p 
 
 Je. 
 
 J e 9 f y 
 
 
A PRACTICAL INTRODUCTION TO 
 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
MACMILLAN AND CO,, LIMITED 
 
 LONDON BOMBAY CALCUTTA 
 MELBOURNE 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO 
 ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD 
 
A PRACTICAL INTRODUCTION 
 
 TO 
 
 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 FOR THE USE OF ENGLISH-SPEAKING STUDENTS 
 AND TEACHERS 
 
 BY 
 
 G. G. NICHOLSON, B.A., B.C.L. 
 
 OF BALLIOL COLLEGE, OXFORD 
 LECTURER IN FRENCH AND GERMAN AT THE UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY 
 
 MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED 
 
 ST. MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON 
 
 1909 
 
o 
 
 ^-^*-^ i^^MU %U^ 
 
 GLASGOW: I-KINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 
 I5Y K015KUT MACLEHOSE AND CO. LTD. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 IN the revision that modern language teaching has under- 
 gone during the last quarter of a century two facts have been 
 firmly established : first, that the pronunciation of a modern 
 foreign language should be taught with great care from the 
 outset ; and, secondly, that pronunciation can neither be 
 taught nor learned to the best advantage without the aid 
 of phonetics. 1 There is, moreover, to use the words of 
 Dr. Breul, 'a growing conviction that the teaching of 
 modern languages in our secondary schools should hence- 
 forth as a rule not be entrusted to foreigners but to duly 
 qualified English men and women/ 2 But whether the 
 language he teaches be his native speech or not, the 
 teacher can no longer afford to dispense with a phonetic 
 training. 3 For however successful he may be without the 
 aid of phonetics, he can always improve his results with 
 such aid. Especially is this true when it is his lot to 
 teach French to English-speakers. He can then hardly 
 allow the pupil to carry over a single sound from his 
 
 1 See The Teaching of Modern Foreign Languages and the Training 
 of Teachers, by Karl Breul, Cambridge, 1906 ; How to teach a Foreign 
 Language, by O. Jespersen, London, 1904 ; and The Sounds of English, 
 by Henry Sweet, Oxford, 1908. 
 
 2 Op. cit. p. 37. 
 
 3 * Phonetics makes us independent of native teachers. It is certain 
 that a phonetically-trained Englishman who has a clear knowledge of 
 the relations between French and English sounds can teach French 
 sounds to English people better than an unphonetic Frenchman . . . 
 who is unable to communicate his pronunciation to his pupils, and, 
 perhaps, speaks a vulgar or dialectal form of French himself (Sweet's 
 Sounds of English, p. 92). 
 
 OOOCJQQ 
 
vi PREFACE 
 
 own language without modification. And yet the sounds 
 of French often resemble English sounds so far that the 
 learner will fail to detect any difference even when he is 
 assured that the sounds are not the same. It is obvious, 
 then, that every means of fixing the identity of a sound 
 will be helpful. Now phonetics enables the teacher to 
 fortify the appeal to the ear with an appeal to the reason, 
 and often to the senses of touch and sight. In correcting a 
 faulty pronunciation he no longer rests content with a 
 repetition of the right sound. He tells the pupil exactly 
 why his pronunciation is wrong, and what he must do in 
 order to rectify it. The pupil has then the immense 
 advantage of knowing when he is wrong, even though his 
 ear may still not appreciate the difference between the right 
 and the wrong sound, and even when the teacher is not 
 there to help him. Like sounds thus acquire distinguishing 
 marks, cases of mistaken identity become less common, and 
 the training of the ear is greatly accelerated. Where, on the 
 other hand, the foreign sound has no analogue in English, 
 and can be produced only by bringing the organs of speech 
 into positions which are quite unfamiliar to the learner and 
 which at first probably demand a considerable effort on his 
 part, the teacher can spare him the tedious task of discovery. 
 To the self-taught student, a fortiori, phonetics is in- 
 valuable. Even if he be most favourably situated for the 
 acquisition of the foreign tongue, by residence in the 
 country where it is spoken, a reasoned knowledge of 
 the sounds will render his progress much more rapid and 
 much more sure. He will know what sounds to expect, 
 he will know when the pronunciations he hears are 
 abnormal and not to be imitated, he will be quicker to 
 detect his own faults, he will know from what cause they 
 proceed, and how to amend them. 1 
 
 1 See Sweet's Sounds of English , p. 92. 
 
PREFACE vii 
 
 In the first part of this book I have endeavoured to fix 
 the identity of each sound in standard French by (i) giving 
 a list of its traditional spellings, (ii) defining the position of 
 the organs of speech necessary for its production, and (iii) 
 explaining its relations to other sounds, usually its nearest 
 English analogues. Where the pronunciation of the latter 
 fluctuates, reference is made to the most important varia- 
 tions, including those current in America and Australia. 
 Occasion is everywhere taken to warn the student against 
 the errors into which he will be most likely to fall. 
 
 The second part deals with the factors which control the 
 combination of sounds in connected speech. One needs 
 only an elementary acquaintance with the language to be 
 aware that a knowledge of these factors is of vital import- 
 ance. Here, again, wherever they seemed likely to be helpful, 
 comparisons have been drawn between the two languages. 
 
 It was at first my intention to add a running com- 
 mentary explaining the growth and origin of the sounds of 
 modern French. The pages of history are here peculiarly 
 alluring and enlightening. But the book being designed 
 for a practical mission, it seemed, on reflection, prudent 
 to resist this temptation. The scholar would no doubt 
 be interested to observe how the very numerous diphthongs 
 of Old and Middle French gradually passed over into other 
 sounds, leaving not a single survivor ; how the diverse 
 spellings of a sound originated ; how elision became more 
 and more common as linking grew more and more rare ; 
 but a solution of these and like problems did not appear 
 to be so helpful as to warrant my diverting attention from 
 the main purpose. To master the pronunciation of a foreign 
 language is no light task, and the student's forces need to 
 be economized. 
 
 I frankly own that this little treatise would never have 
 seen the light had not the works of Professor Paul Passy, 
 
viii PREFACE 
 
 of M. Fabbe Rousselot, of Professor Victor and Dr. Sweet 
 been already in existence. I also express my general 
 indebtedness to most other works of repute on French 
 Phonetics, of which I must be content to mention but one : 
 Dr. Quiehl's Franzosische Aussprache und Sprachfertigkeit 
 (4th ed. Marburg, 1906), an admirable contribution on the 
 teaching of French in German schools. Yet, in spite of my 
 debts, I trust it will be found that the book is not a 
 'compilation from foreign works.' I have unhesitatingly 
 resorted to all good sources for help and succour, but I 
 have ventured to differ from authority in print whenever it 
 seemed at variance with authority in speech : in all such 
 cases my opinion has been corroborated by careful 
 observation and experiment in the great laboratory of 
 French, Paris itself. On some chapters, particularly Elision 
 and Linking, the authorities in print were distressingly 
 silent, and I was compelled to embark on long courses of 
 investigation. The materials thus gathered I have en- 
 deavoured to present in the way which seemed most suited 
 to English needs. 
 
 The attempt has been greatly facilitated by generous 
 help and encouragement both in Sydney and Paris, and, 
 in particular, by the constant and wise counsels of my wife, 
 without whose aid the work would not have been under- 
 taken. For this counsel, encouragement and help I tender 
 my best thanks. G G N 
 
 PARIS, Easter , 1908. 
 
 The author owes a special debt of gratitude to Dr. E. J. 
 Trechmann, M.A., his predecessor at the University of 
 Sydney, now of London, for revision of the proofs and 
 valuable suggestions. G G N 
 
 SYDNEY, 1909. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 INTRODUCTION .------- i 
 
 PART 1 
 THE INDIVIDUAL SOUNDS 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 I. THE VOWELS 
 
 i The different kinds of Vowels 9 
 
 2. The French and English Vowel-systems com- 
 
 pared 12 
 
 3. The Normal Oral Vowels ... 13 
 
 4. The Abnormal Oral Vowels 27 
 
 5. The Nasalized Vowels General - 32 
 
 6. The Nasalized Normal Vowels 34 
 
 7. The Nasalized Abnormal Vowel 37 
 
 II. THE DIPHTHONGS (so-called) - 39 
 
 III. THE CONSONANTS 
 
 1. The different kinds of Consonants - - 42 
 
 2. The French and English Consonant-systems 
 
 compared - - 43 
 
 3. The Stops or Explosives 44 
 
 4. The Nasal Consonants 54 
 
 5. The Continuants or Fricatives 57 
 
x CONTENTS 
 
 PART II 
 THE SOUNDS IN COMBINATION 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. UNITS OF SPEECH (Sentence, Sound-group, Stress- 
 group, Syllable) 69 
 
 II. LINKING - 78 
 
 III. ELISION 114 
 
 IV. ASSIMILATION - 146 
 V. TRANSITION (Glides) - 155 
 
 VI. ACCENTUATION - - 165 
 
 VII. QUANTITY - - - - - 174 
 
 VIII. PITCH - ----- 183 
 
 INDEX - - - . ,. . - . - 188 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 FRENCH orthography, like English, is radically defective. 
 The language contains at least thirty-seven distinct sounds, 
 not reckoning differences in length, stress and pitch, or 
 other occasional modifications. To represent these sounds 
 accurately and unambiguously, there should be a similar 
 number of symbols. Not only, however, is the equipment 
 of symbols very inadequate, but those that exist are 
 employed with bewildering inconsistency. Thus the sign e 
 may stand for an 'open e,' as in avec\ for a ' close e,' as in 
 parler ; or for the so-called 'mute e,' as in petit. It may 
 even be an idle sign, without any corresponding sound, 
 as in beau and comme. Combined with another vowel-sign 
 it is used to indicate other simple sounds, when further 
 inconsistencies result. Thus eu represents three different 
 sounds in leur, yeux, and il eut\ while the first of these 
 three sounds is also represented by (K, as in #//; by ue, as in 
 cueillir; by ecu, as in cceur. The incoherence is emphasized 
 by the phenomenon of nasalization. We find, for example, 
 the signs un, um standing for the nasalized form of the 
 vowel in leur and not for a nasal u ; the signs aim, ain, ein, 
 im, in and en, as in faim, pain, sein, simple, fin, Men, 
 standing for a nasalized vowel which does not exist in 
 French in its pure or oral form ; and the signs am, an, em, 
 en, aon for a nasalized a, as in champ, tant, temps, vent, 
 faon. 
 
 F.P. A < 
 
2 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 The accents, too, which might have served to extend the 
 capacity of the French alphabet, only increase the confusion. 
 While an isolated would naturally stand for 'open ,' a is 
 never used for the ' open a,' nor o for the * open o.' Like- 
 wise would regularly stand for a long 'open e,' but it 
 represents a short 'open e' in vous etes, and is often 
 pronounced as a half-long ' close ej in vetu. The symbol a 
 indicates, in many cases, a long ' open <?,' as in ame ; but it 
 represents a short ' close a ' in the first and second persons 
 plural of the past definite tense of verbs of the first 
 conjugation, e.g. aimdmes, aimdtes. On the other hand o, 
 as a rule, stands for a ' close <?,' sometimes long, as in hote, 
 sometimes half-long, as in hotesse ; but in hotel, roti, is pro- 
 nounced as a short 'open o? Placed over the vowels i and 
 u, which are always close in French, the circumflex accent 
 becomes merely a sign of length ; yet / and u often denote 
 short sounds, as in qu'il fit, qu^il fut, and the long i and u 
 more often than not, as in tige, ruse, bear no accent. 
 
 This confusion extends to the consonants. Take s as 
 an example. This sound is represented by s in sang, by ss 
 in tasse, by / in le$on, by c in place, by sc in scene, by / in 
 nation, by x in soixante, and, along with k, by x in exprh 
 and by xc in excellent-, while the sign s is used not only 
 for the sound s but also for z, as in cause, or idly, without 
 any sound-value, as in U est. 
 
 Further, not only is there confusion between the vowels, 
 on the one hand, and the consonants, on the other, inter 
 se : we constantly find vowel-signs representing consonantal 
 sounds. Thus the u in huit, the / in bien, the ou in oui 
 are consonants. Still more complex is the confusion in 
 words like roi, foi, loi, where the vowel-signs oi do duty 
 for a consonant and a vowel '#' that is not readily 
 suggested by either of the signs. 
 
 From the foregoing we may conclude, first, that the 
 
INTRODUCTION 3 
 
 traditional spelling is no safe guide to pronunciation ; and, 
 secondly, that even if the traditional alphabet were applied 
 more consistently it would be, at best, a very clumsy means 
 of indicating the precise sounds of the language. The 
 latter result may be illustrated a little more directly. 
 How, for example, using the traditional signs, should we 
 distinguish between the open and the close sounds of the 
 vowel eul The least objectionable method would be to 
 employ an accent for one of the two sounds, say the 
 circumflex, placed over the sign u (i.e. eu\ to denote 
 the close vowel. This symbol has the disadvantage of 
 containing three signs to represent one sound, and of 
 suggesting to the mind, by the accent placed over one 
 of them and it must be placed over one of the signs 
 unless new type is cast that there are two distinct sounds. 
 Moreover, practical experience has shown that the use 
 of the accent to indicate the quality of a vowel clogs the 
 mental process by which the sign is converted into a sound, 
 and frequently results in the production of the wrong sound. 
 What is required or desirable is a simple sign that will at 
 once and directly suggest the right idea, and thus enable 
 the learner to devote all his attention to the realization of 
 that idea; namely, the production of the sound. 
 
 Objections to phonetic methods of the kind indicated 
 might be multiplied. " But enough has been said to show 
 the need for some more adequate equipment of symbols. 
 This need has been met by the International Phonetic 
 Association, whose phonetic alphabet will be adopted in 
 the present work. This alphabet has the threefold merit 
 of utilizing familiar material, of having been adopted by 
 nearly all the later writers on phonetics, and of representing 
 each sound by but one sign. Whatever defects it has, 
 and it is not put forward as the perfect realization of an 
 ideal, it is adopted with confidence as the best that has 
 
FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 Sign. French. 
 
 a patte [pat], part [pair] 
 
 a pas [pa], pate [pa;t] 
 a tant [ta], /a;z& [ta:t] 
 
 yet been devised. It has stood the practical test of nearly 
 a quarter of a century, and the testimony of those who 
 have employed it is generally to the effect that a knowledge 
 of it is very easily acquired by the average schoolboy. 
 
 As applied to French and English this alphabet may 
 be set forth as follows : l 
 
 English, 
 high [hai] ; sometimes in 
 
 ask [a:sk] 
 far [fai], part [pait] 
 
 not [not], all [oil] 
 
 cat [kset], ash [ae$] 
 
 day [dse] [dsi], Scotch [del] 
 
 fell [M], fare [fsi] [feig] 
 
 .ftT/fa [soofo], labour [Isiba] 
 fo/ [bAt], rttf [kAt] 
 m/ [b'Bid], fur [fei] 
 ^ [ SI i]j ^z [siiz] 
 57/ [sit], ///v [prti] 
 show [$3o], shows [$ooz] 
 7Z0& [noot], door [doi] [doog] 
 
 D 
 
 86 
 
 e 
 
 6 
 
 s 
 
 9 
 A 
 'B 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 O 
 
 
 <&' [de], plaisir [pleziir] 
 f ait \tt\, fete [fest] 
 / [fs],/^^ [fsit] 
 /<? [b], /<?/<9^ [bso] 
 
 j/ [si], assise [asiiz] 
 
 chaud [Jo], chose [Joiz] 
 [not], ^^?r^ [noir] 
 
 1 The letters of the phonetic alphabet should be named only by 
 their sounds ; but those which are not readily pronounced apart may 
 be articulated with an [a]. Thus [t] will be called [ta] and not [tii], 
 as in English, nor [te], as in French ; [s] will be named by the hissing 
 sound it represents and not by the customary [ss] ; [u] will be denoted 
 by the sound traditionally written ou in French and not by the alpha- 
 betical name current in English [juu] or French [y]. To avoid mis- 
 understanding, phonetic signs will, throughout the book, be enclosed 
 in square brackets. For the sign [I] see page 7. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 Sign. French. 
 
 5 non [no], monde [moid] 
 
 oe seul [soel], sceur [sceir] 
 
 03 un [os], humble [osibl] 
 
 peu [p0], heureuse [oer0iz] 
 
 u tout [tu], tour [tuir]. 
 
 u 
 
 y / [ty], mur [myir] 
 
 b ^a^ [b]> r b e [rob] 
 
 d dfcw3; [du], rude [ryd] 
 
 English. 
 
 duu],^^ [fjuu] 
 [put], true [tiuu] 
 
 bow [boo], rob [job} 
 </<? [duu], r^(? [auud] 
 then [Ssn], 
 fare [fsio], 
 ^J [gei], dog [dog] 
 
 [ha ip] 
 
 [juu], view [vjuu] 
 car [kai], lack [laek] 
 [lor)], <^a// [boil] 
 
 f //>*[feir|, sauf[soi(] 
 
 g B/ [ge], </<?<? [dog] 
 
 h harpe [harp] [arp] 
 
 j yeux [j0], veille [vsij] 
 
 k car [kair], lac [lak] 
 
 1 lent [la], &?/ [bal] 
 
 m mode [mod], dime [dim] mode [mood], dim [dim] 
 
 n nappe [nap], canne [kan] nap [naep], can [kaen] 
 
 p signe [sip], signer [sipe] 
 
 D 
 
 p pire [piir], tape [tap] 
 
 r rare [rair], tort [toir] 
 
 R rare [RQIR], tort [toiR] 
 
 [so], masse [mas] 
 [Ju], r^r^ [ryj] 
 3 y^?^ [su], ^ 
 t /a^ [to], 5/^ [sit] 
 
 sing [SID], ,w 
 /^r [piio], tap [taep] 
 
 [JSIQ], merry [men] 
 so [soo], #z<m [maes] 
 shoe [Juu], r^^ [JA$] 
 
 sAds], leisure [Iss 
 [tai], sit [sit] 
 
6 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 Sign. French. English. 
 
 thin [0m], through [0auu] 
 
 v ville [vil], reve [rsiv] veal [viil], nzztf [asiv] [aeiv] 
 
 w 0^2 [wi], &?$ [bwa] we [wii], ze//# [win] 
 
 q />^r [piji], ^/V h^] 
 
 z <?/<? [zsl], ttjs? [gaiz] zeal [ziil], #20 [gsiz] 
 
 The use of the same sign for both languages must not 
 be taken to imply identity between the sounds. In nearly 
 all such cases, on the contrary, there are differences which 
 cannot be neglected and which will be discussed in due 
 course. But to employ double symbols for sounds which 
 are essentially the same would mean a great complication 
 of the alphabet for a very slight advantage. 
 
 To the alphabet we may append a list of the signs which 
 are used to indicate either certain occasional modifications 
 of the regular sounds or certain additional sounds of rare 
 occurrence in French and English : 
 
 ? the glottal-stop heard in German before accented 
 
 initial vowels, as in Abart [?ap?airt]. 
 h the sound of breathing. 
 n the sound produced by the vibration of the vocal 
 
 chords, briefly 'voice.' 
 placed over or under a letter indicates that it is 
 
 devocalized : e.g. quatre [katr], pied [pje]. 
 v placed over or under a letter indicates that it is 
 
 vocalized : e.g. masse de gens [mas d9 30]. 
 1 placed under a letter indicates that it has syllabic 
 
 value : e.g. able [sib)]. 
 
 placed over a vowel indicates that it is pronounced 
 with relaxed organs and is, therefore, more open : 
 e.g. mechant [meja]. 
 
 placed over a vowel indicates that it is closer and is 
 pronounced with tenser organs. 
 
INTRODUCTION 7 
 
 I placed after a vowel or consonant indicates that it 
 
 is long : e.g. art [air], salle [sal:]. 
 1 placed after a vowel indicates that it is half-long : e.g. 
 
 enfant [a'fa]. 
 placed before a syllable indicates that it is accented : 
 
 when necessary a strong accent may be indicated 
 
 by doubling or even trebling the sign : " or '". 
 
 It has been said that the French language is built 
 up out of some thirty-seven sounds. Strictly speaking, 
 however, there is no limit to the number, for each sound 
 is subject to infinite variations. The least change in the 
 method of production theoretically entails a modification 
 of the sound. Yet we are justified in speaking of a norm 
 or standard pronunciation, to which the individual sounds 
 have reference, and which they are supposed to reproduce. 
 In all languages this normal pronunciation varies with 
 the locality. These variations often extend to the educated 
 classes among English-speaking people, and render the 
 selection of a norm for our language no easy task. But 
 no such difficulty arises in connection with French. The 
 standard is found, by common consent, in the pronuncia- 
 tion of the educated classes in Paris, subject to one possible 
 modification in favour of more general usage where the 
 Parisian practice is at variance with that of the educated 
 classes in other parts of the country. Reference will be 
 made to this modification in defining the individual sounds. 
 
PART I 
 THE INDIVIDUAL SOUNDS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 THE VOWELS 
 
 1. The different kinds of vowels. 
 
 All vowels are essentially variations of one simple kind 
 of sound, that produced by vibration of the vocal chords. 1 
 Their differentiation is wholly due to the shape of the 
 cavity in which the resonance takes place. This cavity 
 may consist either of the mouth alone or of the mouth 
 and nose combined. In the former case the velum, or 
 pendent end of the soft palate, acting like a valve, rises . 
 and closes the passage to the nose either entirely, or at 
 least so effectually that all the voice is deflected into the 
 mouth. Vowels produced in this way may be called Oral 
 Vowels or Pure Vowels. If the velum is lowered (but 
 not so far as to touch the tongue and thus close the 
 
 J The two vocal chords stretch horizontally from back to front 
 across the larynx or upper part of the windpipe. Each of them, 
 throughout its whole length, is connected, on the outer side, with 
 the walls of the larynx by an elastic membrane. The breath can, 
 therefore, pass only between the chords. This space or passage, 
 which is called the glottis , can be narrowed or closed by bringing 
 the chords together. If the chords are brought together and the 
 breath forced between them, they vibrate and produce the sound 
 which is known as voice. 
 
io FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 passage to the mouth) the voice will pass into both nose 
 and mouth, which being now in direct communication 
 with each other may be regarded as forming one complex 
 cavity. Vowels produced with such a resonance-chamber 
 are known as Nasal Vowels or, more exactly, Nasalized 
 Vowels. 
 
 As the nose-cavity has a fixed form, all further distinctions 
 must be due to modifications in the shape of the mouth. 
 These modifications are effected chiefly by movements of 
 the tongue and lips, and on the relative positions of these 
 organs is based the classification of vowels as normal 
 and abnormal. If the positions of the tongue and lips 
 are such that they each tend towards the production of 
 the same characteristics they are said to be normal, and 
 the vowel that they produce is called a Normal Vowel. 
 If, on the other hand, they counteract each other, and 
 thus give rise to a mixed vowel-sound, they are considered 
 abnormal, and the resulting sound is described as an 
 Abnormal Vowel. In pronouncing the series [i-e-a-o-u] 
 in the given order, it will be observed (i) that the tongue, 
 which in articulating [i] is well forward in the mouth and 
 presses against the sides of the front palate, falls a little 
 and recedes a little for [e], lies flat on the floor of the 
 mouth for [a], is drawn back and rises towards the back 
 palate for [o] and reaches its extreme backward position for 
 [u] ; (2) that as the tongue moves backward the lips move 
 forward and are rounded ; (3) that the pitch of the voice 
 falls at each step, [i] being the vowel of highest and [u] 
 the vowel of lowest pitch in the series. Both tongue and 
 lips contribute towards this lowering of the pitch. The 
 vowels in question are, therefore, Normal. Suppose, 
 however, that while the tongue is in its forward position 
 for [i], the lips, instead of being held against the teeth 
 (thus helping to raise the pitch), are thrust forward as 
 
THE VOWELS II 
 
 for [u] (thus counteracting the effort of the tongue to 
 produce a high-pitched vowel) : the relative positions are 
 then said to be Abnormal, and an Abnormal vowel-sound 
 [y] is heard, whose pitch is neither as low as that of [u] 
 nor as high as that of [i]. Taking then as our starting- 
 point the positions for [a] when the tongue lies as flat 
 as possible on the floor of the mouth, we may say that 
 the movement of the lips is normal if they draw back 
 to the teeth in proportion as the tongue advances (for 
 by this means they will assist in raising the pitch), and 
 move forward and contract in proportion as the tongue 
 recedes (because they thus help to lower the pitch). If, 
 on the contrary, the lips are thrust forward and rounded 
 when the tongue is in a forward position, or held back 
 to the teeth when the tongue is in a backward position, 
 they may be said to defeat the effort of the tongue, in 
 which case the positions of the organs and the sound 
 uttered may be regarded as abnormal. 
 
 Finally, every vowel may be close or narrow and open or 
 wide. These terms refer to the distance between the palate 
 and the articulating part of the tongue. The organs are 
 tense in producing a narrow vowel, and relaxed in producing 
 a wide one. Thus i is open or wide in Eng. sit [sit], close or 
 narrow in Fr. site [sit] ; e is open or wide in Eng. dare [dsia], 
 close or narrow in Fr. de [de] ; u is open or wide in Eng. 
 full [ful], close or narrow in Yr.foule {ful]. It is sometimes 
 necessary to distinguish a third species, intermediate between 
 the close and open sounds : such a vowel may be called 
 half-open or half-wide. This middle sound is indicated 
 phonetically by the sign [ v ] placed over the close vowel. An 
 approximation to the middle and close sounds is often heard 
 in the diphthongs in seat [siit], day [dee], fool [fuul]. 
 
12 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 2. The French and English vowel-systems compared. 
 
 Nearly all the vowels of English, and the bulk of the 
 French vowels, are normal oral vowels. Comparing the 
 normal lip and tongue movements in the two languages 
 we find that, while in French they are carried out with 
 almost mathematical precision to their fullest extent, 
 English practice shows with regard to each organ, but 
 especially with regard to the lips, a relaxation of effort. 
 Hence the individual normal vowel-sounds of English and 
 French are rarely ever quite the same : the one or two 
 sounds that can be practically identified are those which 
 make the smallest demands upon the tongue and lips, 
 particularly the latter ; and the more effort a specific sound 
 requires, the less the correspondence between the two 
 languages. The long close vowels [ii] [ei] [01] [ui], the 
 four sounds which necessitate the greatest efforts of tongue 
 and lips, are generally replaced in modern English by 
 diphthongs in which, as a rule, neither element has. exactly 
 the close vowel-sound. In their short form these vowels 
 have ceased to exist in English, their places having been 
 taken by the corresponding open sounds. French, on the 
 other hand, which possesses both long and short close 
 vowels, has no open i or open u and no diphthongs. The 
 vowels of English secondary and weak syllables have either 
 been reduced to the colourless [9] or are at least normally 
 open. In the pretonic syllables of French, open and 
 close vowels retain their values. Compare Eng. revolution 
 [asv9luujn] [asvaljuujn] and Fr. revolution [revolysjo], Eng. 
 arithmetic [o.n0m9tik] and Fr. arithmetique [aritmetik], Eng. 
 opposition [ppgzijn] and Fr. opposition [opozisjo]. It is true 
 that the organs of speech are not quite so tense, even in 
 French, in producing vowels which bear a secondary or 
 weak accent, and therefore that close vowels in these 
 
THE VOWELS 13 
 
 positions tend to become half-open, but the close vowel 
 is not transformed into an open one, and neither close 
 nor open vowels are reduced to [a]. 
 
 In additional to its normal vowels, French possesses 
 several abnormal and nasalized vowels. The nasalization 
 of vowels occurs in English only as a dialectal peculiarity. 
 All the French abnormal vowels are formed by the pro- 
 jection of the lips when the tongue is in a forward position. 
 The one English vowel which is sometimes described as 
 abnormal, the [A] in cup [kAp], if rightly so described, has 
 that character because the lips are idle when the tongue 
 occupies a backward position. 
 
 This comparison of the two vowel-systems may serve to 
 warn the student that in learning French he will have to 
 contend with a characteristic slackness of the organs of 
 speech. It should, in particular, put him on his guard 
 against carrying English vowels over into French, against 
 the diphthongizing and lengthening of short close vowels, 
 against the opening of close vowels in unaccented syllables, 
 and the blurring of unaccented vowels in general. 
 
 3. The Normal Oral Vowels. 
 
 The general relations between the members of this series 
 of vowels may be indicated by means of the following 
 diagram : 
 
 The falling and rising line is that described by the 
 articulating part of the tongue as it moves from its extreme 
 
14 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 forward to its extreme backward position in the mouth ; 
 and the place of each vowel marks its locality of articulation 
 and consequent order in the series. Thus [i] is produced 
 with the tongue in its extreme forward position, when it 
 bunches up close to the front part of the hard palate. For 
 the next vowel [e] the bunch recedes a little and falls a 
 little. The movement continues for [e] and [a]. When 
 [a] is reached the tongue lies flat on the floor of the mouth. 
 The backward movement being continued, the back part of 
 the tongue begins to bunch up towards the back palate, and 
 [o] [o] and [u] are produced in turn. 
 
 The curved brackets indicate that articulation of the last 
 three vowels cannot be effected without rounding of the lips. 
 For the same reason these vowels are sometimes described 
 as ' rounded vowels.' 
 
 The series may be divided into two groups [i-e-s-a] being 
 classed as Front Vowels and [a-o-o-u] as Back Vowels. The 
 individual vowels are then described as follows : [i] High- 
 Front-Narrow Vowel; [e] Mid-Front-Narrow Vowel; [e] 
 Mid- Front- Wide Vowel ; [a] Low-Front-Narrow Vowel ; 
 [a] Low-Back-Wide Vowel; [o] Mid-Back-Wide Vowel;- 
 [o] Mid-Back-Narrow Vowel ; [u] High-Back-Narrow Vowel. 
 
 High-Front-Narrow Vowel or Close i. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [i]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. /, as in signe [siji]-; 
 
 2. 2, as in dime [dim] ; 
 
 3. /*, as mfolie [foli] ; 
 
 4. y, as in cygne [siji] ; 
 
 5. ee, as in spleen [splin]. 
 
 Articulation. The jaws being normally so close together 
 that the upper front-teeth just overlap, without touching, the 
 lower ones, the tip of the tongue touches the inside of the 
 
THE VOWELS 15 
 
 lower front-teeth and its sides press upwards against the upper 
 gums, and outwards against the molars, bringing its face as 
 close to the middle of the hard palate as possible without 
 creating consonantal friction. The corners of the mouth 
 being drawn back, the lips are held against the teeth. 
 
 Explanation. This is the vowel-sound that is heard in 
 the Scotch pronunciation of dear [diir]. The English 
 sound which is commonly supposed to correspond to [ii] 
 is in reality a diphthong of which the first and stressed 
 element is a more open sound [i] or [i], and the second, 
 unstressed element sometimes a closer sound approaching 
 the consonant [j] myes [jis] : seat [sijt] [siit], breeze [biijz] 
 [buiz]. This [i] is articulated with the tongue just touching 
 the upper gums, and a shade less forward in the mouth than 
 for [i]. In uttering the English diphthong the tongue, 
 therefore, moves forward and begins to press against the 
 gums after the sound is attacked. The movement of the 
 tongue is accompanied by an upward movement of the lower 
 jaw which can be easily observed with the aid of a mirror. 
 For the vowel [ii] the tongue must be well forward and press 
 against the gums from the outset, and the jaws must not 
 move : brise [briiz]. 
 
 The shorter English sound is the vowel [i] : sit [sit]. 
 This sound, the High-Front-Wide Vowel or open z, does 
 not exist in French, the [i] requiring the same pressure 
 of the tongue as [ii] : Fr. site [sit]. 
 
 Hence Fr. qui [ki] is not to be pronounced as Eng. key 
 [kii], nor Fr. six [sis] as Eng. cease [siis], nor Fr. il or lie 
 [il] as Eng. ill [il] or eel [lil], nor Fr. pire [piir] as Eng. peer 
 [piig] and [pus], nor Fr. lire [liir] as Eng. leer [Ida] [lua], nor 
 Fr. oui [wi] as Eng. we [wii]. 1 
 
 1 The French and English consonants in the examples, even though 
 represented by the same sign, are not absolutely identical. See under 
 Consonants. 
 
16 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 The lips should be kept back against the teeth, though 
 not necessarily further back than for the next vowel [e]. If 
 they are allowed to protrude, as generally they do in English, 
 they will cloud the sound. French [i] is clear and bright. 
 
 In unaccented syllables the [i] is often a shade less close 
 than it is under the accent. The English-speaking student 
 will, however, do well to neglect this fact for two reasons : 
 first, because the close sound is not incorrect in this position ; 
 secondly, because his natural tendency will be to relax the 
 organs overmuch and to produce [i], a sound which must be 
 rigorously avoided in French. Compare Fr. fini [fini] and 
 Eng. finish [fmij], Fr. miracle [miraikl] and Eng. miracle 
 [mngkl], Fr. dissemination [disemina'sjo] and Eng. dis- 
 semination [dissmmi$n]. Still less may unaccented [i] be 
 reduced to [9] : compare Fr. direct [dirskt] with Eng. direct 
 [dnskt] [d9askt] [danskt]. 
 
 Mid-Front-Narrow Vowel or Close e. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [e]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1 . e', as in penetre [penetre] ; 
 
 2. e, as in aimer [s'me], et [e] ; 
 
 3. $, as in revetu [rgve'ty] [r9vs'ty] ; 
 
 4. at, as in aurai [ore], gat [ge] ; 
 
 5. ay, as m pays [pei] ; 
 
 6. ais, as mje vais [59 ve] [39 ve]. 
 
 Articulation. The tongue being spread out presses firmly 
 upwards against the molars, and sometimes comes into the 
 gentlest possible contact with the gums. The jaws are 
 normally a little less close together than for [i] : there is 
 an interval between the upper and lower front-teeth wide 
 enough to admit a finger-nail. The tip of the tongue 
 
THE VOWELS 17 
 
 touches the inside edge of the lower front-teeth. The 
 corners of the mouth are drawn back, the lips being thus 
 held against the teeth. 
 
 Explanation. This vowel is of the same quality as the 
 [ei] in the Scotch pronunciation of day [de:]. Its supposed 
 analogue in English is really a diphthong, the exact nature 
 of which varies with the locality and even with the speaker. 
 In the North of England it generally takes the form [ei], 
 but the first, and often also the second, element shows a 
 tendency to open more and more the further South we go. 
 The diphthong thus becomes [ei] [si] or even [se]. The 
 pronunciations [ei] [se] are regularly heard in America and 
 Australia. 1 The first element is, therefore, ordinarily a 
 more or less open sound : gay [gei] [gsi] [gee]. Now [&] is 
 articulated with the tongue just touching the molars, and for 
 the half-open sound [e] this contact becomes gentle pressure. 
 The English diphthong, then, generally begins with the 
 tongue touching or very gently pressing against the molars, 
 and at the end of the sound the tongue either presses more 
 firmly against the teeth [se], or falls between the teeth and 
 touches [si] or presses against the gums [ei]. The move- 
 ment of the tongue is accompanied by a movement of the 
 lower jaw which can be observed with the aid of a mirror. 
 For the vowel [e] the tongue must from the outset press 
 firmly against the upper molars : gai [ge]. This vowel, in 
 French, is except occasionally in emphatic speech 2 
 always short or half-long. The English-speaking student 
 
 1 The uneducated classes in Australia carry the tendency still further, 
 and pronounce [sei] [ai] : cake [kceik] [kaik]. This pronunciation, 
 which is also one of the characteristics of Cockney, is still felt to be 
 decidedly vulgar. It nevertheless threatens to spread both in London 
 and in Australia, and has already become one of the vices of speech with 
 which the teacher has to contend. 
 
 2 See pp. 169 ff. and 180. 
 
 F.P. B 
 
i8 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 must carefully avoid lengthening or diphthongizing it. 
 Compare Fr. ete [ete] and Eng. eighty [siti]. 
 
 The short English sound is [e] : petty [psti]. The English- 
 speaker's tendency will be to substitute this [s] for [e] in 
 unaccented syllables with the spelling , to pronounce, for 
 example, Itait [ets] as-[sts]. Such pronunciations are not 
 unknown in vulgar French, but must be avoided by the 
 student. It is true that the [e] of an unaccented syllable is 
 often articulated with slightly-relaxed organs, but it remains 
 clearly distinguishable from [s]. 
 
 It is helpful to note that this [e] is much more akin to the 
 English [i] than to [s]. The vowels in d'ete [dete] sound 
 somewhat like those in ditty [diti]. This is so because [i] 
 is formed with the tongue touching the upper gums lightly, 
 and when the tongue is pressed against the teeth for [e] it 
 bulges up till it comes very nearly into the same position. 
 
 The lips should not be allowed to deaden the sound by 
 protruding. 
 
 Hence Fr. mes [me] * differs widely from Eng. may [msi], 
 Fr. les [le] x from Eng. lay [lei], Fr. ses, sais [se] x from Eng. 
 say [ssi], Fr. de [de] from Eng. day [dsi], Fr. nez [ne] from 
 Eng. nay [nsi]. Compare further the first vowel-sound in 
 Fr. maison [me'zo] [me'zo] and Eng. mason [msisn], Fr. 
 plaisir [ple'ziir] and Eng. pleasure [pisso]. 
 
 The traditional names of the letters b, c, d, g, p, t and v 
 in French should be pronounced [be] [se] [de] [se] [pe] 
 [te] [ve] and not [bsi] [ssi] [dsi], etc. The latter false 
 pronunciation is inevitably suggested by the spellings ' bay,' 
 'say,' 'day,' etc., usually found in French grammars for 
 English-speaking students. 
 
 1 The plural article and the plural possessive pronouns are regularly 
 heard with [e] in conversational French : [me] [te] [se] [le]. In the 
 reading of poetry and elevated prose the open sound is preferred : 
 [me] [te] [se] [le]. 
 
THE VOWELS 19 
 
 Mid Front Wide Vowel or Open e. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [e]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. e, as in college [koleis] ; 
 
 2. <?, as in tel [tel], valet [vale], il est [il s] ; 
 
 3. <?, as in tete [teit] ; 
 
 4. 4 as in chante-je [Sa'tsi5] ; 
 
 5. 2, as in peine [psn] ; 
 
 6. a/, as in ^tolre [S lz ] J 
 
 7. <22<?, as in craie [krs] ; 
 
 8. ais, as in #2ar [me], aimais [s'ms] ; 
 
 9. #//, as in trait [trs], aimait [s'ms]. 
 
 Articulation. The tongue being spread out touches 
 gently the upper molars. The jaws are considerably wider 
 apart than for [e], the interval between the lower and 
 upper front-teeth being at least large enough to admit an 
 ordinary lead-pencil. The tip of the tongue remains in 
 contact with the lower front-teeth. The lips are not 
 allowed to protrude. 
 
