace ideas and language, formal definitions and divisions, slovenly sen- tences, etc. 2d. Coarseness and vulgarity, into which many are betrayed by false notions of familiarity. 84. The Grand or Higher Style. This style is appropriate when treating of the most elevated subjects of thought, and of objects that concern the most important interests of individuals and communities. It supposes that the writer is affected to an extraordinary degree by the object, that he is inflamed with enthusiasm for what he believes to be great and good, or with moral indignation at some wrong. The adequate expression of the noblest principles of our nat- ure, when affected by elevated objects, will necessarily possess force, grandeur, and sublimity. These qualities may be exhib- ited in various ways. Great thoughts are often clothed in a majestic simplicity ; sometimes the resources of language are employed to present them with a fullness and magnificence that will cany captive both mind and heart. The noblest and most expressive words are chosen ; the boldest figures are em- ployed as, personification, vision, sermocination. The sen- tences are sometimes brief and pregnant, conveying the thought in a form that seizes the attention and compels the reader to reflect on it ; at other times they are flowing and rhythmical. From the nature of this style, as the expression of extraordi- nary excitement of the imagination and emotions, it is adapted to but a few classes of composition, and only to subjects of great 160 STYLE. Sec. 84 importance. Further, it can not pervade an entire discourse, but will be confined to the portions in which thought and passion reach their highest stage. It can not be employed unless the hearer or reader is in sympathy with the speaker or writer. The faults to which this style is liable are extravagance, ex- aggeration ; the use of hollow, conventional phraseology, which is supposed to give stateliness and pathos ; the excessive use of figurative language, enervating and obscuring the ideas instead of enforcing them faults which spring from the want of knowl- edge, taste, and sincerity. 85, The Middle Style. This holds a position between the simple and the grand style ; it is the transition from the one to the other, and combines some of the characteristics of both. It resembles the simple in striving to communicate truth to the understanding with clearness, arid resembles the grand in aim- ing to influence the feelings and passions. It is bolder and more profuse in the employment of figures and the various em- phatic verbal forms, than the simple style j but does not use those appropriate to intense feeling, which are found in the grand. This style is employed in all compositions intended not only to inform and convince, but at the same time to move the feel- ings and passions. Its character varies with the predominance of one or other of these ends. When instruction and conviction are predominant, it approaches the lower style ; when influen- cing the feelings is the main object, it partakes more of the character of the higher. 86. Caution. The student is to be cautioned against sup- posing that a discourse is necessarily confined to one of these kinds of style. This erroneous opinion has been fostered by the prevailing custom of perusing extracts from authors instead of entire works, and thus of judging of the whole from a mere fragment. All three styles may be found in the same dis- course. With a genuine writer, the thoughts control and shape Sec. 87 DIVISION OF STYLE. 161 the language; the style will be simple when the appeal is mainly to the understanding, and the other powers are called into but moderate activity ; grand when intensity and elevation of passion and emotion are to be expressed ; and the middle style will be adopted when the aim is to call into harmonious, vigorous activity, understanding, feeling, and passion. 87. The application of the principles of General Rheto- ric. The divisions just given are too indefinite to afford much assistance in original composition and criticism. Before the student can learn to discriminate between the different kinds of style, he must become familiar with the application of the prin- ciples of general Khetoric to discourse as determined by its matter and aim. This is the subject of the two remaining parts, which, as dis- tinguished from the portion now completed, may be considered as constituting Special or Applied Rhetoric. It treats of: 1. The Elements, or Elementary Forms of Discourse. 2. The Principal Forms of Prose. . 14 PART III. THE ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE. 88. Preliminary. The objects of thought can be reduced to two classes 5 viz., individual objects arid general notions. Individual objects are of two kinds. Either they are simul- taneous wholes ; i. e., those whose parts exist at the same time, whether individual things existing, or conceived to exist in space; as, this tree, house, etc.; or particular mental states and qualities of which we get a knowledge by consciousness ; or they are successive wholes ; i. e., those whose parts are not presented as existing at one time, but which arise in successive periods of time ; as, for example, a storm, a battle, the life of a man in general, all changes in the internal and the external world. General notions are formed by comparison and generaliza- tion ; they have no one object precisely corresponding to them, but are applicable to an indefinite number of objects; as, tree, man, house. We may consider individual and general notions in them- selves, or we may endeavor to show that two or more of them are related. What are the Elementary Forms of Discourse? Corre- sponding to these distinctions we have, as the elements or ele- mentary forms of discourse : 1. Description, or the exhibition in language of the parts of a simultaneous whole. 2. Narration, or the exhibition of the parts of a successive whole. (162) Sec. 90 DESCRIPTION. 163 .'_>. Exposition, consisting m the explication of general no- tions and propositions formed from them. 4. Argumentation, by which the truth or falsehood of a proposition is evinced. There can be no connected discourse without one or more of these forms. In a composition in which several of them enter, one will predominate, giving character to the whole. CHAPTER I. DESCRIPTION. 89. Definition and objects of Description, A description is the exhibition in language of the coexistent parts and quali- ties of an object of sense, whether real or imaginary. Only complex objects are capable of description ; purely sim- ple objects or qualities, as a simple color, can not be described. The objects of description are all complex objects of perception, such as natural products, creations of art, landscapes, states of mind, characters of individuals and classes, etc. '90. Requisites of a good Description. The aim of a de- scription is to enable the reader to form an image of the object corresponding as nearly as possible to that in the mind of the writer. Its requisites are: 1. Truth. It must not only be free from self-contradiction, but the features must be those of the actual object; the representation must harmonize with the reality. 2. Completeness (opposed to inadequacy or mutilation). The essential features must be given; what subordinate points should be mentioned will be determined by circumstances. Nothing should be omitted that will promote the aim of the writer. $ Unity. The mere enumeration of single traits does not 164 ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE. Sec. 90 constitute a description. The parts must be connected in such a inanner as to afford a distinct image of a single object, so that it can be recognized and discriminated from other objects. 4. Vivacity. The object must be described as it appears to the senses. The degree of vivacity differs in the various kinds of description. The general rule for all is, to reject what is abstract and vague, and to seek what is determinate and par- ticular. 5. Brevity. The mind speedily becomes wearied with the effort to combine and retain a number of qualities ; in descrip- tion, more than in any other form of discourse, brevity is indis- pensable. 91. Difficulty of the art of Description. The art of rep- resenting an object in language is a difficult one. The chief causes of the difficulty are: 1. The number of qualities be- longing to an individual object is greater than it is possible to comprise in a description. To attempt to give to it the fullness of an actual perception would lead to an accumulation of de- tails that could not be retained in the memory and united in a single image. 2. The properties and qualities of the object co- exist and are presented to sense as parts of a simultaneous whole, whereas when represented in- language they are exhib- ited in succession. Hence, to succeed in this art, great skill is requisite to analyze the object, and to select and combine the separate traits. 92. Rules of Description. 1. The first rule is: Deter- mine the point of view from tchieh the description is to be made. This rule is laid down first, as it is only by complying with it that we can bring the subject, otherwise illimitable, into bounds, and decide what topics are to be selected and Avliat order is to be pursued. The same object admits of being de- scribed in a variety of ways according to the occasion, the end to be realized, etc. When the aim is merely to enable the un- derstanding to distinguish one object from another, the descrip- tion approaches to definition, and, both in the matter selected Sec. 92 DESCRIPTION. 105 and in the mode of treatment, difters from the more elevated forms which appeal directly to the imagination. Among these there is also a difference. A description may be objective, i. #., may aim to present a vivid image of the object as it is ; or it may be subjective, i. ., aim to exhibit the object together with the emotions which it excited in the mind of the writer. Subjective description occurs most frequently in poetry and eloquence. 2. Select traits that are characteristic, i. e., such as give a clear and correct impression of the real nature of the object ; interesting either in themselves or in their relation to the ob- ject; determinate, concrete, as opposed to whatever is vague and abstract. Care must be taken to choose qualities that blend readily into one image ; out of a successive presentation of parts the imagination retains only such as coalesce with what follows without losing their individual characteristics. o. Aroid accumulating too many details. The mind can retain but a few, and when the attention is overtasked the im- pression becomes feeble and obscure. The force of description depends more upon the character of the traits selected than upon their number. One striking circumstance will often bring an entire scene before the mind with greater vividness than a minute enumeration of the details. Carlyle says on this sub- ject: "On what quality of observing, or of style in describing, does this intense pictorial power depend! Often a slight circum- stance contributes curiously to the result ; some little, and per- haps to appearance accidental, feature is presented; a light gleam which instantaneously excites the mind, and urges it to complete the picture and evolve the meaning thereof for itself. l>y critics such light gleams and their magical influence have been frequently noted ; but the power to produce such, to select such features as will produce them, is generally treated as a knack or trick of trade, a secret for 4 being graphic'; whereas those magical feats are, in truth, rather inspirations ; and the gift of performing them, which acts unconsciously, without fore- thought, and as if by nature alone, is properly a genius for 166 ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE. Sec. 92 description. One grand invaluable secret there is, however, which includes all the rest, and, what is comfortable, lies clearly in every man's power to have an open, loving heart, and what follows from the possession of such. Truly it has been said emphatically in these days ought it to be repeated a loving heart is the beginning of all knowledge. This it is that opens the whole mind, quickens every faculty of the intellect to do its fit work that of knowing, and, therefrom by pure consequence, of vividly uttering forth. Other secret of being graphic is there none worth having ; but this is an all-sufficient one." 93. Disposition of details. The features selected must be arranged in a natural order, so that the description may corre- spond to the object described. In a large class of natural and artificial products the order is given with the objects, so that there is very little room for choice with reference "to the parts with which the description shall begin. In complex subjects greater liberty is given. We may give first a general state- ment of the class to which the object belongs ; the uses to which it is applied ; its outline and size. We may then de- scend to particulars, dividing the whole into large masses, and then giving the details belonging to each. The proper relation of the parts should be observed ; description is not a bare enu- meration of separate traits ; the parts should cohere the pre- ceding should be easily retained in the memory and connect readily with what follows, and thus each part illustrate and support the others, 'and all combine into one distinct image. In describing the social condition of a people the morals, institutions, and the like still greater liberty is allowed. The main object is to afford a distinct general view of the whole complex subject; the process requires skill in logical division. Excessive subdivision is to be guarded against, as it renders the obtaining of such a general view difficult, if not impos- sible. When an object is to be described that can not be appre- hended in a single view, but the parts of which are presented in succession, as in an extensive landscape, the description may Sec. 95 DESCRIPTION. 167 follow the order of presentation. In such cases it takes sonic- thing of the form of a narrative, and has a higher degree of vivacity than the ordinary form of description. 94. Auxiliaries. The vivacity of a description is promoted in several ways. The object may be compared with similar or with dissimilar objects ; associated circumstances may be given, or associated thoughts, feelings, memories ; the writer may in- terpret the outward signs, mingle inferences with the descrip- tion, and in various ways put the reader in possession of all that is nearly or remotely connected with the subject. Rules of expression. The expression in language varies with the nature and end of the description. The naturalist and orator adopt a very different style in delineating the same ob- ject. The effect is destroyed by employing vague and abstract terms ; in all cases the writer should aim to particularize and individualize. Metonymy and synecdoche both contribute to this end, and are of frequent use ; likewise epithets suggesting comprehensive details, points of resemblance, etc. Stereotyped forms of expressions render a description feeble and common- place, and should be unconditionally rejected ; novelty is indis- pensable to interest in this kind of discourse. Brevity, so far as it is compatible with completeness, must also be studied. Xo class of compositions is more liable to become tedious. 95. Description of natural and artificial products. The objects included under this head are the products of art, as buildings, machines, etc., and natural products, both organic and inorganic. The aim is to exhibit the peculiarities of the object so as to enable the reader to discriminate it from other objects. It embraces : 1. A general notion or description, which serves to locate the object. 2. A particular description, giving the characteristic quali- ties of the object, its uses, etc. Xo general scheme can be given for inorganic substances. 168 ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE. Sec. 95 Some of the topics to be employed are : their genus, composi- tion, appearance (form, color, etc.), locality, uses. The topics for the description of an organic substance are : ik 1 partition (main parts), characteristics of individual parts, circumstances of place, uses, division or different species, ap- pearance (form, size, color, etc.). In describing animals, we must give the physical marks, and also the inward marks, such as intelligence, susceptibility of education, relation to man, mode of life, and similar quali- ties. The marks selected should be essential and characteristic, and should be so grouped as to bring the related qualities together. Physical appearances. The description may be either of scenery or of phenomena of nature. The former embraces landscapes of greater or less extent; The main points to be noticed are the relative position of the locality ; its length, breadth ; its main divisions with their subdivisions, noteworthy circumstances and features. When the scene is an extensive one, that can not be taken in at one view, the points will be presented in succession, and those dwelt upon which give the most lively perception of the scene. To succeed in description of this kind, a writer must have the power to select from the many objects presented to him those which will make the strongest impression on the imagination and feelings. The description of natural phenomena as of a sunset, sun- rise, thunder-storm is nearly related to narration. AVe have here a passing phenomenon connected with a particular locality. The phenomenon can be grasped as a whole only by taking in the changes as they occur. The scheme for such a description corresponds to that for the narration of an event. It contains : 1. The preceding circumstances, including the cause, occa- sion, indications, and the like. 2. The beginning, middle, and end of the phenomenon. 