 Explanation. This vowel, requiring less tension of the 
 organs, exists in English both as a long and as a short 
 sound : fare [fei] [fso], pair, pear [psi] [psa], sell [ssl], 
 net [net], met [met]. Compare the French faire [fsir], 
 paire [psir], selle [ssl], net [nst], mettes [met]. 
 
 The English sound is, however, not always given its 
 real value. A mincing speaker will sometimes pronounce 
 [e] or even [e] in place of the short [e] : the mouth not 
 being sufficiently opened, the tongue presses against the 
 teeth; bed [bed] then becomes [bed] or [bed]. This 
 pronunciation is more common in the South than in the 
 North of England. For [e] the mouth must be well opened 
 and the tongue must not press against the teeth. 
 
 In its longer form this vowel occurs in English only 
 
20 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 before the letter r. This letter, when not followed by a 
 vowel, no longer represents a consonantal sound ; it has 
 been reduced to the vowel [9] or has dropped away al- 
 together. We say air [si] [si9], but airing [suin] or 
 [si9Jirj]. The vowel [9] must be rigorously avoided in 
 similar positions in French : compare the French air [sir] 
 and airain [s'rs]. 
 
 Special care must be taken with a final [s]. This sound 
 never being final in English, the tendency is to produce 
 a diphthong in that position. Observe then that fait is 
 not to be pronounced [fso] or [fsi] but [fs] like the Eng. 
 fell without the final consonant. Even here, there is need 
 to repeat the warning : keep the organs of speech rigidly 
 in the one position during the enunciation of a vowel. 
 
 In unaccented syllables [s] must not be reduced to [9] : 
 compare Fr. perspective [psrspsktiiv] and Eng. perspective 
 [p9Spsktiv] [pisspsktiv]. 
 
 Low-Front-Narrow Vowel or Close a. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [a]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. a, as in salle [sal], gage [gais] ; 
 
 2. dj as in pa? 'lames [parlam] ; 
 
 3. e, as mfemme [fam] ; 
 
 4. /, as in toi [twa]. 
 
 Articulation. The tongue being spread out touches 
 gently the upper middle or back molars. The jaws are 
 normally a little wider apart than for [s]. The tip of the 
 tongue remains in contact with the lower front-teeth. The 
 corners of the mouth are slightly retracted, the lips being 
 thus prevented from protruding. 
 
 Explanation. A certain confusion which exists among 
 the ^-sounds in English renders the explanation of this 
 sound by analogy somewhat difficult. We may, however, 
 
THE VOWELS 21 
 
 begin by distinguishing it both from the [a] in father 
 [fa :<5a] and from the [ae] which is heard (in all but Northern 
 pronunciation) in man [maen], ash [ae$]. The English [a] 
 approaches closely to the [a] in pas, the French vowel 
 next to be defined : it is a more open sound than [a]. The 
 vowel [ae] differs little from a very open [s], and is generally 
 heard as such by French ears that have not been trained 
 phonetically. In some of the most popular ' English 
 courses ' for French students the learner is even directed 
 to pronounce man as i menne,' and our word gentleman 
 generally becomes in a French mouth [dssntglmsn]. This 
 is, of course, seriously incorrect ; but it is no less incorrect 
 to substitute the English [ae] for the French [a]. The 
 latter sound lies between [ae] and [a]. Now an inter- 
 mediate sound is often heard in English : e.g. in after , 
 ask, class, demand', and as the first part of the diphthong in 
 high, I. Unfortunately the pronunciation of these and 
 other words in which the sound occurs is not stable, the 
 intermediate a being supplanted often, and especially in 
 the South of England and in Australia, by [a] and some- 
 times, especially in the midland counties, by [se]. The 
 existence of this middle English a is, therefore, not 
 recognized by Professor Victor. On the other hand, 
 Professor Hempl regards it as the standard in the words 
 given, and in many others. 1 The sound is identified 
 by Professor Hempl with the French [a], but it is generally 
 somewhat more open [a], being strictly equivalent to the 
 French vowel only when the latter occurs in unaccented 
 syllables. The English-speaker to whom this English 
 middle a is familiar can arrive at the French [a] by 
 increasing the tenseness of the organs of speech. In spite 
 
 Professor Hempl is responsible for the English pronunciations in 
 the International French-English and English- French Dictionary 
 published by T. C. and E. C. Jack, London. 
 
22 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 of the close analogy between this English [a] and the 
 French [a] experience has shown that the English-speaking 
 student is more inclined to carry over [ae] and [a]. As 
 [ae] is always short in English and [a] usually long, the 
 tendency is to substitute [a] for [ai] and [ae] for [a], 
 substitutions which are equally objectionable. Compared 
 with [a] the vowel [a] has a bright ring and sounds forward 
 in the mouth : it differs from [ae] in being a decided 
 <z-vowel. The sound will lose its characteristic clearness 
 if the lips are not held back to the teeth. 
 
 The student should, therefore, carefully distinguish Fr. 
 hache [a$] from Eng. ash [aej], Fr. patte [pat] from Eng. pat 
 [paet], Fr. panne, [pan] from Eng. pan [paen], Fr. fade [fad] 
 from Eng. fad [faed] ; and the vowel of Fr. pare [park], part 
 [pair], car [kair], carte [kart] from that of Eng. park [paik], 
 part [pent], car [kai], cart [kait]. The a in Paris [pa'ri] 
 resembles neither that in starry [staiai] nor that in parry 
 [pae.ii]. Contrast also Marie [ma'ri] with mar [mai] and 
 marry [mae.ii]. 
 
 In unaccented syllables [a] must never be reduced to [9] 
 as [ae] and [a] so often are in English : compare Fr. marine 
 [marin] with Eng. marine [maiiin], Fr. adresse [adrss] with 
 Eng. address [ad^ss], Fr. parade [parad] with Eng. parade 
 
 Low-Back-Wide Vowel or Open a. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [a]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. a, as in passe [pa is], pas [pa]; 
 
 2. a, as in maratre [maraitr] ; 
 
 3. am, as in condamner [ko'da'ne]; 
 
 4. z, as in trois [trwa]. 
 
 Articulation. The tongue is drawn back a little from 
 the front teeth and held as low as possible in the mouth. 
 
THE VOWELS 23 
 
 The mouth is wide open, though not to the physical limit. 
 The lips not being held back, the corners of the mouth 
 are carried slightly forward by the opening of the jaws. 
 
 Explanation. This is essentially the common English 
 vowel of far, father, produced with more open mouth. 
 It is important to open the mouth well, because the orifice 
 thus assumes a more circular form than is the case with 
 the English sound, and the rounder opening gives the 
 French vowel its distinctive character, that is, a sound 
 slightly, but only slightly, akin to the rounded vowel [o]. 
 Great care must be taken not to exaggerate this kinship : 
 the lips must not be consciously rounded, otherwise a 
 sound closely resembling the vowel in all [oil] will be 
 produced, and this is to be avoided. All that is necessary 
 for the correct articulation of the French [a] is to pronounce 
 the [a] of far [fai] with the mouth wide open. With this 
 slight difference the vowel of the following pairs of words 
 is the same: Fr. dme [aim], Eng. arm [aim]; Fr. pate 
 [pait], Eng. part [pa it]. 
 
 The [a] must not be lengthened when it is final : compare 
 Fr. pas [pa] with Eng. par [pai], Fr. tas [ta] with Eng. 
 tar [tai]. 
 
 In Southern English this [ai] is sometimes diphthongized, 
 the lower jaw rising a little as the sound comes to an end. 
 This must be avoided in French. 
 
 Mid-Back-Wide Vowel or Open o. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [o]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. o, as in comme [kom], port [poir] ; 
 
 2. 6, as in hotel [otsl], rdti [roti] ; 
 
 3. au, as in aurai [ore] ; 
 
 4. u, as in pensum [ps'som], album [albom], 
 
 rhum [rom]. 
 
24 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 Articulation. The tongue being drawn further back than 
 for [a] bunches up towards the soft palate : its tip sinks 
 till it occupies a position just behind and not quite in 
 contact with the bottom of the lower front gums. The 
 corners of the mouth are thrust forward a little and the 
 lips are slightly rounded. 
 
 Explanation. The tendency of the English-speaker is 
 to identify this [o], when short, with the o in not [not] ; 
 when long, with the o in cord [koid]. These sounds 
 differ widely from the French. In producing the English 
 vowels, which are the long and the short forms of the 
 same sound, the tongue is not so far back in the mouth 
 (its tip being just behind the intersection of the lower 
 front teeth and gums), and the lips are idle. It is, 
 therefore, much more open than the French [o]. In 
 French ears it sounds, as it really is, akin to the tf-vowels. 
 The English-speaking student must pay special heed to 
 the position of the lips in pronouncing the French 
 vowel. 
 
 A close approximation to [o] is heard as the first element 
 of the diphthong in the Southern English pronunciation of 
 note [noot] [nout] and sometimes even as a long vowel in 
 more [moi] [moia], door [doi] [doia]. 1 This sound, how- 
 ever, is a little closer than the French. 
 
 The following pairs of words may be compared : Fr. note 
 [not] and Eng. not [not], Fr. corde [kord] and Eng. cord 
 [ko;d], Fr. sorte [sort] and Eng. sort [soit], Fr. sotte [sot] 
 and Eng. sot [sot], Fr. vote [vot] and Eng. vote [voot] 
 [vbut], Fr. port [poir] and Eng. port [poit] [poost], Fr. 
 Paul [pol] and Eng. Paul [poll]. 
 
 An unaccented [o] must not be reduced to [9] : compare 
 Fr. morose [moroiz] with Eng. morose [maiDos], Fr. possede 
 [possd] with Eng. possess [pazss], Fr. Cologne [kobji] with 
 
 1 These words are also pronounced [rnooa] [d6oo] or [m6ua] [d6uo]. 
 
THE VOWELS 25 
 
 Eng. Cologne [kobon], Fr. proportion [proporsjo] with Eng. 
 proportion 
 
 Mid-Back-Narrow Vowel or Close o. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [o]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. o, as in dos [do], dossier [do'sje] ; 
 
 2. d, as in hdte [oit] ; 
 
 3. au, as in cause [koiz] ; 
 
 4. eau, as in peau [po]. 
 
 Articulation. The tongue being drawn considerably 
 further back than for [o] rises fairly close to the soft 
 palate. The lips are energetically thrust forward and 
 rounded : they now meet each other for at least one- 
 third of their width on each side, leaving only a small 
 oval aperture. 
 
 Explanation. French [o] is identical in quality with 
 the long Scotch o : no [noi]. In English the treatment of 
 close o is analogous to that of close [e] : thus [01] becomes 
 in the North of England [ou] and in the South [6u] [ou] 
 or even [DO]. The pronunciations [ou] [oo] are common 
 in America and Australia. Vulgarly, particularly in 
 Southern England and in Australia, this diphthong takes 
 the form [aeu] or [au], oh no! being pronounced [asu 
 nseu]. Hence, in place of the simple vowel a diphthong 
 is heard in English of which the stressed element is 
 generally a more open sound, and the unstressed a sound 
 varying between [o] and [u] : boat [boot] [bout]. During 
 the enunciation of the English sound the lips and tongue 
 change their positions : the shifting of the tongue can 
 be easily felt, and the movement of the lips can be seen 
 with the aid of a mirror. There will be a strong tendency 
 to carry this practice over into French. This must be 
 
26 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 corrected : the organs must be in position from the outset 
 and must retain the same positions throughout. The 
 position of both lips and tongue being one of high tension 
 much greater effort is demanded than in English. Care 
 must be taken not to lengthen a short [o]. 
 
 Distinguish Fr. cote [koit] from Eng. coat [kout], Fr. rose 
 [roiz] from Eng. rose [rouz], Fr. beau [bo] from Eng. bow 
 [bou], Fr. sot [so] from Eng. so, sew [sou], Fr. chaud [Jo] 
 from Eng. show [$ou], Fr. dos [do] from Eng. dough [dou], 
 Fr. mot [mo] from Eng. mow [mou], Fr. eau [o] from 
 Eng. oh [ou], 
 
 The vowel must be given its proper value in unaccented 
 syllables : compare Fr. position [pozisjo] with Eng. position 
 [pozijn], Fr. opposition [opozisjo] with Eng. opposition 
 
 High-Back-Narrow Vowel or Close OU. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [u]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. ou, as in tout [tu]; 
 
 2. oil, as in ou [u] ; 
 
 3. OU) as in gout [gu]. 
 
 Articulation. The tongue is drawn back further than 
 for [o] and bunches up as close to the soft palate as 
 possible without creating consonantal friction. The lips are 
 energetically thrust forward and rounded, forming a still 
 smaller and now almost circular opening. 
 
 Explanation. This [u] is heard, in its long form, in the 
 Scotch pronunciation of poor [puir]. The treatment of [u] 
 in English is analogous to that of [i], the High-Front- 
 Narrow vowel. The English sound which is commonly 
 supposed to correspond to [ui] is a diphthong of which 
 the first and stressed element is a more open sound : true 
 
THE VOWELS 27 
 
 [tiuu] [tiuu]. The positions of the lips and tongue when 
 the English sound is begun are, therefore, not as extreme 
 as those required for [u] and these organs only approach 
 their extreme positions just as the sound ends. For the 
 vowel [u] the tongue must be right back and the lips right 
 forward from the outset, and they must retain these positions 
 rigidly: rouge = [0115] and not, as the word is pronounced 
 by English-speakers, [111115]. 
 
 The shorter English sound is the open vowel [u] : pull 
 [pul]. This sound, the High-Back-Wide vowel, is not 
 used in French. The short French [u] requires the same 
 lip and tongue positions as the long [ui]. Care must be 
 taken not to lengthen a final [u]. 
 
 Distinguish Fr. coup [ku] from Eng. coo [kuu], Fr. doux 
 [du] from Eng. do [duu], Fr. chou [$u] from Eng. shoe [Juu], 
 Fr. tour [tuir] from Eng. tour [tui9] [tuuo], Fr. route [rut] 
 from Eng. root [iuut]. 
 
 The vowel must be given its full value in unaccented 
 syllables : compare the French pronunciation of Touraine 
 [tursm] with the English [tuasm]. 
 
 4. The Abnormal Oral Vowels. 
 
 The relations between the Abnormal and the Normal 
 Oral Vowels may be indicated by means of the diagram : 
 
 All four are Rounded Front- Vowels : [y] has the tongue- 
 position for [i] and the lip-position for [u] ; [0] the tongue- 
 
28 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 position for [e] and the lip-position for [o] ; [9] the 
 tongue-position for [e] and the lip-position for [6] ; [ce] 
 the tongue-position for [&] and the lip-position for [o]. 
 
 High-Front-Narrow-Round Vowel or Close French u. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [y]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. u, as in du [dy] ; 
 
 2. U, as in sur [syir] ; 
 
 3. eu, as in eus, eu [y] ; 
 
 4. eu, as in qrfil eut [kil y]. 
 
 Articulation. The tongue is in the position for [i] : the 
 lips are thrust forward and rounded as for [u]. 
 
 Explanation. This sound has no analogue in English. 
 The tongue is placed to articulate the normal vowel of 
 highest pitch ; the lips are placed to articulate the normal 
 vowel of lowest pitch : the result is an abnormal vowel of 
 lower pitch than [i] but of higher pitch than any other 
 abnormal vowel. 
 
 In the absence of phonetic hints this vowel usually gives 
 the English-speaker much trouble. Its formation, however, 
 is so simple that he can arrive at an exact knowledge of 
 the sound without the assistance of a teacher. The best 
 way to practise the sound, in the first instance, is to project 
 the lips vigorously as for [u] and while keeping them in this 
 position (if necessary with the aid of a mirror) to try and 
 pronounce [i]. This will at first need an effort, because 
 the tongue is normally drawn back when the lips are thrust 
 forward. The student must, therefore, make sure that his 
 tongue does move forward into the position for [i]. If the 
 tongue and lips are in the proper positions he cannot fail 
 to produce the right sound. But if, for instance, the 
 tongue only reaches the position for [i], a German sound, 
 
THE VOWELS 29 
 
 the vowel [Y] in Hiitte [hvte], will be produced. Another 
 way of arriving at the [y] is to place the tongue in the 
 position for [i] and, while keeping it in that position, to 
 project the lips as for [u]. Much practice will be required 
 before the vowel can be produced instinctively. The 
 exercises [u y, u y, u y] and [i y, i y, i y] are 
 recommended : in the former the lips will remain stationary 
 and the tongue will move from its extreme backward to its 
 extreme forward position; in the latter the tongue will be 
 stationary and the lips will move from their extreme back- 
 ward to their extreme forward position. When the sound 
 has once been mastered, the positions of tongue and lips 
 must be assumed simultaneously, that is, both tongue and 
 lips must be thrust forward together. It is a common 
 mistake of English-speaking students to produce [iv], the 
 lips not being forward when the sound begins, and the 
 tongue being drawn back a little as the lips are projected. 
 
 Mid-Front-Narrow-Round Vowel or Close eu. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [0] 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. eu, as in dieu [dj0] ; 
 
 2. ecu, as in ceufs [0] ; 
 
 3. eue, as in queue [k0] ; 
 
 4. eux, as in eux [0]. 
 
 Articulation. The tongue being in the position for [e] 
 the lips are thrust forward and rounded as for [o]. 
 
 Explanation. This is the abnormal vowel produced by 
 combining the tongue position for the normal vowel of 
 second highest pitch with the lip position for that of second 
 lowest pitch. 
 
 There is no corresponding sound in English. The [V| of 
 sir [S'BI], fur [fei] must on no account be substituted for [0]. 
 
30 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 The two sounds are quite different both in acoustic effect 
 and in mode of articulation. The English vowel is formed 
 with the tongue much further back and lower than for [e], 
 and with the lips very slightly projected. In passing from 
 [u] to [0] both tongue and lips move forward. The French 
 sound demands considerable tension of the muscles towards 
 the front of the mouth, while the English vowel is produced 
 with relaxed organs. 
 
 Distinguish Fr. queue [k0] from Eng. cur [kei], Fr. ceux 
 [s0] from Eng. sir [S'BI], Fr. feu [f0] from Eng. fur, fir [fei], 
 Fr. peu [p0] from Eng. per [p'Bi], Fr. ceufs, eux [0] from the 
 vowel in Eng. her [hei]. 
 
 Mid-Front-Half-Narrow-Round Vowel or Mute e. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [9]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. e, as inje [59], devoir [d9vwair] ; 
 
 2. at, as mfaisant [faza], faisait [fbzs]. 
 
 Articulation. The tongue is in position for a half-open e 
 [e] while the lips are thrust forward and rounded as for 
 half-open o [b]. 
 
 Explanation. The so-called ' e mute ' is essentially a 
 middle, or half-open, eu. In acoustic effect it is more 
 akin to [0] than to the open eu [ce] next to be described. 
 In passing from [0] to [9] both tongue and lips are relaxed 
 a little ; in passing from [ce] to [9] both tongue and lips 
 advance. The tongue is in a position which it very often 
 occupies in English in the first part of the diphthong that 
 takes the place of [ei] : day [dei], pay [pei] ; the lips are 
 just a little more forward and rounded than for the vowel in 
 the Southern English pronunciation of door [doi] ; they 
 often occupy the position for [9] in the first part of the 
 diphthong that takes the place of [01] : dote [dout]. 
 
THE VOWELS 31 
 
 The English weak vowel which is represented by the 
 same sign [9] must not be substituted for the French sound. 
 It is really a relaxed form of the [V) : compare fur [fei] 
 and sofa [soufa]. Both these sounds are produced with 
 the tongue further back and lower than for the French [9]; 
 the forward movement can be felt in passing from the 
 vowel in fur [fei] to the diphthong in fay [fei]. The 
 lips are idle in the English [9], and almost idle in [Y) ; 
 the forward movement of the lips can be observed in 
 passing from the vowel in fur [fei] to that in the Southern 
 pronunciation of four [foi], but for the French [9] they 
 must move a little further forward. It must never be 
 forgotten that the so-called 'e mute' is produced with 
 rounded lips. 
 
 This vowel is always unaccented. If by any chance an 
 accent should fall on an t e mute,' it is transformed, usually 
 into [0] ; sometimes, however, into [ce] : faites-le [fst 10]. 
 
 Distinguish Fr. ce, se [59] from Eng. sir [srai], Fr. que 
 [kg] from Eng. cur pcei], Fr. me [ni9] from Eng. myrrh 
 [nrei], the te in je te dis [39 t9 di] from the to in the 
 hastier pronunciation of to-day [t9dei]. 
 
 Mid-Front-Wide-Round Vowel or Open eu. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [ce]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. eu, as in leur [Iceir] [leer] ; 
 
 2. (EU, as in (%uf[odf] ; 
 
 3. ue, as in cueillir [kcejiir] ; 
 
 4. ce, as in ozil [ceij]. 
 
 Articulation. The tongue is in the position for [s] ; the 
 lips are advanced and rounded as for [D]. 
 
 Explanation. The English vowel in fur [fei] approaches 
 more closely in acoustic effect to [ce] than to [9] and [0]. 
 
32 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 This is so simply because the positions of the organs 
 in [*B] are more akin to those for [oe]. Still, neither the 
 effects nor the positions are identical. French [oe] requires 
 the tongue a little further forward and a little higher, 
 and a more active cooperation of the lips. Particular 
 attention should be paid to the lip-position. 
 
 Distinguish Fr. cceur [kceir] from Eng. cur [k^:], Fr. 
 sceur [sceir] from Eng. sir [sui], Fr. peur [pceir] from 
 Eng. per [pisi], Fr. meurs [mceir] from Eng. myrrh [misi], 
 and the vowel in mceurs [mcers] [mceir] from that va purse 
 [p'Bis]. Contrast the syllables of heureux [cer0] a,nd#eureux 
 [pcer0]. 
 
 5. The Nasalized Vowels. 
 
 All the four nasalized vowels of modern French are 
 Mid-Wide or Low- Wide vowels. Their relation to the oral 
 vowels may be indicated by means of the vowel-diagram, 
 the sign [ " ] placed over the vowel denoting that it is 
 accompanied by nasal resonance: 
 
 When a vowel is nasalized it does not cease to be 
 oral. Nasalization consists not in the substitution of one 
 chamber of resonance for another, but in the extension 
 of the chamber of resonance to include the nose-cavity. 
 It is effected merely by lowering the velum. The velum 
 is the movable end of the soft palate ; from the middle 
 of it hangs the uvula which in shape resembles a small 
 
THE VOWELS 33 
 
 stalactite. Both velum and uvula can be seen by opening 
 the mouth in front of a mirror. Behind the velum is 
 the passage leading up to the nose. While the velum 
 occupies a neutral position the breath from the lungs 
 naturally passes into both nose and mouth. The velum 
 plays an active part in the production of all the vowels 
 already described in rising and blocking the passage to 
 the nose. But as it discharges the same function for 
 all the English vowels (save in America) 1 its action has 
 hitherto been taken for granted. For the nasalized vowels 
 this function changes : the velum is now held down, leaving 
 the nasal passage more or less open. It plays a similar 
 part in the articulation of the common English nasal 
 consonants [m] and [n]. But as this movement of the 
 velum is never associated, in standard English, with vowel 
 articulation, some difficulty may at first be experienced 
 in producing the nasalized vowels. That serious mis- 
 pronunciations may be avoided the student's attention 
 should be directed to the following two points : 
 
 (i) The velum must not be lowered so far as to touch 
 the tongue. This contact creates the end-consonant in 
 our word long [Ion], and is responsible for very ugly 
 mispronunciations such as [frarjss] [bjsrj] for [frci'ss] 
 fran$ais, [bjs] bien. Students who find it difficult to avoid 
 the consonant should practise such words with a long- 
 sustained nasal vowel. The mistake is generally caused 
 by the learner directing all his thought to the nasality of 
 the sound. He must not forget that the vowel is articulated 
 in the mouth, and must not aim at sending all the voice 
 through the nose. There is a simple practical method of 
 
 J The tendency to nasalize pure vowels, especially when followed 
 by a nasal consonant, is a feature of Australian pronunciation, but 
 the nasalization is often so faint that it cannot be detected by 
 untrained ears. 
 
 F.P. C 
 
34 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 testing whether the sound produced is a true nasal vowel 
 or the consonant [rj]. Close the nostrils by pinching them 
 with the thumb and first finger while the sound is being 
 produced : if the consonant is articulated, the sound will 
 be brought to a sudden end, because the consonant closes 
 the mouth-passage. 
 
 (2) A nasal consonant following a nasalized vowel in 
 the same syllable is never sounded in modern French. Its 
 sole purpose is to indicate the nasal quality of the vowel : 
 chanter is pronounced [$a f te], not [$ante] ; tante [tait], not 
 [taint] ; condition [ko'disjo], not [kondisjo] ; bombe [boib], 
 not [bomb]. The nasalization must cease with the vowel- 
 sound ; in other words, the velum must rise and block the 
 nasal passage when the lips and tongue proceed to articulate 
 the following consonant. This habit can be acquired by 
 practising such words as danser, pendant, vampire with a 
 pause between each syllable : [da se], [pa da], [va piir]. 
 Mispronunciations would be much less common if such 
 words were mentally pictured in their phonetic form. 
 
 6. The Nasalized Normal Vowels. 
 
 Three normal vowels appear in a nasalized form : the 
 Mid-Front-Wide, the Mid-Back-Wide and the Low-Back- 
 Wide. In each case the positions of the organs are slightly 
 modified : for the Front-Nasal the mouth is a little more 
 open, for the Back-Nasals a little less open than in arti- 
 culating the corresponding oral vowels. 
 
 Mid- Front- Wide-Nasal Vowel or Nasal e. 
 
 Phonetic sign : []. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. en, as in bien [bje], examen [egzams] ; 
 
 2. ein, as in sein [ss] ; 
 
THE VOWELS 35 
 
 3. /, as in fin [fe], foin [fwe] ; 
 
 4. ing, as in poing [pwe] ; 
 
 5. z'w, as in impropre [s'propr] ; 
 
 6. ain^ as in #/a/;g [me] ; 
 
 7. #z>#, as in f aim [fe]. 
 
 Articulation. The organs are in position for [se] save 
 that the velum is lowered. 
 
 Explanation. Although this vowel is known as the 
 * nasal e ' and is phonetically represented by [e], it is strictly 
 the nasalized form of the common English vowel in cat 
 [kaet], man [maen]. 
 
 Care must be taken not to pronounce fin, faim [fe] as 
 Eng. fang [faerj] ; nor sein [se] as Eng. sang [sserj] ; nor 
 bain [be] as Eng. bang [bserj] ; nor Rhin [re] as Eng. rang 
 [laerj]. Both tongue and lip positions for the vowel in all 
 these words, French and English, are identical : but while 
 the vowel itself is nasalized in French it is followed by 
 a nasal consonant in English. 
 
 The English-speaking student should pay particular heed 
 to the pronunciation of words like indu [e'dy], pimpant 
 [ps'pa], simple [ss:pl], sainte [ss:t], imberbe [s'bsrb], dinde 
 [ds:d], ingrat [s'gra], inquiet\^Y}^\. The nasal vowel being 
 here followed by a consonant, which is formed in the 
 same or much the same way as one of the English nasal 
 consonants [m] [n] [rj], the learner is specially liable to 
 produce one of these consonants after the vowel. The 
 spelling with m when the next letter is p or ^, and with n 
 when it is /, tffor^, forcibly suggests the wrong pronunciation. 
 The learner should, therefore, observe that the pronuncia- 
 tion of the words would not be affected if we substituted 
 m for n and vice versa, writing imdu^ inberbe, imgrat, 
 sinple, etc. 
 
36 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 Low-Back-Wide-Nasal Vowel or Nasal a. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [a]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1 . an, as in tant [ta] ; 
 
 2. am, as in champ [$a] ; 
 
 3. en, as in tente [tait] ; 
 
 4. #z, as in temps [to] ; 
 
 5. aon, as in ta<?;/ [td]. 
 
 Articulation. The tongue is a little further back and the 
 mouth not quite so open as for [a], and the velum is lowered. 
 
 Explanation. This vowel is usually described as the 
 nasalized form of the [a] in father, or, what is the same 
 thing, of the [a] in pas with less open mouth. This de- 
 scription is incorrect : the tongue really occupies a position 
 intermediate between the [a] and [D] positions. The series 
 [a] [a] [D] may be illustrated by the words Eng. tar [tai], 
 Fr. temps, tant [ta], Eng. taw [toi]. 
 
 The English-speaking student must be specially warned 
 not to draw the tongue too far back. Common mispro- 
 nunciations of temps are [ton] [to] [to]. The latter mistake, 
 [5] for [a], is often made by the provincial Frenchman, and 
 occasionally by the Parisian. It is at best an affectation 
 which should be carefully avoided by the foreigner. 
 
 The velum must not be allowed to touch the tongue : 
 contrast Fr. temps [td] and Eng. tongs [torjz], Fr. rang 
 [rd] and Eng. wrong [.ion], Fr. sang [so] and Eng. song 
 [son], Fr. lent [la] and Eng. long [Ion], Fr. gant [go] and 
 Eng. gong [gorj]. 
 
 Particular care must be taken not to pronounce a nasal 
 consonant after the vowel in such words as camper [kd'pe], 
 campagne [ka'paji], cambrure [kd'brylr], pampre [pdipr], 
 ambre [dibr], lanterne [Id'tsrn], lampe [laip], fantaisie [fa'tszi], 
 antre [ditr]. 
 
THE VOWELS 37 
 
 Mid-Back-Wide-Nasal Vowel or Nasal o. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [5], 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. on, as in ton [to] ; 
 
 2. om, as in tomber [to'be]. 
 
 Articulation. The organs are in position for [o] save 
 that the mouth is a little less open and that the velum is 
 lowered. 
 
 Explanation. The projection of the lips will require an 
 effort on the part of the English-speaking student. 
 
 He will be very apt to produce the nasal consonant [rj] 
 after this vowel : contrast, both in this respect and in respect 
 of the tongue and lip positions for the vowel-sound, Fr. son 
 [so] and Eng. song [son], Fr. long [15] and Eng. long [Ion], 
 Fr. gond [go] and Eng. gong [gog]. 
 
 No nasal consonant must be heard after the vowel in 
 words like bombe [boib], ombre [o;br], rompre [roipr], nombre- 
 [noibr], tomber [to'be], tondre [toidr], fondre [foidr], com- 
 bination [ko'bina'sjo], compote [ko'pot], confer [ko'te]. 
 
 7. The Nasalized Abnormal Vowel. 
 
 Only one abnormal vowel appears in a nasalized form, 
 the Mid-Front-Wide-Round vowel [ce]. The positions of 
 the tongue and lips undergo no modification. 
 
 Mid-Front-Wide-Round-Nasal Vowel or Nasal u. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [de]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. eun, as injeun [503]; 
 
 2. un, as in un [de] ; 
 
 3. um, as in humble [deibl]. 
 
38 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 Articulation. The lips and tongue are in position for 
 [oe] and the velum is lowered. 
 
 Explanation. This vowel is not a nasalized u, although 
 it is popularly known by that name. It is the nasalized 
 form of the vowel in heure [ceir]. Hence the tongue is in 
 the position for [&] while the lips are projected and rounded 
 as for [o]. 
 
 The provincial Frenchman often, and the Parisian some- 
 times substitute [s] for [oe], confusing, for example, brun 
 [brde] and brin [brs]. To avoid imitating the mistake the 
 student must be careful to project the lips. 
 
 A nasal consonant must not be pronounced after the 
 nasal vowel and in the same syllable. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 THE DIPHTHONGS (SO-CALLED) 
 
 A DIPHTHONG consists of two vowel-sounds pronounced in 
 the same syllable, one of the vowels being usually sub- 
 ordinated to the other in point of both stress and duration. 
 If the accent falls on the first vowel, the combination is 
 called a falling diphthong ; if the second element is stressed, 
 the combination is called a rising diphthong. The English 
 diphthongs are all of the former kind. Thus in time [tciim] 
 [taim] [taeim], boy [boi], eight [sit] the second element [i] 
 is both short and weak. 
 
 If we were to be guided by traditional spelling we should 
 conclude that French contained a large number of diph- 
 thongs and even triphthongs : for example, in peur, pen* 
 coup, cause, pain ; mieux, pied, fier, bien, miauler ; puts, 
 lueur, nuage ; oui, ouate, oiseau, loin. But such combinations 
 of vowel-signs in a single syllable stand either for a single 
 vowel-sound or for a consonant and a vowel. Thus in 
 peur [pceir], peu [p0], coup [ku], cause [koiz], pain [ps] two 
 or three signs are used for one sound ; in mieux [mj0], 
 pied [pje], fier [fjsir], bien [bjs], miauler [mjole], puis 
 [pqi], lueur [Iqceir], nuage [nqaig], oui [wi], ouate [wat], 
 oiseau [wazo], loin [Iws] the two or three vowel-signs 
 represent a consonant, [j] [q] or [w], and a single vowel. 
 
40 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 The combinations of the so-called semi-vowels [j] [q] [w] 
 with a vowel approach very closely to falling diphthongs, 
 and are often described as such. In standard French, 
 however, the semi-vowels are really fricative consonants. 
 Hence, in none of the above examples do we find two 
 vowels in succession. 
 
 On the other hand two successive vowels are heard in 
 pays [pei], poete [posit], chaos [kao], noel \v>z\\,fleau [fleo], 
 reel [reel], prier [prie], brioche [brioj], triage [trials], cruaute 
 [kryote], bluet [blys], eblouir [ebluiir], trouer [true]. Here, 
 however, each vowel forms a separate syllable. 
 
 It will be found that whenever two or more vowel-signs 
 follow each other the combination belongs to one of the 
 three classes above described, and stands either for a single 
 vowel-sound, or for a consonant and a vowel, or for two 
 vowels forming distinct syllables. There are no diphthongs 
 in modern French. 
 
 The letters ou, i and u followed by a vowel and preceded 
 by a group of two or more consonants represent, with few 
 exceptions (e.g. pluie [plqi]), vowel-sounds having syllabic 
 value. But if, being followed by a vowel, they are not 
 preceded by a group of consonants, they regularly stand 
 for the consonants [w] [j] and [q]. Some hesitation, how- 
 ever, prevails in the treatment of verbs like jouer, louer, 
 secouer, fier, nier, tuer, in the indicative present of which 
 the letters in question necessarily represent a vowel : je joue, 
 jefie,je tue, etc. In the phonetic texts published under the 
 auspices of the International Phonetic Association, such 
 words are transcribed with the consonantal sound : jouer 
 [5we], nier [nje], etc. Yet in deliberate and careful speech 
 the vowel sound is certainly more usual. The words then 
 gain a syllable : [sue] [lue] [s9kue] [fie] [nie] [tye]. The 
 influence extends to cognate words : jouissance [suisais], 
 louange [luais]. The student is strongly recommended to 
 
THE DIPHTHONGS (SO-CALLED) 41 
 
 adopt the latter pronunciations, giving such verbs and their 
 derivatives two full vowel-sounds on all occasions. 
 
 On the other hand, the endings -tion, -sion should, at 
 least in conversation and in the reading of prose, be 
 pronounced as single syllables [sj5] [zjo] : emotion [emosjo], 
 illusion [ilyzj5] [illyzjo], in spite of the fact that they 
 count as two syllables in verse. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 THE CONSONANTS 
 
 1. The different kinds of Consonants. 
 
 Consonants are speech-sounds produced either by closing 
 the breath-passage or. by narrowing it to such an extent that 
 the breath cannot escape without creating audible friction. 
 In the former case they are known as Stops or Explosives ; 
 in the latter, as Continuants or Fricatives. When the breath 
 is stopped at some point in the mouth, but allowed to pass 
 through the nose, a particular kind of Stop-Consonant is 
 produced which is described as a Nasal. 
 
 Consonant-sounds of either class (stops or continuants) 
 may be accompanied by vibration of the vocal chords, and 
 we thus arrive at the extremely important distinction 
 between Breath (voiceless, surd) and Voice (voiced, sonant) 
 consonants. In this respect the consonants tend to form 
 pairs : [b] = voiced [p], d = voiced [t], [g] = voiced [k], [v] = 
 voiced [f], [z] = voiced [s], [3] = voiced [$]. Even those 
 voiced consonants which have no recognized voiceless 
 counterpart in French and English, viz. [m] [n] [ji] [w] [q] [j] 
 [r] [1], may, as we shall see in Part II. Chapter IV., in 
 certain circumstances, become voiceless or devocalized. It 
 is very essential that the student should have a clear know- 
 ledge of the difference between a Breath and a Voice Conso- 
 nant. The difference may be demonstrated in various ways. 
 
THE CONSONANTS 43 
 
 A simple method is to place the palms of the hands over the 
 ears and to utter first a long-sustained [s] or [f], and then a 
 long-sustained [z] or [v], taking care in each case to avoid 
 pronouncing a vowel-sound along with the consonant. 
 With the voice consonants, just as with any vowel, a more 
 or less forcible humming or buzzing is set up in the ears. 
 If the process be repeated with the palm of the hand 
 resting lightly on the scalp, or with the fingers placed gently 
 on the outer larynx or i Adam's apple,' a distinct quivering 
 will be felt. This humming, buzzing or quivering is caused 
 by the vibration of the vocal chords, and not by the force of 
 articulation. On the contrary, Breath Consonants are 
 normally produced with greater force than Voice Con- 
 sonants, and are distinguished from the latter as hard from 
 soft sounds. 
 
 2. The French and English Consonant-systems compared. 
 
 Of the twenty-one or twenty-two consonants that are 
 found in French, all save three, [ij] [ji] [R], belong nominally 
 also to the English system. Yet scarcely a single consonant 
 can be carried over from English to French without some 
 modification. This lack of complete identity between 
 consonant-sounds common to both languages is due chiefly 
 to the comparative slackness of the organs of speech in 
 English articulation. We produce our consonants, generally 
 speaking, like our vowels, with the minimum of effort. If 
 the sound requires the lips to be projected, as in the case of 
 [w], we do not project them as energetically as the French ; 
 if it requires a backward position of the tongue, as in 
 the case of [w], the tongue is not drawn so far back, if 
 a forward position, as in the case of [t] or [1], the tongue is 
 not thrust so far forward as in French ; if it necessitates 
 closure of the breath-passage, as in the case of [p] [t] 
 and [k], we do not close it as energetically ; if it consists in 
 
44 
 
 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 friction of the breath, as in the case of [s] and [J], the 
 friction in English is relatively faint ; if it is a trilled sound, 
 [r], the trill approaches the vanishing point in English ; if it 
 is a voiced consonant, such as [b] [v] [n] [5], the vibration 
 of the vocal chords is weaker and briefer than in French. 
 The student must, therefore, be prepared for a greater 
 expenditure of effort than is demanded by his native speech. 
 Yet it would be a mistake to conclude that mere force will 
 transform an English consonant into a French one. The 
 effort must be rightly directed, and this involves a detailed 
 discussion of each sound. 
 