3. Its consequences, general and special, immediate and remote. Sec, 96 DESCRIPTION. 109 In both these forms of description great vivacity is indispen- sable. Particulars that address the senses should be brought forward; a single striking feature that may be expressed in a ingle word is often more effective than an extended enumera- tion of details. Personification, metaphor, synecdoche, and metonymy are freely used. The unity of descriptions of this (lass consists in a great measure in the impression made upon the feedings, whether joyous, serious, gloomy, sublime. The nature of the emotions to be awakened by the entire description must be kept in view, and such characteristics selected as are suitable to them ; what would disturb the harmony of the im-^- pressiori should be omitted. $-. Mental states, The states of thought, feeling, and de- sire are described by giving the class to which they belong with the specific difference, and adding, when greater fullness is re- quired, (1) the causes producing, the occasion on which they arise, their object and end ; (2) the mode in which they manifest themselves, as by words, gestures, the countenance, actions ; (3) their influence and effects ; (4) circumstances modifying, checking, exciting them ; (5) their perversions 5 (6) comparison with cognate and opposite states. Characters. The description of a character consists in giv- ing a faithful, graphic delineation of the permanent, distinctive qualities of which it is composed. It is of importance in his- tory, biography, and oratory. The subjects may be taken from real life, from history, or from fiction. In this kind of description the following points are to be ob- served : 1. It should embrace both the natural and acquired pecul- iarities. In every character there are certain predominant ten- dencies, on which the others depend, from which they proceed, and which modify and explain the rest. These fundamental qualities, as they are the central principles of activity, are to be selected first, and made prominent throughout. The descrip- Rhet. 15 170 ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE. Sec, 96 tion must embrace the intellectual peculiarities, the moral qualities, and temperament. 2. The external circumstances and relations which influence the formation of character such as nationality, religion, civili- zation, education, etc., should be carefully considered. The vicissitudes in the life of the person should be mentioned when they throw light upon the character. The difference between biography, which narrates the events of a life, and delineation of character, which exhibits permanent traits, must be kept constantly in view. 3. The various qualities must be exhibited in their relation to each other. No character is absolutely simple, i. e., gov- erned by one principle exclusively; it is the result of a combi- nation of principles which act and react on each other. The qualities must be shown as thus modifying and modified ; the dark and bright sides should be exhibited in contrast with each other ; the different degrees of worthiness and dignity of the various principles should be shown, as according to the pre- dominance of one or another set of principles, a character is pronounced good or bad, noble or base, refined or coarse ; care must be taken not to present traits severed from those with which they are intimately connected, and without which they convey a false impression j where there is apparent contradic- tion, it must be removed, and the consistency of the character made apparent. 4. The description of a character seeks to give the inward principles from which outward acts proceed, and which can be recognized only by their outward manifestations. It is neces- sary, for the- sake of clearness and vividness, to introduce the modes by which the internal principles manifest themselves ; to give the words and deeds of the subject, and the spheres of life in which the qualities have been exerted; as in the family, society, profession. 5. The character may be compared with other characters either similar or different. A lengthened comparison of two characters is called a parallel. It may begin with a summary of what may be said in general of the two, and' then proceed to Sec. 97 NARRATION. 171 indicate what was common to the two, as to time, place, fam- ily, and other conditioning circumstances, and then how they dillered in respect to the same. They may then be compared as to the points of resemblance and difference, as to character, plans, labors, the results of their labors. General characters. Instead of sketches of individual char- acters, we may have what are called general characters. These arc 1 delineations of the peculiarities of a class or profession, or of the manifestations of some virtue or vice. They occur in satiric poetry and in didactic prose. The faults to be avoided are unnaturalness, exaggeration, caricature, inconsistency. The characters should appear such as can actually exist, and the traits and actions be such as harmonize with each other and with the central principle. CHAPTER II. NARRATION. 97. The nature and aim of Narration. A narration is the recital of a consecutive series of incidents forming a single transaction. The facts narrated may be either those of the ex- ternal world, including physical phenomena and the actions of intelligent beings, or those of the internal world what one thinks, feels, desires. They may be simple, being composed of but a single series of incidents, or complex, containing a variety of subordinate or concurrent incidents. Narration is the main end of historical discourse ; it enters more or less largely into all classes of composition both in prose and poetry. Its form varies with the end which the writer has >-- in view. The simplest is that which it receives when the aim is to give an accurate statement of facts that will enable others to form a correct judgment of them, as in official reports and in many business transactions. The higher forms are intended to 172 ELEMENTAKY FORMS OF DISCOURSE. Sec. 97 call into activity the feelings and imagination ; these forms are principally regarded in Rhetoric. In many cases the narration is not an independent element of a discourse, but is employed merely as the basis of an argument or generalization, or as a means of arousing the passions. In judicial eloquence particu- larly, it is a very important element. It is also frequently employed for didactic purposes, as to illustrate and enforce a (esson of prudence, morality, or religion, as in fables, parables, 98. The selection of particulars. The aim of narration Oeing to exhibit an event as a whole, in its rise, progress, and completion, it involves the necessity of a careful selection of the particulars that are to be incorporated into it. The art of selecting is one of the most indispensable accomplishments of a good narrator. Those lacking this qualification do not dis- criminate between what is essential and what is not essential ; they bring together a crowd of particulars, but give no clear, connected presentation of the subject. In the process of selecting, the writer should be governed by the following rules : 1. There is in every event, however complex, one leading fact of which the others are but the dependents. This must be seized ; otherwise the narrative can not have unity. The unity of an action may be in the subject (as in biography, the person whose life is narrated ; in history, the particular nation), in the place, or in the end or result. * The place is of subordinate im-' portance 5 the main thing to be attended to is the result. All incidents that terminate in one, final event are parts of one whole; it is only by reference to this result that the several incidents can be explained, and their place and importance determined. 2: All the essential incidents must be given ; that is, all that are necessary to the progress of the action. The omission of any of these renders the narrative incomplete and unintelli- gible by destroying the connection between the parts. If the narrative contains only a summary of the essential parts, it will Sec. 99 NARRATION. 173 lack vivacity and interest; it is accordingly necessary to am plify them, and to incorporate whatever aids in imparting clear- ness and vividness to the recital. What is superfluous must be omitted, as it but retards the movement of the narration and leads to obscurity. Regard must be had, as in description, to the relations of the details ; there are some so related to each other that if one be given the others must also be given. When this rule is neglected, the narrative becomes false, al- though the separate statements are all true. 3. The end to be accomplished by the narration must be kept in view. The same fact will be related in a different manner in an official report, in an oration, and in a didactic treatise. 4. The circumstances selected should interest us by address- ing the imagination and feelings. General statements convey no distinct image, and render a narration lifeless ; it is neces- sary to descend to particulars, and to present the facts in as concrete a form as possible. The degree of interest depends on the aim, and on the nature of the subject of the narrative. Where the aim is merely to impart information, great vivacity is not so indispensable ; it can not be neglected in the higher forms of narration, as in history and eloquence. Internal phe- nomena our . thoughts, feelings, and desires can not be pre- sented so vividly ; a narrative of these is apt to be tedious ; whereas when they are exhibited as manifesting themselves in outward deeds, the narrative can be made highly interesting. 99. Disposition of the incidents. The separate incidents are, in the next place, to be arranged in an order that will secure a continuous movement of the narrative towards the grand result. 1. As a general rule, the order of time is to be observed. But we can not adhere strictly to this order in all cases par- ticularly when the event is complex, and involves several parallel series of incidents. Great skill is then required to connect the parts, and preserve the unity and continuity of the narrative. 1'. A narration should do more than simply exhibit incidents 174 ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE. Sec. 99 in succession ; it should exhibit one as arising out of another, and all as combining to produce one definite result. It should thus account for the event and render apparent its necessity. 3. When the principal event has a number of subordinates,, care must be taken to preserve the prominence of the principal.' This is effected by the position given it, the fullness of its de- tails, and style in which it is presented. We must not permit a subordinate point to supplant the main one by a too extended treatment of it, or by superior vividness of style. The transi- tions from the main to. the subordinate parts should (particu- larly in long narratives) be distinctly marked. 4. Avoid, as far as possible, shifting the scene. The need- less transfer from one place to another is a strain upon the at- tention, and interrupts the continuity of the action. So also with the actors ; it is a great advantage to have one central character around whom the events may be gathered. 5. When the narrative is a long one, and particularly when there is a break in it, the labor of comprehending and remem- bering is lightened by giving a summary of what precedes. The summary contains only the main points and the general result, with the omission of the details. It serves to recall what has been gone over, and prepares the reader to resume the thread of the story. 100. The parts of a Narration. The parts into which a narration may be distributed are : The introduction. The object of the introduction is to awaken the reader's interest in the subject, to indicate the point of view from which the fact is contemplated by the writer, or, in general, to make the reader acquainted with whatever is necessary to a correct understanding of the course of events. It may be a summary of such preceding events as have a direct bearing upon the one to be narrated ; a general description, or the statement of a general principle. It is sometimes expe- dient to exhibit the result or the consequences of the fact, and then proceed to the narrative of the events which led to it. The introduction should be brief, simple, and should throw light Sec. 100 NARRATION. 175 upon the subject. It is a common fault in giving preceding events to go back to too remote a point. E.qtoaition. Every action must have a beginning, middle, and end. The exposition is that part of the narration which gives the beginning of the action. It sets forth the various circumstances and relations in which the action took its rise. The topics to be used are : the cause of the event, which in- cludes the incidents, institutions, circumstances which led to it; as also the character arid motives of the actors; the place in which it occurred ; and the time or period at which it happened. The characteristics of the time, its tendencies and civilization, should be mentioned. Narrative proper, or the plot. This contains the various circumstances, the complication of which forms the transaction to be narrated. It exhibits the incidents in the order and man- ner in which they were called forth, and the causes operating to produce them. The means employed and the manner of employing them must be stated ; the circumstances that either hindered or facilitated the progress of the event should in all cases be prominently set forth. Conclusion. The conclusion contains the final result of the action ; that to which all the preceding parts tended, and in which they are consummated. The expectation of the reader has been directed to this point during the entire narration ; it should satisfy expectation, and should not be so long as to cause attention to flag. Consequences. It is often appropriate to add a statement of the consequences, immediate and remote, of the action on the agents and on others. Reflections. Reflections are often an important part of a narrative. The writer may give an estimate of the character, importance, and worth of the action. Its nature, the motives leading to it, the means employed, the manner of doing it, are all taken into consideration, and tested as to their conformity to law, morality, and piety ; or he may compare it with similar events, or its opposites ; or he may draw from it general prin- ciples and practical lessons. Whatever the character of the 176 ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE. Sec, 100 reflections, they must be subordinate to the narrative, arise naturally from it, and be neither in matter nor tone discordant with the subject. CHAPTEB III. EXPOSITION. 101. Exposition defined; its objects and aim. Exposi-/j tion is the explanation of notions and propositions formed from// notions. The term notion is here used in its technical sense to denote a general idea of the point or points in which a number of objects coincide. Its characteristics are : 1. It contains one or more attributes or qualities, and applies to a number of individuals or classes. Thus the notion animal designates the qualities organism, life, sensation, voluntary mo- tion ; these marks or attributes form the intension or depth of the notion. It applies to many classes of objects that agree in possessing these qualities ; as, lion, horse, dog, etc. This con- stitutes its extension or breadth. Motions vary greatly witli respect to their depth and breadth. Some are simple, contain- ing but a single attribute ; others, complex, involving a num- ber of qualities ; others again are very broad or general, includ- ing a great variety of classes; while others are limited, con- taining but few classes, or it may be only individuals. 2. The combination of the marks or attributes in a notion is not arbitrary, but corresponds to the real nature of the object to which it is applied. 3. The notion is expressed in language by an arbitrary symbol. From their nature it is apparent that notions are peculiarly liable to obscurity. The marks or attributes may not be clearly present to the mind; essential qualities maybe omitted; quali- ties not belonging to it may be introduced ; the essential 4* non-essential may be confounded: from any of these causeP Sec. 103 EXPOSITION. 177 notion nrny be wanting in distinctness, completeness, and ac- curacy. The aim of exposition is to guard against all these? If defects, and to imnart to our knowledge clearness, fullness, and I order. In the exposition of a notion the points to be noticed are: the name by which it is expressed; the notion itself; its relation to other notions. 102. Verbal explication. The verbal explication of a no- tion includes several processes : 1. Give the etymology of the word ; i. e., its origin, deriva- tion, and composition. This is necessary when the word is foreign, or compound, or used in a derivative or figurative sense. It is frequently a means of discovering its signification, and of precision in its use. It brings the concrete idea of the radical before the mind, and suggests the analogy on which the use of the word is founded. By this means what was but- a lifeless symbol is made a picture that represents the idea with vividness. Let one take such words as precipitate, convert, tribulation, and many others which are vague and abstract j and observe what force is given to them when their primary mean- ing is ascertained. 