 3. The Stops or Explosives. 
 
 (a) The general relations between the consonants of 
 this class may be shown by means of the following 
 diagram, the Voice-Stops being printed in fat type : 
 
 In the case of [p] and [b] the stoppage is produced by 
 bringing the lips together : they are, therefore, known as 
 Lip-Stops. For [t] and [d] the point of the tongue is 
 applied to the teeth : they are, therefore, called Point- 
 Teeth-Stops. The sounds [k] and [g] are Back-Stops, 
 being articulated by bringing the back part of the tongue 
 into contact with the back part of the palate. The sound 
 [?], which is very rare in French, is formed by closing the 
 glottis, and is known as the Glottal-Stop. 
 
 () A most important general distinction between the 
 
THE CONSONANTS 45 
 
 French and English Breath-Stops lies in the fact that 
 these sounds are aspirates in English. In articulating the 
 English [p] [t] and [k], especially when they are followed 
 by an accented vowel, the breath is allowed to escape 
 with a slight gasp when the explosion takes place : pie 
 sounds [p h ai], tie [t h ai], kite [k h ait]. This may be explained 
 as follows : The glottis (space between the vocal chords) 
 is wide open in articulating these consonants, and when 
 the explosion occurs the breath is forced out by the 
 lung-bellows just as in the process of breathing, but more 
 energetically. The explosion is, therefore, immediately 
 followed by a contraction of the chest which can be dis- 
 tinctly felt. At the same time the chords are being 
 brought together for the articulation of the vowel, and 
 the friction of the breath against them becomes audible 
 before the chords vibrate. Where the Stop is not followed 
 by a vowel the ' breathing ' is less noticeable, because 
 the vocal chords remain apart. 
 
 This aspiration must be carefully avoided in French 
 by closing the glottis when the stop is made by the lips 
 (for [p]) or tongue (for [t] and [k]). 1 The mouth-cavity 
 then becomes air-tight, and the breath expelled is only 
 that contained in the mouth. The explosion is produced 
 by the muscles of the mouth and not, as in English, by 
 the lung-bellows. The glottis being closed, no gasp can 
 intervene between the explosion and the vibration of the 
 vocal chords. More breath escapes in producing the English 
 Breath-Stops, but the French Breath-Stops are much clearer 
 explosives than the English. The explosion is comparable 
 in English to a puff, in French to a sharp and ' dry ' 
 detonation. The muscles of the mouth are much tenser 
 than in English. 
 
 1 Professor Passy is of opinion that the breath is controlled without 
 actually closing the glottis. 
 
46 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 (c) The general difference between the French and 
 English Voice-Stops, [b], [d], [g], is of another kind. 
 These sounds are not aspirates in either language. They 
 are voiced consonants, and there is no interruption in 
 the vibration of the vocal chords in passing to a following 
 vowel. The voicing of these consonants in the two 
 languages, however, differs in point of (i) volume, and 
 (ii) duration. 
 
 The volume of the voice is much greater in French 
 than in English, or, conversely, the buzzing which dis- 
 tinguishes the Voice-Stop from the Breath-Stop is much 
 fainter in English than in French. The distinction between 
 the two sets of sounds thus tends to be less marked in 
 English, and, to prevent confusion, the English-speaker is 
 apt to utter the Voice-Stop more forcibly than the Breath- 
 Stop, thus reversing their normal relations. In French the 
 voiced consonants [b] [d] [g] are pronounced with less 
 force than their voiceless counterparts [p] [t] [k], and 
 are very clearly distinguished from the latter by their 
 richly sonorous character. 
 
 The voicing is not only less sonorous in English : it is 
 also of shorter duration. Where the Voice-Stops begin a 
 syllable, vocalization is often not set up until just as the 
 explosion takes place ; and where they end one, vocalization 
 frequently ceases just after the organs are brought together. 
 In an exaggerated way this may be illustrated phonetically 
 by the transcription of bowl as [ p boul] and of sad as 
 [saed 1 ]. In French, vocalization must start with the closure 
 when these consonants begin a syllable, and, where they 
 end one, it must be well-sustained. The length of time 
 during which vocalization takes place is actually very short, 
 but it is perceptibly longer with [d] than with [g], and 
 with [b] than with [d]. It thus varies in proportion with 
 the size of the resonance-chamber. 
 
THE CONSONANTS 47 
 
 The very sonorous character of the Voice-Stops in French 
 has given rise to the opinion that they are really equivalent 
 to [mb] [nd] and [rjg] respectively. This view is inaccurate: 
 the nasal passage is closed during the articulation of the 
 Voice-Stops, and the buzz is not nasal. 
 
 Lip-Breath-Stop. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [p]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. /, as \npas [pa], cap [kap] ; 
 
 2. //, as in echapper [ejape] ; 
 
 3. b, as in absolu [apsoly]. 
 
 Articulation. The lips and the glottis are closed simul- 
 taneously, the lips press firmly against each other and are 
 then opened suddenly with a forcible but well-controlled 
 emission of the breath. 
 
 This sound is not voiced. The tongue plays no part 
 in its production, and may meanwhile prepare to articulate 
 a following vowel or consonant. 
 
 Explanation. In French, as in English, the articulation 
 of [p] may, in certain positions, consist either in only closing 
 or in only opening the organs : thus in the English word 
 simple [simpl] the lips, which are already closed for [m], 
 do not open and close again for [p], and in the French 
 word echappement [ejapma] the lips do not open between 
 [p] and [m]. Special cases of this kind will be explained in 
 Part II. Chapter V., dealing with the transition from one 
 sound to another. 
 
 The difference between the French [p] and the English 
 lies (i) in the tenseness of the mouth-muscles, and (ii) in the 
 control of the breath. 
 
 In producing the English [p] the lips are, as a rule, 
 brought lightly together ; they retain their neutral position 
 
48 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 in other respects, hang loosely away from the teeth, and 
 meet on their moist inner edges. The normal position of 
 the lips in articulating the French [p] is somewhat more 
 perpendicular ; they are held a little closer to the teeth, 
 and the contact, which is firm, takes place more towards 
 the dry ridge. If [p] is immediately preceded or followed 
 by a vowel in the same syllable, the exact position of 
 the lips depends upon the vowel. Thus they are held close 
 to the teeth and meet perpendicularly if the vowel is [i], 
 but are projected and meet on their moist edges at a 
 more or less sharp angle if the vowel is [o] or [u]. Gener- 
 ally speaking, they retain or assume as far as possible 
 the position required for the vowel. But in all positions 
 the lips must be tense and the contact firm. 
 
 The slight aspiration or gasp which often follows the 
 English [p] must be carefully avoided in French by closing 
 the glottis. (See 3 (b), p. 44.) 
 
 Lip-Voice-Stop. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [b]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. ^, as in bon [bo], conrbe [kurb] ; 
 
 2. bb, as in abbe [abe]. 
 
 Articulation. The lips are closed with very gentle 
 pressure, and the vocal chords are simultaneously made 
 to vibrate, producing a resonance in the mouth-cavity. 
 After a fraction of time the lips are suddenly opened with 
 a slight emission of the breath. 
 
 The tongue is not actively concerned in producing this 
 sound, and may prepare to articulate a following vowel or 
 consonant. 
 
 Explanation. As in the case of [p] the articulation may 
 consist in only closing or only opening the lips. 
 
THE CONSONANTS 49 
 
 The position of the lips is again governed by the vowel of 
 the syllable. The lips remain longer in contact, but are less 
 tense than for [p]. 
 
 The English-speaking student should (i) pay particular 
 heed to the vocalization, which must be sonorous and 
 well-sustained ; and (ii) avoid producing [b] more forcibly 
 than [p]. (See 3 (c), p. 46.) 
 
 Point-Teeth-Breath-Stop. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [t]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. /, as in tdter [tcrte] ; 
 
 2. //, as in chatte [$at], attaquer [atake] ; 
 
 3. th, as in rythme [ritm] ; 
 
 4. d, as \x\grandhomme [grot om], vend-elle [vat si]. 
 
 Articulation. The point of the tongue is pressed firmly 
 against the upper front teeth and gums a and the glottis 
 closed; the tongue is then drawn away suddenly with a 
 forcible though well-controlled emission of the breath. 
 
 This sound is not voiced, and the lips, not being 
 concerned in its production, may meanwhile prepare to 
 articulate a following vowel or consonant. 
 
 Explanation. In French as in English [t] may, in 
 certain positions, be formed by simply closing (e.g. Eng. 
 matlock, Fr. matelof) or simply opening (e.g. Eng. canteen, 
 Fr. hanneton) the organs. 2 
 
 The difference between French [t] and English [t] con- 
 sists (i) in the position of the tongue, (ii) in the tenseness 
 
 1 There is contact between tongue and teeth all round, the sides of 
 the back part of the tongue pressing against the lower face of the 
 molars. But as this lateral contact takes place also in English, 
 attention need only be directed to the position of the tongue-point. 
 
 2 See Part II. Chap. V. pp. 155 ff. 
 
 F.P. D 
 
50 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 of the muscles of the mouth, and (iii) in the control of 
 the breath. 
 
 For the English [t] the tongue is less forward in the 
 mouth : its tip is curled upwards, and forms a contact with 
 the gums at some distance from the teeth. This gives the 
 consonant a relatively dull, flat sound. In French the point 
 of the tongue must press against the teeth and the gums. 
 Special attention should be given to the group [tr], the [r] 
 not being allowed to influence the articulation of the [t]. 
 
 The muscles of the tongue are much tenser in French, 
 the contact firmer, the explosion sharper. 
 
 The glottis being left open in producing the English [t], 
 a slight [h] is heard after the explosion, as in the case 
 of [p]. This must be carefully avoided in French. (See 
 3 (b), p. 44-) 
 
 Point-Teeth-Voice-Stop. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [d]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. d, as in doux [du],fade [fad] ; 
 
 2. dd, as in addition [adisjo]. 
 
 Articulation. The point of the tongue is brought into 
 very gentle contact with the upper front teeth and gums, 
 and the vocal chords are at the same instant made to 
 vibrate, producing a resonance in the mouth-cavity. After 
 a fraction of time the tongue is drawn suddenly away with 
 a slight emission of the breath. 
 
 The lips, playing no part in the production of this sound, 
 may meanwhile prepare to articulate a following vowel or 
 consonant. 
 
 Explanation. As in the case of [t] this sound may be 
 formed by merely closing or merely opening the organs. 1 
 Part II. Chap. V. pp. 155 ff. 
 
THE CONSONANTS 51 
 
 French [d] differs from English [d] as follows : 
 
 (i) English [d], like English [t], is not a Point-Teeth- 
 Stop : the tip of the tongue is curled upwards and meets 
 the gums at some distance from the teeth. It must be 
 further forward for the French [d], and must be applied 
 to both teeth and gums. 
 
 (ii) In English, [d] is often produced with more force 
 than [t]. It is, on the other hand, a softer sound than [t] 
 in French. 
 
 (iii) The volume of the voice is greater, and its duration 
 longer in French than in English. (See 3 (c), p. 46.) 
 
 Back-Breath-Stop. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [k] 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. k, as in kepi [kepi] ; 
 
 2. c, as in canot [kano], bac [bak] ; 
 
 3. cc, as in baccalaureat [bakabrea] ; 
 
 4. ch, as in ar change [arka:5] ; 1 
 
 5. cell, as in bacchante [bakait] ; 
 
 6. q, as in aquarelle [akwarsl] ; 
 
 7. qU) as in aquilon [akilo], laque [lak] ; 
 
 8. cqu, as in acquit [aki] ; 
 
 9. x, as in Xeres [kersis], exces [skss] ; 
 10. g, as in long exil [lok egzil]. 
 
 Articulation. The back part of the tongue is raised and 
 pressed firmly against the palate, and at the same time 
 the glottis is closed. The tongue is then suddenly drawn 
 away from the palate with a forcible but well-controlled 
 emission of the breath. 
 
 1 But architecte [arjitekt], patriarche [patriarj], archer [arje], etc. 
 
52 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 This sound is voiceless. The lips, not being actively 
 concerned, may meanwhile prepare to articulate a following 
 consonant or vowel. 
 
 Explanation. French [k] differs from English [k] in 
 much the same way as French [p] and [t] differ from 
 English [p] and [t]. The following points should be 
 noted : 
 
 (i) In both French and English, the exact point of 
 contact between tongue and palate depends upon the vowel 
 of the syllable. Thus it is considerably further forward 
 with [i] than with [u]. In French, however, it is always 
 further forward than in English. 
 
 (ii) The contact is much less vigorous in English. 
 English [kj is a dull, flat, soft sound ; whereas French [k] 
 is a very clear, hard and * dry ' explosive, articulated with 
 energy. 
 
 (iii) English [k], like English [p] and [t], is articulated 
 with open glottis, and is followed by a slight aspiration 
 which must be carefully avoided in French. (See 3 (b), 
 p. 44.) 
 
 Back- Voice-Stop. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [g]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. g, as in gond [go], suggerer [sygssre] ; 
 
 2. gg, as in couagga [kwaga] ; 
 
 3. gu, as in guerre, guere [geir], bague [bag] ; 
 
 4. x, as in exercice [egzsrsis] ; 
 
 5. c, as in second [s9g5]. 
 
 Articulation. The back part of the tongue is raised and 
 pressed gently against the palate, and at the same moment 
 
THE CONSONANTS 53 
 
 the vocal chords vibrate, producing a resonance in the 
 small cavity behind the point of contact. After a fraction 
 of time the tongue is suddenly drawn away from the 
 palate with a slight emission of the breath. 
 
 The lips, not being concerned in the production of this 
 sound, may meanwhile prepare to articulate a following 
 vowel or consonant. 
 
 Explanation. French [g] differs from French [k] in the 
 same way as [b] and [d] differ from [p] and [t]. The 
 English-speaking student should be careful (i) to see that 
 the voice is well-sustained and sonorous, and (ii) to avoid 
 pronouncing [g] more forcibly than [k]. (See 3 (c), 
 p. 46.) At the same time the [g] of standard French, 
 being articulated further forward in the mouth and with 
 greater tenseness of the organs, is a harder sound than the 
 English [g]. 
 
 Glottal-Stop. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [?]. 
 Traditional spelling'. None. 
 
 Articulation. The vocal chords are brought together and 
 suddenly reopened with a slight explosion. 
 
 Explanation. This sound, which forms an integral part 
 of the German consonantal system, occurs in French only 
 in rare cases which will be mentioned in Part II. Chap. V. 
 pp. 162 and 164. 
 
 It is found quite exceptionally in English in an exaggerated 
 form : e.g. in Whatever is that ? pronounced with special 
 stress on the syllable ev [wot?sv9J iz <5aet] ; and in Shoulder 
 arms ! with stress on the second word [Joukta ?amz]. In 
 some Northern dialects it often replaces a Point-Stop : thus 
 the people of Glasgow pronounce water [wo?9r]. 
 
 In German, English and French, it occurs only before a 
 
54 
 
 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 vowel. The vowel then, instead of being begun smoothly, 
 is attacked with a slight ' catch. 7 
 
 4. The Nasal Consonants. 
 
 The general relations between these consonants and the 
 Stops already described may be indicated by the diagram : 
 
 Being all three voiced the nasals are printed in fat type, 
 [m] is a Lip-Stop and [n] a Point-Teeth-Stop. For [ji] the 
 contact takes place between the middle part of the tongue 
 and the hard palate : it may, therefore, be called a Mid- 
 Palate-Stop. 
 
 Nasal-Lip-Stop. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [m]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. m, as in mal [mal], lame [lam] ; 
 
 2. mm^ as in comment [kDma]jfemme [fam]. 
 
 Articulation. The nasal passage being left open by 
 keeping the velum lowered, the lips are closed with very 
 gentle pressure, and the moment they meet the vocal chords 
 vibrate, producing a resonance in the mouth and nose. 
 After a fraction of time the lips are opened, but with little 
 emission of breath through the mouth. 
 
THE CONSONANTS 55 
 
 The tongue is not actively concerned, and may meanwhile 
 prepare to articulate a following vowel or consonant. 
 
 Explanation. As with the other lip-stops the position 
 of the lips will be modified by a vowel in juxtaposition 
 with [m] and in the same syllable. 
 
 This consonant is very sonorous. Vocalization must 
 begin with the closing of the lips, and it must be well- 
 sustained when the [m] is final. In English the voice is 
 sometimes faint. 
 
 In other respects there is no appreciable difference 
 between the French and the English sounds. 
 
 Nasal-Point-Teeth-Stop. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [n]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. n, as in non [no], cane [kan] ; 
 
 2. nn, as in canne [kan], donner [done] ; 
 
 3. mn, as in automne [oton], condamner [ko'da'ne]. 
 
 Articulation. The nasal passage being left open by 
 keeping the velum lowered, the point of the tongue is 
 brought into gentle contact with the upper front-teeth and 
 gums, and at the same moment the vocal chords vibrate, 
 producing a resonance in both mouth and nose. After a 
 fraction of time the tongue is suddenly drawn away from 
 the teeth and gums, but there is little or no emission of 
 breath through the mouth. 
 
 The lips, not being actively concerned, may meanwhile 
 prepare to articulate a following vowel or consonant. 
 
 Explanation. The position of the tongue is precisely 
 the same as for [t] and [d]. The sound should, therefore, 
 not be articulated like the English [n] with the tip of the 
 tongue applied to the gums alone. 
 
56 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 Attention should be paid to the vocalization, which 
 must begin with the formation of the stop, and, when the 
 consonant is final, be well-sustained. The English [n] is 
 not always quite as sonorous as the French. 
 
 Nasal-Mid-Palate-Stop. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [ji], 
 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. gn^ as in regne [rsji], agneau [ajio] ; 
 
 2. ign, as in oignon [op5], encoignure [a'kojrylr]. 
 
 Articulation. The nasal passage being left free by 
 keeping the velum lowered, the mouth being slightly open 
 and the tip of the tongue resting against the inside of the 
 lower front-teeth, the face of the tongue, about midway 
 between tip and root, is pressed gently against the hard 
 palate, and at the same moment the vocal chords are made 
 to vibrate, producing in the mouth and nose a resonance 
 which must be sustained until the tongue is withdrawn from 
 the palate. 
 
 The lips, not being concerned in the formation of this 
 sound, may meanwhile prepare to articulate a following 
 vowel or consonant. 
 
 Explanation. There is no corresponding nasal in 
 English: we pronounce canon [kaenJ9n] or [kaenjpn]; cf. 
 French maniere [manjsir], panier [panje]. English-speakers 
 are, therefore, very apt to substitute [nj] for [ji]. This 
 substitution is sometimes made by the French themselves, 
 even by Parisians. It should be avoided, by keeping the 
 tongue in contact with the lower front-teeth. A large 
 part of the face of the tongue must come into contact 
 with the palate, but the point must be held away from 
 the gums. 
 
THE CONSONANTS 
 
 57 
 
 5. The Continuants or Fricatives. 
 
 The diagram being extended to include the Fricatives, 
 all of which, except [f] [s] f J] and [h], are normally voiced, 
 will appear as follows : 
 
 'Stops 
 
 k 
 S 
 
 Nasals 
 
 Fricatives 
 
 The Lip-Fricatives [w] and [q] are formed with the 
 cooperation of the tongue ; the position of the latter is 
 suggested by the dotted signs : [w] requires the tongue 
 in its back-position for [u], [q] requires it in its front- 
 position for [i]. Hence [w] is called the Lip-Back and 
 [q] the Lip-Front Fricative, [f] and [v], being formed by 
 the contact of the lower lip with the upper teeth, are Lip- 
 Teeth Fricatives. For [1] the tip of the tongue touches 
 the teeth, and the friction is produced at the sides : it is 
 the Point-Teeth-Lateral Fricative. [s] [z] [J] and [3], 
 being formed by sending the breath along a groove in the 
 blade of the tongue, and against the teeth, are Teeth-Blade 
 consonants. [r] is a Point-Trill ; [R] a Uvula-Trill. [j] 
 has the front part of the tongue brought close to the front 
 part of the palate, and is called a Front-Fricative, [h], being 
 produced by the friction of the breath passing through the 
 glottis, is the Glottal-Fricative. 
 
58 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 Lip-Back-Voice-Fricative. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [w]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1 . w, as in wallon [walo], tramway [tramwe] ; 
 
 2. wh, as in whist [wist], whig [wig] ; 
 
 3. u, as in tquateur [ekwatoeir], lingual [Is'gwal] ; 
 
 4. ou, as in oui [wi], ouest [west] ; 
 
 5. o, as in toi [twa], point [pwe], moyen [mwaje], 
 
 poele [pwail] [pwdil]. 
 
 Articulation. The lips being projected still further than 
 for the vowel [u] and contracted, with tenseness of the 
 muscles, to form a very small round aperture, and the 
 tongue being drawn back as for [u], the vocal chords are 
 instantly made to vibrate, and the organs at once proceed 
 to form the following vowel. 
 
 Explanation. This consonant is very closely allied to 
 the vowel [u], and is for that reason sometimes called a 
 semi-vowel. Care should be taken not to pronounce it as 
 a vowel : it is uttered with the vowel by which it is followed 
 in one emission of breath, the two sounds together bearing 
 one even stress-beat and forming one syllable. 1 
 
 It differs considerably from the English [w] in win [win], 
 west [wsst]. The organs are much tenser in French, the 
 lips being much further forward and much more contracted, 
 and the tongue higher and further back in the mouth. It 
 is still more unlike the voiceless lip-fricative in whence 
 [wens] [hwsns]. The friction of French [w] is faint, and 
 is often drowned by the voice. 
 
 1 See Diphthongs, p. 39. 
 
THE CONSONANTS 59 
 
 Lip-Front-Voice-Fricative. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [q]. 
 Traditional spelling : 
 
 u, as in huit [qit], nuance [nqais]. 
 
 Articulation. The tongue having assumed the position 
 for [y], and the lips a still more forward and contracted 
 position, the vocal chords are instantly made to vibrate, and 
 the organs at once proceed to form the following vowel. 
 
 Explanation. This consonant is related to the vowel [y] 
 just as [w] is to [u], and, like [w], is sometimes called a 
 semi-vowel. Like [w], too, it belongs to the same syllable 
 as the vowel by which it is followed, both sounds being 
 produced with one and the same emission of breath. 
 
 The voice often prevents any friction being heard. 
 
 There is no sound in English that corresponds even 
 remotely to [q], and, although its acquisition presents no 
 insuperable difficulty, it is nearly always pronounced very 
 badly by English-speakers. The vowel [y] must be first 
 mastered, and should be readily produced before the con- 
 sonant is attempted. 
 
 The English-speaking student needs to be specially 
 cautioned against substituting [w] or [u] for [q]. The 
 initial of huit [qit] must be carefully distinguished from 
 that of oui [wi], and lui [Iqi] must not be confounded with 
 Louis [lui] [Iwi]. Such mispronunciations shock a French 
 ear, and are much more easily avoided than is generally 
 believed. Attention must be paid to the position of the 
 tongue : for both sounds in the group [qi] the tongue 
 occupies the same position, viz. that for [i], whereas 
 in the group [wi] it occupies first its extreme backward 
 and then its extreme forward vowel-position. Hence in 
 [qi] the tongue remains stationary, the change from con- 
 sonant to vowel being produced by the backward movement 
 
60 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 of the lips alone : in [wi] we have the same backward 
 movement of the lips, but the tongue moves forward. 
 When [q] is followed by some other vowel than [i] the 
 tongue moves backward ' ; when |~w] is followed by some 
 other vowel than [i] the tongue still always moves forward. 
 The learner should never forget that to produce [q] he 
 must thrust both tongue and lips right forward. 
 
 Lip-Teeth-Breath- Fricative. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [f]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. f, as in>z/ [fu], z/"[if]; 
 
 2. ff, as in affaire [afsir], gaffe [gaf] ; 
 
 3. pk, as in phase [faiz], epitaphe [epitaf]. 
 
 Articulation. The lower lip being applied firmly against 
 the upper teeth, a stream of breath is forced out between 
 lip and teeth. The upper lip is slightly raised to avoid 
 contact with the lower. 
 
 The tongue, not being actively concerned, may meanwhile 
 prepare to articulate a following sound. 
 
 Explanation. In English, [f] often degenerates into 
 something very like a stop, little or no friction being heard. 
 French [f], which is a decided fricative, may, however, be 
 regarded as equivalent to a carefully uttered English [f]. 
 
 Lip-Teeth- Voice-Fricative. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [v]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. v, as in vie [vi], cave [ka:v] ; 
 
 2. w 9 as in wagon [vago]. 
 
 Articulation. The vocal chords being made to vibrate, 
 the lower lip is brought at once into contact with the upper 
 teeth, the breath being then forced out between lip and 
 teeth. The upper lip is slightly raised. 
 
THE CONSONANTS 61 
 
 The tongue may meanwhile prepare to articulate a follow- 
 ing sound. 
 
 Explanation. This sound does not differ appreciably 
 from a careful English [v]. Care, however, must be taken 
 in vocalizing a final [v]. In English the voice often ceases 
 the moment the lip meets the teeth : cave then almost 
 sounds [ksiv f ]. In French the resonance must be sus- 
 tained. The lips should not be pressed firmly against the 
 teeth as for [f]. 
 
 Point-Teeth-Lateral-Voice-Fricative. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [1]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. /, as in lait [Is], mal [mal] ; 
 
 2. //, as in allure [alyir], malle [mal]. 
 
 Articulation. The tongue assumes exactly the same 
 position as for [t] [d] and [n], save that a narrow opening 
 is left on each side between the tongue and the molars. 
 At the same moment the vocal chords are set vibrating, and 
 the breath is expelled through the lateral openings. 
 
 The lips, not being actively concerned, may meanwhile 
 prepare to articulate a following sound. 
 
 Explanation. The English [1] is produced, like English 
 [t] [d] [n], with the tip of the tongue against the gums at 
 some distance from the teeth ; the sound, being thus carried 
 further back in the mouth, has a dull, deep tone as compared 
 with the French [1]. The difference is particularly noticeable 
 when the [1] is final, but it is in all positions greater than 
 that between French and English point-stops. The English- 
 speaker must, therefore, be very careful to see that the point 
 of the tongue is in contact with the upper front-teeth. 
 
 It is no less important for him to note the lateral position 
 of the tongue. For the French [1] the tongue is spread out 
 and presses upwards against the molars. In English it is 
 
62 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 contracted into the shape of a spoon and falls inside the 
 teeth. Hence the teeth cannot be brought together in 
 French, as they can in English, while the tongue retains 
 the position for [1]. 
 
 Teeth-(Narrow) Blade-Breath-Fricative. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [s]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. s, as in source [stars], ^/f [fis] ; 
 
 2. ss, as in bossu [bosy], masse [mas] ; 
 
 3. t, as in del [sjsl], place [plas] ; 
 
 4. f, as mfafade [fasad] ; 
 
 5. 5vr, as m-sae \_s\\, fasce [fas] ; 
 
 6. x, as in soixante [swasait], dix [dis], expres 
 
 [sksprs] ; 
 
 7. ^, as in nation [ncrsjo], peripetie [peripesi]. 
 
 Articulation. The jaws being very close together, the tip 
 of the tongue touches lightly the lower front-teeth, its face 
 is raised towards the upper front-gums, its sides press 
 firmly against the upper molars : a narrow groove is formed 
 along the centre of the tongue, and the breath being forced 
 along this groove strikes against the front-teeth and pro- 
 duces a sharp hissing sound. 
 
 This consonant is voiceless. The lips are generally held 
 fairly close to the teeth, but if the [s] is followed by a 
 rounded vowel they may be protruded before the com- 
 pletion of the consonant. 
 
 Explanation. For the English [s] the tongue is further 
 back in the mouth, and points up towards the gums behind 
 the upper front-teeth ; the muscles being relaxed, the groove 
 is wider and the resulting sound less clear. The English- 
 speaking student must, therefore, be careful to keep the 
 muscles tense, the groove narrow and the point of the tongue 
 touching the lower front-teeth. 
 
THE CONSONANTS 63 
 
 English [s] is produced with less pressure than English 
 [z] ; in French the normal relations are preserved, the 
 voiceless [s] being a hard, the voiced [z] a soft consonant. 
 
 Teeth-(Narrow) Blade-Voice-Fricative. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [z]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. s, as in zele [zsl], gaz [gaiz] ; 
 
 2. , as in lazzi [lazi] ; 
 
 3. s, as in generosite [senerozite], base [baiz] ; 
 
 4. x, as in dix hommes [diz om], Xanthe [gzait]. 
 
 Articulation. The vocal chords being made to vibrate, 
 the tongue assumes the same position as for [s], save that 
 the pressure is reduced and the groove wider. 
 
 Explanation. French [z] differs from English [z] in the 
 position of the tongue, and in the volume and duration of 
 the voice. French [z] is a very sonorous consonant. The 
 voice should be heard while the tongue is assuming its 
 position, and must be well-sustained when the [z] is final. 
 In English a final [z] often approaches [z s ] : phase [fsiz 5 ]. 
 
 Teeth-(Broad) Blade-Breath-Fricative. 
 
 Phonetic sign : []. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. ch, as in cher [$r], vache [vaj] ; 
 
 2. sh, as in shako [$ako] ; 
 
 3. sch, as in schisme [Jism]. 
 
 Articulation. The mouth being almost closed and the 
 lips slightly projected in the form of a trumpet-bell, the 
 tongue is drawn back a little from the position for [s], its 
 point and face are raised close to the gums and front palate, 
 its sides press against the upper molars and gums, producing 
 a broad groove along the front part of the blade : the breath 
 
64 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 is then forced vigorously along the groove, and strikes 
 against the front teeth. 
 
 The sound is voiceless. 
 
 Explanation. English [$] in shine differs considerably 
 from the French sound, the difference being due to the 
 slackness of the muscles of the tongue, the more backward 
 position of the tongue, the feebleness of the breath-emission 
 and the neutral position of the lips. 
 
 French [$] is a hard consonant produced with greater 
 pressure than its voiced counterpart [5]. The friction is more 
 emphatic than in English. The degree in which the lips 
 are projected is not constant ; but they are never quite idle. 
 
 Teeth-(Broad) Blade- Voice-Fricative. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [3], 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. /, as in jour [51111]; 
 
 2. ge, as in gedle [301!], gageure [gasyir],>ge [syis] ; 
 
 3. g, as in gigot [sigo], largeur [la^ceir]. 
 Articulation. The vocal chords being set in vibration, 
 
 the organs assume the positions for [J] with slight modi- 
 fication due to diminished tenseness of the muscles. 
 
 Explanation. The English [3] in measure [111839], leisure 
 [1539] is far from equivalent to the French [3]. The latter 
 requires a more forward position of the tongue, more 
 emphatic friction and much more generous vocalization. 
 The vocal chords vibrate as the tongue is assuming its 
 position, and the buzz must be well-sustained when the 
 consonant is final : Fr. cage [kai3] must not be pronounced 
 [ka:3 r j. The tongue must not be pressed firmly against the 
 palate as with [$]. 
 
 The [3] is not modified by a preceding [d]. Compare 
 the English words adjective, adjacent, with the French 
 adjectif, adjacent. The syllabication of the English words 
 
THE CONSONANTS 65 
 
 is [seds-ak-tiv] [9-dssi-S9nt], that of the French [ad-ssk-tif] 
 [ad-sa-sa]. In English [d] and [3] are mutually modified 
 by their combination in the same syllable : in French the 
 sounds are separated and retain their individual values. 
 
 Point-Trill-Voice-Fricative. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [r]. 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. r, as in rare [rd;r], ver, vers, vert [veir] ; 
 
 2. rr, as in carreau [karo], verre [veir] ; 
 
 3. rh, as in rhume [rym], rhum [rom] ; 
 
 4. rrh, as in arrhes [a:r], catarrhe [katair]. 
 Articulation. The point of the tongue is turned upwards 
 
 and brought loosely against the angle formed by the front 
 gums and the hard palate : the vocal chords are then made 
 to vibrate, and the breath being forced out between the 
 tongue and the gums sets the tongue vibrating. As it 
 vibrates it strikes rapidly against the gums. 
 
 The lips, not being actively concerned, may meanwhile 
 prepare to articulate a following vowel or consonant. 
 
 Explanation. In English this [r] must be regarded as 
 dialectal : it is heard regularly only in Ireland and Scotland, 
 though its use as an initial in the North of England is not 
 uncommon. Elsewhere (in the South of England, in 
 America and in Australia) [a] alone is heard. This [a] is 
 regularly formed with the same tongue-position as [r] but 
 without the trill : it is subject to slight variations, but is 
 normally a mere fricative, like [v]. If bevy [bsvi] be 
 compared with berry [ben] it will be found that the tongue 
 strikes against the angle of the gums for [i] in much the 
 same way as the lip strikes the teeth for [v]. The English 
 [j], save occasionally in the North of England, is pro- 
 nounced only before a vowel : rat [iset], tray [tiei], far 
 away [fan owsi]. In other positions it has been lost 
 F.P, E 
 
66 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 altogether in the South of England and in Australia, though 
 its place is sometimes taken by the vowel [s] : far [fa\],farm 
 [faim], bird [b"eid], pair [psi] or [psis], fire [fai9]. In the 
 North of England when r follows a vowel the tongue is 
 curled upwards towards the gums, but often fails to form a 
 contact with them ; the vowel-sound is then modified, but 
 no consonant is heard : these pronunciations may be indi- 
 cated by placing [a] over the vowel : part [puit], third [fold]. 
 The final [j] is treated in a similar way in America, but the 
 tongue being here curled further back towards the hard 
 palate, the modification of the vowel is more emphatic. 
 
 There are several species of r in French. The tongue- 
 point [r] is the only one admitted by the l Conservatoire de 
 Musique et de Declamation,' which fixes the standard for 
 artistic singing and elocution in Paris ; and is regularly 
 heard on the stage of the Comedie Frangaise. It is very 
 common among the educated classes in other parts of 
 France. But it is not the characteristic Parisian r. The 
 latter is known as the ' uvular rj or 'r grasseyee,' and is 
 represented phonetically by the sign [R]. It is articulated as 
 follows : The point of the tongue is curved downwards and 
 pressed against the inside of the lower front-teeth, the 
 back part of the tongue is slightly raised, and the velum 
 (pendant end of the soft palate) lowered until the uvula 
 lies forward on the tongue : the vocal chords are then set 
 vibrating, and the breath being expelled sets, in some cases, 
 the uvula, in others, the back of the tongue and the con- 
 tracted edges of the throat in vibration. [R] which, like [r], 
 is thus normally a trilled consonant, sometimes degenerates 
 into an ordinary fricative indistinguishable from the g in the 
 German word Wagen, when the latter is pronounced as a 
 fricative and not as a back-stop. This modification, which 
 is indicated by the sign [x], is considered faulty. 
 
 It is a mistake to imagine that the 'uvular r' is an indis- 
 
THE CONSONANTS 67 
 
 pensable mark of good French pronunciation, or even that it 
 is the only r heard in the streets of Paris. It is not recom- 
 mended by any of the authorities. Moreover, the native-born 
 Parisian, who uses the [R] himself, will not detect anything 
 peculiar in the tongue-point [r], correctly produced. The 
 French [r] must be trilled, but not forcibly. An emphatic [r] 
 or [R] is either vulgar, or, like the Irish [r] in English, dialectal. 
 In French, the r is sounded as a rule in all positions : com- 
 pare Fr. marche [marj] and Eng. march [maitj], Fr. car [kair] 
 and Eng. car [kai], Fr. pour [puir] [pur] and Eng. floor [puis] 
 [puua], Fr. pire [piir] and Eng. peer [pno] [piis], Fr. partie, 
 parti [parti] and Eng. party [pa:ti], Fr. personne [psrson] and 
 Eng. person [p^sn]. A final r is, however, not pronounced (i) in 
 infinitives of the ist conjugation, e.g. trouver [truve], far [fie] ; 
 (ii) in all but monosyllabic nouns and adjectives in -er&nd -ier, 
 except amer[a,m&ir], e.g.archer [arje], danger\^f^\^ger [Ie5e], 
 menager [menase], rentier [ra'tje], chapelier [Japolje], premier 
 [pr9mje], altier [altje], but/er [feir], cher [\B\i\far [fjeir] ; (iii) 
 in monsieur [ni9sj0], messieurs [me'sj0], volontiers [volo'tje], 
 and many proper names, e.g. Tanger [ta'se], Poitiers [pwatje]. 
 
 Front- Voice-Fricative. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [j], 
 Traditional spellings : 
 
 1. /', as in bien [bjs], dieu [dj0] ; 
 
 2. y, as myeux [j0], foyer [fwaje] ; 
 
 3. /'/, as in email [emaij], bail [baij] ; 
 
 4. ille, as in paille [poij], fille [fiij]. 
 Articulation. The tongue occupies the position for [i], 
 
 save that the blade is brought right up to the palate. The 
 vocal chords vibrate, and the breath is expelled between 
 palate and tongue. 
 
 The lips may meanwhile prepare to articulate a following 
 vowel. 
 
68 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 Explanation. The sound being closely related to [i] 
 is sometimes called a semi-vowel. It differs little from 
 the English [j] in yes [jss] [jis], though the muscles of the 
 tongue are usually somewhat tenser in producing the French 
 sound. The latter should not be sustained, and the friction 
 should be faint. 
 
 [j] has supplanted the 'liquid /' [A] save in the South of 
 France and Switzerland. Pronunciations with [A], constantly 
 recommended by Littre, must now be regarded as dialectal. 
 Glottal-Breath-Fricative. 
 
 Phonetic sign : [h]. 
 
 Traditional spelling \ h, as in aha ! [aha]. 
 
 Articulation. The vocal chords are brought close 
 together, and the breath is expelled between them with 
 audible friction and gradually increasing force, until the 
 following vowel is heard. 
 
 Explanation. In standard French [h] is produced only 
 under the influence of emotion : it is thus heard regularly in 
 interjections such as oho ! he ! and occasionally in expres- 
 sions like je hais [39 he], une honte [yn ho it], la haine 
 [la hsm], aheurter [ahcerte]. It may even be introduced 
 vulgarly where there is no corresponding letter, as in 
 Attention! [hata'sjo]. 1 
 
 Its use in provincial French (e.g. in Normandy and 
 Brittany) is more common. 
 