12. Give a history of the changes in the form and significa- tion of the word. In scientific works this is often very impor- tant. 3. Give the equivalent terms, or synonyms. These do not define the word ; if they are better known than the term to be explained, they suggest the sense, but, in most cases, only vaguely. 4. Kesolve the ambiguity of the term. The various mean- ings of an ambiguous term ought to be given before attempt- ing to define it; it is thus separated from the notions with which it is liable to be confounded. See Sec. 47, 3. 103. Logical explication. The logical explication of a no- tion consists in analyzing it, first, as to its depth, or intension, and, secondly, as to its breadth, or extension; i. e., in defining and dividing it. 178 ELEMENTAKY FORMS OF DISCOURSE. Sec. 103 Definition, Definition is concerned with the intension of a notion ; it is a brief, precise declaration of its essential charac- teristics. The strictly logical definition contains two elements : (1) the genus of the defined notion ; i.e., the marks or attributes that it has in common with some other notions : and (2) the specific difference ; i. e., the marks by which it is discriminated from these same notions. Thus, if Rhetoric be defined the theory of prose, the genus is theory ; by this its similarity to a number of other notions is pointed out; as, the theory of poetry, of music, etc. The specific difference is prose; by this mark this one theory is distinguished from every other. A logical definition gives only the essential marks, and of these only those which are original ; that is, such as are derived immediately from the notion itself, and from which others can be derived, but themselves are not deduced from any other quality. The possession of reason is an essential and original mark of the notion man, and must enter into its definition ; but the capacity of speech is a derivative essential, being in- volved in and deduced from the attribute rationality; it can not therefore form part of a logical definition. It admits only positive characteristics. It tells what the object is ; but nega- tive statements merely show from what a notion is excluded, and do not show what it contains. The test of a good defini- tion is its adequacy ; it must apply to all of the class, and to no other. When it does not embrace all, it is too narrow ; when it includes more than the defined notion applies to, it is too broad. When man is defined to be a rational being, the defini- tion is too broad; when Rhetoric is defined the art of argu- mentative discourse, the definition is too narrow. The definition should be expressed with greatest brevity ; the words should be used in their ordinary acceptation, and be im- mediately intelligible. The accumulation of abstract terms, and the use of figurative expressions, should be guarded against. A definition is intelligible only so far as we understand the meaning of the terms employed in it. When the brief, abstract definition is not sufficient, its terms may be analyzed and de- Sec. 104 EXPOSITION. 179 fined; the new definitions may again be subjected to the same process, until notions are reached that, as simple, do not admit of definition, or, as well known, do not need it. It often re- quires a series, or system, of definitions to secure the requisite decree of clearness. It is a not uncommon error to attempt to define ideas that are from their nature indefinable. The limits of definition should be understood, and the writer ought to be aware what kind of definition the object is susceptible of, if it be definable at all ; he will otherwise fall into obscurity and error. Simple notions and notions of individuals can not be defined logically. In the first, a higher notion under which to bring them can not be found ; in the latter, there can be given only a number of accidental qualities by which jme individual is distinguished from others. A writer, even in a scientific treatise, is not restricted to logical definitions; he is at liberty, and is often compelled to use in their stead, or to add to them, what the logicians call descriptions. These contain qualities which are not essential, but are better known or more easily suggested to others, and are therefore better suited to the ends of discourse. Thus may be given the properties of an object ; i. e., qualities that belong exclusively to the class, not deducible from the qualities con- tained in the definition, but always found in connection with them ; or some attributes which the object has in common with other objects ; or even merely accidental qualities. 104. Division. Division is the analysis of a notion as an. extensive whole ; it gives the subordinate classes of a notion ; its aim is to give order und completeness to our knowledge. The notion is called the divided whole ; its parts, the dividing members, which, with reference to their relation to each other, are called coordinates, and with reference to the divided notion are called subordinates or species. The principle of Division. The most important and diffi- cult part of the procedure is to find the principle of division. 180 ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE. Sec. This is a quality belonging to some of the species, but not to all, by means of which the higher notion or genus is split into parts. Thus, if we are to divide the notion science, we find that some sciences are concerned with the facts and laws of the material universe, and others with the facts and laws of mind, and accordingly we divide science into physical and mental. It is plain that as a notion may be contemplated from different points of view, different principles of division can be chosen and different divisions made. The notion mankind may be divided with reference to color (Caucasian, Xegro, etc.); with reference to regions occupied by them (European, Asiatic, etc.); with reference to descent (Indo-Gerinanic, Shemitic, etc.); with ref- erence to sex, age, culture, occupation, etc. As to the principle of division, the rules to be followed are : 1. There must be but one for the same series. It may be a complex notion, but it must not be changed. If it is, there will not be a true division. Should, for example, mankind be divided according to color and age, we should have a cross division ; some belonging to one of the members would be found in the other. 2. The principle chosen must be adapted to the purpose of the writer. Different sciences and different purposes require entirely different divisions. A distribution of men that would be of importance in political economy, would not be adapted to the purposes of the moralist. 3. It should be fertile ; L e^ afford the greatest number of important determinations. It should accordingly be an essen- tial, not an accidental quality. The division of animals accord- ing to the number of legs would be barren. The process can be repeated on* the subordinate notions; each of them can be divided, and their parts again be sub- divided until notions are reached that contain under them only individuals. The resolving* of these latter into their parts is sometimes called distribution. In the sciences, in which it is important to bring together related, and to separate the differ- ent parts, the gradations of notions are marked by different terms. The grand divisions are : I. Primary Divisions ; II. Sec. 105 EXPOSITION. 181 (Masses; III. Orders; IV. Genera; V. Species. Several of these are subdivided ; as orders, into subordinate orders and tribes ; species, into variety and race. Laws of Division. The laws of division are : 1. The dividing members must, when taken together, be equal to the divided whole. 2. The dividing members must exclude each other. 3. The division must not be forced ; the number of members is not to be determined by some preconceived scheme, but by the nature of the notion and the special purpose of the division. Excess of symmetry should be avoided; it does not follow that because one coordinate is divided, the others also should be. 4. The division should not be too minute ; excessive subdi- vision, instead of aiding in obtaining a general view of the whole and of the relations of the parts, causes indistinctness and confusion. 105. Exposition of the notion in its relations. The full explication of a notion requires, in addition to its \le fruition and division, the consideration of its various relations : 1. The antecedents and -consequents, the circumstances of time and place, and especially the relations of cause and effect, should be mentioned. Under cause, are included all the cir- cumstances without which an event could not have occurred the occasion and instruments employed, as well as the efficient cause. The enumeration of the effects is a very important part of the exposition of a large number of subjects. The most im- portant ought to be given, and, if numerous, be classified. The less important are either omitted or but briefly men- tioned. 2. The notion should be compared with similar notions. It must first be shown wherein the notions agree ; as, that they belong to the same gen us, or can be referred to the same cause, or have the same end, etc. The points of agreement should be in important qualities; mere superficial resemblances can give no just view of the real nature of the objects compared. But, 182 ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE. Sec. 105 as all comparison implies a difference, it must, in the second place, be shown wherein the objects differ. Here, again, care is required not to mistake slight points of difference for essen- tial ones. 3. The notion is further to be explained by comparing it with its opposites ; i. e., such as are contradictory or contrary. The contrast excites attention, brings to view the qualities that are to be made prominent, and separates them more distinctly from qualities with which they are liable to be confounded. When the simple mention of the opposite notions does not give suffi- cient clearness and fullness to the exposition, they may be ana- lyzed and their parts enumerated. 106. Additional instruments of Exposition are : 1. Examples. By an example is meant a particular case, either an individual or species, which is taken as the repre- sentative of the entire class. Thus, the botanist explains the nature of a class of plants by means of a single one ; the min- eralogist takes a single specimen to exhibit the qualities of a class of minerals. The individuals are of no importance except so far as they are representative of a large number ; all merely individual peculiarities are overlooked, and those dwelt upon which are characteristic of the class. In selecting an example, we should seek for one in which the point to be elucidated is prominent, and in which there are the fewest qualities likely to mislead. As it is not always possible to do this, it is sometimes necessary to employ a number of 'examples, so that by exhibiting the principle under a variety of circumstances, its distinctive character may be apprehended. 2. Analogy. When the direct resemblance of a notion with others can not be exhibited, it may be illustrated by means of analogies. Two objects may not be alike, yet they may stand in identical relations to other objects. Analogy, taken in its strictest sense, is identity of relation ; as, for example, the rela- tion of 2 to 4 is identical with that of 8 to 1G. In elucidating Sec. 107 EXPOSITION. - 183 ideas -which do not lie within the sphere of experience, this is the only mode by which we can suggest them to others. We avail ourselves of it, for example, when in endeavoring to ex- hibit the relation of God to the human race, we describe him as our Father. 107. A scheme of Exposition of a Notion. A scheme for the exposition of notions, with some of the topics to be used, is here given. It will be understood that all the topics given can not be applied in every subject. I. Explication of the term by which the notion is ex- pressed. When possible a single term should be chosen instead of a phrase. 1. Give the synonymous words. 2. Give the etymology of the w r ord, including its composi- tion, origin, primary and derivative significations, and the his- tory of its changes in form and meaning. 3. Resolve its ambiguity ; giving its popular and scientific use, and the sense in which it is to be understood in the dis- course. II. Explication of the Notion in itself. 1. Analyze the notion in its intension. This includes : (a) The definition, or the declaration of its original and essential qualities, which, in its most concise form, is a logical definition composed of the genus and specific difference. (b) The derivative essentials, or qualities involved in and deducible from the definition. (c) Logical description, or a statement of the properties and accidental qualities of the object. 2. Analyze the notion in its extension. The limits to which the division is to be carried depends upon circumstances. It may be either a simple division or a classification. III. Explication of the Notion in its relation to other Notions. 184 ELEMENTARY FOKMS OF DISCOURSE. Sec. 107 1. Mention adjuncts, circumstances of time, place, etc. 2. Give its cause, occasion, instruments. 3. State fully the effects, classifying them if numerous. 4. Compare with similar or cognate notions. 5. Compare with diverse, contrary, and contradictory no- tions. 6. Illustrate by example and analogy. 108. Exposition of a Proposition. In a proposition no- tions are bound together so as to form a single thought. It is the object of exposition to ascertain and exhibit this thought precisely and fully. 1. To accomplish this it is necessary, in the first place, to fix the meaning of the terms, and to analyze the notions accord- ing to the method already given. Special attention should be given to figurative expressions, and to qualifying words and phrases. The division of the leading notions is an important means of giving clearness to the statement of a general prin- ciple ; what is affirmed of a whole class is by this means shown to be true of all the subordinate classes ; and instead of the vague impression produced by a general statement, there is the distinct one arising from dwelling upon a number of particular statements. 2. The nature of the sentence should be noticed. Sentences are declarative, interrogative, imperative, optative. Whatever its form, it is necessary to draw from it the judgment intended to be expressed. It may also be simple or complex ; if com- plex, the various judgments which are combined must be dis- criminated, and exhibited in their relation to each other. 3. A proposition may be expounded by repeating the truth in other words. There are various modes of varying a state- ment. It may be expressed literally and figuratively. It may be given in an amplified and in a sententious form. When this mode is chosen, the expanded declaration ought to precede, and the brief follow ; by the first, the thought is made intelligible; by the second, it is conveyed with energy and impressed on the memory. It may be given positively and Sec. 109 ARGUMENT. 185 negatively. As every affirmation involves the denial of the contradictory judgment, we itiay aflftrra a principle both directly and by denying the counter-proposition; as, "All our knowl- edge is from experience ; there is no intuitive knowledge." Frequently a proposition is not intelligible without the state- ment of its opposite; as, "The poet is born, not made." The negative is necessary in such cases to fix the limits of the posi- tive assertion; even when it is not thus absolutely indispen- sable, the combination of the two forms contributes greatly to the correct understanding of the proposition. 4. The proposition may be compared with others enouncing the same or a similar judgment. In examining the writings of an author, the various statements of an important principle should be compared ; as these limit, qualify, and explain each other, we can gather from them the exact thought, which may not be fully given in any of the separate propositions. 5. The general principle may be made intelligible by exam- ples. The rules to be observed are the same as those given for the elucidation of notions. 0. The judgment may be considered in its relations to other judgments. Here especially may be shown from what it is de- rived, and what consequences, inferences, and applications may be drawn from it. CHAPTER IY. ARGUMENT. 109. Argument : what, and what implied in, An argu- ment is a series of propositions or judgments by which the truth or falsehood of a given proposition is evinced. It always im- plies doubt or disbelief in reference to a particular question; its aim is to produce conviction. In this it differs from exposition, which seeks to remove ignorance as to the nature and relations of notions. When doubt or disbelief results from ignorance, : :<> 186 ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOUESE. Sec. 109 exposition alone suffices to remove it. In most cases the truth or falsehood of the question in dispute can be established only by showing that it agrees with or conflicts with some admitted truth. Nature and degrees of Conviction. Conviction must not be confounded with mere subjective belief. We may not be able to give the reason why we believe ; our belief may be the result of ignorance, prejudice, education, or passion. But this is not conviction ; which is a feeling of certainty founded upon a clear apprehension of the grounds or reasons of our belief. As it is the aim of argument to produce conviction, it must set forth the reasons why a proposition is affirmed or denied. It does not merely assert that it is true or false, but shows why it is. Conviction is of various degrees. When the possibility of doubt is excluded it is called certainty, or absolute certainty. The objects about which we can obtain absolute certainty are few; we must be content in most matters with probability; that is, with the likelihood that the assertion is true. Proba- bility is also of various degrees from a stage but little re- moved from doubt to one approaching certainty. We distin- guish the different degrees of probability by using such adjec- tives as, slight, considerable, high, etc. Argumentation is either Positive or Negative, Positive argumentation, or confirmation^ establishes the truth of a proposition ; negative argumentation, or refutation, shows the falsehood of a proposition or the want of validity of an argu- ment. Both may enter into the same discourse; both employ the same forms of reasoning ; but as they have points of difference that require to be noticed, they will be treated of separately. 