 The student will do well, as a rule, to regard the 
 h aspirle as a mere sign showing that neither elision nor 
 linking is permissible. 
 
 This French [h] is strictly equivalent neither to the 
 German nor to the English aspirate. The former is begun 
 with the maximum force ; ; the latter is attacked like the 
 French [h], with gradually increasing force, but there is a 
 diminution of effort before the vowel is reached, 
 also Part II. Chap. V. p. 163. 
 
PART II 
 
 THE SOUNDS IN COMBINATION 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 UNITS OF SPEECH 
 (SENTENCE, SOUND-GROUP, STRESS-GROUP, SYLLABLE) 
 
 ' THE combination of speech-sounds in connected discourse 
 brings them under the influence of new factors which may 
 modify their nature or even control their existence. If we 
 pronounce the words The fear of an attack, first separately, 
 as they are taught to the child : [Sri] [fris] [ov] [aen] [aetaek], 
 and then continuously, as they would be spoken by an 
 adult : ['53 fii9j 9v 9n otaek], it will be seen that in the 
 combination several of the sounds are altered, a new sound 
 [j] is heard before of, and the accented syllables of fear 
 and attack are uttered with a greater stress and at a higher 
 pitch than any of the other syllables in the expression. 
 Changes of a similar kind take place in French. 
 
 From the grammatical and orthographical points of view a 
 sentence is made up of so many separate words, and, 
 because we recognize these units as they are spoken, and see 
 them as we read, we are apt to conclude that they have also 
 phonetic individuality, the spaces between the written words 
 being represented in speech by a series of short pauses. 
 
70 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 This conclusion has no foundation in fact. The simple 
 sentence takes the form of an uninterrupted stream of 
 sound. Phrases like The night is far spent, II y est 
 arrive are as continuous as the single words insuperable, 
 inevitablement. In more or less complex sentences, 
 however, one may pause to take breath or to make the 
 meaning clear, or for both of these purposes at the same 
 time. Take, for example, the following sentence : En 
 revo quant Pedit de Nantes Louis XIV porta un coup 
 desastreux au commerce de son pays, car les protestants 
 s' expatrierent en foule et porterent a Petranger les secrets des 
 arts et des industries de France. To utter such a sentence 
 without a break would be a mere tour de force : one 
 is practically compelled to make a pause, were it only for 
 the purpose of drawing breath. At the same time it is only 
 by pausing that the meaning can be adequately expressed. 
 We must at least make a break at the word pays, and 
 we shall probably find it advisable to make others. The 
 sentence might be conveniently divided into the following 
 groups: En revoquant Pedit de Nantes Louis XIV porta 
 un coup desastreux au commerce de son pays, car les 
 protestants s* expatrierent en foule et porterent a Petranger 
 les secrets des arts et des industries de France. In deliberate 
 utterance the length of the groups might be reduced still 
 further by pausing at the words desastreux and etranger. 
 The unbroken succession of speech-sounds between any two 
 such pauses is called a sound-group, and it is generally 
 within the limits of such a sound-group that the new factors 
 affecting sounds in combination operate. The sentence 
 may consist of one or several sound-groups, but the sound- 
 group should not contain more than one sentence. 
 
 No mechanical rules can be laid down for the division of 
 the complex sentence into sound-groups. It depends upon 
 circumstances, such as the character of the phrase whether 
 
UNITS OF SPEECH 71 
 
 it be ceremonious or conversational, the occasion on which 
 it is uttered, the speaker's age, intellectual power and habits 
 of speech. The schoolboy will, in speaking, generally form 
 shorter groups than the educated adult, and in a formal 
 address there will be greater deliberation and more frequent 
 pauses than in familiar conversation. It should, however, 
 be observed that pauses are, as a rule, justifiable only when 
 they coincide with what may be called a junction in the 
 meaning of the phrase. Punctuation is neither a sufficient 
 nor an infallible guide. On the one hand, as reference to 
 the example analysed will show, a pause may often be made 
 where there is no punctuation-mark. On the other, although 
 the full stop, the colon and the semi-colon necessitate a 
 pause, the comma should sometimes be ignored. Thus, in 
 the expression : Dans cette fameuse .Preface de Cromwell, qui 
 fut, en France, le programme de la rlvohttion litteraire . . . 
 (Koschwitz's Parlers parisiens, p. 81, line i), the linking of 
 fut with en, [ki fyt a frais], is obligatory in spite of the 
 intervening comma. Linking, again, is often advisable in 
 expressions like Puis, il ajouta, etc., Mais, il avait, etc. In 
 Mais, au fur et a mesure qu^on s'eloigne de la capitale . . . 
 (Parlers parisiens, p. 47, 1. i) and in Puis, elle se sentait 
 soulevle . . . (Parlers parisiens, p. 13, 1. 12) the majority of 
 Koschwitz's readers * link the ' Mais ' and the ' Puis ' to the 
 following word. MM. Rousselot, Jean Passy and Adolphe 
 Rambeau, who, as we shall see in the next chapter, link 
 very sparingly, all read [pgtiz afame], in spite of the ellipse, 
 in the following line from Alfred de Musset's Nuit de Mai : 
 Ses petits, affames, courent sur le rivage (Precis de Prononcia- 
 tion fran$aise, p. 199, 1. 24; Chrestomathie fran^aise, 
 p. 191, 1. 12). In English, too, the comma is often 
 disregarded even by careful readers, for instance, before 
 and after such words as however, therefore, nevertheless. 
 1 For an account of these readings see the following chapter. 
 
72 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 The traditional rule enjoining a pause at every comma is 
 consequently not valid for either language. 
 
 Although all the sounds forming a sound-group are 
 uttered without a break, it will be observed that they are 
 not all pronounced with the same force or at the same 
 pitch. Their treatment in these respects, which is by no 
 means the same in French as in English, will be discussed 
 at a later stage. For the present it is only necessary to 
 note that by means of these variations the ear is enabled 
 to detect certain subdivisions of the sound-group. Thus 
 in the first half of the sentence which has been taken as 
 an example, the following sub-groups may be easily dis- 
 criminated : En revoquant Vedit de Nantes Louis XIV- 
 porta un coup desastreux au commerce de son pays. These 
 divisions are suggestive of the bars in a piece of music. 
 They are distinguishable, in spite of the continuity of the 
 stream of sound, by the recurrence of relatively strong beats 
 or accents, and are for that reason called stress-groups. The 
 ictus in French falls on the last full 1 syllable of each 
 group. The analogy between stress-groups and musical 
 bars is, however, not thoroughgoing, for the former are of 
 variable length. They impart rhythm to the phrase but 
 derive their origin from the thought expressed rather than 
 from the mere form of the words. They consist, in general, 
 of two or three words so intimately connected with each 
 other as to be more or less unintelligible when separated. 
 In very slow delivery, for instance in dictating, stress-groups 
 may become sound-groups separated from each other by 
 actual pauses. 
 
 If we attempt to analyse the stress-group we find that the 
 
 next phonetic element is the syllable. Syllables in speech 
 
 correspond very closely to notes in music. They vary in 
 
 timbre, length, pitch and stress. But differences in timbre, 
 
 1 The term ' full syllable ' is meant to exclude the * e mute. ' 
 
UNITS OF SPEECH 73 
 
 duration and pitch are not essential. We may have two 
 successive syllables, as well as two successive notes, of 
 identical value in these three respects. The distinction 
 between the syllables or notes in that case can lie only in 
 an abrupt change in intensity. It is possible to have two 
 successive notes or syllables bearing an equal stress, but 
 there is a fraction of time between them when the stress 
 is suddenly diminished. For the present purpose this may 
 be illustrated by the group awe or fear [DI D fus]. It 
 will be found impossible to divide the continuous sound [D] 
 into two syllables without varying more or less abruptly 
 the intensity of utterance. 
 
 The analogy between syllable and note ultimately fails 
 because the syllable may consist of one or more consonants 
 and a vowel, that is, of two or more successive sounds. 
 These sounds, however, though they may have different 
 degrees of sonority, must be of such a nature that they 
 can all be uttered with one and the same expulsion of 
 breath. 
 
 We need not enter into further detail to show that it is 
 of vital importance for the learner of a language to know 
 how the successive elements of a sound-group are them- 
 selves grouped into syllables. Now the French and English 
 languages differ nowhere more than in their syllabic struc- 
 ture. The French system, which, unlike the English, 
 strongly favours open syllables, that is, syllables ending 
 with a vowel-sound, may be summarized as follows : 
 
 (i) A single consonant standing between two vowels 
 always forms a syllable with the second vowel : indivi- 
 sibilite [s-di-vi-zi-bi-li-te], tiviliser [si-vi-li-ze], inusite 
 [i-ny-zi-te], mathematiques [ma-te-ma-tik], piller [pi-je], 
 profiter [pro-fi-te]. 
 
 (ii) In groups of two or more consonants of which the 
 last is a ' liquid ' : [1] [r] or a ' semi-vowel ' : [w] [q] [j], the 
 
74 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 two, or, in groups of more than two, the last two, form a 
 syllable with the vowel which follows : tableau [ta-blo], 
 montrer [mo-tre], devoir [do-vwair], religion [r9-li-3J5], pitif 
 [pi-tje], menuisier [m9-nqi-zje], parfois [par-fwa], affreux 
 [a-fr0], rallier [ra-lje]. The groups [rl] [Ir] form excep- 
 tions : parler [par-le]. Similarly, where the last consonant 
 is neither a liquid nor a semi-vowel, the group will be 
 divided between the two syllables : tristesse [tris-tss], 
 gouverner [gu-vsr-ne], brusquement [brys-k9-mn], carton 
 [kar-t5], percer [psr-se], victime [vik-tim]. 
 
 (iii) Even three consonants are carried over to the vowel 
 following if the second is a liquid and the third a semi- 
 vowel : recroiser [r9-krwa-ze], refroidir [ra-frwa-diir], 
 instruit [s's-trqi]. 
 
 (iv) A consonant never forms a syllable by itself. In 
 English words like people [piipl], given [givn], spasm [spaezm], 
 the [1] [n] and [m] have a syllabic value. In French the 
 words peuple, tourne, spasme are pronounced either in single 
 syllables [pcepl] [turn] [spasm], or in two syllables, by 
 sounding the [9] after the consonants in question : [pce-pb] 
 [tur-ng] [spaz-mg]. 
 
 (v) Every syllable contains one, and only one, vowel. 
 In this respect traditional orthography is often much at 
 variance with modern pronunciation, two or three vowel- 
 signs being used to denote a single vowel-sound or a 
 consonant and a vowel : beau [bo], craie [krs], fouet [fws], 
 out [wi], poid [pwa], poele [pwail], loin [Iws], lui [Iqi], rien 
 [rjs], dieu [dj0], mieux [mj0]. 
 
 On the other hand, two or three successive vowel-signs 
 occasionally represent two independent syllables : chaos 
 [ka-o], crier [kri-e],/$?r [pli-e], cree [kre-e],/0<&z> [po-e-zi], 
 cruelle [kry-sl], brouette [bru-st]. 
 
 The above rules for syllabication have been illustrated 
 by isolated words ; so complete, however, is the unity of 
 
UNITS OF SPEECH 75 
 
 the sound-group that they usually apply even between words 
 within its limits : 
 
 Peut-etre est-il encore en vie [p0-t8-trs-ti-la ko-ra-vi], 
 
 rendre un service [ra-drde-ssr-vis], 
 
 corps a corps [ko-ra-koir], 
 
 vers une heure [vs-ry-noeir], 
 
 une honnete aisance [y-no-ns-ts-zais], 
 
 une etude approfondie [y-ne-ty-da-pro-fo-di], 
 
 table a jouer [ta-bla~5u-e], 
 
 reste a savoir [rss-ta-sa-vwair], 
 
 porte ouverte [por-tu-vsrt], 
 
 chers amis [Jsr-za-mi], 
 
 ordre inattendu [or-dri-na-ta-dy]. 
 
 The regularity of the syllabic structure of the sound-group 
 must nevertheless not be exaggerated. In deliberate speech, 
 a rigid application of the rules between words would some- 
 times be pedantic and unnatural. Thus a final consonant 
 would hardly be grouped with a following initial [1] or [r] : 
 cette reine will be pronounced [sst-rsm] rather than [se-trsin], 
 toute la terre [tut-la-ts:r] rather than [tu-tla-tsir], ce n'est que 
 la verite [s9-nsk-la-ve-ri-te] rather than [sa-ns-kla-ve-ri-te]. 
 Even in the body of words in which the elision of an ' e 
 mute creates a group of consonants ending in a liquid, the 
 group is not always sounded with the following vowel : matelot 
 [ma-tlo] or [mat-lo], bibelot [bi-blo] or [bib-lo], lapereau 
 [la-pro] or [lap-ro]. Again, although a final consonant is 
 generally carried over to an initial vowel in the same sound- 
 group, it is often sounded with the preceding syllable when 
 the latter bears an accent, that is, ends a stress-group or 
 is emphatic : Quel homme ! ["ksl-om]. 
 
 The phonetic syllabication of French, which, as we have 
 seen, proceeds with almost mathematical regularity, contrasts 
 strikingly with that of our own language. In English a single 
 
76 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 consonant between two vowels belongs, as often as not, to the 
 first : compare common [kom-on], essence [8s-9ns], abbot 
 [aeb-st], alley [ael-i]'with attack [o-taek], irate [cu-isit], at any 
 rate [o-tsn-i-asit], an ass [s-nses], less usually [gn-aes]. 
 Such a consonant often seems to be a kind of link between 
 the two syllables, belonging to neither of them in particular : 
 without [wi-S-aut], setting [ss-t-irj], student [stjuu-d-nt]. 
 The learner must be careful not to carry over these habits of 
 speech into the foreign language. If comment be pronounced 
 [kom-a] instead of [ko-ma], commun [kom-de] instead of 
 [ko-mde], abbe [ab-e] instead of [a-be], aller [al-e] instead 
 of [a-le], French ears will often hear a double consonant. 1 
 
 The phonetic syllabication of French is also at variance 
 with its own system of graphic syllabication. While, for 
 instance, custom forbids the separation of rhomme by 
 writing /' at the end of one line and homme at the beginning 
 of the next, it sanctions the separation of notre and homme^ 
 and prohibits the carrying over of the / in un animal enorme 
 to the following line, although the connection in the latter 
 cases [no-torn] [de-na-ni-ma-le-nDrm] is quite as close as 
 that between P and homme. The eye, in short, demands a 
 departure from the strict phonetic syllabication wherever it 
 would impair the identity of the word. 
 
 On the other hand, the word is not a phonetic unit. It 
 may, of course, become a sound-group in itself, as, for 
 example, the imperative : Donne /, or Personne in a negative 
 answer without a verb. But when, as is usually the case, it 
 forms part of a composite group, its individuality, in point 
 of sound, is merged in the latter. Thus a prendre has the 
 same sound-value as apprendre, il apprit the same as // a 
 pris, trop heureux the same as trop peureux, de voir the 
 same as devoir, qui Fa vu the same as qu'il a vu. The 
 mind alone, by its power of interpretation, is capable of 
 x On double sounds see Chap. V. p. 156. 
 
UNITS OF SPEECH 77 
 
 distinguishing the words in a sound-group. And it can do 
 so unerringly only after much training in reading and 
 writing. Ability to speak a language arid knowledge of the 
 meaning conveyed are, in themselves, insufficient. An 
 illustration of the fact is found in one of Therese's letters 
 to Jean- Jacques Rousseau which has survived, and which 
 contains examples like the following : Mesiceuras ancor mieu 
 re mies for Mais il sera encore mieux remis. 
 
 Words lose their identity in the sound-group, not only 
 by the absence of ' blanks ' between them, but often because 
 they no longer sound precisely as they did when isolated. 
 In French, indeed, they undergo manifold modifications. 
 They may lose a syllable, as, for example, tenir [toniir] in 
 the group a tenir [a tniir]. They may gain one, as 
 table [tabl] in table ronde [tabls roid]. They may lose a 
 consonant, as quatre [katr] in quatre morceaux [kat morso], 
 or neuf [ncef] in neuf places [nee plas], and to this change 
 may be added the modification of a survivirig consonant, 
 as in maitre d'kdtel [ms't dot el], where the voiceless [t] of 
 maitre is at least partially assimilated to the following 
 voiced consonant. They may gain a consonant, like petit . 
 [p9ti] in petit enfant [patit a 'fa], or the final consonant may 
 be assimilated, as in tasse de the [ta's d9 te]. Or a vowel 
 may be transformed into a consonant, involving sometimes 
 the loss of a syllable which formed a monosyllabic word : 
 II y a, Ca y est, Ou est-ill becoming in hasty speech [il ja] 
 [sa je] [wet il]. And over and above all these modifications 
 are changes in the length of vowels and consonants, differ- 
 ences of pitch and stress, and the displacement of the 
 normal accent under the influence of emotion. Clearly, 
 then, a knowledge of the individual sounds and of dictionary 
 pronunciations needs to be supplemented by an acquaintance 
 with the factors that control sounds in combination and 
 bring about these changes. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 LINKING 
 
 LINKING or liaison, in its wider sense, is the carrying over 
 of a consonant or group of consonants at the end of a word 
 to form a syllable with the initial vowel or semi-vowel of 
 the next word in the sound-group. The term is, however, 
 generally limited in French grammars to the carrying over 
 of otherwise mute consonants, as \x\petit enfant [pstit a'fn], 
 and, as the linking of a consonant which would be sounded 
 even if not carried over is merely an aspect of the syllabic 
 structure of the phrase which has already been discussed, 
 it will be convenient to use the term in its narrower sense. 
 
 Linking is possible only between words belonging to one 
 and the same sound-group, the final consonant and initial 
 vowel being pronounced together as one syllable precisely 
 as if they were both in the body of the same word. Hence 
 no pause can be made either before or after the consonant : 
 nos amis must be pronounced [nozami], not [no, zami], nor 
 [noz, ami] ; vingt et un ans must be pronounced [vstedena], 
 just as if it were a single word, and, as we shall see at a 
 later stage, the tonic accent will fall, not on the word ans, 
 but on the syllable [na]. ' There is nothing more laugh- 
 able,' says Professor Passy, 1 ' than an ill-made liaison. C'est 
 une idle pronounced [set, ynide] suggests the hiccups, A 
 1 Les Sons du Fran$ais, 6th ed., p. 41. 
 
LINKING 79 
 
 teacher used to pronounce phrases like la premiere est 
 excessivement facile, making a pause after est\ [la pramjsirs, 
 tsiksssiivma fasil]. There would be a general outburst of 
 laughter every time.' 
 
 In certain cases, however, the resuscitated consonant is 
 not carried over to the following initial vowel but closes the 
 preceding syllable. This happens only where the resuscita- 
 tion is obligatory, and the second of the two words in 
 question contains more than one syllable with displaced 
 accent upon the first. 1 Thus in the phrase U&uvre de 
 Shakespeare est amorale, the initial [a] of amorale being 
 accented, is attacked with a glottal-stop, and thus clearly 
 separated from the preceding consonant : [Iceivra da Jekspiir 
 st Pamoral]. 2 
 
 Liaisons of this kind are very rare exceptions, and the 
 learner, in his endeavour to follow the rule, is apt to lay 
 undue stress upon the syllable that forms the link between 
 two words. He must be on his guard against this tendency. 
 To be good, linking must be effected without the least 
 trace of effort. A laborious liaison is a discord in the place 
 of a grace-note. 
 
 Not every word that begins with a vowel-sound admits of 
 linking. Those words which are spelled with an initial 
 'h aspirate' form some of the exceptions. This h need 
 not, and generally should not, be pronounced, but whether 
 it be pronounced or not, no linking can take place. We 
 must say [le ero] = les heros, [ce gra ero] = un grand heros, 
 [le sin] [le hsin] = les haines. Another class of exceptions 
 consists of words beginning with a semi-vowel : [w] [ij] or 
 [j]. Some of these words may be linked : e.g. les oies 
 [lez wa], les hmtres [lez uitr], les yeux [lez j0]. Linking 
 is admissible with nearly all words in [wa] and [ws], e.g. 
 
 1 See pp. 1 70 ff. 
 
 2 The above example was heard at a public lecture in Paris. 
 
8o FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 oiseau, oisif, oing, oindre ; but it must be regarded as 
 exceptional in all other cases. In doubt, reference should 
 be made to a dictionary. Whenever a word beginning with 
 a semi-vowel does not admit of linking, and whenever the 
 linking of such a word is optional or variable, the fact is 
 carefully noted in the valuable dictionary with phonetic 
 script published by T. C. and E. C. Jack. 
 
 With the exception of [f], which sometimes changes to 
 [v] in the word neuf [ncef ], and [s] in six [sis] and dix [dis], 
 which always becomes [z], all consonants that would be 
 sounded in the isolated word preserve their original sound 
 when carried over : qu'il rende un service [kil ra'd de ssrvis], 
 fils ame [fis ene], tons ensemble [tus a'saibl], les Us edatants 
 [le lis eklata], attentif a tout [ata'tif a tu]. A final [s] may, 
 in the reading of elevated prose and verse, be pronounced 
 [z] or, in the plural of a word of which it is heard in the 
 singular, [sz] : tous ensemble [tuz a'saibl], les lis edatants [Is 
 lisz eklata], les mceurs antiques [Is mcerz a'tik] [Is mcersz 
 a'tik]. The [v] liaison of neuf\&& been definitely preserved 
 only in expressions of constant recurrence, such as neuf ans 
 [ncev a], neuf heures [ncev ce;r], neuf enfants [ncev a' fa] ; 
 elsewhere modern usage is not settled, though it favours the 
 [f] liaison : neuf ecoliers [ncef ekolje], neuf amis [ncef ami] 
 rather than [ncev eoklje], [ncev ami]. A latent consonant, 
 on the other hand, is sometimes resuscitated in a modified 
 form. These exceptions a.re </, which is pronounced as [t] ; 
 g, which is pronounced as [k] ; s and x, which sound as [z]. 
 Examples : il rend un service [il rat de ssrvis], grand homme 
 [grat om], un long exil [de 15k egzil], un long hiver [de 15k 
 ivsir], les os [lez o] [lez ois] [lez os], beaux habits [boz abi]. 
 
 When, in linking, a nasal vowel evolves a nasal consonant, 
 the vowel more often than not loses its nasal character. 
 
 [5] is regularly denasalized, as in bon ami [bon ami], not 
 [bon ami] ; it remains nasal, exceptionally, in the pronoun 
 
LINKING 81 
 
 on, and sometimes in ton, son, mon : on arrive [on ariiv], 
 mon ami [mon ami] or [mon ami], son argent [son arsa] or 
 [son ar5a]. [s] generally loses its nasality save when it is 
 spelled in : en plein air [a plsn sir] rather than [a plsn sir] ; 
 certain homme [ssrtsn om] rather than [ssrtsn om], ancien 
 officier [a'sjsn ofisje] rather than [a'sjsn ofisje] ; but le divin 
 Epicure [b divsn epikyir], le malm esprit [b rnalsn sspri]. 
 Exceptions are bien and rien in which the nasal vowel is 
 usually preserved : bien aimable [bjsn s'mabl], je ne com- 
 prends rien a tout cela [59 n ko'pra rjsn a tu sla]. Littre's 
 recommendation to denasalize the vowel in these two words 
 is contrary to current usage. 
 
 The denasalization of [de] is optional : un homme may be 
 pronounced [oen om] or [cen om]. The pronunciation [yn 
 om], which is heard occasionally, should not be imitated. 
 
 Hence the only vowel that never sacrifices its nasality is 
 [a] : // en est must be pronounced [il an s], en attendant 
 [an ata'da]. 
 
 The question remains : When does linking take place ? 
 When is a latent final consonant resuscitated ? The answer 
 depends in the main upon three considerations, namely, 
 the standard of speech, the relation between the two words, 
 and the requirements of euphony and sense. As linking 
 generally implies a knowledge of orthography, it is to be 
 associated with the idea of learned and careful utterance. 
 It is, therefore, much more frequent in reading than in 
 speaking, more frequent in the reading of lofty prose than 
 in that of colloquial passages, while it becomes the rule in 
 the recitation of serious verse. Conversely, it may be said 
 that linking becomes more and more unusual according as 
 the tone, style, matter and occasion become less formal, less 
 ceremonious. In the ordinary intercourse of everyday life, 
 it easily becomes a sign of bad taste, denoting pedantry, 
 affectation, the desire to appear ' cultured,' to speak 
 F.P. F 
 
82 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 ' correctly.' Hence, in conversation, as Professor Passy 
 points out, it is only the class of people intermediate 
 between the educated and the illiterate who link profusely. 
 And naturally enough, in their ignorance, they link not 
 only in the wrong place, but with the wrong consonant, 
 using [z] for [t] or vice versa. To this perhaps is due, in 
 some measure, the growing tendency among the educated 
 towards a more sparing use of liaison in familiar and col- 
 loquial speech. Hence, too, it will be easily understood 
 that, in the matter of linking, sins of omission are regarded 
 with more indulgence than sins of commission, and that, in 
 difficult cases, the student will be wise to apply the maxim 
 enjoining inaction in case of doubt. 
 
 There are, however, certain liaisons which must be 
 regarded as obligatory on all occasions. These are as 
 follows : 
 
 (i) Between an article, demonstrative adjective, possessive 
 adjective or numeral and an adjective or noun following : 
 les hommes [lez om], des amis [dez ami], un an [den a], cet 
 enfant [set a' fa], mon ami [mon ami], ses ailes [sez si], leurs 
 armes [Icerz arm], les autres [lez oitr], deux ours [d0'z uir], 
 trois cents hommes [trwa saz om], plusieurs horloges [plyzjcerz 
 orlo!5], quelques aunes [kslkoz oln]. 
 
 Similarly, in the pronominal expressions, les um [lez de], 
 les unes [lez yn] ; but not in the elliptical, vers les une heure 
 [ver le yn ceir], nor in les un, les huit, les onze [le de] [le qit] 
 [le oiz]. 
 
 (ii) Between an adjective and a noun following : les petits 
 enfants [le ptiz a 'fa], un grand ours [de grat urs], un gros 
 homme [de groz om], de mauvaises herbes [da move'zz 
 srb]. 
 
 (iii) Between a verb and a pronoun (subject or object) or 
 a pronoun and a verb : Us attendent [ilz atald], nous arrivons 
 [nuz arivo], vous aimez [vuz s'me], // en a [il an a], en a-t-on 
 
LINKING 83 
 
 [an ato], pour vous aider [pur vuz s'de], nous y sommes [nuz 
 i somj, vas-y [vaz i], joignons-y [swajioz i], perd-il [pert il], 
 plait-il [plst il], sont-elles [sot si], prends-en [praz a], voit-on 
 [vwat 5], allez-vous-en [ale vuz a], /<9z// e^/ &> [tut s bjs], /<? 
 /<*$ /' [59 lez e]. In <rV.y/ a vous a jouer the pronoun vous 
 is neither the subject nor the object of jouer, and the final 
 consonant remains mute : [set a vu a 5ue]. Between les 
 uns and a verb liaison is generally avoided : les uns enten- 
 dirent [lez de a'ta'diir] (Parl. par. 65, 7). 
 
 (iv) Between the auxiliaries avoir and etre and the past 
 participle of any verb : // est aime [il st s'me], nous sommes 
 occupes [nu somz okype], on avait entendii [on avet a'ta'dy], 
 Us ont appris [ilz ot apri], vous avez eu [vuz avez y]. 
 
 In familiar conversation this rule is occasionally neglected. 
 Pronunciations like the following are not uncommon : nous 
 etions arrives [nuz etjo arive], nous avons eu [nuz avo y], 
 tu as eu [ty a y]. 
 
 (v) Between etre and its complement : c'est un saint [set 
 de ss], // est en ville [il st a vil], // etait a Paris [il etst a 
 pa'ri], c'est a moi [sst a mwa], elle est aimable [si st s'mabl], 
 dest amusant [sst amy'za], soyez indulgents [swajez s'dylsa]. 
 Exceptions belong to careless conversation : vous etes un 
 polisson [vuz st de poliso] in place of the more dignified [vuz 
 stz de poliso]. 
 
 (vi) Between the common short adverbs and an adjec- 
 tive or adverb : trks utile [trsz ytil], bien egal [bjsn egal] 
 fort elegant [fort elega], tout entier [tut a'tje], trop avance 
 [trop ava'se], assez intime [asez s'tim], plus harmonieux 
 [plyz armonj0], mains eieve [mwsz elve], pas encore [paz 
 a'kDir]. 
 
 In less careful speech pas, plus and jamais are often not 
 linked. 
 
 (vii) Between a preposition and its complement : en 
 Angleterre [an a'gbtsir], en ecoutant [an ekuta], dans une 
 
84' FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 heure [dtiz yn ceir], sans abri [saz abri], sans entrer [saz a'tre], 
 devant eux [davat 0], chez elk [Jez el], ^?/^ z/?z arbre [suz den 
 arbr]. 
 
 The only exceptions to this rule are vers, envers and 
 selon : in the first two the [z] is rarely carried over, e.g. vers 
 elk [vsr si] rather than [vsrzsl] ; selon is never linked, e.g. 
 selon elk [s9lo si]. 
 
 In careless speech the final consonant of depuis, pendant 
 and aprh often remains mute. The authors of the Chresto- 
 mathie 1 give the liaison as optional even in reading : depuis 
 un sieck (61, 36); pendant un temps (93, 21); apres avoir 
 detruit ks Mameluks ( 1 09, 23). The student is recommended 
 to avoid these negligent pronunciations in reading, save, 
 perhaps, in cases like the second example where linking 
 may be avoided on grounds of euphony. 
 
 (viii) Between the conjunction quand and the word follow- 
 ing : quand il viendra [kat il vjs'dra], quand on en a [kat on 
 an a]. This liaison is neglected only in vulgar speech. (See 
 the Chrestomathie, p. 137, 1. 3.) 
 
 (ix) Between the relative dont and the word following : 
 rhomme dont il park [lorn dot il parl]. 
 
 (x) Between words forming compound expressions of a 
 fixed and invariable form : de mieux en mieux [d9 mj0z a 
 mj0], de pis en pis [d9 piz a pi], de plus en plus [d9 plyz a 
 ply], de temps en temps [d9 taz a ta], de temps a autre [d9 
 taz a oitr], plus ou mains [plyz u mws], mot a mot [mot 
 a mo], pied a terre [pjet a tsir], tdt ou tard [tot u tair], tout a 
 coup [tut a ku], tout a fait [tut a fs], tout a P heure [tut a 
 Iceir], tout au plus [tut o ply], tout au moins [tut o mws],/<?/- 
 au-feu [pot o f0], pot a eau [pot a o], mort aux rats [mort o . 
 ra], suer sang et eau [sye sdk e o], quant a [kat a], pas a 
 pas [paz a pa], un a un [den a de], Jes Etats-Unis [lez etaz 
 yni], ks Champs-EIysees [le Jaz elize]. In these and like 
 J See p. 85. 
 
LINKING 85 
 
 locations the liaison has been consecrated by long-standing 
 tradition. An exception is found in the expression a tort et 
 a travers [a tolr e a travsir]. 
 
 The foregoing rules exhaust all the cases in which linking 
 can be declared compulsory. Many of the cases that remain 
 to be discussed present problems that might be solved 
 diversely even by Frenchmen of undoubted culture. It 
 would, therefore, seem very desirable, in examining these 
 cases, to cite the practice of particular individuals. This 
 has been rendered to some extent possible by the publication 
 of phonetic texts. In the following pages appeal will be 
 made more particularly to the Parlers parisiens of Professor 
 Eduard Koschwitz (Elwert, Marburg; 3rd ed. 1898), and 
 the Chrestomathie fran^aise of Jean Passy and Adolphe 
 Rambeau (Henry Holt & Co., New York; 2nd ed. 1901). 
 The former work is an attempt to record the different pro- 
 nunciations of a number of educated Frenchmen. Each 
 specimen of prose or verse is not only read by its author 
 (de Bornier, Coppee, A. Daudet, Leconte de Lisle, Gaston 
 Paris, Ernest Renan, Sully-Prudhomme, Zola, etc.), or de- 
 claimed by a well-known actor (Silvain, Got, etc.), but is 
 reread by several other ' individus instruits et bien eleves,' 
 the variant pronunciations taking the form of footnotes. 
 Save in the case of the first specimen (a fragment from 
 Alphonse Daudet's Tartarin de Tarascon), in which the pro- 
 nunciations of thirteen readers are recorded, these secondary 
 4 subjects' are in each instance M. Pabbe Rousselot, the 
 experimental phonetician of the College de France, professor 
 at the Institut Catholique de Paris ; Professor Ritter of 
 ' Geneva ; M. Omer Jacob, licencie-es-lettres, of Paris ; and 
 M. Bleton, licencie-es-lettres, of Lyons. In a task of such 
 delicacy as this work implies, there is always the risk of 
 error on the part of the recorder, but this risk is reduced to 
 a minimum in the matter of liaison. The book may, there- 
 
86 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 fore, be consulted on this point without hesitation. But it 
 cannot be taken as a guide to the use of liaison in conversa- 
 tion : the specimens, though of varied character, are all 
 literary, and were read or declaimed ' according to what is 
 called the rules of art.' Its peculiar value lies rather in the 
 fact that it helps in determining the maximum number of 
 liaisons permissible in reading. 
 
 In the Chrestomathie the authors have recorded their own 
 pronunciations, normalized ' on certain points where it was 
 considered at variance with that of the majority.' This 
 work, therefore, has value as the result of collaboration 1 : it 
 does not merely represent the opinion of a single individual. 
 At the same time it contains a few passages of a colloquial 
 character in which the style of conversation is reproduced. 
 What strikes one most in it is the very slight difference in 
 point of treatment between these familiar extracts and the 
 passages of a literary character. In the reading of prose 
 passages more or less comparable to those of the Parlers 
 parisiens, MM. Jean Passy and Rambeau often sanction 
 and even recommend negligences which belong rather to 
 familiar intercourse. 2 These negligences extend to the 
 
 1 His original collaborator, Jean Passy, having died shortly after 
 the appearance of the first edition, M. Rambeau (now professor at the 
 University of Berlin) was assisted by Prof. Paul Passy in the preparation 
 of the second edition. As its readings differ little from those of the 
 first, we may conclude that they have threefold approval. 
 
 2 They anticipate this charge : ' Nous nous attendons a ce qu'on nous 
 reproche une prononciation vulgaire : c'est un grief assez general centre 
 les phonetistes' (Intro, xliv). Their answer is as follows: * II existe 
 une operation psychologique dont le role est considerable dans tout ce 
 qui touche au langage, qui consiste a substituer inconsciemment dans 
 notre esprit la forme pleine, lente et normale d'un mot a sa forme 
 occasionnelle, modifiee considerablement dans la phrase par 1'assimila- 
 tion, 1'elision ou la rapidite du discours.' This is an interesting 
 observation and perfectly true ; but it applies only to more or less 
 rapid utterance. If the ear has time to detect the absence or abnor- 
 
LINKING 87 
 
 domain of liaison. The authors certainly cannot be charged 
 with excessive and pedantic linking. And just for this 
 reason the Chrestomathie will form a useful pendant to the 
 work of Koschwitz in studying cases in which linking is more 
 or less a matter of taste. These cases may be summarized, 
 together with those in which linking is avoided, as follows : 
 
 (i) Between a noun and an adjective following. 
 
 If the noun is in the singular, linking never takes place in 
 conversation and is scarcely ever permissible in the reading 
 of prose : un dejeuner interminable [de de5cene s'tsrminabl], 
 accident imprevu [aksida s'prevy], coup imprevu [ku s'prevy], 
 un objet extraordinaire [den obss skstraordinsir], un perroquet 
 empaille [de psroks a'pa'je], marchand ambulant [marjci 
 ti'byla], chat echaude [$a ejo'de], escroc habile [sskro abil], 
 line paix honorable [yn ps onorabl], avis important [avi 
 s'pDrta]. Should the noun end in a nasal, the consonant 
 
 mality of a sound, instead of unconsciously filling up the lacuna or 
 normalizing the peculiarity, it is simply shocked by such absence or 
 abnormality. The only way to make some of the readings in the 
 Chrestomathie pass muster is to increase the rapidity of utterance 
 beyond what is good and reasonable. Hence, in introducing the 
 Chrestomathie to the student, we must warn him that the authors have 
 adopted the lax pronunciations of familiar conversation. We have no 
 hesitation in adding that these pronunciations should not be adopted 
 in reading. * La conversation,' says Ernest Legouve on a classical 
 page [page 76] of his Art de la Lecture, ' admet et meme demande une 
 certaine negligence dans la prononciation, un laisser-aller dans le debit, 
 des incorrections volontaires qui sont une grace quand on cause, et qui 
 seraient un defaut quand on lit. Causer comme on lit ressemblerait a 
 du pedantisme ; lire comme on cause serait souvent de la vulgarite. . . . 
 II y a sans doute dans la causerie un naturel, une verite d'inflexions, 
 une grace de debit, qu'il est utile de faire passer dans la lecture ; mais 
 il ne faut lui emprunter que ses qualites et rester a la fois vrai et correct.' 
 These over-careless pronunciations adopted in the Chrestomathie^ which 
 are to be avoided by the student, can be summarized under several 
 heads and will be referred to in due course. The student should then 
 have little difficulty in correcting the transcripts. 
 
88 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 is never sounded even in reading : lien intime [Ijs e'tim], 
 souverain absolu [suvrs apsoly], punition injuste [pynisjo 
 s'syst]. 
 
 The linking of a noun in the singular with a following 
 adjective being thus rarely permissible and never obligatory, 
 the student will do well to avoid it in all cases. This 
 recommendation may even be extended to the recitation 
 of verse, though a final [t] may occasionally be carried over 
 with good effect. The linking of a singular noun and 
 adjective is consistently avoided by the authors of the 
 Chrestomathie, even in poetic extracts, e.g. nuit eternelle 
 [nqi etsrnsl] (p. 183, 1. 22). 
 
 With regard to the linking of a plural noun and its 
 adjective there is a great variety of practice. MM. Rousselot 
 and Laclotte declare the liaison customary, 1 but it is not 
 always made in the readings recorded by Koschwitz. Pro- 
 fessor PauJ. Passy seldom sounds the [z] : thus in Le 
 Franc.ais parle (Reisland, Leipzig; 5th ed. 1902) liaison 
 is avoided in raisons historiques (p. 80), femmes elegantes 
 (p. 56), races inferieures (p. 86), nationalites etrangeres (p. 72), 
 and many other instances, but made in le nom des peuples 
 avances (p. 94). In the prose passages transcribed in the 
 Chrestomathie the liaison is either not made (e.g. in amas de 
 pieces inertes (p. 61), efforts energiques (p. 59), forces opposees 
 (p. *i\\ forces humaines (p. 91), batteries immobiles (p. 105), 
 rues adjacentes (p. 115), treteaux improvises (p. 119), par- 
 dessus amlricains (p. 119), allures inquietantes (p. 123), 
 mouvements atmospheriques (p. 131)), or is indicated as 
 optional (e.g. in relations etroites (p. 59), elements essentiels 
 (p. 75), nobles hereditaires (p. 91), ceuvres utiles (p. 95), 
 titres incontestes (p. 101)). 
 