110, Confirmation. Confirmation consists in proving the truth of a particular proposition by showing its connection with some admitted truth. It contains : Sec. Ill ARGUMENT. 187 1. The Thesis, or that which is laid down to be proved. It must be a categorical proposition, i. e., a direct, unconditional assertion of the agreement or disagreement of two notions. 2. The Premises, or reasons, which are judgments true and well known by which the truth of the thesis is established. The force and validity of the reasoning depend upon the truth of the premises, and their relation to each other and to the thesis. When the premises are true and their connection strictly logical, the conclusion is true. But the argument is not valid when any of the premises are false, or when, though true, they are not in proper relation to each other, or when they are less known and certain than what we would prove by them. The certainty of the conclusion can never be greater than that of the weakest of the premises. 111. Preparation of the Question. When the question is complicated, a number of preliminary procedures are often nec- essary to prevent misunderstanding, to obviate difficulties, and to prepare for the introduction of the arguments. These pre- liminaries are included under the head of The preparation of the Question. Importance of. The first rule to be observed in arguing upon any question is to lay down with the greatest possible pre- cision the proposition that is to be established. This is neces- sary in order to select appropriate arguments. When there is uncertainty as to what conclusion is to be reached, it is impos- sible to select premises from which it can be naturally or neces- sarily deduced. Some of the w r orst vices of reasoning, such as begging the question and irrelevant conclusion, often result from the neglect of this rule. It is also necessary in order to determine the relations of the various arguments employed. In discussing a question, it is often necessary to introduce subordinate questions, which have to be settled before we can proceed with the main argument. There is great danger that in discussing these subordinate points the main issue will be lost sight of. This occurs most 188 ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE. Sec. Ill frequently in oral discussions. The only means of preventing this evil is to fix clearly the issue, recall it frequently, and judge of all that is introduced by its relation to it. The rule is to be observed even when circumstances make it expedient not to enounce explicitly the thesis. The clearness of the writer's view will be communicated to the entire dis- course ; the reader will gather from its drift the precise point to be proved, and will receive .the impression intended to be produced. When, on the other hand, there is the least vague- ness in the writer's view, the reader will not be able to tell how far he agrees with him and how far he differs from him ; will often mistake the question ; and will fail to see the bearing and force of his reasoning. Mode of preparing the Question. The means towards pre- paring the question are : 1. Explication of the terms of the question. The rules for this process are given in the chapter on Exposition (Sec. 102- 107). To what extent the explication should be carried de- pends on the nature of the subject. A full exposition is some- times needed ; on other occasions a brief resolution of the am- biguity of a single term will suffice. It ought not to be carried further than is indispensable to prepare the way for the argu- ments to be presented. Only such terms should be explained as are liable to ]be misunderstood ; and only those meanings should be given which aifect the question. The careful discrimination of the meanings of words aids in finding arguments, guards the reasoner against the many errors arising from ambiguous words, and prepares him to meet the objections, solve the difficulties, and expose the fallacies origi- nating from the same source. 2. Fixing the nature and extent of the question. (The proc- ess is explained in Sec. 108). The character of the reason- ing varies with that of the proposition to be proved. Argu- ments that would be valid to establish a matter of fact, are not suited to prove a purely theoretical proposition ; so, also, what is sufficient to show the possibility of an object, will be inadequate Sec, 111 ARGUMENT. 189 to prove that it actually is or that it must be. The exact nature ot the assertion must be settled before searching for arguments ; whether it is of a matter of fact or a general truth ; whether of what can be or is likely to be, or of what actually is, or of what must be; whether it is made absolutely or with qualifications and restrictions. The quantity of the terms should be marked. In ordinary conversation w r e allow many ellipses, but in reasoning we must guard against the misunder- standings that arise from their use. When any of the terms are undesignated, so that it is not apparent in what extent they are to be understood, the proposition is ambiguous. "A reason or who expresses particular assertions without explicit limitation, must do so either because he designs to be ambigu- ous, or because he thinks confusedly, or because he is (perhaps unconsciously) suppressing some step in the reasoning, which it would be right to force out into explicit statement. 77 [Spal- dimfs Logic, pp. 59, CO. The question may be a complicated one, involving a num- ber of distinct points, as is the case in many resolutions. The complex proposition is then to be resolved into its several points or heads, in order that the arguments bearing upon each may be distinctly brought out and placed in their proper con- nection. 3. The statement of what is conceded. In every controversy two things must be carefully distinguished. There are certain points in which both sides agree, and which therefore are ex- cluded from the discussion ; and there is a definite question proposed for decision. It is advisable to state what points are not disputed, or what, as not an essential part of the question although connected with it, is conceded. By this means the real issue is set in a clearer light, and many prejudices and false impressions are removed. When the writer does not wish to argue a particular point involved in the question, but would reserve the right to do so afterwards, he may waive it. This is not the same as conced- ing it : and lie must make it plain, that while declining for the present to dispute it, he does not admit its truth. 100 ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE. Sec. Ill After having shown what is not in dispute, the thesis should he laid down with all the necessary limitations and qualifica- tions. If any of the original terms are ambiguous, paraphrases and definitions should be substituted. Care ought to be taken not to advance more than the writer intends to establish. The conclusion of the reasoning must be identical with the thesis as laid down. 4. Enumeration of the various contrary opinions. In affirm- ing one proposition we may deny several contrary ones ; as in asserting the superiority of the republican form of government, we virtually deny the superiority of every other form. In diffi- cult and abstruse questions it is important to state explicitly the contrary opinions of which the thesis is the denial. The ad- vantages of so doing are, that it prevents the hearer from sup- posing that there is but a single alternative, and, by exhibiting the thesis in contrast with the several antagonistic opinions, presents it with greater fullness and clearness. 112. Invention of Arguments. The question having been prepared, the reasons which evince the truth of the thesis are in the next place to be gathered and arranged. We have to consider, first, the various kinds of reasoning, or the division of arguments; next, their selection, and then their arrange- ment. 113, Direct and Indirect Reasoning, A proposition may be proved either directly or indirectly. In the first case the grounds or reasons are laid down, and the truth to be proved is inferred from them. In the second case the procedure is more complex. The truth of the thesis is not proved imme- diately, but by showing the falsehood of its contradictory. In- direct reasoning is founded upon the logical law, that of two contradictory judgments only one can be true, and one must be true, so that we are warranted to conclude from the truth of one contradictory to the falsehood of the other, and from the falsehood of one to the truth of the other. The usual mode of proceeding is, to state in a disjunctive proposition both the Sec. 113 ARGUMENT. 191 thesis and its contradictory, and then, assuming the truth of the contradictory proposition, to show that it involves some false principle, or leads to consequences that are manifestly false. The proposition assumed must consequently be false, and its contradictory (the thesis we design to prove) must be true. Ex. If the thesis is, Man is a free agent, then the antithesis is, Man is not a free agent. To prove the thesis directly, we should have to lay down positive arguments ; as, the consciousness of the power of contrary choice, the consciousness of responsibility, etc. The indirect proof would take some such form as this : Man is either free or he is not free. Let us assume that lie is not free. If he is not free, he can not, in cases of conflicting motives, choose, but must blindly follow' one of the impulses. But we know from consciousness that he can decide between conflicting motives ; therefore it is false that he is not free. He must therefore be free. Conditions of the validity of Indirect Reasoning. In order that indirect probation may be valid, we must be sure, in the first place, that the proposition assumed as a premise is the contradictory, not merely a contrary of the thesis. There can be but one contradictory of a given judgment 5 there may be several judgments in contrary opposition to it. While in asserting the truth of one proposition we deny that of all its contraries, we do not in denying a proposition assert the truth of some one of its contraries. If we deny that a color is red, we do not affirm that it is blue. In the second place, the false- hood or absurdity to which the contradictory judgment has been reduced must be real. To show that something is uncommon or incomprehensible is not proving that it is impossible. Comparative advantages of the two methods. The direct method is the one ordinarily used. It is more in accordance with the natural course of thought to deduce the truth of a proposition from its positive grounds. Both methods are valid. The indirect excludes the contradictory more definitely, and often gives a greater certainty than the direct, but it offers no reasons to confirm the truth. The direct, on the other hand, 102 ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE. Sec. 113 affords the satisfying conviction that arises from perceiving the connection of a truth with other undoubted truths. The indi- rect is much more liable to fallacies. As a general rule, the direct is to be preferred. There are, however, occasions in which it is more convenient to employ the indirect. The nature of the subject or the character of the audience may make direct proof difficult ; or the contradictory of the thesis is better knawn, and we can exhibit its absurdity in a striking manner. It is often the only means of dealing with the ignorant and prejudiced, and with unreasonable and disingenuous opponents. False doctrines and untenable, pre- tentious systems are in no way so safely and surely exposed as by showing their internal contradictions, and that they lead by legitimate reasoning to the impossible and the absurd. Ecasoning is most effectual when the two methods are com- bined. In this case, we first show that no other proposition than the thesis can be true, and then show why it is true. 114. Direct reasoning is divided into deductive and induct- ive. Deductive Reasoning, In deductive reasoning we proceed from a general truth to a particular; from the whole to the part. A judgment is derived from a more general one by means of an intermediate judgment ; the conclusion contains nothing more than is virtually contained in the premises. The argument is composed of three essential parts a general rule, which may be either a universal truth or a generalization of experience ; the application of this rule to a particular case ; and the proposition drawn from them. Ex. All bodies moving in elliptic orbits are subject to the law of gravitation. (General rule.) Comets move in elliptic orbits. (Applica- tion of the rule.) Therefore comets arc subject to the law of gravitation. (Conclusion.) The general rule is called the sumption; the application of the rule, the subsumption; the inferred proposition, the con* Sec, 114 ARGUMENT. 103 cluxion. The sumption and subsumption form the antecedents or premises; the conclusion is sometimes called the conse- quent. Inductive Reasoning, Induction, in its widest sense, in- cludes all the modes of reasoning by which \vhat is unknown is inferred from what is known. The conclusion is not merely an explicit statement of what is implicit in the premises; it con- tains more than is involved in them. The laws of formal logic do not answer to test the validity of this mode of reasoning ; it has its own special laws, which are given in inductive logic. It includes : 1 . Induction in the limited sense of the word ; by which we conclude that what belongs to some of the species or individuals of a class belongs to the whole class ; as when we infer that because gold, silver, and copper melt, therefore all metals will melt ; or that all great conquerors are great lawgivers, because Alexander, Caesar, Justinian, Charlemagne, and William the Conqueror were lawgivers. 2. Analogy, or the inference from the partial similarity of two or more objects to their complete similarity. Here we do not conclude that because a number of objects (A, B, C, D, etc.), belonging to the same class, possess in common the quality w, therefore we may expect to find this quality in all the individuals or species of the class ; but that, because A and B agree in certain essential characters (/, w, ?*), it is likely that the quality r which is found in A will be found in B. The argument is not, that because some of a class have a cer- tain quality, therefore all have it ; but that, as two objects re- semble each other in several points, they are likely to resemble each other in all. Thus we infer that the planet Mars is prob- ably inhabited as the earth is, since it resembles the earth in the possession of an atmosphere, clouds, water, etc. Example, by which we infer that something will prove true in one case because it happened in another ; as, that Harvey, Rhet. 17 194 ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOlteE. Sec. 114 or any other discoverer, will be persecuted because Galileo was persecuted. One form of this argument is the argument a fortiori, which consists in proving that a thing being true in one case is more evidently so in another in which the circum- stances are more favorable. It is but an application of the principle that the greater includes the less. Thus, we infer that if a in an is cruel to his fellow-men, much more will he be cruel to brutes. 3. Signs, by which we seek to prove the probable existence of a fact by adducing some other fact or mark that always or in most cases precedes, accompanies, or follows it. We can thus infer from the presence of the cause, the presence of the effect ; or, on the other hand, may argue from the effect to the cause. The argument from cause to effect is generally called a priori reasoning. Its formula is stated by Whately thus: "As for as any cause, popularly speaking, has a tendency to produce a certain effect, so far its existence is an argument for that of the effect. If the cause be fully sufficient and no im- pediments intervene, the effect in question follows certainly ; and the nearer we approach to this, the stronger the argu- ment." The force of this argument is to establish the antecedent probability of the thesis ; it gives grounds for believing that what is maintained is likely, by showing that there are influ- ences that have a tendency to produce it. Its efficiency de- pends upon our certainty as to (1) the existence of the causes that are assigned, (2) their sufficiency to produce the effects attributed to them, and (3) the absence of counteracting influ- ences. By this mode of argument we infer that a deed was commit- ted by a certain person, because lie had a motive to do it, or because it accords with his character, and that an event will take place because all the usual conditions of its occurrence exist. This man is the murderer, for he coveted the property ; or he is revengeful. Lying is hateful to God, for he is the God Sec. 115