 On the other hand the plural [z] is not often heard in 
 conversation ; while by common consent it seldom remains 
 1 Precis de Prononciation fran$aise, p. 181. 
 
LINKING 89 
 
 silent in the reading of serious verse. The linking of a 
 plural noun and an adjective, when the latter follows the 
 noun, is, therefore, primarily a matter of style. As it tends 
 to impart to the phrase a certain formal and ceremonious 
 tone, it is peculiarly consistent with the language of poetry, 
 but generally out of place in everyday intercourse, while 
 its use in the reading of prose depends upon the nature of 
 the passage or of the idea expressed. 
 
 But such a case of linking may be justified by the style 
 and yet be well avoided. This happens when the sounding 
 of the [z] would be inharmonious or likely to obscure the 
 sense. Ambiguities will be comparatively rare, but a too 
 frequent repetition of the sibilants [s] and [z] would be a 
 sufficient reason to abstain from sounding a normally mute 
 [z] : e.g. in pour des raisons historiques (Parl. par. p. 53, 
 1. 1 8) and in ces monceaux affreux d'ossements (Parl. par. 
 p. 85, 1. 1 6). Opinions may naturally differ in such cases; 
 hence we find that one reader, M. Jacob, sounds the [z] 
 in pour dcs raisons historiques^ when five others, including 
 Prof. Passy (Le Fr. parl. p. 81, 1. 8), leave it mute, and that 
 MM. Bleton and Ritter link in monceaux affreux, where the 
 author of the passage, le Pere Hyacinthe, and M. Jacob 
 avoid the liaison. 1 Again, the linking of a plural noun and 
 following adjective may be avoided, because it would give 
 rise to an inharmonious group of consonants. Many French- 
 men consider [rz] cacophonous and would hesitate, on this 
 ground alone, to link in such expressions as efforts energiques, 
 allures inquietantes. It is probably to avoid the group [Iz] 
 that Zola and Bleton do not link in chapelles absidales 
 (Part. par. p. 15, 1. 2), where three other readers sound 
 the [z]. 
 
 Finally, if the adjective is connected with the verb rather 
 
 1 M. Rousselot did not sound the [z] in the first of the above two 
 examples, and Koschwitz is not sure that he sounded it in the second. 
 
90 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 than with the noun, or if there is an ellipse between the 
 noun and the adjective, linking must not take place : pour 
 rendre les peuples heureux [pur ra'dro le pcepl cer0] ; les 
 terriers sont vides, les nids abandonnes [le tsrje so vid, le ni 
 aba 'done]. The latter expression occurs in the Parlers 
 parisiens (p. 3, 1. 14), and the Fran^ais parle (p. 13, 11. 8 
 and 9), and the latent [z] in nids is naturally not sounded 
 by any of the fourteen readers. 1 
 
 (ii) Between a noun-subject and its predicate. 
 
 The noun-subject is linked to its predicate only in very 
 elevated style. This liaison is avoided in every instance, 
 both in prose and in verse, by the authors of the Chresto- 
 mathie : e.g. in les ennemis ont change (p. 73, 1. 23), les Grecs 
 avaient deja trouve, etc. (p. 77, 1. 7), tous les c&urs etaient 
 contents (p. 175, 1. 32). Even in the loftiest passages of the 
 Parlers parisiens the readers never all agree in sounding 
 the final consonant : one out of five links in Les deux 
 voleurs ^etaient crucifies a ses cotes (p. 59, 1. 17); three 
 out of five link noun and predicate in Ses enfants^.ont 
 commence a douter d'elle (p. 73, 1. i), and Un mouchoir dont 
 les bouts ^egouttaient (p. 23, 1. 18), as also in the lines La 
 nuit^autour de mot Descendait (p. 113, 1. 21), De voix et de 
 parfums le bois^est enchante (p. 125, 1. 19); only one fails 
 to sound the [z] in Ses disciples ^.avaient fui (p. 61, 1. 4). 
 
 The final mute consonant of a proper noun is never 
 sounded in any circumstances : Paris etait un camp [pa'ri etet 
 ce kd], Armand est arrive [arma st arive], Edmond About 
 est un romancier de talent [edmo abu st de roma'sje d tala]. 
 
 (iii) Between two verbs. 2 
 
 1 Compare the reading of the line : Ses J>etits, affam^s^ courent sur le 
 rivage. Part II. Chap. I. p. 71. 
 
 2 The question of liaison is the same whether the first verb is followed 
 immediately by the second, which of course is always an infinitive, or 
 by ^, en or y belonging to the latter. 
 
LINKING 91 
 
 Linking is here often neglected in familiar conversation 
 in such expressions as je veux aller^ tu peux aller, tu dois 
 ecrire, il Jaut expliquer, il fallait en convenir. Hence in the 
 colloquial phrase, // faut etre fou pour prendre un bain par 
 ce temps-la! (Chrest. p. 27, 11 34, 35), MM. Jean Passy and 
 Rambeau do not sound the latent [t] in faut. In more 
 careful speech the final [t] would be heard in such con- 
 nections, and, as the linking of [t] is here neither cere- 
 monious nor affected, the learner may perhaps be advised 
 to make this liaison pretty freely, provided always that a 
 harsh group of consonants does not result. 
 
 It follows a fortiori that the liaison should generally be 
 made in the reading of all but colloquial passages. When 
 it is avoided by the authors of the Chrestomathie, its sup- 
 pression may usually be explained on grounds of euphony : 
 e.g. in concour(i) a detruire (p. 63, 1. 9), concouren(t] a 
 donner (p. 81, 1. 6), se fassen(t} entendre (p. 89, 1. n). It 
 is made by them unconditionally in Un pur mecanisme, qui 
 peut^etre ingenieux (p. 61, 1. 7); Ses pairs font ^entendre une 
 voix toujours ecoutee (p. 79, 1. 36); II faut^aimer notre vie 
 nationale (p. 87, 1. 18); Elle allait^apercevoir le Caire(p. 107, 
 1. 9); Quand Us voulaient^enlever une position (p. 107, 1. 39); 
 Le plus etrange tohu-bohu qu'on put^imaginer (p. 115, 1. 30) ; 
 and considered optional in Elle (Peau) devaitjetre Men 
 chaude (p. 9, 1. 18); // le fait^entrer (p. 15, 1. 4); // en 
 vientji demander, etc. (p. 19, 1. 9); Eautre voulait^aller se 
 promener (p. 27, 1. 19) ; // se met^.a faire sa correspondance 
 (p. 27, 1. 1 8); II peutjy avoir concorde entre* les gouvernants 
 et les gouvernes (p. 97, 1. 26) ; Le 9 s brins de renseignements 
 quails pouvaient^attraper (p. 123, 11. 24, 25); // rtetait per- 
 sonne . . . qui ne se fut fait^inscrire (p. 113, 1. 35). The 
 indication that the liaison is optional in these and similar 
 cases must be understood in the sense that the pronuncia- 
 tion would not cease to be French if the liaison were 
 
92 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 neglected. It cannot be taken to mean that both readings 
 are equally good. On the contrary, only a careless reader 
 would fail to link in such cases. For proof of this we 
 need only refer to the Parlers parisiens, where the readers, 
 with almost complete unanimity, sound the final [t] of 
 the first of two successive verbs. It is sounded by all 
 thirteen in Celui qui est en tete se met^a crier Men fort, 
 etc. (p. 5, 1. 7), though in his transcription of the same 
 passage Professor Paul Passy does not link (Le Fran^ais 
 parle, p. 13, 1. 20); by all five save M. Rousselot in 
 Le mari et la femme firent^arreter P omnibus (p. 31, 1. T), 
 and in // se preparait^a prendre ses grades (p. 35, 1. 7); by 
 all without exception in Ce qu'il faut^entendre par ce mot 
 (p. 45, 1. 9), On arriverait^a couvrir toute la France (Tune 
 etoile, etc. (p. 51, 1. 9), On offrit^a boire aux patients un vin 
 fortement aromatise (p. 59, 1. 2). 
 
 Even the [z] liaison is usual in reading in such com- 
 binations as Je veil x ^examiner (Chrest. p. 59, 1. 29), Ce 
 que nous aurons^d faire (ib. p. 59, 1. 25), Quand nous 
 revenons^ecouter ce langage na'if (ib. p. 89, 1. i), Je vaisjy 
 renoncer (ib. p. 53, 1. 13). It is, however, well avoided by 
 Passy- Rambeau in Jamais je riai mieux appri(s) d connaitre 
 . . . le caractere de la bourgeoisie parisienne (p. 113, 1. 36), 
 and in Un petit nombre d'esprits accoutume(s] a ne pas 
 limiter leurs reflexions (p. 59^ 1. 7). The [z] of a past 
 participle is rarely sounded, and in the former case it would 
 certainly be cacophonous after the liaison of mieux with 
 appris. But four out of five readers sound the [z], although 
 it involves a repetition of the sound, in J'ai bien lu dans les 
 Ecritures que vous aimez^d prendre la faiblesse et le neant 
 pour vos instruments dans ce monde (Par 1. par. p. 75, 1. 2). 
 
 Here, as elsewhere, the latent [r] of the infinitive in -er is 
 not readily carried over to the following syllable : e.g. in 
 // ne peut se refuse(r) a admettre, etc. (Chrest. p. 67, 1. 27). 
 
LINKING 93 
 
 The [r] liaison is avoided by Passy-Rambeau here and in 
 every other case, even in verse. Nor does any of the five 
 readers sound the [r] in Elk semblait s'attache^r) a voir, 
 etc. (ParL par. p. 27, 1. 9). But three out of five link in 
 II ne put se decider ^.a voir, etc. (p. 85, 1. 20). 
 
 (iv) Between a verb other than etre and an adverb, or 
 vice versa. 
 
 This case is closely akin to the one last discussed. 
 Though neglected often enough in a free and easy type 
 of conversation, the [t] liaison is by no means unusual in 
 other circumstances. Hence the [t] will sometimes be heard 
 and sometimes remain mute in such expressions as Cela se 
 fait ainsij II y en avait assez, II en fallait encore. 
 
 Its use becomes much more general in reading, though 
 subject always to considerations of sense and euphony. 
 Koschwitz's readers agree in avoiding the [t] liaison between 
 verb and adverb only in two cases : Les bonnes habitudes . . . 
 auxquelles il avait ete brusquemen(t} arrache (p. 25, 1. 17), Et, 
 profondemen(f) uni a son pere, il commen$a, etc. (p. 63, 1. 12). 
 In the former the [t] is left silent after the two [t]'s in avait 
 ete. With the second we may compare the following example 
 from the Chrestomathie : Cette force . . . qui maintient 
 obstinement unis les groupes que tout concourt a detruire 
 (p. 63, 1. 9). While the final [t] of maintient is left mute, 
 the linking of obstinement and unis is here given as optional. 
 Other instances where the liaison of verb and adverb is 
 indicated as optional by Passy-Rambeau, and may be 
 regarded by the student as advisable, are // y avait ^une fois 
 un petit oiseau (p. 5, 1. i), II fallait ^encore (p. 9, 1. 26), Tous 
 deux ne parlaient ^.encore fran^ais qu'a coup de dictionnaire 
 (p. 27, 1. 22), // se met^en colere (p. 29, 1. 6), Cette ancienne 
 poesie francaise que nous avons si completement^.oubliee (p. 59, 
 11. 4, 5), Une telle societe peut etre gravement^atteinte (p. 61, 
 1. 14), // faut^aussi qu'elle soit aimee (p. 65, 1. 6), Cette 
 
94 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 nationalite allemande elle-meme, qui parait^actuellement si 
 puissante (p. 67, 1. 32), Elle decouvrit^enfin . . . les hauts 
 minarets (p. 107, 1. n), Cette police se compliquait^alors d'une 
 foule de details (p. 121, 1. 4). 1 
 
 The liaison is made unconditional by the same authors 
 occasionally in the prose passages, very frequently in verse : 
 e.g. in Si I'on peut^ainsi dire (p. 57, 1. 13), Plusieurs . . . 
 attendaient ^.encore (p. 75, 1. 33), II y avait^encore (p. 85, 1. 33), 
 Un Frederic II. ... un Napoleon . . . y suffiraient^a peine 
 (p. 93, 1. 5), Bonaparte fit^aussitdt ses dispositions (p. 107, 
 11. 24, 25), Qui venait^apres (p. in, 1. 9), La bataille nous 
 avaitji peine coilte une centaine de morts (p. 113, 1. 8). 
 Where, however, the verb or adverb already ends in a 
 sounded consonant, the authors of the Chrestomathie, in 
 the reading of prose, usually carry this consonant over, 
 leaving the latent final mute : e.g. in Us appellen(t} encore 
 (p. 89, 1. 31), Us le peuven(f) encore (p. 99, 1. 35), Les Alle- 
 mands envisagen(f) autrement les choses (p. 83, 1. 16), Nos 
 braves soldats . . . les attendiren(t} avec calme (p. 109, 11. 41, 
 42), La forme . . . dont enveloppen(f) id toutes les douleurs 
 (p. 119, 1. 31), Celles-ci les re$uren(f) avec fermete (p. in, 
 
 i- 31). 
 
 The [z] liaison is made more sparingly, especially in 
 conversation. But the evidence of the Chrestomathie is 
 here at variance with that of the Parlers parisiens. MM. 
 Jean Passy and Rambeau seem generally to avoid linking 
 the [z] in prose : e.g. in Une societe dont les membres ne sont 
 maintenu(s] ensemble que par la force (p. 61, 1. i), On m'avait 
 mi(s) en sentinelle (p. 117, 1, 16), Nos braves soldats ', devenu(s) 
 aussi froids qu'ils avaient ete fougueux jadis (p. 109, 1. 41), 
 Bon et Menou . . . arrive(s] a une certaine distance^ firent 
 halte (p. in, 1. 22). They give the liaison as optional, 
 however, in Ce qu'elle a parfois^ete (p. 73, 1. 10). In verse 
 1 See also op. cit. p. 93, 1. 33 and p. 113, 1. 36. 
 
LINKING 95 
 
 they frequently sound the [z] : e.g. in Attends^un peu, nous 
 finirons ^ensemble (p. 167, 1. 27), Nous fuyons^en silence 
 (p. 173, 1. 33). But in verse and prose alike they never 
 sound the final mute consonant of toujours : Une voix 
 toujours Icoutee (p. 79, 1. 37), II y avait toujours ete (p. 127, 
 1. 8), // riest pas toujours aise de dormir sur de la faille 
 (p. 117, 11. 39, 40), Toujours intact aux yeux du monde 
 (p. 225, 1. 23). 
 
 On the other hand, Koschwitz's readers agree in avoiding 
 ,the [z] liaison between verb and adverb only in the sentence 
 Les deux voleurs etaient crucifie(s] a ses cotes (p. 59, 1. 17 ; cf. 
 p. 6 1, 1. 22), and this instance is of doubtful validity, because 
 the word crucifies might end a sound-group. Elsewhere, even 
 in prose, there is nearly always a majority in favour of the 
 liaison : e.g. in Que d'etroites allies obscures entrevues^jau vol 
 (p. 23, 1. 2), Ehomme assis^enface d'elle (p. 29, 1. 22), Les f aits 
 relates ^.au jour le jour (p. 37, 1. 12), As sis ^.au pied de la croix 
 (p. 59, 1. ig\*Mais nos cceurs, brises^en mainte aventure (p. 
 135, 1. 1 8). The majority is uncertain in the phrase Vous 
 discernerez^a peine le sens de quelques mots (p. 47, 1. 10). 
 
 The effect of the [z] liaison between verb and adverb in 
 conversation is well illustrated by a story told by Ernest 
 Legouve, in his Art de la Lecture, in the following words : 
 ' Un jour, dan: une piece de Mme de Girardin, La joie 
 fait peur, la jeune actrice chargee du role de Tingenue dit, 
 en parlant de fleurs qu'elle avait plantees avec son frere : 
 " Nous les avions plantees-ensemble," en faisant sentir Vs. 
 Mme de Girardin bondit sur sa chaise. " Pas d'sl pas d's ! " 
 s'ecria-t-elle. " Plante ensemble. Vous n'avez pas le droit 
 de faire de pareilles liaisons a votre age ! Je me moque 
 de la grammaire ! II n'y a qu'une regie pour les ingenues, 
 c'est d'etre ingenues ! Cette affreuse s vous vieillirait de 
 dix ans ! Elle ferait de vous une Armande au lieu d'une 
 Henriette ! Oh ! 1'affreuse s ! " ' 
 
96 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 The [r] of the infinitive in -er is never linked to a fol- 
 lowing adverb in conversation, and may often remain silent 
 in the reading of prose. In the Parlers parisiens four 
 readers sound it in // ne voyait pas un tableau . . . sans 
 noter^aussitot son impression (p. 37, 1. 18); M. Rousselot 
 alone, here as generally elsewhere, does not link the infini- 
 tive. MM. Jean Passy and Rambeau seem regularly to 
 avoid this liaison, even in verse : e.g. in tombe(r) a genoux 
 (p. 43, 1. 14), reste(r) en arriere (p. 107, 1. 41), Je venais 
 d'entre(r) en menage (p. 175, 1. 18), J'entends frappe(r) a la 
 porte(^. 177, 1. 8). 
 
 (v) Between a verb other than etre and an adjective or 
 adjectival expression. 
 
 With the linking of a verb and an adverb we may com- 
 pare that of a verb and an adjective closely connected 
 with each other. In conversation the liaison is frequently 
 disregarded, especially if the consonant is [z]. MM. Jean 
 Passy and Rambeau consequently transcribe Vous me semblez 
 arriere" (p. 127, 1. 14), [vu m sa'ble arjs're], without the [z]. 
 The consonant is more often carried over in reading : e.g. 
 in Le desordre devint ^.extreme (Chrest. p. in, 1. 33), Ce sol 
 que I'on croyait^inebranlable (p. 87, 1. 4), Les racines vivaces 
 par lesquelles elle s?y tient^encore attachee (p. 87, 1. 33). The 
 same authors, however, do not link verb and adjective in 
 // se voi(t} assailli par trots hommes de mauvaise mine 
 (p. 39, 1. 2). But they do not link verb and adverb in On 
 voi(f) a l^est P horizon qui blanchit doucement (p. 119, 1. i ). 
 
 (vi) Between a verb and its object, direct or indirect. 
 
 This liaison is probably less common than that of verb 
 and adverb. In easy conversation it is generally neglected, 
 and even careful speakers as a rule link verb and object 
 only where they form a short and indissoluble sound-group : 
 e.g. II avaitjune canne, II lui fautjune plume, II se faitjun 
 devoir, etc. 
 
LINKING 97 
 
 The Chrestomathie and the Parlers parisiens are again at 
 variance. MM. Jean Passy and Rambeau reduce the number 
 of liaisons to a minimum, making no more than would be 
 made in a tolerably careful style of conversation. In their 
 prose transcriptions this liaison is made unconditionally in 
 but few cases: e.g. in On fit ^invasion (p. 123, 1. n), Ne 
 prenant^aucune part a la vie . . . (p. 69, 1. 13), // avaitjune 
 lettre de recommandation (p. 25, 1. 34), // donna dans le 
 russe . . . et se fit^une dme d'oiseau de mer (p. 129, 1. 13), // 
 avaitjune maniere de dire le steppe . . . (p. 129, 1. 23). It is 
 occasionally considered optional, as in Qui faisaient^un 
 petit voyage (p. 27, 1. 15), Quels liens etroits rattachent^a 
 nous . . . cette ancienne poesie (p. 59, 1. 2) ; but more often 
 neglected altogether : e.g. in A qui il montrai(f) un fruit 
 (p. 19, 1. 10), Ce riest pas lui qui manquerai(t) a ce devoir 
 (p. 129, 1. 31), On les conduisai(t) au poste le plus voisin 
 (p. 121, 1. 1 6), Une populace qui se livrai(t} a tous les exces 
 (p. 113, 1. 1 6), Quelques-uns jouaien(t} au bouchon (p. 117, 
 1. 5), // ser(t) a quelque chose (p. 129, 1. 35). 
 
 Koschwitz's readers, it is true, are not often unanimously 
 in favour of the liaison, but it is made almost always by a 
 very large majority. Thus the liaison is made by a majority 
 of thirteen to one in Et toute la bande fait^un crochet * (p. 5, 
 1. 9), by a majority of four to one in Elle riavait^aucune 
 science (p. 13, 1. 6), En levant jun regard (p. 29, 1. 4), Elle 
 s'offrit^aux regards (p. 29, 1. 19), // y ajoutait^une page 
 nouvelle (p. 37, 1. 8), Un soldat . . . la mit^au bout d'un 
 roseau (p. 59, 1. 16), Les mots . . . qu'elles apprennentji leurs 
 enfants^ (p. 49, 1. i). In the last four cases the dissentient 
 is M. Rousselot. The majority is somewhat smaller (ten 
 to three and three to two) in favour of the liaison in Et 
 
 1 In his transcription of the same passage in Le Fran$ais parlt, 
 Prof. Paul Passy does not link : p. 13, 1. 22. 
 
 2 Prof. Passy does not link : Le Fran$ais parle", p. 75, 1. 19. 
 
 F.P. G 
 
98 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 commencent^un dejeuner interminable 1 (p. 7, 1. 12), and in 
 // en a fait^amende honorable (p. 81, 1. 6). But the link 
 is made by all without exception in // eut^une agonie de 
 desespoir (p. 63, 1. 4), La position . . . du corps , laquelle 
 entrainait^un trouble affreux dans la circulation (p. 63, 1. 19), 
 Selon qu'il plait ^.a la fortune (p. 99, 1. n). 
 
 The foregoing examples illustrate only the liaison of [t]. 
 A [z] is linked somewhat less readily in prose. None of 
 Koschwitz's readers sound the final [z] of the verb in the 
 following two cases : Elle a permi(s) a mon savant confrere, 
 etc. (p. 51, 1. 12), Ces mots n'ont de sens qrf applique(s] a la 
 production litteraire (p. 53, 1. 15). The expression Je di(s) 
 ' aux environs' (p. 47, 1. 4), in which none of the readers 
 link, is not an example in point, because neither linking nor 
 elision takes place before a quotation. On the other hand 
 a majority make the liaison in Allez^.aux environs (p. 47, 1. 3), 
 Representons-nous les parlers populaires livres^a eux-memes 
 (p. 49, 1. 5), Ses cris supremes de douleur tournes^.en odieux 
 jeux de mots (p. 61, 1. 13), Sur son chapeau le mari avait 
 mis^un mouchoir (p. 23, 1. 18). Here again, in prose, the 
 liaison is usually avoided by the authors of the Chresto- 
 mathie : e.g. in La France romane . . . a pri(s) a son compte 
 r ideal qdil avait con$u (p. 71, 1. 39), Quelques negociants 
 fran$ais . . . furent envoy e(s) d Bonaparte (p. 113, 1. 22), 
 Donne(z) a ces hommes une consigne (p. 101, 1. 24). It is 
 recorded as optional in Pretons^une oreille attentive (p. 89, 
 1. 4). In verse it is made much more frequently. Here 
 even MM. Passy and Rambeau do not hesitate to sound 
 the [z] : e.g. in Formez^une sainte alliance (p. 163, 1. 8), Sur 
 le passe jetez^un voile epais (p. 165, 1. 7), Je dis^d cette nuit : 
 Sois plus lente (p. 185, 1. 19). 
 
 The [r] liaison between verb and object is not heard in 
 conversation, and is made more reluctantly than that of [z] 
 1 Prof. Passy does not link : Le Franfais 4)arti> p. 15, 1. 17. 
 
LINKING 99 
 
 in reading. It is regularly avoided by the authors of the 
 Chrestomathie : e.g. in Mieux vaut vise(r) un ideal mains 
 lleve (p. 19, 1. 27), Quand Us voulaient enleve(r) une position 
 (p. 107, 1. 39). Of six readers one alone sounds the [r] in 
 formuler une loi (Parl. par. p. 51, 1. 13 ; Le Fr. parle, p. 79, 
 1. 5). But four out of five, the dissident being in each 
 case M. Rousselot, make the liaison in exprimer^une chose 
 (p. 41, 1. 3), porter Ji I'autel (p. 73, 1. 21), manquer^a son 
 instinct (p. 91, 1. 3), retrouver^un ami (p. 113, 1. 2), the last 
 example alone being from verse. 
 
 (vii) Between an adverb and the object of the verb. 
 
 The adverb very often forms a sound-group, either by 
 itself or with the verb, so that a pause intervenes between 
 adverb and object. Linking is then precluded. But even 
 when adverb and object may be combined in the same 
 group the adverb does not cease to be more closely related 
 to the verb than to the object, and it is, therefore, rarely 
 linked with the latter. In the Parlers parisiens none of the 
 readers make the liaison in La France a depuis longtemp(s) 
 une seule langue officielle (p. 45, 1. 2), and seven out of 
 thirteen avoid it in Le Rapide a passe depuis longtemp(s] a 
 Petat de superstition locale (p. 7, 1. 2). Professor Paul Passy 
 transcribes the same sentences without liaison (Le Fran- 
 fais parle, p. 73, 1. 5 and p. 15, 1. 6). Yet MM. Passy and 
 Rousselot both link in the expression C'est bien^autre chose, 
 si on essay e . . . de t?'acer une ligne de demarcation 1 (Parl. far. 
 p. 55, 1. 4; Fr. parle, p. 81, 1. 15), where the majority of 
 the readers pronounce [bjs oitrs $oiz], without sounding the 
 [n]. Similarly the phrase II ' y avait bien une source dans le 
 bois is read by the authors of the Chrestomathie (p. 5, 1. 8) 
 without the liaison. Add to this that the readers of the 
 Parlers parisiens never all agree in linking adverb and 
 
 1 It should be observed that bien is not here an adverb qualifying the 
 adjective autre ; but is equivalent to ' no doubt,' ' it is true.' 
 
ioo FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 object, that, indeed, the majority are generally against the 
 liaison, and it will be clear that the student's wisest course is 
 to avoid it. 
 
 Even in verse this liaison is rarely made unless the 
 adverbial expression happens to follow the object, in 
 which case it is usually optional. All Koschwitz's readers 
 save Rousselot link in Et depuis qu*on a mis ses piliersjk 
 Pepreuve, II apparait plus stable (p. 145, 1. 20); while the 
 authors of the Chrestomathie transcribe with an optional 
 liaison of the [z] in trdnes, Ce boulet invincible Qui fracas sa 
 vingt trdnes a la fois (p. 171, 11. 31, 32), and with an optional 
 liaison of the [t] in tout, Que ce soit elle . . . Qui, bijoux, 
 diamants, rubans . . . Des bras de vos enfants et du sein de 
 vos femmes Arrache tout a pleines mains! (p. 203, 11. 25-30). 
 It is, however, introduced unconditionally between moments 
 and encore in the line Mais je demande en vain quelques 
 moments encore (p. 185, 1. 17). 
 
 (viii) Between two adverbs or adverbial expressions. 
 
 Liaison between adverbs other than those enumerated in 
 rule (vi) for obligatory liaisons is usually restricted to more 
 or less elevated style. The readers of the Parlers parisiens 
 are never all in favour of this liaison. It is true that a 
 majority link in the following : Us etaient tous deux scrupu- 
 leusement^en noir (p. 25, 1. 19), De nouvelles croyances . . . qm 
 bientdt^aussi ne seraient plus que des cadavres (p. 39, 1. 13), 
 Comme on se r imagine souvent ^.encore (p. 53, 1. 5), // en est 
 parfois^autrement (p. 53, 1. 6). But on the other hand the 
 majority read without linking Us s'allongent tranquillemen(f] 
 a r ombre d'un puits (p. 7, 1. 9), Parle aujourd'hui a pen 
 pre(s) exclusivement (p. 45, 1. 6), Quelques-uns, vaguemen(t} au 
 courant de ses idees (p. 61, 1. 20) ; while all avoid the liaison 
 in Parle au moins concurremmen(t] avec le patois (p. 45, 1. 7). 
 
 The authors of the Chrestomathie avoid it in Disons-le 
 franchemen(t] aussi (p. 73, 1. 10), A peu pre(s) en mme temps 
 
LINKING joi- 
 
 (p. 127, 1. 27) and make it optional in La conscience natio- 
 nale . . . s'est incarnee plus na'ivement ^encore dans Jeanne 
 d^Arc (p. 83, 1. 41), and in the line Tous riy sont point assis 
 egalementji Poise (p. 203, 1. 10). An interesting example is 
 found, at page 85, line 6, of the Chrestomathie, in the phrase 
 Cependant quelques esprits . . . se demandaient . . . si cette 
 securite etait bien entierement justifiee. Here, although bien 
 modifies the verb and not the following adverb, the liaison is 
 given as optional. (Cf. Rule (vii).) 
 
 (ix) Between an adverb and an adjective ; or between an 
 adjective or adverb and its complement. 
 
 The relation between adverb and adjective being, as a 
 rule, closer than that between two adverbs, this liaison is 
 naturally more usual. It is employed by most of the 
 readers in Des langues absolument^.etrangeres (Parl. par. 
 p. 47, 1. 13), by all in Un vin f or tement ^.aromatize (p. 59, 
 1. 3). The authors of the Chrestomathie link optionally in 
 Une grande vie nationale est essentiellement^organique (p. 61, 
 1. 10), unconditionally in Ces procedes ndivement^atroces 
 (p. 75, 11. 5, 6), La vie vraiment ^active et intellectuelle (p. 81, 
 1. 40), // etait admirablement^.affirmatif de la necessite de ne 
 rien affirmer (p. 127, 1. 2). In conversation this liaison is 
 usually neglected. Hence in the familiar expression Ces 
 beaux raisins muscats . . . sont diablement appetissants aussi 
 (Parl. par. p. 5, 1. 2 ; Fr. parle p. 13, 1. 14), seven out of 
 fourteen avoid sounding the [t] of diablement even in 
 reading. 
 
 The adverb toujours is never linked by the authors of the 
 Chrestomathie ; they always carry the [r] over : e.g. in Une 
 voix toujours ecoutee (p. 79, 1. 37), // riest pas toujours 
 aise de dormir sur de la faille (p. 117, 1. 39). The [z] is, 
 however, very frequently sounded by other readers. 
 
 The nasal is never sounded in enfin : see Parl. par. 
 p. 59, 1. i and the Chrestomathie p. 107, 1, n. 
 
io? FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 The question of liaison between an adjective or adverb 
 and its complement is not one that often arises. In ban a 
 rien and pret a partir linking is usual even in conversation. 
 All Koschwitz's readers save Rousselot link in Impuissant a 
 agir (p. 35, 1. 15). Similarly, in Conformement a vos desirs, 
 the [t] would usually be sounded. 
 
 The [z] liaison is, however, avoided in the Chrestomathie 
 in the line Tous Us sont pret(s] a nous feter encore (p. 167, 
 
 1.3). 
 
 The adverb non is not usually linked : Ces deux forces 
 opposees cherchaient a se limiter, a se balancer, non a se 
 detruire (Chrest. p. 71, 1. 8). The transcription [no a s 
 detrqiir], without the [n] liaison, certainly represents the 
 better practice. 
 
 (x) Between an adverb or adverbial expression preceding 
 the subject and the subject. 
 
 An adverb in this position often must and nearly always 
 may be treated as a distinct sound-group. It is, therefore, 
 not surprising to find that the liaison is invariably avoided 
 by the authors of the Chrestomathie in the transcription of 
 the prose passages : e.g. in Trois foi(s] il se pdme de doulem 
 (p. 79, 1. 31), Si depuis longtemp(s) Us avaient cette place 
 (p. 91 1. 6), Commen(f] il s'appellel^ (p. 131, 1. 40), Quelque- 
 foi(s] on quitte la tente (p. 117, 1. 41). Similarly in verse 
 they read without linking Longtemp(s) aucun ne I'a cru 
 (p. 177, 1. 33), Alor(s] il se souleve (p. 191, 1. 33), C'est pour 
 renaitre ailleurs qu'ici-ba(s) on succombe (p. 213, 1. 23). The 
 liaison is, however, indicated as optional in Paffoisjtl som- 
 meillait (p. 149, 1. 23), Jamais^aucune main n'avait passe 
 sur elle (p. 215, 1. 5). 
 
 Examples from the Parlers parisiens in which all the 
 readers concur in avoiding the liaison are De temps en temp(s) 
 elle relevait la tete (p. 27, 1. 5) and Cette foi(s] elle abaissa ses 
 
 J Cf. Comment allez-vous'l in which the [t] is regularly sounded. 
 
LINKING 103 
 
 mains (p. 29, 1. 18). Professor Ritter alone sounds the [t] in 
 Dans une heure ou malheureusemen(t} elle divise et passionne 
 (p. 81, 1. 22). 
 
 With the short adverbs puis, plus, mains, liaison may be 
 heard even in conversation, though it cannot be considered 
 usual. The liaisons are optional in Mais plusjil se demenait, 
 plus^il faisait de bruit, plusjil criait, et plus le gar$on se 
 gardait cTouvrir (Chrest. p. 29, 11. 7, 8). Puis may even be 
 linked in spite of a comma : thus Zola, Ritter and Jacob 
 sound the [z] in Puis, elle se sentait soulevee (Parl. par. 
 p. 13, 1. 12). But if there is an inversion, linking does 
 not take place quite so readily : it is avoided by the 
 authors of the Chrestomathie in the following line from 
 Victor Hugo's Feuilles d'automne : Et pui(s) a votre fete il 
 compare en son ame Son foyer ... (p. 203, 11. i, 2). 
 
 (xi) Between a direct and an indirect object. 
 
 The available authorities seem to be unanimous in 
 avoiding a liaison of this kind. The two objects usually 
 belong to different sound-groups. In the sentence On offrit 
 a boire aux patient(s) un vin fortement aromatise (Parl. par. 
 P- 59? 1- 3)> none of readers sound the [z]. Similarly, the 
 authors of the Chrestomathie do not link the two objects in 
 the following examples, both of which are taken from verse : 
 Ceux qui ne savaient pas la ruse . . . S 'etonnaient de voir qu* 
 Martin Chassdt les lion(s) au moulin (p. 153, 1. 6), and Dieu 
 mit ces degre(s] aux fortunes humaines (p. 203, 1. 7). 
 
 (xii) Between any part of speech and the conjunction et 
 or ou. 
 
 Where, as is often the case, the conjunction begins a 
 fresh sound-group, there can, of course, be no question 
 of liaison. But it no less frequently connects two words 
 
 %v \ 
 
 or expressions which may form a single group, and then 
 linking becomes po&ible. 
 
 We may clear the ground at the outset, by observing that 
 
104 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 the linking of a noun or adjective in the singular with either 
 of these conjunctions never takes place in conversation 
 (save in those consecrated expressions coming under rule 
 (x) for obligatory liaisons), is very seldom permissible in 
 the reading of prose, and not common in poetry. Thus 
 there must be no liaison in un rat ou une souris [de ra u yn 
 suri], un chat et un chien [de Ja e de Jjs], le repos et la paix 
 [b r9po e la ps], le corps et le sang [b ko;r e b so], un 
 terrain plat et uni [de ts'rs pla e yni], un couloir etroit et 
 sombre [de kulwalr etrwa e soibr], mon eminent et precieux ami 
 [mon emind e presj0z ami]. Hence none of Koschwitz's 
 readers sounds the [t] of brillant in C'est le plus brillant et 
 le plus vaste genie de son siecle (p. 83, 1. 6), or the [n] of bon 
 in 77 ne lisait pas un livre, bon ou mauvais (p. 37, 1. 15), or 
 the [t] of bouillant in the line D 'avoir le sang bouillant et 
 Pame un peu mutine (p. 100, 1. 13). So too in the 
 Chrestomathie there is no liaison of adjective and conjunc- 
 tion in Le corbeau, honteu(x) et confus (p. 145, 1. 20), Un pur 
 mecanisme qui peut etre ingenieu(x) et puissant (p. 61, 1. 7), 
 and in Ce sont des faits d'un tout autre ordre, Men plus 
 dllica(f) et plus eleve (p. 59, 1. 40). Only in two instances are 
 singular adjectives linked with a conjunction in the Parlers 
 parisiens. The first of these occurs in the prose passage 
 from the Origine du deisme : one of the readers sounds the 
 [z] of doux in Le jeune homme doux et simple, aux mains 
 meurtries et gonflees 1 (p. 85, 1. 13). The other example 
 is found in the extract from the Fille de Roland ': M. Ritter 
 sounds the [k] of long in the line Ou plutdt de ce long et dur 
 pelerinage (p. in, 1. 3), while all the other readers avoid the 
 liaison. In his transcription of the fable La Cigale et la 
 Fourmi, M. Rousselot sounds the [t] in Nuit^et jour 
 (Precis de Pron. fr. p. 199); and the [z] is often heard in 
 
 1 The other readers are credited with the pronunciation [dus] ; but 
 this is surely a misprint. 
 
LINKING 105 
 
 the line Le corbeau, konteuxjet confus, already quoted, from 
 another of La Fontaine's fables. 
 
 A second class of cases which must be treated as excep- 
 tions comprises combinations of numerals with et and ou. 
 In vingt et un the [t] of vingt is always sounded. In 
 combinations such as deux ou trois, trois ou quatre, trois et 
 quart the liaison is optional even in conversation. It is 
 made by all the thirteen readers in A deux^ou trois Heues de 
 la ville (Par I. par. p. 7, 1. 7), by twelve in Deux^ou trois 
 enrages (p. 5, 1. 17), by all five in On pouvait vivre trois ^.ou 
 quatre jours (p. 63, 1. 16). Prof. Paul Passy, however, 
 who has transcribed the first two of these examples in Le 
 Fran^ais parle (p. 15, 11. 12 and 3), does not sound the [z]. 
 The liaison is avoided by the authors of the Chrestomathie 
 in deux ou trois fois (p. 139, 1. 42), and is given as optional 
 in deux ou trois details (p. 95, 1. 22). 
 
 The linking of plural nouns, of plural adjectives, of pro- 
 nouns, verbs and adverbs with et and ou is comparable in 
 effect and frequency to the linking of a plural noun with a 
 following adjective. In daily intercourse it would generally 
 be heavy and pedantic. Hence in familiar expressions 
 such as des tas et des tas it is never heard even in reading. 
 Compare des gens et des gens (Par 1. par. p. 21, 1. 7) where 
 it is avoided by all the readers. Some speakers, however, 
 use it in expressions of time, such as trois heures et demie 
 [trwaz ceirz e dmi], instead of the more usual [trwaz ceir e 
 dmi]. But its proper sphere is poetry and the loftier kinds 
 of prose. A large number of expressions of the kind in 
 question occur in the prose passages transcribed in the 
 Chrestomathie and, save in the case of numerals, the liaison 
 is always avoided : e.g. in Par d'obscure(s] et sanglantes revo- 
 lutions (p. 57, 1. 1 6), Ces relations etroite(s] et sacrees (p. 59, 
 1. 41), Exception(s) et faveurs (p. 91, 1. 34), Quelques travaux, 
 con$u(s) et executes avec r ignorance turque (p. 105, 1. 26), Tout 
 
io6 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 cela emeu(t} et charme (p. 117, 1. 29), Une honnete famille 
 cousan(t] ou lisant sous la lampe fidele (p. 121, 1. 40), Nous 
 rfen savons pas plus, vou(s] et moi (p. 129, 1. 21). The 
 linking of Imeut et charme would create a confusion between 
 the verbs and the nouns emeute et charme and must, there- 
 fore, be avoided. On the other hand, liaisons of this kind 
 are not rare in the Parlers parisiens. A majority of the 
 readers, for instance, link in the following cases : Comprenant 
 que ces vieilles pierres aimaient^et pensaient comme elle (p. 1 3, 
 1. 5), Charges de clochetons, d'aiguilles^et de pinades (p. 13, 
 1. 1 8), L'abside entiere s^eveillait^et grondait (p. 15, 1. 19), 
 Les sons, les mots^et les formes (p. 49, 1. i), Les cadavres 
 prepares^et piques par la main du meme collectionneur (p. 39, 
 1. 13), Aux mains meurtries^et gonflees (p. 85, 1. 13). In two 
 of these six examples, M. Rousselot is the only dissident, in 
 three others he is one of two. The two liaisons in the 
 expression Les pernicieux^et insenses systemes des sophistes^et 
 des athees (p. 83, 1. 7) are made by all the readers. 1 But 
 only one out of five links in Deux vaillants^et conscientieux 
 explorateurs (p. 55, 1. 5), Ses affaires trempees^etfrippees (p. 25, 
 1. 15); and none makes the liaison in Les arcs-boutant(s] et les 
 contreforts (p. 15, 1. 12), Dont les effets fuyaien(f) et revenaient 
 de page en page (p. 39, 1. 21), Ses attaque(s) et ses sarcasmes 
 (p. 83, 1. 15), Ces allies si verte(s] et si riantes (p. 85, 1. 8). 
 In the second and last of these six examples linking would 
 give the idea too ponderous an expression, while in the first 
 and the fifth the liaison is to be avoided for mere reasons 
 of euphony. 
 
 Passing to verse the scale turns quite definitely in favour 
 of the liaison. In most instances the link is made by all 
 or almost all the readers of the Parlers parisiens. In the 
 following instances all agree : Je les reconnus trop, ces pics 
 tristes^et sombres (p. in, 1. 10), Et les champs ^.et les mers v 
 
 1 Koschwitz is not sure that Rousselot sounded the [z] of pernicieux. 
 
LINKING 107 
 
 viennent tour a tour Se teindre d'une aurore eternelle et 
 mouvante (p. 145, 11. i, 2), Avec le sol natal Us emergent ^.ou 
 plongent (p. 145, 1. 4). All but M. Rousselot link adjective, 
 noun or verb with the following conjunction in DCS voiles . . . 
 changeants^et fideles (p. 129, 1. 5), De voix^.et de parfums le 
 bois est enchante (p. 125, 1. 19), Les autres dans la nuit 
 s'enfoncent^et s'allongent (p. 145, 1. 6). In their verse 
 extracts MM. Jean Passy and Rambeau usually mark this 
 liaison as optional : e.g. in Lhiver . . . Desole nos toits^et nos 
 champs (p. 157, 1. 12), Vassaux^et vilains (p. 159, 1. 22), 
 Et suivent de leurs yeux languissants^et superbes Le reve 
 interieur (p. 219, 11. 27, 28), Mitsculeux^et gonfles, L Enfant 
 sacre les tient (p. 223, 11. 13, 14), Lisant bien^.ou mal ses 
 immondes papiers (p. 227, 1. 25). But even in verse, if the 
 word already ends in a sounded consonant, the authors of 
 the Chrestomathie usually carry this consonant over without 
 resuscitating the latent final : e.g. in Leurs amour(s) et leurs 
 chants (p. 157, 1. 14), Vous, page(s) et varlets (p. 161, 1. 29), 
 Nous maudissons ses fer(s) et ses bourreaux (p. 171, 1. 26). 
 
 (xiii) Between a conjunction and the word by which it is 
 followed. 
 
 The question of liaison can present itself only with 
 regard to the conjunctions quand and mais. In et the 
 / is never linked ; and all the other conjunctions end in a 
 vowel or a sounded consonant. The linking of quand, as 
 we have seen, may be considered obligatory. Hence mais 
 alone remains to be discussed. In easy conversation the 
 [z] in mais more often than not remains silent even when 
 the conjunction forms a stress-group with a word or words 
 that follow : e.g. Mais enfin [ms afs]. 1 
 
 In the reading of elevated prose and in the recitation of 
 verse its treatment generally depends upon the nature of 
 the contrast that it introduces. If the contrast is striking, 
 1 In Mais oui liaison is prohibited. 
 
io8 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 or if the reader wishes to give it peculiar force, mats forms 
 a sound-group in itself. The pitch of the voice is then 
 usually raised in uttering the conjunction, which is at the 
 same time more or less stressed. Mais is treated in this 
 manner by the authors of the Chrestomathie in the following 
 connection : On y grelottait, sous la vaste capote du soldat, 
 pris de froid jusqu'a la moelle des os. Mais a cette epoque, 
 c'etait un plaisir (p. 117, 11. 12-14). The Parlers parisiens 
 furnish an instructive example in a passage from Alphonse 
 Daudet's Tartarin de Tarascon : Elles sont cependant bien 
 tentantes ces jolies colinettes tarasconnaises, . . . et ces beaux 
 raisins muscats gonfles de sucre qui s 1 echelonnent au bord du 
 Rhdne, sont diablement appetissants aussi ! Oui, mais il y a 
 Tarascon derriere, et dans le petit monde du poil et de la 
 plume, Tarascon est tres mal note (p. 3, 11. 15, 16 ; p. 5, 
 11. 1-4). Daudet himself and five other readers heighten 
 the contrast by pausing after mais, and avoiding the liaison. 
 Seven others carry the [z] over. Professor Paul Passy 
 makes a sound-group out of the words mais il y a Tarascon 
 derriere, which he transcribes with the very familiar pro- 
 nunciation [me j a tarasko dsrjsir] (Fr. parl. p. 13, 11. 14, 15). 
 While fusing mais into a longer group he still does not 
 sound the [z]. The treatment of the conjunction in such 
 cases, therefore, depends upon the reader's conception and 
 interpretation of the passage. 
 
 Where the contrast is not sufficiently abrupt and surpris- 
 ing to justify this reinforcement of the conjunction, it forms 
 a group with whatever words may follow. The liaison then 
 becomes a matter of style. It will often be neglected in 
 passages of a colloquial character, more rarely, however, in 
 verse and elevated prose. Optional liaisons in the Chresto- 
 mathie are found in Cette epoque . . . se rattache . . . a la 
 personne et au 7'egne de Charlemagne, mais^elle transforme ces 
 souvenirs (p. 71, 1. 31), On cons fata bien la continuite de la 
 
LINKING 109 
 
 vie nationale . . . mais^on ne chercha pas a discerner, etc. 
 (p. 83, 1. 8), Son office n'est pas une sinecure comme leur 
 rang ; mais^il comporte des inconvenients aussi graves (p. 91, 
 1. 14). The [z] is sounded in La Renaissance riy fut pas 
 une revolution subite, maisjun mouvement continu (p. 83, 1. 4), 
 Le cor beau . . .Jura . . . maisjun peu tard, etc. (p. 145, 1. 21), 
 but not in ^opposition des nations les unes aux autres est 
 necessaire pour qu'elles apprennent, non settlement a apprecier 
 les autres, mai(s) a se comprendre elles-memes (p. 65, 1. 29), 
 nor in Roland s'y refuse, par fierte personnelk d^abord et par 
 orgueil de famille, mai(s) aussi par honneur national (p. 77, 
 1. 33). Koschwitz's readers never all agree in neglecting or 
 avoiding this liaison ; nor do they often all concur in 
 making it. They all link, however, in Maisjil s' engage a 
 riabandonner pas le dessein, etc. (p. 70, 1. 3), Us riosent 
 pas se dire Anglais, maisj,l se font Bourguignons (p. 73, 
 1. 2), Elk ne regardait alors aucune des personnes presentes, 
 mais ^entierement retournee vers la vitre, elk semblait, etc. 
 (p. 27, 1. 8), // affirme, a sa maniere, il est vrai, mais^enfin 
 il affirme (p. 81, 1. 17). But M. Rousselot dissents in Non 
 seulement dans les f aits relates au jour le jour, mais^avec tous 
 les sentiments fur tifs, etc. (p. 37, 1. 12), and in Mais^il est des 
 nations que Dieu aime (p. 69, 1. 14). An interesting example 
 is found at page 47, line i : Mais, au fur et a mesure qu'on 
 s*eloigne de la capitate, etc. Here all the readers save M. 
 Rousselot link, in spite of the comma. Professor Passy 
 transcribes the same sentence with a pause after mats and, 
 therefore, like M. Rousselot, does not sound the [z] (Fr. 
 parle, p. 73, 1. 22). 
 
 (xiv) Between a relative pronoun other than dont (which 
 must always be linked) and the following word. 
 
 The question of liaison arises only in connection with 
 the plurals auxquels, auxquelles, lesquels, lesquelles. The 
 linking of these pronouns is confined to lofty style, and 
 
no FRENCH PHONETICS ' 
 
 rarely takes place even there. It * never made by the 
 authors of the Chrestomathie. All five of Koschwitz's 
 readers avoid it in Des langues . . . dans lesquelle(s) aucun 
 mot semblable . . . ne f rapper a votre oreille (p. 47, 1. 13), 
 and in Les executeurs, auxquel(s] on abandonnait . . . les 
 menues depouilles des supplicies (p. 59, 1. 18) : nor does 
 Professor Passy sound the [z] in his version of the former 
 phrase (Fr. parle, p. 75, 1. 10). Three out of five readers 
 link relative and personal pronoun in // regrettait alors les 
 bonnes habitudes . . . auxquelles^il avait ete brusquement 
 arrache (p. 25, 1. 17), but even here MM. Rousselot and 
 Jacob dissent. 
 
 (xv) Between the parts of compound locutions. 
 
 In plural compound nouns of a fixed form like des guets- 
 apens, des arcs-en-ciel, des crocs-en-jambe, des chars-a-banc, 
 des pots-a-eau, the [z] is not sounded : [de get apd] [dez 
 ark d sjsl] [de krok d sdib] [de Jair a bd] [de pot a o]. But 
 in new forms created on the same model the determining 
 words have an adjectival force, and liaison may take place 
 as between a noun and an adjective (Rule (i)). Thus in 
 the Parlers parisiens all the readers link in fenetresji 
 plein cintre (p. 13, 1. 10), des hommes^en blouse (p. 21, 
 1. n), 1 and all but MM. Rousselot and Jacob sound the 
 [z] of noirs in Ces pins noirs^aux gigantesques ombres (p. 1 1 1, 
 1. n). But in reading the long compound Ses mains aux 
 veines saillantes et triolettes, aux angles casses (p. 25, 1. 13), 
 all five pause after mains and avoid the liaison. 
 
 The combinations les uns aux autres, les unes aux autres 
 are best read [lez de oz oitr] [lez yn oz oitr] : for examples, 
 see the Chrestomathie, p. 101, 1. 9, and p. 65, 1. 16. MM. J. 
 Passy and Rambeau further avoid the liaison in les tournees 
 aux tournees (p. 115, 1. 36) where the [z] might well be 
 
 1 M. Rousselot appears to have neglected the liaison in a second and 
 more rapid reading. 
 
LINKING in 
 
 sounded as it is by three out of five readers in de sommets 
 en sommets (Parl. par. p. 115, 1. 19). Similarly, d'un bout 
 a Pautre is transcribed in the Chrestomathie (p. 117, 1. 3) 
 without liaison, while the [t] is sounded in the same expres- 
 sion by all five of Koschwitz's readers at page 55, line 16 
 of the Parlers parisiens^ and by Professor Paul Passy at 
 page 83, line i of Le Fran^ais parle. 
 
 This long array of rules and suggestions leaves a wide 
 field to choice. Linking is, after all, a kind of art. Judg- 
 ment and taste must be exercised. And that they may be 
 exercised to good purpose these faculties need training. It 
 is inevitable that the learner should make many faults and 
 be often in doubt before he acquires, as a kind of special 
 instinct, the feeling that will enable him to satisfy all 
 requirements. This means careful study; but it is by no 
 means an unattainable ideal. And the student may be 
 encouraged by a knowledge of the fact that in a considerable 
 percentage of the cases that will come under his notice, 
 when he begins to read more or less widely, the opinions of 
 qualified Frenchmen as to the propriety of liaison would be 
 divided. In such cases he can hardly make a really bad 
 choice. But it is only in virtue of a real feeling for the 
 language, which also involves a certain degree of education 
 generally, that he will be able to detect these cases with 
 some assurance when he meets them. While being aware 
 of their existence he must, therefore, hesitate to exaggerate 
 their prevalence. 
 
 In training his taste and judgment beyond the range of 
 rule, any one or more of three courses may be adopted. 
 He may, in the first place, appeal to a well-qualified teacher. 
 The latter will have no easy task. Whether he be a 
 Frenchman, or of the student's own nationality, he will need 
 not only to have the gift of taste, but to have devoted 
 special study to the subject before he can give soundly 
 
112 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 undogmatic advice. If the ordinary educated Frenchman is 
 consulted in a case of difficulty, he is almost sure to insist 
 on the link being made, not necessarily because he would 
 make it himself, but because he has been constantly warned 
 in his early school-days not to be careless in this matter, and 
 has not closely observed his own practice, or that of his 
 fellow-countrymen. In a similar way ask an educated 
 Englishman whether it is right to sound a final r, e.g. in 
 fire, fare, more, and he will very probably answer in the 
 affirmative, though, as a matter of fact, no [r] is heard in 
 the standard English pronunciation of such words. In 
 seeking advice it is, therefore, necessary to remember that 
 the school, and particularly the primary school, has been 
 the home of liaison in France. It is pleasing to note that 
 on this point teaching tends to become less conservative. 
 
 A second course, of great value, is the reading of texts in 
 phonetic script. Such texts are, unfortunately, not very 
 numerous. The most valuable for the study of liaison are 
 the Parlers parisiens of E. Koschwitz, and the Chresto- 
 mathie franfaise of Jean Passy and A. Rambeau, from 
 which most of the examples in the present chapter have 
 been taken. To these may be added Le Fran$ais parle of 
 Professor Paul Passy. The latter author, having adopted 
 the pronunciation of familiar speech, is, like the authors 
 of the Chrestomathie, very sparing with his liaisons. In 
 neither of the latter two works does the omission of a 
 liaison necessarily imply that its use in reading would be 
 improper. 1 
 
 1 The reading of phonetic texts is to be strongly recommended, not 
 only in connection with the subject of this chapter, but for French 
 pronunciation generally. Koschwitz's work, in addition to the 
 possibility of errors in the record, has the disadvantage of being written 
 in a rather complicated system of phonetic notation of the author's own 
 devising, and of recording provincial pronunciations as well as Parisian. 
 The Chrestomathie and the Fran$ais partt are both transcripts of the 
 
LINKING 113 
 
 If the student is able to adopt the third course, and pass 
 some time in France, he will need, to choose or make his 
 occasions for hearing with discrimination, he will need to 
 gain admittance into the right kind of society and, there- 
 withal, to have considerable powers of observation, and a 
 keen and quick ear. The materials are not rapidly collected 
 without much effort, and the right deductions cannot be 
 made without some insight. It will be of incalculable 
 advantage to him to have first made a close study of French 
 phonetics. 
 
 authors' own pronunciation, and employ the system of the International 
 Phonetic Association. 
 
 Other texts in international phonetic script are P. Passy's Premier 
 livre de lecture , 4 e ed. Paris, 1899 > Deuxieme livre de lecture ', 2 e ed. 
 Paris, 1899; Histoires pour enfants, Paris, 1896-9; Versions populaires 
 du Nouveau Testament, Paris, 1893-6 ; Choix de lectures, Kothen, 1904; 
 Ch. Halter's Histoire de France ; V. Partington's French Songs and 
 Poems, London, 1903 ; Felix Franke's Phrases de tous les jours (8th ed. 
 Leipzig, Reisland, 1900). The Association publishes a journal * Le 
 Maitre PhonttiqueJ edited by Professor Paul Passy (Bourg-la-Reine, 
 Seine). The articles, in various languages, of which French, English 
 and German predominate, are printed in phonetic type. 
 
 F.P- H 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 ELISION 
 
 IN certain positions in a sound-group certain sounds which 
 are normally heard when the syllable in which they occur is 
 pronounced in isolation drop away or suffer elision. The 
 phenomenon is recognized to some extent by the traditional 
 rules of grammar. We write rhomme for le homme, fai 
 for je ai) quelqu'un for quelque un, presqu'ile for presque-ile^ 
 entr'acte for entre-acte, Pame for la dme, s'il est for si il est> 
 f aurait ete for $a aurait ete or ce aurait ete. 1 
 
 A. Elision of [9] in single syllables. 
 
 The only vowel-sound, however, that regularly undergoes 
 elision in this way is the so-called e mute : [9], A right 
 treatment of the syllables in which this letter occurs is one 
 of the chief marks of a good French pronunciation. It is 
 essentially based on euphony tempered by the need to avoid 
 obscurity, and can generally be set forth in the form of 
 rules, but as, outside a certain range, the demands of 
 euphony are variously interpreted, the elision or non-elision 
 of [9] may become a matter of feeling and taste. 
 
 In discussing this subject it is necessary to distinguish 
 
 1 Strangely enough the elided letters in s*il est, <? aurait ttt are 
 usually sounded in speaking, though not in reading : [si il e] [sa 
 oret ete] instead of [sil e] [s oret ele]. 
 
ELISION 115 
 
 three positions in the sound-group : (i) the initial syllable, 
 (ii) the final syllable, and (iii) interior syllables. 
 
 (i) An [9] in the initial syllable of a sound-group. 
 
 In the first syllable of a sound-group the [9] is not elided. 
 Hence, when words of which the first syllable contains an [9] 
 are named individually, and thus form sound-groups in 
 themselves, or when they introduce a larger sound-group, the 
 [9] must be given its full value : venir [v9ni;r], tenir [t9niir], 
 lever [lave],, demander [dama'de], ced [sasi], cerise [sariiz], 
 cheval [$9val], serein [s9rs], semelle [samsl], semaine [samen], 
 /entire [faneitr], dessus [dasy], relief [raljef], remise [ramiiz], 
 renard [ranair], repas [rapa]. 
 
 The only real exceptions vxz pelote [plot] and its kindred, 
 peluche [plyj] and its derivatives, pelure [plyir] and pelouse 
 [pluiz]. And of these pelure may be pronounced with [9] : 
 [palyir]. 
 
 The rule applies to- the monosyllables containing [9] : 
 ce lac [s9 lak], le sel [la ssl], se plaire [59 pi sir], te ranger 
 [t9 ra^e], je dis [39 di], me souvenir [m9 suvniir], ne pas 
 croire [n9 pa krwair], de rire [d9 rilr], que voulez-vous [kg 
 vule vu]. 
 
 In free and easy conversation certain liberties are 
 frequently taken : ce riest pas may become [snspa], ce qui 
 nous manque [ski nu maik], ce que tu dis [ska ty di], je Pai 
 dit [sle di], je te dis [stadi], je crois [skrwal, je peux dire 
 [3p0 dilr], je vous assure [svuz asyir], le maitre [Imeitr], 
 de temps en temps [dtaz a ta] [taz a ta], venez [vne], deviner 
 [dvine], releve [rlsiv], secoue [sku]. These and analogous 
 elisions are common, and may be imitated by the fluent 
 speaker. They should not, however, be generally practised 
 by the student. 
 
 Thus, if we except pelouse, peluche, pelote and their 
 derivatives, we arrive at this simple result : In the first 
 syllable of a sound-group, that is, at the beginning of every 
 
ii6 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 sentence and after every pause, the [9] may always and 
 generally must be retained. 
 
 (ii) An [9] in the last syllable of a sound-group. 
 
 In this position the [9] is regularly elided. Hence the 
 last ' e ' is not sounded in the following expressions : il faut 
 le prendre [il fo 1 praldr], il est sur la table [il & syr la tabl], 
 la mer est calme [la msir s kalm], devant la fenetre [dsva la 
 fnsitr], Us parlent [il parl], Us parlaient [il parls], les voiles se 
 gonflent [le vwal S9 goifl], c'est un dogme [set de dogm], voila 
 un prisme [vwala oe prism], une forte somme [yn fort9 som], 
 une robe elegante [yn rob elegalt], dans la rue [da la ry]. 
 Expressions like croyez-le, le mot je are only apparent excep- 
 tions ; under the stress of the tonic accent the vowel [9] 
 becomes either [ce] or [0] : [krwaje 10] [19 mo 30]. When 
 que is immediately followed by a parenthesis it may end a 
 sound-group : it is then treated similarly and becomes [k0] 
 or [kce]. 
 
 The rule for the elision of the last [9] in a sound-group is 
 subject to certain optional or occasional exceptions. Thus, 
 in deliberate speech, the [9] in question may be pronounced 
 lightly when it follows a group of two or more consonants. 
 It is, therefore, not incorrect to sound the final [9] in il faut 
 le prendre, il est sur la table, c'est un prisme. Again, any 
 mute [9] may be resuscitated when words are set to music : 
 vie may become [vig], faime [351019]. Finally, if it were 
 necessary to distinguish pairs of masculine and feminine 
 words such as donnt and donnee, ami and amie, the pro- 
 nunciation of which is normally identical, the final [9] of the 
 feminine might be sounded. 
 
 (iii) An [9] in an interior syllable of a sound-group. 
 
 It is usually said that [9] in an interior syllable is elided 
 unless its loss would give rise to a group of three consonants 
 which cannot be readily pronounced together. This state- 
 ment undoubtedly embodies the main principle, but it is a 
 
ELISION 117 
 
 quite inadequate guide for the English-speaking student. 
 The latter, producing the French sounds perhaps imper- 
 fectly, and being thoroughly accustomed to heavy groups of 
 consonants in his own language, is apt to form wrong ideas 
 as to the consonants that cannot be 'readily pronounced 
 together ' in French. To meet this difficulty the easy group 
 has been denned as one in which the last of the three 
 consonants is a liquid or a semi-vowel, that is, one of the 
 sounds [r] [1] [w] [i|] [j]. Unfortunately the rule loses 
 in accuracy what it thus gains in definiteness : in its 
 amended form it covers many cases where elision is not 
 permissible, and fails to include many others in which 
 elision regularly takes place. Though the subject pre- 
 sents no great difficulties, it is not simple enough to be 
 treated in a general formula. 
 
 The defects of the rule above-mentioned might be made 
 good by framing rules to meet the exceptions. For practical 
 purposes, however, it will be expedient to approach the 
 subject in a simpler manner. The student need scarcely 
 ever adopt the unnatural and tedious practice of looking 
 on to see what consonants follow the vowel. When an 
 [3] stands between consonants its loss or survival, if it 
 be not merely a matter of rhythm, depends upon the 
 preceding sounds. The elision of [9] in the body of a 
 sound-group may, therefore, be considered under the 
 following heads : 
 
 (a) When the [9] follows or precedes a vowel. 
 
 (b) When it follows a single consonant. 
 
 (c) When it follows two or more consonants. 
 
 (a) When the [9] follows or precedes a vowel. 
 
 In these positions the [9] is dropped, even in verse : 
 flageolet [flaspls], geai [30], louerai [lure], jouerai [sure], 
 prierai [prire], fierai [fire], lierai [lire], oublierai [ublire], 
 
u8 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 entre eux [a'tr 0], quelque animal [kslk animal], pauvre 
 homme [po'vr om]. 
 
 An [3] preceding a vowel survives exceptionally : 
 
 1 . Where an ' h aspirate ' intervenes in spelling : e.g. le 
 heros [19 ero], le hublot [19 yblo], je hais [39 sj. 
 
 2. In certain cases where the vowel is a semi-vowel : 
 e.g. le out et le non [19 wi e 1 no]. 1 
 
 3. In le and de before a quotation or the name of a 
 letter or figure : e.g. le 'a' [19 a], le ' e' [la e], le un [la de], 
 le onze [la 5iz]. Elision, however, may take place before 
 the name of a letter : /' 'a ' [la], l"e* [le]. 
 
 4. In the pronoun-object after an imperative, the [a] 
 usually changing to [ce] or [0] : e.g. donnez-le aux pauvres 
 [done 10 o poivr]. 
 
 (b) When the [a] follows a single consonant-sound. 
 
 An [a] following a single consonant-sound in the body of 
 a sound-group is regularly elided. In applying this rule care 
 must be taken not to confound ( consonant-sound ' with 
 1 consonant-sign.' Thus the [a] in commandement follows 
 the single consonant-sound [d], the n merely serving to 
 show that the preceding vowel is nasalized : [kama'dma] ; 
 the ch in acheter indicates the single sound [], hence we 
 elide the [a] : [ajte] ; the pp in rappeler stands for a simple 
 [p], and we say [raple]. Double consonant-signs nearly 
 always represent a single sound. 2 
 
 This rule is subject to certain compulsory and certain 
 optional exceptions which will be mentioned in connection 
 with each class of examples. 
 
 i. Examples where the [a] occurs in a monosyllable : 
 
 N'est-ce pas ? [nss pa] ; ai-je dit [s'3 di] ; qui se dit 
 [ki s di] ; loin de la maison [Iws d la me'zo] ; tout le monde 
 [tu 1 mold] ; peu de chose [p0 d $oiz] ; il faut le dire [il fo 1 
 
 1 Compare Linking, p. 79. 2 See Chap. V. (i), p. 156. 
 
ELISION 119 
 
 dilr] ; on doit le croire [o dwa 1 krwair] ; et ainsi de suite 
 [e s'si d suit] ; le grec et le latin [b grek e 1 latsj. 
 
 An obligatory exception is found in the pronoun le after 
 an imperative : notez-le bien [note b bjs] or [note 10 bjs]. 
 
 In deliberate speech, particularly in reading, the [oj of a 
 monosyllable may be sounded. The Parlers parisiens of 
 Koschwitz furnish us with some interesting and instructive 
 illustrations. This work, unfortunately, cannot be consulted 
 at large on the question of elision ; first, because in such a 
 delicate matter the risk ot error in the record is too great, 1 
 and, secondly, because the pronunciation of some of the 
 readers is emphatically provincial. But in one instance 
 neither of these objections holds good. The pronunciation 
 of Gaston Paris, 2 who, though born at Avenay, lived at 
 Paris from his earliest infancy, would be universally accepted 
 as a model. And as the transcript of the passage he read 
 was examined and approved by him 3 it is sure to represent 
 his pronunciation faithfully. This passage, moreover, being 
 a good average specimen of literary prose, neither familiar 
 nor very elevated in style, is peculiarly adapted for the study 
 of elision. We may, therefore, cite the readings of Gaston 
 Paris with confidence. At the same time we may compare 
 them with those of Professor Paul Passy, who had previously 
 published in Le Fran^ais parle, a phonetic transcript of the 
 same passage. 4 
 
 This comparison as regards the elision of the ' e mute ' in 
 monosyllables gives the following results : 
 
 Gaston Paris sounds and M. Passy elides the italicised 
 c e mute ' in the expressions : Le dialecte de Paris et de File 
 de France ; allez aux environs de Valenciennes ; on a 
 generalement adopte \e frangais d'ecole ; un langage fort 
 
 1 See Linking, p. 85. 2 Pronounce [pcrris]. 
 
 3 See Parlers parisiens , Intro, xxviii, and pp. 43-55. 
 
 4 Le Fran$ais parl^ pp. 72-86. 
 
120 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 different de celui que nous parlons et fort different de celui 
 qu'on parle dans chacun des autres ; du cote d' Avignon, . . . 
 ou de Pau ; vous \e savez ; faisant abstraction pour un 
 moment de 1'extension artificielle du parler de Paris ; nous 
 aurons \e tableau d'une immense bigarrure ; nous verrons 
 des sons . . . couvrir une certaine region et ne pas penetrer 
 dans une autre ; mais \e fait qui ressort . . . c'est que toutes 
 ces variantes de phonetique, . . . et de vocabulaire n'em- 
 pechent pas une unite fondamentale, et que d'un bout de la 
 France a 1'autre, etc.; celui de la commune voisine; son voisin 
 de droite et son voisin de gauche ; une etoile dont on pourrait 
 de meme relier les rayons ; cette loi, c'est que dans une 
 masse linguistique de meme origine comme la notre, il n'y a 
 reellement pas de dialectes ; il n'y a que des traits linguis- 
 tiques ; avec le parler de chacun des quatre endroits ; une 
 certaine etendue de terrain ; ou de plusieurs autres traits ; il 
 suit de la que tout le travail qu'on a depense, etc. ; ces mots 
 n'ont de sens qu'appliques a la production; embarrasse de 
 ranger ; et qu^ d'un bout a 1'autre, etc. 
 
 Both Gaston Paris and M. Passy elide the [9] in the 
 following instances : Entre la langue nationale et le parler 
 populaire ; laissant de cote ; dans le territoire restant ; 
 1'extension artificielle du parler de Paris ; dans tout le midi ; 
 dans tout le nord ; dans tout le centre ; d'un bout de la 
 France a 1'autre ; un villageois qui ne saurait que le patois 
 de sa commune ; avec un peu plus de difficulte ; et ainsi de 
 suite ; comme on s^ 1'imagine ; tout le travail qu'on a 
 depense ; dans 1'ensemble des parlers de la France ; des 
 dialectes et ce qu'on a appele des ' sous-dialectes ' ; des 
 le moy en-age ; entre le frangais et le provenc.al ; avaient 
 plus de faveur que les autres ; entre le proven^al et le 
 francais ; cette etrange frontiere qui de 1'ouest a Test 
 couperait la France. 
 
 In only one case does M. Passy sound the [9] of a 
 
ELISION 121 
 
 monosyllable which Gaston Paris elides : ces trois coins de 
 metal etranger qui encadrent notre carte linguistique. Here 
 M. Passy apparently reads the words l de metal etranger ' as 
 a distinct sound-group. 
 
 The readings of Gaston Paris and M. Paul Passy thus 
 present a striking contrast as regards the elision of the [9] 
 after a single consonant-sound in monosyllables : the one 
 dispenses with the [9] in almost every case, the other more 
 often than not retains it. This difference proceeds from a 
 difference in the style of diction. M. Passy, like the authors 
 of the Chrestomathie, adopts in his version the pronuncia- 
 tions of familiar conversation, while the diction of Gaston 
 Paris is leisurely and ' correct.' The contrast is referred to 
 by Koschwitz, in his prefatory note to the specimen, in 
 these words : ' M. G. Paris et M. Joret, qui assistait a 
 1'audition, trouvaient egalement que M. Passy avait donne 
 a son texte figure un caractere par trop familier. ... M. 
 Paris qui, meme dans la conversation, prononce avec une 
 rare correction, ne s'est permis, dans la lecture, presque 
 aucune des negligences du parler parisien : les e sourds 
 ne disparaissaient chez lui que bien a propos, etc.' 
 
 The propriety of the elisions made by Gaston Paris is 
 more easily felt than explained. They are such as do not 
 rob the phrase of its leisurely and dignified march. It 
 is instructive to observe that while another careful reader 
 might well elide the [9] more frequently than Paris, few 
 would retain it where it was dropped by him. Elision 
 should take place even in deliberate diction when the 
 monosyllable forms part of a familiar expression such as 
 ainsi de suite, tout de suite, tout le monde, peu de chose, jeu 
 de mots, dans le monde, tout le travail, cela se dit, qui ne 
 sait pas, rfest-ce pas ? ai-je dit. It may also be noted 
 that of all the monosyllables ne is the one in which the 
 [9] is most regularly elided, and que the one in which 
 
r-22 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 it is most often retained. This is not the result of hazard, 
 but has its reason in the respective functions of the two 
 words. Ne is generally accompanied by pas, and that the 
 idea of negation resides rather in the latter particle is shown 
 by the fact that the ne is often entirely suppressed in con- 
 versation, and that even when it is retained the accent nearly 
 always falls upon the pas. Que, on the other hand, as 
 conjunction or as relative pronoun, indicates the relation 
 between two sentences, and the elision of the [9], involving 
 as a rule their combination in a single sound-group, renders 
 the transition from one to the other peculiarly abrupt. 
 Gaston Paris does not elide the [9] of que in a single 
 instance. M. Passy himself retains it in the expression : 
 Un endroit oil il rientendrait plus que tres peniblement 
 ridiome local. In ne . . . que the que is very often preserved 
 intact even in conversation. 
 
 2. Examples where the [9] occurs in the initial syllable of 
 a word : 
 
 Mon cheval [mo Jval], la gelee [la 3le], les lemons [le Iso], la, 
 religion [la rh'sjo], la Renaissance [la rnssais], un secret 
 [de skrs], dans lequel [da Iksl], sans retour [sa rtuir], a 
 genoux [a snu], en revanche [a rvaij], la semaine [la smsn], 
 // s*y refuse [il si rfyiz], il est re$u [il s rsy], nous regardons 
 [nu rgardo], s'en retourner [sa rturne], nous avons reconnu 
 [nuz avo rkony], vous avez repris [vuz ave rpri], vous venez 
 [vu vne], nous tenons [nu tno], vous menez [vu mne], nous 
 devons [nu dvo], dix degres [di dgre], nous serons [nu sro], 
 vous ferez [vu fre]. 
 
 This [9] survives exceptionally : 
 
 (a) Before the endings ' consonant 4- ions f jo] ' and ' con- 
 sonant -t-iez [je] ' : nous venions [nu V9njo], vous veniez [vu 
 V9nje] ; nous tenions [nu t9njo], vous teniez [vu t9nje] ; nous 
 menions [nu m9njo], vous meniez [vu m9nje] ; nous devions 
 [nu davjo], vous deviez [vu d9vje] ; nous serions [nu S9rjo], 
 
ELISION 123 
 
 vous seriez [vu sorje] ; nous faisions [nu fdzj5], vous faisiez 
 [vu fgzje] ; nous fer ions [nu farjo], vous feriez [vu fgrje] ; //<?^ 
 pelions [nu p9ljo], zw/5- /<?fe [vu p9lje] ; # r^/^r [a rolje]. 
 
 (/3) In a few words which would otherwise lose their 
 identity or become obscure : un benet [de b9ns], la bedaine 
 [la badsn], un bedeau [de bsdo], la besace [la bgzas], les besides 
 [le bazikl], au dehors [o dsoir], un denier [de donje], la 
 femelle [la fsmsl], un levrier [de bvrie], la pelade [la pglad], 
 // est penaud [il s pono], // ^/ tenace [il s tonas], peser [p9ze] 
 in all its parts and all its derivatives. 
 
 The [9] in an initial syllable after a single consonant in 
 the body of a sound-group may, like the [9] of a mono- 
 syllable, be retained in deliberate speech. A comparison 
 of the pronunciations of Gaston Paris and M. Paul Passy 
 in this respect, in the passage above referred to, gives the 
 following result : Passy elides the [9] in every case but one, 
 Paris retains it in every case but two. Paris sounds and 
 Passy elides the [9] in the following : La France a d^puis 
 longtemps une seule langue officielle ; langue qui r^presente 
 notre nationalite ; on ndeve des differences ; vous recon- 
 naitrez ; nous remarquerons ; le fait qui assort ; loi qui 
 doit rcnouveler toutes les methodes ; on doit r^connaitre ; 
 traits qui hii s^ront communs avec le parler. Both elide 
 the [9] in : Au fur et a m^sure ; II nous s^ra possible. Both 
 retain it in : En fazsant une vaste chaine. 
 
 The contrast between the methods of Gaston Paris and 
 Paul Passy is, therefore, no .less marked in the treatment 
 of initial [9] syllables than in that of monosyllables ; and 
 it is again Passy's method that is followed in the 
 Chrestomathie. The comments made on the treatment of 
 monosyllables apply mutatis mutandis in the present case. 
 Only a halting delivery would retain the ' mute is ' in 
 conversation, whereas in reading they may very frequently 
 be preserved. It may be noted that, if Koschwitz's record 
 
124 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 is to be trusted, the other four readers never all agreed in 
 sounding the [9] where it had been elided by M. Passy. 
 
 3. Examples where the [9] stands in an inner syllable 
 of a word : 
 
 Completement [ko'plstma], doucement [dusma], settlement 
 [scelma], ram0/[ra f rrna], gravement [gra'vma], maintenant 
 [ms'tna], enseignement [a'ssjima], effronterie [efro'tri], 
 boulangerie [bula'gri], sellerie [sslri], honnetete [onstte], 
 saintete [ss'tte], acheter [a$te], acheterai [ajstre], atteler [atle], 
 accueillerai [akoejre], soutenir [sutnilr], soutenez [sutne], 
 soutenu [sutny], contenir [ko'tnilr], maintenir [me'tni:r], 
 convenir [ko'vnilr], provenir [provnilr], prevenir [prevniir], 
 ' amener [amne], developper [devbpe], echapperons [eJaprS], 
 trouvera [truvra], tirerai [ti'rre], comparerez [ko'parre], 
 arriveras [arivra], differeront [diferrS]. 
 
 The [9] in this position must, however, be sounded : 
 
 (a) Before the verbal endings ' consonant + ions [jo] ' and 
 4 consonant + iez [je] ' : nous convenient [nu ko T v9njo], vous 
 conveniez [vu ko'v9nje] ; nous preventions [nu prev9njo], vous 
 preveniez [vu prev9nje] ; nous amenions [nuz am9njo], vous 
 ameniez [vuz ani9nje] ; nous soutenions [nu sut9njo], vous 
 souteniez [vu sut9nje] ; nous appelions [nuz ap9l]5], vous 
 appeliez [vuz ap9lje] ; nous donnerions [nu don9rjo], vous 
 donneriez [vu don9rje] ; nous trouverions [nu truv9rjo], vous 
 trouveriez [vu truvgrje] 1 ; nous accueillerions [nuz akoeJ9rjo], 
 vous accueilleriez [vuz akoeJ9rje]. 
 
 This class of exceptions includes a few nouns in -Her : e.g. 
 atelier [at9lje], rdtelier [rat9lje], bachelier [ba^lje], chapelier 
 [Jap9lje]. Cf. cabaretier [kabartje], and savetier [savtje]. 
 
 (/3) In all parts of the verbs concevoir [k5's9vwair], decevoir 
 [des9vwa:r], recevoir [r9S9vwair]. If the [9] were elided 
 
 1 In these persons of the Conditional of verbs of the First Conjuga- 
 tion the [9] is sometimes elided : the ending then changes to [i3] [ie], 
 e.g. [truvrio] [truvrie]. 
 
ELISION 125 
 
 here regressive vocalization 1 would take place, and the 
 identity of the words would be imperilled. The pronuncia- 
 tion with elision, e.g. [ko'svwair], is nevertheless occasionally 
 heard in conversation. 
 
 The optional exceptions to the elision of an inner [9] are 
 few : the [9] may be resuscitated only in verbs, particularly 
 compound verbal forms in which it is the root vowel of 
 the simple verb : e.g. in maintenir and other compounds of 
 tenir ; in convenir and other compounds of venir ; in amener 
 and other compounds of mener. 
 
 Elsewhere the suppression of the inner [9] after a single 
 consonant may be regarded as obligatory on all occasions. 
 Pronunciations such as [ko'plet9ma] [dusQma] [scetama] 
 are as distinctly dialectal as the Scotch [wor9ld] for [weild] 
 world. 
 
 4. Examples where the [9] occurs at the end of a word : 
 
 Toute la terre [tut la tsir], mille deux cents [mil d0 so], 
 une lumiere rouge [yn lymjs'r rui5], elles fondent en larmes [si 
 foidt a larm], Us peuvent en appeler [il pceyt an aple]. 
 
 In this position the [9] is elided on all occasions and 
 without exception. Thus in Fardente croix (Chrest. p. 179, 
 1. 29) the [9] should not be sounded, even in verse, although 
 it counts in the measure, and although its elision creates 
 a group of four consonants : [lardait krwa]. 
 
 (c) When the [9] follows two or more consonant-sounds. 
 
 An [9] following a group of consonants in the interior of 
 a sound-group is generally required as a supporting- vowel 
 (voyelle d'appui) and must be given its full value whatever 
 may be the nature of the consonant by which it is followed. 
 
 i. This rule is without exception when the two con- 
 sonants belong to different words : par ce moyen [par S9 
 mwaje], Part de lire [la'r d9 liir], pour se sauver [pur S9 
 so've], pour secourir [pur S9kurilr], pour te dire [pur t9 dilr], 
 1 See Assimilation, p. 152. 
 
126 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 il nous sert de guide [il nu ss'r ds gid], pour venir [pur 
 voniir], pour lever [pur bve], peur de rien [poe'r do rjsj. 
 Exceptions do occur occasionally in rapid familiar speech, 
 trop de cerises, for example, being pronounced [trod sriiz], 
 une petite [yn ptit], je le ferai [39! fre], il ne sera pas 
 [in sra pa], elks seront [si sro]. The student, however, is 
 recommended not to adopt such abbreviations, but to read 
 [tod S9ri;z] [yn pstit] [59! f9re] [il n9 sra pa] [si S9ro]. 
 
 Hence we may make the helpful generalization that the 
 [9] of a monosyllable and the [9] in an initial syllable are 
 never elided when the preceding word ends with a con- 
 sonant-sound. 
 
 2. The rule is again without exception when the con- 
 sonants form an initial group : en Bretagne [a br9taji], la 
 bretelle [la br9tsl], vous prenez [vu prgne], en prenant [a 
 pr9na], la premiere [la pr9mjs:r]. 
 
 3. On the other hand, elision of the [9] after a group 
 of consonants takes place very commonly, in conversation, 
 in the Future and Conditional tenses of verbs of the First 
 Conjugation, save (a) where the [r] of the termination is 
 followed by [j], that is, in -erions, -eriez\ (/3) where the 
 group preceding the [9] ends in [r] or [1]. 
 
 Examples : je garderai [39 gardgre] [39 gardre], tu resteras 
 [tu rsst9ra] [tu rsstra], il forcera [il fbrs9ra] [il fbrsra], nous 
 observerons [nuz opssrv9ro] [nuz opssrvro], vous remarquerez 
 [vu r9mark9re] [vu rmarkre], Us accepteront [ilz aksspt9ro] 
 [ilz akssptro], je marcherais [39 marjgrs] [39 marjrs], tu 
 porterais [ty port9rs] [ty portrs], il verserait [il vsrs9rs] [il 
 vsrsrs], Us formeraient [il form9rs] [il formrs]. 
 
 The shorter forms are adopted in the Chrestomathie, but 
 it is perhaps preferable not to make the elision in reading. 
 Two examples of the kind in question occur in the passage 
 read for Koschwitz by the late Gaston Paris and transcribed 
 independently by M. Paul Passy : Vous discernerez (Par/. 
 
ELISION 127 
 
 par. p. 47, 1. 10; Fr. parl. p. 75, 1. 7); Nous remarquerons 
 (Parl. par. p. 49, 1. n ; Fr. parl. p. 77, 1. 5). Paris sounds 
 the [3] in both : [vu dissirore] [nu rgmarkgro] ; Passy elides 
 it in both : [vu dissrnre] [nu rmarkro]. 
 
 In Nous parlerons (Parl. par. p. 49, 1. 2 ; Fr. parl. 
 p. 75, 1. 21) and // rencontrerait (Parl. par. p. 51, 1. 4; 
 Fr. parl. p. 77, 1. 21), where the groups end in [1] and [r], 
 the [9] is naturally retained by both. Similarly, even in 
 conversation, we must sound the [9] in Nous garderions 
 [nu gard9rjo], vous resteriez [vu rsst9rje], nous forcerions [nu 
 fbrs9rjo], vous observeriez [vuz opssrv9rje]. 
 
 Allowance being thus made for the verbal forms in which 
 elision may take place in conversation, we may say that the 
 [9] after a group of consonants in the body of a word must 
 always be sounded. Examples : abstenir [apst9niir], obtenir 
 [opt9nilr], apercevoir. [apsrs9vwalr], entrevoir [a'tr9vwalr], 
 entreprendre [a'topraidr], autrement [o'trama], opinidtrete 
 [opinja'tr9te], contresens [ko'trgsais], fourberie [furbgri], 
 Charlemagne [Jarbmaji], appartement [apart9ma], appartenir 
 [apart9ni'r],/ar^^V [parv9nilr], parvenu \Q2ctv3i\y\parlement 
 [parbmd], lestement [Isst9ma], veritablement [veritablgma], 
 brusquement [bryskgma], parchemin [parjgms], exactement 
 [egzakt9ma], justement [5yst9ma], gouvernement [guvsrngma], 
 morseler [mors9le], marmelade [marmglad]. 
 
 4. If the [9] stands at the end of a word after a group 
 of consonant-sounds its treatment depends (a) upon the 
 nature of the consonants by which it is preceded, (/2) upon 
 the rhythm of the sound-group, and (7) upon the style of 
 language. 
 
 (a) If the group of consonants ends in [k], [r] or [1], and 
 is not [rk] or [rl], the [9] is sounded : quelque temps [kelkg 
 ta], quelque chose [kslk9 Joiz], quelques representations [kslkg 
 rgpreza'ta'sjo], presque parfait [prssk9 parfs], jusque-la 
 [sysk9 la], lorsque vous viendrez [brskg vu vjs'dre], votre 
 
128 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 visite [votro vizit], une autre methode [yn o'tra metod], par 
 ordre de merite [par ordrs da merit], il entre dans la salle 
 [il a'tr9 da la sal], ses propres mots [se propra mo] ; un cerde 
 plus etendu [de ssrkta plyz eta'dy], la table des matieres [la 
 tabb de matjsir]. 
 
 When the [e] is sounded after a group of consonants at 
 the end of a word care must be taken not to exaggerate 
 the value of the syllable. It should be pronounced very 
 lightly, and often becomes scarcely audible. In this way 
 some maintain that the [9] may be elided after a group 
 ending in [r]. Even Gaston Paris approves of the notation 
 [rokonsitr le limit] = reconnaitre les limites (Par/, par. p. 53, 
 1. 3). (See Elision of Consonants, pp. 141 ff.) 
 
 (/3) The retention of the [9] at the end of a word, but in 
 the body of a sound-group, is often required by the rhythm 
 of the phrase which demands that, wherever possible, there 
 shall not be a succession of heavy beats. A syllable 
 ending in a group of consonants necessarily bears either 
 a tonic or a secondary accent ; hence if the [9] were elided 
 after a group of consonants at the end of a word, that 
 word would end with a secondary or principal accent, and 
 if the next syllable bore a tonic accent we should have two 
 accents in succession. This sequence is not unknown in 
 French, but the order ' secondary + weak + strong,' which 
 would be obtained by sounding the [9], is preferred. 1 
 Accordingly if the syllable that follows the [9] is accented 
 the [9] is preserved. The [9] syllable, which is lightly pro- 
 nounced, thus forms a kind of buffer between two heavy 
 accented syllables. Examples : // se porte Men [il S9 port9 
 bjS],/V reste la [30 rest9 la], il riexiste pas [il negzist9 pa], 
 ne le cherche pas [ngl $sr$9 pa], n'importe qui [ns'port9 ki], 
 artiste-peintre [artist9 psitr], George Sand [50^9 so], Charles 
 Douze [$arb duiz], porte-defs [port9 kle], porte-cartes [port9 
 J See Chap. VI. p. 165. 
 
ELISION i2c) 
 
 kart], porte-queue [ports k0], porte-plume [ports plym], garde- 
 fou [gards fu], garde-robe [gard9 rob], garde-chasse [gards Jas], 
 garde-meubles [gards moebl], garde-crotte [gards krot], // tourne 
 bride [il turns brid], barbe grise [barbs griiz], barbe blanche 
 [barbs bla;$], barbe-bleue [barbs b!0], volte-face [volts fas]. 
 
 Exceptions are heard only in rapid and careless speech: 
 e.g. tourne-toi [turn twa], il ne le cherche pas [in Is Jer J pa], 
 il se porte bien [is port bjs]. 
 
 (7) Should rhythm alone not forbid elision, the treatment 
 of the medial [s] at the end of a word, after a group of con- 
 sonants, becomes generally a matter of style. As in the 
 case of liaison, however, much depends upon the nature 
 of the words : the closer the relation between the word 
 ending in [s] and the one by which it is followed, the more 
 often the [s] survives. 
 
 We have seen that when an adjective is followed by its 
 noun the relation of the two words is so close that liaison 
 always takes place between them : similarly, if the adjective 
 should end in a group of consonants + [s] and the noun 
 begin with a consonant the [s] should not be dropped. 
 Examples: Ses justes limites [se 5ysts limit] (Chrest. p. 65, 
 1. 19) ; de fortes racines [ds forts rasin] (Chrest. p. 87, 1. 34); 
 le superbe soleil d'automne [Is sypsrbs sols' j doton] (Chrest. 
 p. 117, 1. 9); la vaste capote du soldat [la vasts kapot dy 
 solda] (Chrest. p. 117, 1. 12); une vaste tapis serie [yn vasts 
 tapisri] (Parl. par. p. 55, 1. 17 ; Fr. parl. p. 83, 1. 2) ; une 
 vaste chaine de gens [yn vasts. Je'n ds 50] (Parl. par. p. 51, 
 1. 7; Fr. parl. p. 77, 1. 25); de tristes pensees [ds trists 
 pa'se], une lourde voiture [yn lurds vwatyir], une exacte con- 
 naissance [yn egzakts konssais]. 
 
 Adjective and noun are no longer so intimately related to 
 each other when their order is reversed ; and in this position 
 elision becomes more common, just as linking becomes more 
 rare. In reading with deliberation, however, the [s] is still 
 
 F.P. I 
 
130 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 heard pretty frequently between noun and adjective, par- 
 ticularly if the expression belongs to elevated style. Thus 
 the authors of the Chrestomathie, whose elisions are as 
 numerous as their liaisons are few, sound the [o] in le 
 scepticisme transcendental [b septisisma tra'sa'da'tal] (p. 125, 
 1. 35); le dilettantisme raffine [b dile/tci'tismo rafine] 1 (p. 125, 
 1. 36) ; sous une forme concrete [suz yn forms ko'kret] (p. 71, 
 1. 4); la force brutale [la forsa brytal] (p. 75, 1. 16); Porganisme 
 primitif [brganisni9 primitif] (p. 85, 1. 36) ; ces haltes gran- 
 dioses [se alt9 gra'djoiz]' (p. 57, 1. 18) ; and mark the elision 
 as optional in cette force mysterieuse [set forsp misterj0iz] 1 
 (p. 63, 1. 6); la force centrale [la forsp sa'tral] (p. 61, 1. 4); 
 des sources diverses [de sursp divers] (p. 63, 1. n); la garde 
 nationale [la gard<? nasjonal] (p. 113, 1. 35) ; as in the follow- 
 ing expressions in which the noun is followed by a genitive 
 or a relative clause : le terme de sa course [b termp da sa 
 kurs] (p. 57, 1. 19); la courbe du siecle [la kurbp dy sjekl] 
 (p. 123, 1. 35) ; lorganisme d'une nation [lorganism,? dyn 
 na'sjo] (p. 63, 1. 31) ; le mecanisme d'un empire [la mekanismp 
 dden a'pilr] (p. 63, 1. 32); le contraste qui existe souvent [b 
 ko'trast? ki egzistP suva] (p. 19, 1. 24). But they choose to 
 elide the [o] in portes cocheres [port kojeir] (p. 137, 1. 14) ; 
 la marche naturelle de ce cours [la mar$ natyrel d9 s kuir] 
 (p. 57, 1. 9); ujie corde secrete [yn kord sskret] (p. 67, 1. 6); 
 une sorte de substitution [yn sort do sypstitysjo] (p. 71, 1. 37) ; 
 une des formes toutes particulieres [yn de form tutpartikyljeir] 
 (p. 77, 1. 2). Gaston Paris and M. Paul Passy both elide in 
 notre carte linguistique [notra kart le'gqistik] (Par/, par. p. 47, 
 1. 18; Fr. parl. p. 75, 1. 16); but after the necessary sur- 
 vival of the [o] in notre the [o] in carte must, for rhythmic 
 reasons, drop away, much in the same way as a liaison is 
 omitted to avoid the repetition of a sound. In another 
 
 1 The italicized phonetic sign is used in the Chrestomathie to indicate 
 an optional sound. 
 
ELISION 131 
 
 example which occurs in the same passage, viz. les recueils 
 de textes fran^ais et proven faux (Parl. par. p. 55, 1. 3; Fr. 
 parl. p. 8 1, 1. 14), they adopt diverse courses. 
 
 The group [kt], which is more clearly articulated than in 
 English, nearly always requires the supporting-vowel in this 
 position : acte deux [akt9 d0], acte religieux [akt9 r9li3J0]. 
 
 Nouns, adjectives and verbs are almost the only kinds of 
 words in which the ending ' group of consonants + [9] ' 
 is found ; hence the only other positions in which the 
 question of elision is likely to arise are (i) between subject 
 and predicate, and (ii) between verb and object or adverb. 
 
 In the former case elision will be the rule, e.g. in La carte 
 m'est parvenue [la kart ms parv9ny], La porte reste ouverte 
 [la port rsst uvsrt]. Both G. Paris and P. Passy elide in Le 
 meme verbe se prononce, etc. [la ms'm verb S9 pronois] (Par!, 
 par. p. 49, 1. n ; Fr. parl. p. 77, 1. 6). Nor in any one 
 of the five readings did Koschwitz hear the [9] in Le chris- 
 tianisme Pavait enrichi [la kristjanism lavst a'riji] (p. 79, 
 1. 5). Between a verb and the word that follows the [9] is 
 frequently heard in the reading of elevated prose, but more 
 usually dropped in conversation. G. Paris sounds and 
 M. Passy elides the [9] in Le pay san parle comme le Parisien 
 (ParL par. p. 45, 1. 16; Fr. parl. p. 73, 1. 22); Les parlers 
 populaires se perdent les uns dans les autres (ParL par. p. 49, 
 1. 21 ; Fr. parl. p. 77, 1. 17). They both elide in Different 
 de celui qdon parle dans chacun des autres (ParL par. p. 47, 
 1. 8; Fr. parl. p. 75, 1. 4). The authors of the Chresto- 
 mathie regard elision as optional in Elle se manifeste pat 
 r amour (p. 63, 1. 31), and in Le perpetuel devenir dont par- 
 lent les philosophes (p. 123, 1. 33), but drop the [9] uncon- 
 ditionally in Elle transforme ces souvenirs (p. 71, 1. 31) and 
 in II comporte des inconvenients (p. 91, 1. 14). 
 
 Compound nouns formed by the junction of a verb and a 
 noun (and not coming under 4(/3)) have a more or less 
 
132 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 familiar ring, and are generally heard without the [9] : 
 garde-malade [gard malad], garde-magasin [gard magazs], 
 porte-bonheur\$?K\. fonczli], porte-manteau [port ma'to],/0r/- 
 monnaie [port mons], porte-parole [port parol], porte-flambeau 
 [port fla'bo]. 
 
 Finally, in the locutions de sorte que, parce que, a force de, 
 riimporte quel the [9] is suppressed or retained according 
 to the occasion. It should usually be retained in reading. 
 
 B. Elision of [9] in series of syllables. 
 
 The foregoing rules meet the case of a single [9] syllable 
 in all positions. But we frequently get a series of [9] 
 syllables in unbroken succession, sometimes as many as 
 eight, very commonly two or three. What happens in such 
 cases ? It will be found that if the rules are applied every 
 alternate syllable may be elided (save where the series ends 
 with a word beginning with two consonants and [9], e.g. 
 nous ne le prenons pas). Thus, in C'est que je ne le veux 
 pas, the first [9] drops after a single consonant-sound : c'est 
 que = [SB k]. The [9] in je is then preceded by two con- 
 sonants and is retained: Sest queje=\$z k 39]. The third 
 [9], in ne, consequently follows a single consonant and is 
 elided : c'est que je ne = [ss k 39 n]. The fourth [9], in le, 
 follows two consonants and is preserved. Hence the com- 
 plete group is pronounced [se k 39 n la v0 pa]. Again, if we 
 apply the rules to the phrase // faudra que je le tienne, 
 it will be read [il fodra k 39 1 tjsn]. These readings, both 
 of which are perfectly good, show that an application of 
 the rules to such cases means a more or less violent 
 reduction in the length of the phrase : in the first, half 
 the particular syllables are elided ; in the second, two- 
 thirds. Such extreme abbreviations are compatible only 
 with rapid familiar utterance. Hence the following con- 
 clusion : The rules for the elision of [9] may be strictly 
 
ELISION 133 
 
 and universally applied to series of syllables only in quick, 
 colloquial speech. From this we may further infer that 
 although in deliberate speech no elision is ever made that 
 would break the rules, the [9] is sometimes preserved when 
 the rules would have sanctioned its elision. 
 I. Series of two [9] syllables. 
 
 (a) Certain very common pairs of [9] syllables must 
 always be treated in the same way. When a word which 
 ends with a single consonant-sound plus [9] is immediately 
 followed by an [9] syllable of any kind (i.e. a monosyllable 
 or the first syllable of a longer word), the first is invariably 
 elided and the second invariably sounded. This is so 
 because, by the rule for the elision of [9] after a single con- 
 sonant-sound (Rule A (iii) (b) 4, p. 125), the [9] is invariably 
 dropped, in those circumstances, at the end of a word; 
 the second [9] being then always preceded by two sounded 
 consonants, must be preserved. 
 
 Examples : Une petite riviere [yn p9tit rivjsir], il arrive 
 demain [il ari'v d9ms], elle se leve [si S9 leiv]. 
 
 (b) We may next take pairs like those \FL faibles ressources, 
 les membres de ma famille^ where the first [9] must be 
 sounded (Rule A (iii) (e) 4 (a), p. 127). In deliberate 
 and careful speech the second [9] will usually be sounded as 
 well as the first : [fsbb r9surs] [le mci'brg d9 ma famiij]. 
 Both Paris and Passy retain the second [9] in un certain 
 nombre de traits [de ssrts no'br9 d9 trs] (Parl. par. p. 51, 
 1. 21 ; Fr. parle, p. 79, 1. 15). On other occasions we may 
 drop the second [9] and say [fsbb rsurs] [le mabr9 d ma 
 famiij]. Paris and Passy both drop it in I' opposition entre 
 le proven^al et le fran^ais [lopozisjo a'tr9 1 prova'sal e 1 
 fra'ss] (Parl. par. p. 53, 1. 20; Fr. parl. p. 81, 1. n), 
 though three of the other four of Koschwitz's readers appear 
 to have sounded the [9] here too. In hasty familiar inter- 
 course a third method of treating such pairs of [9] syllables 
 
134 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 is usually adopted : the first [9] is dropped and carries with 
 it the preceding [r] or [1] : [le ma'b d9 ma fami'jj [de ssrte 
 no'b d9 trs]. 1 
 
 (c) In pairs of the kind found in de sorte que, d force 
 de, les formes de la vie, the elision or non-elision of the 
 first [9] becomes a matter of style (Rule A (iii) (c) 4 (y) 
 p. 129), but, whatever its fate may be, the second [9] 
 is always sounded. On a ceremonious occasion one will 
 say [d9 sort9 kg] [a fbrs9 dg] [le form9 d9 la vi], but in 
 ordinary circumstances [d9 sort kd] [a fbrs d9] [le form d9 
 la vi]. 
 
 (d] We may next consider cases in which a monosyllable 
 is followed by a longer word beginning with an [9] syllable : 
 le regard, se lever, te demander, je r el eve, de tenir, de redire, 
 tu me re$ois, ne reconnaissez-vous pas ? 
 
 Supposing the first [9] has to be retained (and it has to be 
 when it begins a sound-group and when the preceding word 
 ends with a sounded consonant (Rules A (i) p. 115, and A 
 (iii) (c) i, p. 125)), the second is dropped more or less 
 regularly in conversation, but is frequently retained in read- 
 ing : pour le regarder [pur 19 rgarde] [pur 19 r9garde] ; pour 
 se lever [pur S9 Ive] [pur S9 bve] ; pour te demander [pur t9 
 dma'de] [pur t9 dgma'de] ; je refuse [39 rfyiz] [39 rafyiz] ; 
 ne reconnaissez-vous pas [n9 rkonsse vu pa] [n9 rgkonese vu 
 pa J. Where the initial syllable of the second word is one 
 of those which are saved by a group of consonants, or 
 exceptionally retained as a mark of identity (Rules A (iii) 
 (c) 2, p. 126; A (iii) (b) 2, p. 122), both [9] syllables must 
 be sounded : avec le premier [avsk 19 pr9mje], pour le peser 
 [pur b p9ze]. 
 
 Suppose next that the monosyllable in a pair of [9] 
 syllables of the kind under discussion follows a vowel, as in 
 a le regarder, en se levant, qui me demande, si je refuse. The 
 1 For the elision of consonants see pp. 141 ft. 
 
ELISION 135 
 
 first [9] being preceded by a single consonant is now liable 
 to be elided (Rule A (iii) (b] i, p. 118). A comparison of 
 the forms [a 1 rogarde] and [a b rgarde], [a s bva] and [a 59 
 Iva], [ki m damaid] and [ki ma dmciid], [si 3 rafyiz] and 
 [si 39 rfyiz] shows that the second pronunciation, in which 
 elision is delayed till the second syllable, has a more 
 deliberate rhythm. By a strict application of the rules 
 (A (iii) (b) i and (c) i, pp. 118, 125), the first syllable 
 would be elided and the second retained : this course is 
 sometimes followed in rapid familiar speech. But delayed 
 elision retention of the first and elision of the second 
 syllable is generally preferable. A special case, however, 
 must be made of pairs beginning with ne : nous ne devons 
 pas, vous ne refusez pas. With these the normal rules are 
 strictly applied even in careful speech : [nu n d9vo pa] 
 [vu n r9fy'ze pa]. In ordinary circumstances the negative is 
 felt to be sufficiently emphasized by the second particle. In 
 very deliberate diction both syllables may be sounded : [a 
 19 r9garde] [a 59 l9va] [ki m9 d9maid] [si 39 rgfyiz] [nu n9 
 d9vo pa]. 
 
 (e) The only other case in which series of two [9] 
 syllables in separate words are found is when two [9] mono- 
 syllables follow each other in immediate succession : je me 
 souviens, il me le dit, de me battre, je le vois, je ne crois pas, 
 ce ne s'ont pas mes livres. 
 
 If the first [9] is necessarily sounded (and it must not 
 be elided if it begins a sound-group or follows two con- 
 sonants : Rules A (i) p. 115 and A (iii) (c) i, p. 125) the 
 second is dropped regularly in conversation, frequently even 
 in careful speech : [39 m suvjs] [il rri9 1 di] [d9 m batr] [39 
 1 vwa] [39 n krwa pa] [s9 n so pa me liivr]. A deliberate 
 reader, however, will occasionally retain both : [39 ni9 suvjs] 
 [il ni9 b di]. 
 
 The pair ce que forms an exception to the general rule 
 
136 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 for pairs of [9] monosyllables ; the second syllable being 
 invariably sounded : par ce que [par so ks], pour ce que [pur 
 S3 kg]. Save in these two locutions, ce que after a consonant 
 or at the head of a phrase is not seldom pronounced [ska] 
 in quick, familiar speech, notwithstanding the general rules : 
 Ce que vous dites [ska vu dit] instead of the more correct 
 [s9 ka vu dit]. 
 
 When pairs of monosyllables are preceded by a vowel, 
 1 delayed elision ' is generally more appropriate in deliberate 
 speech, and even both syllables may occasionally be retained : 
 // faut que je fasse will be pronounced [il fo k 39 fas] l or 
 [il fo k9 3 fas], Quand je me souviens [ka 3 rri9 suvjs] or 
 [ka 39 m suvjs], Qui me le dit [ki m b di] or [ki m9 1 di] 
 according to the occasion. Gaston Paris sounds both [g]'s 
 in Excepter de ce jugement : [sksspte d9 S9 3y'3ma] (ParL par. 
 p. 53, 1. 12); M. Passy elides the second: [sksspte d9 s. 
 3y 13010] (Fr. parL p. 81, 1. i). Koschwitz records that 
 three readers elided the first [9] and sounded the second : 
 [sksspte d S9 3y'3ma]. Delayed elision may be regarded as 
 the rule when ne is the second of the pair : Si ce ne sont 
 pas mes livres [si S9 n so pa me liivr]. In Si ce que vous me 
 dites, on the other hand, one must say [si s kg] or [si S9 ka]. 
 
 (/) Finally we may have pairs of [9] syllables in one and 
 the same word : e.g. in rejeter, mousqueterie. 
 
 When both of such syllables occur in the interior of a 
 word the ordinary rules (A (iii) (li) 3 and (c) 3, pp. 124, 126) 
 are applied : mousqueterie [muskgtri], parqueterie [parkgtri], 
 marqueterie [mark9tri]. In these and similar words, however, 
 the first [9] frequently becomes [s] : [muskstri] [parkstri] 
 [markstri]. In papeterie both [9]'s may be elided in spite 
 of the rules : [paptri] or [papstri] : in echevele and ensevelir 
 elision is usually delayed : [e$9vle], [a's9vli:r]. 
 
 1 The pronunciation [i fo k 39 fas] is not uncommon in careless speech. 
 On elision of consonants see p. 141. 
 
ELISION 137 
 
 More common are words of which the first two 
 syllables contain an [9]. When such a word begins a 
 sound-group or follows a consonant the first [9] necessarily 
 survives (Rules A (i) p. 115 and A (iii) (c) i, p. 125) : the 
 second is dropped regularly in conversation and very often 
 even in reading. Examples: redemander [radmo'de], devenir 
 [dsvnilr], revenir [ravnilr], retenir [rgtnilr], relever [reive], 
 rejeter [i95te], ressemer [r9sme] and kindred nouns and 
 adjectives, such as revenu [revny], retenu [retny], relevage 
 [relvai3], rejeton [re^to]. 1 
 
 On the other hand, the verbs redevoir, repeser, recevoir, 
 refaisant, in all parts in which these two syllables occur, 
 generally retain the second [9] under pain of losing their 
 identity : [red9vwair] [repgze] [r9S9vwair] [refaza]. Kindred 
 nouns and adjectives, however, having but one form, run no 
 such risk and, therefore, drop the second [9] : redevance 
 [redvais], redevander [redvci'sje], receveur [resvceir], recevable 
 [rasvabl]. 
 
 But how are words beginning with two [9] syllables 
 treated when they follow a vowel-sound and the elision of 
 the first [9] becomes possible (Rule A (iii) (V) 2, p. 122)? All 
 the nouns and adjectives belonging to this class have a fixed 
 form and remain intact, that is, they retain their first syllable 
 and lose the second : un rejeton [de reto], des revenus [de 
 revny], fare en retenu [s'tr a retny], un receveur [de resvceir]. 
 Those verbs which cannot lose the second syllable without 
 forfeiting their individuality may drop the first in conversa- 
 tion : il voulait recevoir [il vuls rsavwalr], en refaisant 
 [a rf9za], nous repesons [nu rp9zo]. Finally, verbs which 
 when isolated drop the second syllable generally retain the 
 same form even when, being preceded by a vowel, the first 
 
 1 Those parts of the verbs in which the second [a] is followed by the 
 ending ' consonant + -ions ' or * consonant -f -iez ' form exceptions (Rule 
 A (iii) (b) 3, p. 124) : devenions [dovonio], relcuiez [ralevje]. 
 
138 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 could be elided: je Pai redemande [39 le rodma'de], en 
 rejetant [a r95ta], nous relevons [nu ralvo]. In hasty, 
 careless speech these forms are occasionally disturbed : en 
 revenant being pronounced [a rv9na] in place of the more 
 correct [a ravna], vous retenez [vu rt9ne] in place of [vu 
 ratne]. 
 
 II. Series of three [9] syllables. 
 
 These are governed by the same principles as series of 
 two, and may be treated more summarily. It will be found 
 that two can never be elided in succession. 
 
 (a) When the first of a series of three is necessarily elided 
 by the general rules, the remaining two are treated precisely 
 in the same way as a pair of which the first must be sounded. 
 La marche naturelle de ce cours (Chrest. p. 57, 1. 9) is 
 transcribed [la marj natyrsl d9 s kuir] in accordance with 
 the first part of I. (e) in which the treatment of two mono- 
 syllables of which the first must survive is explained. But 
 the suppression of the third [9] is not obligatory. Similarly 
 fe jure de le faire is usually pronounced [39 3y'r d9 1 feir]. 
 
 In pursuance of the first part of I. (d\ the third of the 
 series will again, as a rule, be elided in La tempete le secoue 
 [la ta'pst b sku], // decide de remonter [il desid d9 rmo'te]. 
 We arrive at the same result, under the first part of I. (/), 
 in such series as those in // dlsire revenir [il dezi'r r9vniir] 
 and Une redevance [yn rgdvais]. 
 
 (/) When the first of a series of three [9] syllables is 
 necessarily sounded, the remaining two are governed by the 
 rules for pairs of which the first is liable to elision. In a 
 very few cases the trio belong to the first three syllables ot 
 a word formed by the addition of the iterative particle re to 
 a word beginning with two [9] syllables ; the word retains 
 its previous ordinary form (I. (/)), that is, the second [9] of 
 the three, though now preceded by a single consonant, is 
 not elided : redevenir [r9d9vnilr], Ressemeler [r9S9mleJ and 
 
ELISION 139 
 
 its noun ressemelage [rgsamlais] are treated in the same way, 
 although they exist only in the compound forms. As a 
 consequence of this rule all three syllables survive in the 
 parts redevenions [rsdsvanjo], redeveniez [r9d9V9nje]. Three 
 such syllables never occur in the interior of a word. 
 
 Centre le secret in deliberate speech is pronounced [ko'tra 
 b skrs] with delayed elision in pursuance of the second 
 part of I. (d). In hastier speech we may say [ko'tro 1 sokrs]. 
 
 Pour se relever is usually read [pur S9 rolve] (I. (/), ad 'fin .), 
 pour te le reprendre [pur to lo rpraldr] (I.(^), ad fin.}, pour 
 que je le fasse [pur k9 59 1 fas| (I. (e\ ad fin.). 
 
 (c) Where the second of the series of three [9] syllables 
 must be pronounced, as in de sorte que le soir, etc., the third 
 is frequently elided : [d9 sort k9 1 swair] or [d9 sort9 kg 1 
 swair]. An example is found in the passage read for Kosch- 
 witz by the late Gaston Paris : De telle sorte que le parler 
 d'un endroit contiendra, etc. (Parl. par. p. 51, 1. 19). Here 
 Paris reads [sort9 k9 b parle], preserving all three 'e mutes ' ; 
 but M. Passy elides the first and the third : [sort k9 1 parle] 
 (Fr. parl. p. 79, 1. 12). 
 
 (d) Where the first of a series of three [9] syllables might 
 be elided, delayed elision is the rule in deliberate speech, 
 as in the case of pairs (!.(*/) and I.(e) ad fin.). The first 
 of the three then surviving, two courses become possible 
 in the treatment of the remaining pair. We may let them 
 follow the ordinary rules and elide the first : II faut que je le 
 fasse [il fo k9 3 b fas] ; or we may again delay the elision 
 and drop the third : [il fo k9 39 1 fas]. The rhythm of the 
 latter reading, in which elision is doubly delayed, is the 
 more reposeful. Hence while in quick, familiar speech the 
 first and the third [9]'s are elided : [il fo k 36 1 fas], it will 
 be either the second or the third, and generally the third, 
 that drops out in deliberate utterance. Further examples : 
 II faudra que je le tienne [il fodra k 39 1 tjen] [il fodra k9 3 
 
140 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 la tj&n] [il fodra ka 39 1 tjsn] ; Le temps de te revoir [b to d 
 t9 rvwalr] [19 to d9 t r9vwalrj [19 to d9 t9 rvwalr] ; Vous me 
 retenez [vu m r9tne] [vu m9 rt9ne] [vu m9 r9tne]. 
 
 III. Longer series of\^\ syllables. 
 
 It is unnecessary to discuss in detail longer series of [9] 
 syllables. They are comparatively rare, and will present no 
 difficulty to the student who is familiar with the treatment 
 of series of two and three. The same principles are applied. 
 The doubly-delayed elision, of which we have had examples 
 in series of three [9] syllables, is rarely exceeded in longer 
 series, and two [9] syllables cannot be dropped in succession 
 without breaking the rules : in other words, seldom more 
 than two [9] syllables survive in succession, and two can 
 never perish in succession. The following are examples of 
 series ranging from four to eight syllables, with the pro- 
 nunciations which should usually be adopted by the learner : 
 Je te le demande [59 t9 1 d9maid], Je ne le demande pas [36 n 
 b dmaid pa] or [39 n9 1 dgmaid pa], Ce que je demande [59 
 k9 3 d9ma:d], Je ne veux que ce que je vous ai dit [30 n v0 
 k9 s k9 3 vuz e di] or [k9 S9 k 39 vuz e di], Je te le redemande 
 [39 t9 1 rgdmaid], Je ne te le redemande pas [39 n t9 1 rgdmaid 
 pa], Est-ce que je ne te le redemande pas ? [es k9 39 n t9 1 
 r9dmaid pa]. 
 
 C. Elision of other Vowels. 
 
 Other vowels than [9] are occasionally elided in vulgar 
 or overcareless speech : voila is pronounced [via] instead of 
 [vwala] ; cet homme, cette annee [st om] [st ane] instead of 
 [set om] [sst ane] ; peut-etre [ptsit] instead of [p0tsitr] ; 
 and the semi-vowel is dropped in puis : [pi] for [pqi]. But 
 such pronunciations should not be imitated by the student, 
 even in familiar intercourse. Less objectionable is the 
 elision of [a] in extraordinaire : [ekstrordineir] for [ekstra- 
 ordineir] ; it is very common in conversation, but more often 
 
ELISION 141 
 
 avoided in reading. Aotit is pronounced [au] [u] [ut]. 
 Here the elision of the [a] is perhaps to be recommended ; 
 but in the verb aouter the [a] is regularly sounded : [aute]. 
 Caen is always [ka] ; Sadne is always [soln]. But taon, 
 faon, paon should be pronounced [to] [fa] [pa]. 
 
 D. Elision of Consonants. 
 
 The consonants that suffer elision are [r] [1] and [k]. The 
 liquids, [r] and [1], are dropped when they end a final group 
 of consonants, and they carry with them the supporting- 
 vowel [9]. Thus pauvre petit [po'vrQ p9ti] becomes [po'y 
 psti], autre chose [o'tr9 Jolz] becomes [o't $olz], maitre cfhdtel 
 [ms'tr9 dotsl] becomes [ms't dotsl], il me semble que oui [il 
 m9 sa'bb k9 wi] is reduced to [il m9 sa'b k9 wi], [m9 sa'b 
 k wi], le peuple de Paris [b pcepb d9 pa f ri] to [b peep d9 
 pa'ri]. The elision of [r] and [1] is not confined to such 
 cases. The [r] is dropped in parce que [pars9 kg], which then 
 becomes [paskg], and sometimes even when it stands alone 
 at the end of a word : sur k dos [syr b do] is shortened 
 to [syl do], and words like art [air] and soir [swair] are 
 pronounced [ai] and [swai]. The [1] is dropped in il when 
 followed by another consonant, and, if the next syllable 
 contains an [9], elision takes place : il me semble que oui 
 [im sa^b k wi], il ne faut pas [in fo pa], // se moque [is 
 mok], il se bat [is ba]. The [1] again falls away from quelque 
 and its compounds, with the result that, a single consonant 
 alone remaining, elision of the following [9] becomes 
 necessary : quelquefois is pronounced [ksk fwa] instead of 
 [kslk9 fwa], quelque chose [ksk $o!z] instead of [kslkg $oiz], 
 quelqu^un [kskoe] instead of [kslkde], quelques-uns [ksgzde] 
 instead of [kslkgzde], quelques jours [ksk 5uir] instead of 
 [kslk9 5ulr]. 
 
 Elision of [k] occurs only in Qu'est-ce que tu dis? [kss k9 
 ty di] which becomes [kss ty di], and in the prefix ex when 
 
142 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 followed by a consonant : e.g. expres [sksprs] becomes [sspre], 
 expliquer [sksplike] becomes [esplike]. But no elision takes 
 place in words like exagerer [egzasere], exotique [egzotik], in 
 which the root of the word begins with a vowel. 
 
 The elision of [kj generally, that of [r] when it stands 
 alone, and that of [1] in quelque and cognate words are still 
 vulgarisms to be avoided by the student on all occasions. 
 But the [r] and [1] at the end of a final group, the [r] in 
 farce que and the [1] in il before a consonant are very 
 commonly, though as a rule unconsciously, dropped in 
 conversation, even by the educated. These abbreviations, 
 however, do not cease to be negligences of speech. The 
 learner will do well not to adopt them voluntarily, even in 
 familiar intercourse ; they are tolerable only when the 
 delivery is so fluent that they escape notice. On the other 
 hand, not even the most fluent diction can make them 
 commendable in reading. 1 It was doubtless these licences 
 of speech that M. 1'abbe Rousselot had in mind when he 
 wrote : * II y a des negligences qui passent inapergues dans 
 une conversation rapide, mais qui choqueraient dans une 
 lecture lente ou une prononciation bien soignee. Nous 
 les deconseillerons aussi. Si 1'etranger parle vite, et s'il les 
 reproduit a son insu par suite du seul mouvement organique, 
 il se trouve dans les memes conditions que le Frangais et 
 personne ne le remarquera. Mais si au contraire, et c'est 
 le cas le plus habituel, la prononciation est lente et quelque 
 peu embarrassee, 1'etranger qui en emaille son discours est 
 tout a fait ridicule ' (Precis de Pron. fr. p. 12). 
 
 1 It is to be regretted that the elision of [1] in il is so often made 
 in the Chrestomathie. However fluently the student may read, he is 
 recommended to pronounce the consonant. This will sometimes 
 necessitate the restoration of an [o] : il ne suffit pas which is transcribed 
 [i n syfi pd] at page 65, line 40 should, for instance, be read [il na 
 syfi pa]. 
 
ELISION 143 
 
 E. Elision in Verse. 
 
 The reading of French verse presents special difficulties 
 owing to the fact that the measure depends upon the 
 number of syllables, and not upon the number of accents, 
 in the line. If elisions were made as regularly as in con- 
 versation, verse would often enough be transformed into 
 something very like prose. If, on the other hand, every 
 [9] were sounded, the language would sometimes cease to 
 be French. It is, therefore, customary to dismiss the 
 subject with two very vague, though very safe, recommen- 
 dations : sound more of these syllables than in prose, but 
 do not sound them all. This may be sufficient for the 
 Frenchman, but for the English-speaking student, especially 
 if he has not had the opportunity of hearing French verse 
 well read, it amounts to little less than a challenge to read 
 French verse correctly if he can. Such counsel wrongly 
 postulates that the foreigner has the Frenchman's instinctive 
 feeling for the propriety or impropriety of elision. It is 
 true that much must always be left to personal taste, and 
 that outside a certain range the taste of well-educated 
 Frenchmen often dictates diverse courses in reading verse ; 
 but just for that reason one can give the English-speaking 
 student guidance that will make it almost impossible for 
 him to read verse in a way that would necessarily be con- 
 demned as incorrect in the matter of elision. An attempt 
 to supply this guidance is made in the following suggestions : 
 I. In the first place, the .really mute e may always be 
 elided in verse. By the * really mute e ' is meant the e 
 which is invariably elided in prose. This e can be easily 
 recognized ; it is found in four positions : (i) before a vowel, 
 as in Fastre echevele [lastr e$9vle] ; (ii) after a vowel, as in 
 Us fuient [il fqi], Us etaient [ilz ets] ; (iii) at the end of a 
 word after a single consonant-sound, as in belle voix [bsl 
 vwa], fardente croix [larda't krwa], chaque jour [Jak 3ulr] \ 
 
144 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 (iv) after a single consonant-sound in the interior of a word 
 in which it is never heard in prose, e.g. matelot [matlo] ; 
 whereas se relevant may be read [59 rabva]. 
 
 When the e mute stands between consonants, as in the 
 third and fourth positions, it counts in the measure, and 
 some readers maintain that it must not be elided. Careful 
 attention will, however, show that even these readers 
 themselves do not as a rule pronounce the [9], They merely 
 suggest its existence, either by lengthening the preceding 
 consonant if it be a fricative, or by articulating it with a 
 clear explosion if it be a stop. 
 
 II. Whenever [9] must be heard in prose, it must be 
 heard in verse. If we except Futures and Conditionals of 
 verbs, and the position at the end of a word, the rule may 
 be stated thus : In the interior of a sound-group, after any 
 two or more sounded consonants, the [9] must be pronounced. 
 Examples : tristement [tristgma], fourberie [furbgri], marque- 
 tait [mark9ts], sur le trdne [syr 19 troln], avec le printemps 
 [avsk b prs'ta]. 
 
 Even in the Futures and Conditionals the [9] after any 
 two consonants may always be sounded in verse : fermera 
 [fsrm9ra], bercera [bsrs9ra]. 
 
 Between words in a sound-group the [9] after a group of 
 consonants must always be heard if the last of the group is 
 [r] or [1] (unless the group is [rl]): pauvre soldat [po'vr9 
 SDlda], noble fille [nobb fiij]. 
 
 III. The only isolated [9] syllables the elision of which 
 depends upon taste and is not covered by the preceding 
 definite rules are (i) the [9] at the end of a word, after 
 consonant-groups other than those ending in [r] or [1] ; (ii) 
 the [9] of a monosyllable which follows a vowel ; and (iii) 
 the [9] in the first syllable of a longer word, when that word 
 begins with a single consonant and follows a vowel-sound. 
 
 Those of the first class are nearly always sounded, and the 
 
ELISION 145 
 
 student will probably not offend good taste if he makes it a 
 rule to pronounce them on all occasions. He must, how- 
 ever, bear in mind that the end of a line is generally the 
 end of a sound-group and, therefore, not within the rule. 
 
 For the treatment of e mutes of the second and third classes 
 (i.e. in monosyllables and initial syllables) no mechanical 
 rule can be framed. They are certainly sounded more often 
 than not : but one can seldom say that they must be 
 sounded. The monosyllable which most seldom undergoes 
 elision is que, and the student will probably do well not to 
 elide the [9] in this word. Perhaps de and ne are the mono- 
 syllables which most readily lose their vowels, as in the lines : 
 C'est que si je cherchais du bout de mon epee . . . [ss ka si 59 
 $sr$s dy bu d mon epe] (Part. par. p. in, 1. 19) ; 
 Et moi, qu'avait brise cet arret de la tombe . . . [e mwa, 
 
 kavs bri'ze set ars d la toib] (ib. p. 115, 1. 21) ; 
 Un moment, je voulus au fond de ces retraites 
 M'ensevelir . . . [de moma, 39 vulyz o fo d ss r9trst 
 ma's9V9li:r] (ib. p. 117, 11. i, 2); 
 
 1 as de pardon, jamaist [pa d pardo, '5am s] 
 
 (ib. p. 115, 1. 18); 
 La fleur 
 
 Qui ne s'est point epanouie [la flcelr ki n ss pws't epanwi] 
 
 (Chrest. p. 197, 11. i, 2). 
 
 IV. Series of [9] syllables must be treated at least as 
 generously as in the most deliberate prose. Even three or 
 four may occasionally be heard in succession. Four out of 
 five of Koschwitz's readers are said to have sounded all four 
 e mutes in Quand je me relevai [ko 39 m9 r9l9ve] (p. 115, 
 1. 23), and three out of five are said to have sounded all three 
 infe relevai la tete [39 rgbve la tsit] (p. 115, 1. 9). On the 
 other hand, four out of five elided the second [9] in Mais 
 je me rappelai, mon pere, vos avis [ms 39 m raple, mo psir, 
 voz avi] (p. 1 1 6, 1. 3). 
 
 V. No other elisions should be made in serious verse. 
 P.F K 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 ASSIMILATION 
 
 ASSIMILATION may be described as the attraction of one 
 speech-sound to another standing in its neighbourhood, 
 whereby the attracted sound either acquires characteristics 
 belonging to the other, or loses characteristics peculiar to 
 itself. It is the complete assimilation of [d] to [t] that 
 gave rise in Latin to the form attendere in place of the 
 older adtendere, the partial assimilation of [n] to [p] that 
 led to the substitution of implicare for the original inplicare. 
 In such cases, and they might be multiplied by the score, 
 the phenomenon has been sanctioned by orthography and 
 is of interest from a historical point of view. But we have 
 to note how it is manifested at the present day in spite 
 of traditional spelling. 
 
 In French and English, consonants are more liable to 
 assimilation than vowels, and assimilation between con- 
 sonants consists, in its simplest and commonest form, in 
 the addition or subtraction of the element that has been 
 called voice. Thus the voiceless [s] of our word serve 
 [s'Biv] becomes voiced [z] in observe [Qbz'eiv] under the 
 influence of the preceding voiced consonant [b]. The 
 English final s is sounded [s] or [z] according as it 
 follows a voiceless or a voiced consonant : compare keeps 
 [kiips], picks [piks], bits [bits] with cabs [ksebz], pigs [pigz], 
 bids [bidz]. Similarly, the d, which is voiced in flagged 
 
ASSIMILATION 147 
 
 [flsegd], stabbed [stsebd], is reduced to its voiceless counter- 
 part in picked [pikt], tapped [taept]. At the same time it 
 is just as easy to quote instances in which no assimilation 
 takes place : the voiceless [s] is preserved in obsolete 
 [obsaliit], subsist [sAbsist] ; the [d] remains voiced in misdeal 
 [misdiil]. Assimilation of another kind takes place in the 
 word month : the [n] immediately preceding [9] is attracted 
 by that sound away from its normal position ; that is, 
 instead of being articulated with the tip of the tongue 
 against the upper front gums, it is produced with the tongue 
 against the teeth. In the hasty pronunciation of / can go 
 the [n] is attracted in the opposite direction by the [k] and 
 the [g] and becomes [rj] : [ai ksn goo] [ai krj goo]. 
 
 In French, assimilation always consists in the loss of 
 voice (devocalization) or the acquisition of voice in its 
 pure (vocalization) or nasalized form (nasalization). 1 It 
 is constant and regular in its operation, admitting of no 
 such variations and exceptions as are found in English. 
 It takes place only between consonants, and only between 
 consonants 2 that are in juxtaposition. 3 Its sphere of 
 
 1 Assimilation of the kind that takes place in month, ninth, I can go 
 is not absolutely unknown in French : e.g. line petite, in very familiar 
 and hasty speech, may become [ymtit]. But, while the English 
 assimilations are so constant that they must be regarded as correct, 
 the French are exceptional and perhaps vulgar. A somewhat similar 
 and regular case of assimilation is, however, found in the displacement 
 of the explosives, particularly [k] and [g], in favour of the vowel 
 of the syllable. These changes have already been discussed in treating 
 the individual sounds. 
 
 2 Exceptional cases of vowel -assimilation are (i) the nasalization of 
 a pure vowel under the influence of a following nasal consonant, as 
 when maman [mama] becomes [mdmd] ; (ii) the occasional attraction 
 of a back-vowel by a front-vowel, as when/0/z [S^li] is pronounced 
 [Soeli]. Such assimilations are not to be imitated. 
 
 3 Phonetically, not necessarily in spelling : e.g. the [v] and [t] in 
 savetier are in phonetic juxtaposition because the intervening e is an 
 idle sign : [saytje]. 
 
148 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 influence is the sound-group, that is, both consonants need 
 not be in the same word, the final of one word being 
 subject to assimilation by the initial of the word following. 
 Assimilation as a rule increases in proportion with the 
 rapidity of utterance. It is less common in verse than 
 in familiar prose because elisions are there less frequent, 
 but even there it is perfectly good and proper in its place. 
 It can be avoided in very slow and very careful enunciation, 
 but in some cases its avoidance would be so unnatural 
 as to betray the foreigner ; and in others it would amount 
 to absolute mispronunciation. 
 
 The phenomenon may be considered, in accordance 
 with its results, under three heads : (i) Devocalization, 
 (ii) Vocalization, (iii) Nasalization. 
 
 (i) Devocali7Mtion. 
 
 A voiced consonant is devocalized when in producing 
 it the vocal chords do not vibrate, or vibrate less distinctly 
 or less continuously than in its normal articulation. Such 
 devocalization is due to the juxtaposition of a voiceless con- 
 sonant, that is, one of the sounds [k] [t] [p] [f] [s] [$]. It 
 may be called regressive when the influence proceeds from 
 the second consonant of the group to the first ; progressive 
 when it proceeds from the first to the second. In 
 French, regressive devocalization is much more usual than 
 progressive. 
 
 (a) Regressive devocalization. 
 
 Whenever a voiced consonant is followed immediately by 
 a voiceless one it is liable to be devocalized. A distinction, 
 however, must be drawn between the liquids and nasals, 
 [1] [r] [m] [n], on the one hand, and all the other vocalized 
 consonants, [b] [d] [g] [v] [5] [z] [j], 1 on the other. The 
 liquids and nasals tend to resist devocalization ; with them 
 
 1 The consonants [w] and [q] are never followed by a consonant, and 
 therefore, cannot suffer regressive devocalization. 
 
ASSIMILATION 149 
 
 it is hardly ever complete. What usually happens is that 
 the vocal chords vibrate a little less distinctly than other- 
 wise ; they seldom altogether cease to vibrate while the 
 articulation is still in progress. It often needs a well-trained 
 ear to detect any change, and sometimes perhaps devocali- 
 zation does not take place. The student will at all 
 events, be quite justified in neglecting the devocalization of 
 these four sounds [1] [r] [m] [n], e.g. in haletant [alto], force 
 [fors], porte [port], arc [ark], hame^on [amso], hanneton [anto]. 
 
 In all other cases, however, regressive devocalization is 
 far from being a theoretical subtlety. In the body of a 
 word, and even between words in set expressions, it is often 
 so complete that the loss of voice carries with it a change in 
 the method of articulation, so that a d is pronounced pre- 
 cisely as [t], a b as [p] and so on. Examples : obstacle 
 [opstakl], observer [opssrve], obscur [opskylr], sub sister 
 [sypsiste], 1 subtil [syptil], medecin [metss] or [msdss], savetier 
 [saftje] [saytje], chauve-souris [Jo'fsuri] [$o'ysuri], la-dessus 
 [latsy] [ladsy], roi de France [rwa t frais] [rwa d frais], tout 
 de suite [tutsqit], chemin de fer [Jams d fsir] [Jams t fsir], je 
 crois [skrwa] [Jkrwa], je te dis [t9 di] [Jt9 di]. In careful 
 speech, the last two expressions would be pronounced : [39 
 krwa] [39 t di]. 
 
 When the attracting and attracted consonants belong to 
 different words the transformation, save in current expres- 
 sions of the kind already noted, is not always quite so 
 decided. Although the vocal chords may vibrate very 
 faintly, or even cease to vibrate altogether, the consonant 
 remains as a rule distinguishable from its voiceless counter- 
 part. It is still articulated as if it were going to be voiced, 
 that is, less energetically than where the transformation is 
 complete. Professor Paul Passy observes that Je viens de 
 parler [39 vjs d parle] is not equivalent to Je viens te parler 
 1 Perhaps more often pronounced [sybzisle]. 
 
150 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 [53 vjs t parle]. Examples of devocalization where the 
 consonants belong to different words are : Une vague ten- 
 dance [yn vag ta'dais], un etage plus haut [cen eta's ply o], 
 etude continue [etyd ko'tiny], onze timbres [oiz tsibr], excuse 
 factice [sksky'z faktis], longue serie [loig seri], globe solide 
 [glob solid], grave forfait [gra'y forfs]. When the two con- 
 sonants are cognate sounds, e.g. [z] and [s] or [3] and [$], 
 devocalization is often avoided more or less effectively in 
 careful speech : quinze sous [ksiz su]. 
 
 Regressive devocalization is not one of the regular char- 
 acteristics of English. It may occur, exceptionally, in 
 words of minor import hastily uttered, e.g. of [DV] : a cup of 
 tea^ for example, is sometimes pronounced [9 kAp 9y tii] or 
 even [9 kAp 9f tii]. But it is unknown between consonants 
 in the body of a word. In this position, on the other hand, 
 the phenomenon of regressive devocalization which char- 
 acterizes French is sometimes absolutely reversed in English, 
 that is, instead of the first consonant losing voice by assimi- 
 lation to the second (regressive devocalization), the second 
 acquires voice by assimilation to the first (progressive 
 vocalization see next section) : cf. English observe [gbz^iv] 
 with French observer [opssrve]. But contrasts of this kind 
 are rare. In English both consonants usually resist assimi- 
 lation : obstacle [obst9k}], obscure [obskjuu9]. In one 
 French word, subsister [sybziste] [sypsiste], progressive 
 vocalization very commonly takes place. 
 
 (b) Progressive devocalization. 
 
 The only consonants that suffer devocalization under the 
 influence of a preceding voiceless consonant are the liquids 
 [1] [r], the nasals [m] [n], and the so-called semi-vowels [w] 
 [q] [j]. Progressive devocalization, moreover, takes place 
 only when the attracted and attracting consonants belong to 
 the same syllable. When they begin the syllable, devocali- 
 zation is very seldom complete and never obligatory. The 
 
ASSIMILATION 151 
 
 phenomenon may, therefore, be neglected in such cases : 
 pois may be pronounced [pwa] or [pwa], puis [pqi] or [pqi], 
 tiens [tjs] or [tjs], pied [pje] or [pje], plus [ply] or [ply], 
 pres [prs] or [prs], pneumonic [ph0moni] or [pn0moni]. 
 The English-speaking student will be naturally inclined to 
 devocalize the semi-vowels in such combinations ; the 
 sounds analogous to [w] and [jj are regularly devocalized 
 in the same positions in his own language : cf. few [f juu] 
 and view [vjuu], queen [kwiin] and Gwendolin [gwsndolm]. 
 
 At the end of a sound-group, in French, [1] [r] and [m] J 
 are, as a rule, completely devocalized when preceded by a 
 voiceless consonant. Hence, in the position in question, 
 peuple is pronounced [pcepl], encre, ancre [ciikr], maitre 
 [m&itr], prisme [prism]. Groups ending in [r] and [1] cannot 
 close a syllable in any other position. If they are followed 
 by another word in the same sound-group, they begin a new 
 syllable, and devocalization does not take place. In un 
 peuple fort interessant [ce pcepl9 fort s'terssa], encre noire 
 [a'krs nwair], maitre d'etudes [ms'tr9 detyd], where the 
 following word begins with a consonant, the [9] survives. 
 \i\peuple heureux [pcepl cer0], encre a Icrire [a'kr a ekriir], 
 maitre ou serviteur [msitr u ssrvitceir], they are carried over 
 to form a syllable with the following vowel. 
 
 In hasty speech [1] [r] and [m] at the end of a sound 
 group may be devocalized even after a voiced consonant. 
 We have seen in the foregoing chapter on Elision, that there 
 is a tendency to simplify the groups in question by dropping 
 the final consonant. But even where the consonant does 
 not fall away, the tendency may be shown in its loss of 
 voice. Pronunciations like the following are not uncommon : 
 capable [kapabl], il me semble [il m9 scilbl], ordre [ordr], 
 sabre [saibr]. On the other hand, as we shall see in the 
 
 1 The semi- vowels [w] [q] [j] never occur in a group at the end of a 
 syllable, and [n] is not found in that position after a voiceless consonant. 
 
152 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 following section, sm may be sounded [zm] : fanatisme 
 [fanatism] or [fanatizm]. 
 
 In English [r] falls away altogether at the end of a 
 syllable, and, therefore, also at the end of a sound-group, 
 while [1] and [m] in this position, after another consonant, 
 are voiced and have syllabic value : people [piip-1], prism 
 [pjiz-m], sometimes [piip9l] [pjiz9m]. 1 The English-speak- 
 ing student must, therefore, be careful not to treat the 
 French fr] [1] or [m] in the same manner. 
 
 (ii) Vocalization. 
 
 Vocalization is the acquisition of voice by a normally 
 voiceless consonant under the influence of a contiguous 
 voiced consonant. In French, vocalization is ahvays regres- 
 sive^ that is, the influence always proceeds from the second 
 consonant to the first. It is only logical that those voiced 
 consonants which are liable to progressive devocalization 2 
 should not at the same time be capable of bringing about 
 the vocalization of a preceding voiceless consonant. Hence 
 the only consonants that produce this effect are [b] [d] [g] 
 [v] [z] [3] All the voiceless consonants, without exception, 
 become more or less vocalized when followed by one of 
 these voiced ones : fttouffe demotion [setuf demosjo], chaque 
 jour [$ak suir], avec douceur [avek duscelr], transvaser 
 [trci'svcTze], anecdote [anskdot], le Cap de Bonne Esperance 
 [ta kap d9 bon ssperais], il echappe de ses gardes [il ejap d9 
 se gard], ace de cceur [as da kceir], cette bouteille [set butsij], 
 je le cache Men [39 1 ka$ bjs], bee de gaz [bsk d9 gaiz], est-ce 
 bien ? [es bjs]. So characteristic of the language is this 
 phenomenon of regressive vocalization that a normally mute 
 consonant resuscitated in linking has assimilative power : 
 de vifs enthousiasmes [eta vifz a'tuzjasm], les Juifs et les Turcs 
 [le sqifz e le tyrk]. 
 
 1 See Part II. Chap. I. p. 74. 
 
 2 See p. 150. [m] in the group [sm] is an exception. 
 
ASSIMILATION 153 
 
 Though the voiceless consonant is seldom quite trans- 
 formed into its voiced counterpart by assimilation, the 
 vocalization is generally very clearly perceptible even in 
 careful speech. The voiceless consonant may be attacked 
 in the normal manner, but the vocal chords begin to vibrate 
 before the organs articulate the attracting consonant. The 
 English-speaking student will need to acquire a habit of 
 regressive vocalization, for vocalization by attraction is rare 
 in English. In book-binder [buk bainda] and fit better [fit 
 bst9], for example, there is no assimilation of the [k] to the 
 [b] or of the [t] to the [b]. When it does occur in English 
 it is progressive : e.g. figs [figz] instead of [figs], and the 
 examples given at page 146. 
 
 Avoiding negligible details, we may sum up the essential 
 characteristics of vocalization and devocalization in French 
 as follows : 
 
 (i) The consonants [r] [1] [m] are subject to progressive 
 devocalization at the end of a sound group. 
 
 (ii) Assimilation in all other cases is regressive : it is 
 always the first consonant that is affected. If the order is 
 voiced + voiceless, the first loses voice; \i voiceless + voiced, 
 the first acquires voice. Compare obtenir [optaniir] and 
 // cesse de nier [il ss's d9 nie]. 
 
 (iii) Nasalization. 
 
 This kind of assimilation amounts to the substitution of a 
 nasal consonant for an explosive : [m] for [b], [n] for [d] 
 and [rj] for [g]. 1 It takes place when the explosive is both 
 preceded by a nasal vowel and followed (a) by a nasal 
 consonant, or (b) a fellow-explosive. Examples : de longue 
 main [do lo'rj me] instead of [d9 lo'g ms], point de mire 
 [pws n milr] instead of [pws d milr], une tombe neuve [yn 
 to'm nceiv] instead of [yn to'b nceiv], vingt-deux [vsn d0] 
 
 1 This [n] is the sound in our word long [Ion]. It is found in French 
 only in cases of the kind mentioned in the text. 
 
154 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 instead of [vs't d0], ne tombe pas [n9 to'm pa] instead of 
 [n9 to'b pa], une longue guerre [yn lo'rj gsir] instead of 
 [yn lo'g gsir]. Such assimilations are characteristic of 
 rather hasty speech, and are usually avoided more or less 
 effectively in reading. They have no exact equivalents in 
 English. Pronunciations such as [kairj goo] for can't go 
 [kaint goo] [doom msik] for don't make [doont msik] are 
 no doubt occasionally heard, but they belong to very 
 careless speech. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 THE TRANSITION FROM ONE SOUND TO 
 ANOTHER GLIDES 
 
 WHEN two successive sounds are formed with different 
 organs, or with the same organs in the same place, the 
 second sound may follow the first immediately; but when 
 they require the same organs of speech in different positions 
 there must clearly be a fraction of time, between the com- 
 pletion of the one and the commencement of the other, 
 during which the organs are passing from the first to the 
 second position, and neither of the two sounds is being 
 articulated. One of two things must then happen : either 
 glide-sounds are produced, or there is a momentary silence. 
 In our word print [punt], for example, the transition from 
 the [p] to the [r] is immediate, because the tongue prepares 
 to articulate the [i] while the lips are producing the [p], and 
 the transition from the [n] to the [t] is immediate, because 
 the position of the tongue is the same for both sounds ; but 
 a glide must intervene between the [i] and the [i] and again 
 between the [i] and the [n] because these three sounds, 
 [j] [i] [n], are produced with the tongue in three different 
 positions. As a rule the transition is effected the same way 
 in French as in English, by taking the shortest cut from the 
 one sound to the other, and is so rapid that we are not 
 conscious of any intermediate glide. Hence, if the English- 
 
156 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 speaking student produces the right French sounds, he will, 
 as a matter of course, usually effect the right transitions. 
 His attention, however, must be directed to the following 
 cases : 
 
 (i) Transition between identical consonants (double sounds). 
 
 In English, double stops are pronounced with a single 
 explosion, e.g. the double [t] in coat-tail [koottsil], the 
 double [d] in head-dress [hsddaes], the double [k] in book- 
 case [bukksis] ; but in careful speech a distinct gemination 
 of the sound is effected by lengthening the period during 
 which the organs are in contact, and by first momentarily 
 decreasing, and then, in passing to the second syllable, 
 slightly increasing the pressure. 1 Double continuants (e.g. 
 the [1] in scaleless [sksilbs], dully [dAlliJ, the [n] in thin- 
 ness [Binnss], unnerve [Aiureiv], the [s] in house-surgeon 
 [hauss^idsn], misspell [misspsl]), are treated in an analogous 
 manner : there is no actual break in the continuity of the 
 sound, but it is lengthened and slightly reinforced for the 
 second syllable. 
 
 Allowance being made for differences in the method of 
 production, we may say that double sounds undergo similar 
 treatment in French. Hence, the organs of speech do not 
 part between the twin-sounds in saintete [ss'tte], nettete 
 [nstte], honnetete [onstte], intimement [s'timma], extremement 
 [ekstrsmma], inne [inne], illettre [illstre], illimite [illimite], 
 illogique [ilbsik], illisible [illizibl]. In the same way there 
 is a weakening followed by a strengthening of the sound, 
 but no interruption, in articulating a double fricative, as in 
 the words conseillions [ko'ssjjo], serrurerie [seryrri], parerai 
 [parre], mourrons [murrS], croyions [krwojjo]. 
 
 But in spite of the similarity of treatment in the two 
 languages the double sound is perceptibly longer, the 
 gemmation more clearly defined, in French than in English. 
 1 Compare Syllabication, p. 73. 
 
TRANSITION GLIDES 157 
 
 In producing such a sound in the foreign language it is 
 helpful to remember that it belongs to two syllables, e.g. 
 [o-nst te], [sks-trsm-ma], and that it cannot be neglected 
 in either. The tendency in less careful English is either 
 to scamp the sound in the unaccented syllable, or to pro- 
 nounce it in a way between the syllables without attaching 
 it clearly to either : instead of [dAl-li], we are apt to say 
 [dA-l-i] or even [dAl-iJ ; instead of [mis-spsl], [mi-s-psl] 
 or even [mi-spsl]. In French, care must be taken to close 
 the first syllable with the consonant, and to sustain the 
 sound a perceptible fraction of time before passing to the 
 second syllable : croyons [krwajo] must not be confounded 
 with croyions [krwajjo], nor parerai [parrej with parai 
 [pare]. 
 
 In the body of words double sounds occur only (a) when 
 two like sounds are brought together by the elision of an 
 intervening [9] ; (ft) in verbal forms : mourrons [murro], 
 courrai [kurre], accueillions, [akcejjo], empaillions [a'pajjo] ; 
 (c) in a few words of learned origin beginning with ///-, inn- 
 examples of which have been given above. It is true that 
 a double sound is sometimes heard in a few other words 
 such as immortel) immense, grammaire, irruption, irreligion, 
 annales, ascenseur, transsubstantiation, diffusion, syllepse, but 
 its use in these cases is not obligatory. Hence, in the vast 
 majority of words, the double sign represents a single sound. 
 This is also the case in English : e.g. common [koman], 
 bitten [bitn], abbot [sebQt]. On the other hand, it happens 
 very frequently that the same sound occurs in succession in 
 two different words, as the final of the one and the initial of 
 the other, and we have then a genuine double sound which 
 has to be treated just as if it were contained in the body of 
 a word. Thus une grande dame is pronounced [yn gra'd 
 dam], cette tite [sst test], combien cela coute-t-il [ko'bje sla 
 kut til], le meme moment [19 ms'm moma], comme moi [kom 
 
158 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 mwa], nous ne nous voyons plus [nu n nu vwajo ply], celle-la 
 [ssl la], il Pa [il la], qui se sauve [ki s soiv], faire relier 
 [fs'r ralje], une lumiere rouge [yn lymjs'r 11115], avec calme 
 [avsk kalm]. 1 
 
 The above method of treating double sounds may be 
 regarded as the rule even in careful speech. Nevertheless, 
 in the deliberate reading of formal and elevated passages, 
 the two sounds will at times be clearly separated. The 
 effect is then very much the same as if a faint [a] had been 
 intercalated. In the transcripts of Professor Koschwitz we 
 even find the sign [9] in some instances : two out of the 
 thirteen readers of the passage from A. Daudet's Tarlarin 
 de Tarascon are, for example, credited with the pronuncia- 
 tion [sst9 teir] = rie//<? terre (ParL par. p. 4, 1. 17). The 
 sounding of a definite [3] in such cases must none the 
 less be regarded as dialectal. But pronunciations like 
 [set h tsir], [onst h te], in which a mere 'breathing' is heard, 
 consequent upon the separation of the organs after the first 
 explosive, cannot be considered incorrect. It should be 
 noted, however, that this dissolution of double sounds 
 belongs above all to the diction of the stage, and that its 
 frequent recurrence, even in formal speech, would savour of 
 pedantry. 
 
 The English-speaker is perhaps inclined to treat double 
 sounds between words more carelessly than those which 
 occur in the body of a word. If we examine our pronuncia- 
 tion, for instance, of the expressions this song, immense 
 success, fit together, set to music, don't tell, feel limp, with the 
 stream, safe from harm, iron nail, same measure, we find 
 that, unless we articulate with unusual deliberation, the 
 twin-sounds are often scarcely recognizable as such. A 
 good reader would doubtless make a clear distinction 
 
 1 J r e Vai is often pronounced [39 1 le] : but the double sound is here 
 incorrect. A single sign never stands for a double consonant. 
 
TRANSITION GLIDES 159 
 
 between with the stream [wi5 5g stirim] and with a stream 
 [wiS 9 stirim], between safe from [ssif foam] and say from 
 [ssi from], but in conversation the difference is very 
 minute. In French, double sounds are not usually treated 
 so negligently. It is true that the gemination of a double 
 sound between words is not always as distinct in daily 
 intercourse as it should be in reading, but it is rarely quite 
 as imperfect as in English. In both languages, moreover, 
 the laxer pronunciation is permissible only as a result of 
 fluent utterance. The learner, while avoiding the opposite 
 error of exaggeration, should consequently make it a rule to 
 articulate French double sounds distinctly as such. 
 
 (ii) Transition between voiceless and voiced or nasalized 
 stops produced at the same place. 
 
 We need only consider the following series : i. Pairs of 
 voiced and voiceless stops: [td] [dt] [pb] [bp] [kg] [gk] ; 
 2. Combinations of the voiceless stops with the corresponding 
 nasal consonants : [tn] [nt] [pm] [mp] ; 3. Combinations of 
 the voiced stops with the corresponding nasals : [dn] [nd] 
 [bm] [mb]. In none of the cases are the combined sounds 
 identical in nature, yet, being formed with the same contact 
 of the organs, the transition from the one to the other is 
 effected essentially in the same way as that between pairs of 
 like sounds : that is, without separating the organs. The 
 process, however, is not quite so simple as that described 
 in the foregoing section. With pairs of the first series there 
 will naturally be regressive assimilation, i.e. the first con- 
 sonant being attracted to the second will tend to lose voice 
 if the second is voiceless, and to acquire voice if the second 
 is voiced. 1 If the assimilation is complete, these pairs will 
 fall under the rules for double sounds ; if only partial, the 
 vocal chords will, as the case may be, begin or cease to 
 vibrate during the transition. Supposing then that the 
 1 See Assimilation, pp. 148, 152. 
 
160 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 second consonant is voiced, as in miettes de pain [mjst d9 
 ps], and that partial assimilation takes place : the vocal 
 chords will begin to vibrate as nearly as possible with the 
 formation of the contact, the vibration at first more or less 
 faint, increasing gradually, so that the full-voiced sound is 
 heard before the explosion occurs. And this process will 
 be reversed in assez de temps [ase d to], where the second 
 consonant is voiceless. If, as in exceptional cases of the 
 kind referred to in the preceding section, there is an 
 explosion after the first of the two sounds, there will be 
 no assimilation : vingt-deux will then be pronounced 
 [vs't h d0] instead of [vs't d0] or [vsn d0]. 1 
 
 In combinations of the second series assimilation as a 
 rule does not take place, and the difference between the 
 two sounds is very clearly marked by the element of 
 nasalized voice which characterizes one of them, and ceases 
 or begins, as the case may be, in passing to the second 
 syllable : developpement [devbpmci], campement [kci'pma], 
 hanneton [anto]. Here again, however, in ceremonious 
 speech, the first sound may be sharply separated from the 
 second by bringing the organs apart. The sounds [t n] in 
 sa haute nature were pronounced separately by Renan in 
 reading for Koschwitz (Farl. par. p. 59, 1. 7), but the 
 other four readers appear to have hyphenated the sounds 
 in the usual way. 
 
 In the third series both consonants are voiced, but the 
 one is nasalized and the other oral. The transition is here 
 effected by lowering or raising the velum according as the 
 nasal consonant follows or precedes the other. The same 
 thing happens in English (e.g. in candour, symbol}. It 
 should be borne in mind that a nasal consonant-sign 
 followed by another consonant in the body of a French 
 word scarcely ever stands for a consonant-sound : condo- 
 J On the pronunciation [vsn d0J, see p. 154. 
 
TRANSITION GLIDES 161 
 
 leance is pronounced [ko'doleais] not [kondDleais], symbole 
 [ss'bol] not [symbol], simple [ssipl] not [ssmpl]. Where the 
 second consonant is a nasal and the first is preceded by 
 a nasal vowel, assimilation often takes place in hurried 
 speech. 1 This assimilation may be easily avoided, and 
 cannot occur if there is an intermediate explosion. 
 
 (iii) Transition between dissimilar stops. 
 
 In English, the first of two consecutive dissimilar ex- 
 plosives is seldom completely articulated, i.e. the contact 
 for the second is formed while the organs with which the 
 first is produced are still in touch. Examples are found in 
 the words factor, captive, fig-tree, flagged, foot-path, bugbear. 
 In French, on the other hand, the first explosive is as a rule 
 fully articulated in careful speech : facteur being pronounced 
 [fak h tcelr], captif [kap h tif], acte [ak h t9j, arcs-boutants [ark h 
 buta], arc de triomphe [ark h d9 trioif], pare de Montsouris 
 [park h d9 mo'suri], Bagdad [bag n dadj. The explosion, 
 however, should not be exaggerated ; in some cases it is 
 scarcely audible, and in easy conversation it often enough 
 does not take place. The transition from [p] to [t], for 
 instance, is frequently effected as in English. But [k] and 
 [g] should be carefully and fully articulated in the sequences 
 [kt] and [gd] : if the explosion be here omitted, the effect in 
 French ears is that of [tt] or [dd]. 
 
 (iv) Transition from a voiceless stop to a vowel. 
 
 This transition has already been referred to in the descrip- 
 tion of the individual sounds [p] [t] [k], but it may here be 
 summarized on account of its importance. In English, the 
 explosion is heard before the vocal chords vibrate for the 
 vowel : part [p h ait], teach [t h iitj], cool [k h uul]. In French, 
 no voiceless breathing must intervene between consonant 
 and vowel : in other words, the vocal chords must begin to 
 vibrate simultaneously with the separation of the organs. 
 
 1 See Assimilation, p. 153. 
 F.P. L 
 
162 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 With the English examples compare pate [pait], tige [tils], 
 coule [ku:l]. The difference between the two systems lies in 
 the management of the vocal chords, the state of which, with 
 a little practice, can be distinctly felt. When the explosion 
 takes place in English they are still relaxed as in breathing : 
 in French, they are brought together when the organs form 
 the contact for the consonant, and the instant the breath 
 escapes they begin to vibrate. The glide is thus voiceless 
 in English, whereas it is voiced in French. 1 
 
 (v) Transition between vowels. 
 
 The French system is here in essential agreement with 
 the English ; but the learner may perhaps be warned against 
 introducing a glottal stop as the result of hesitation and 
 exaggerated stress. This glottal stop is permissible' between 
 French vowels only when the second begins a quotation, or 
 in expressions like the following, which is to be found at 
 1. 4, p. 124 of the Chrestomathie : Mais etre ainsi, c'est etre 
 inconstant [me ?s:tr s'si, s st sitr s'kosta]. The use of the 
 glottal stop, if not obligatory here, is at least desirable. In 
 all other cases, the passage from one vowel to another must 
 not be jerky or rasping, but smooth and gradual, as in the 
 English words react, peony, poetic, hiatus. 
 
 Successive vowels are found in the body of but few 
 words : e.g. chaos [kao], poeme fposm], noel [nosl], fleau 
 [fleo], reel [resl]. Most of the combinations of vowel-signs 
 in the body of words stand for combinations of a consonant 
 and vowel, as in loin [Iws], rien [rjs], trois [trwa], puits 
 [pqi], fouet [fws], mieux [mj0] ; or for a single vowel-sound, 
 as in baie [bs], main [ms], trou [tru], beau [bo]. In succes- 
 sive 'words, however, hiatus is very common : e.g. tu as 
 [ty a], // a oublil [il a ublie], fai ose [56 o'ze], avis important 
 [avi s'porta]. 
 
 Double vowels occur, though more rarely, both in the 
 1 See pp. 44 ft. 
 
TRANSITION- GLIDES 163 
 
 body of words and between words : e.g. cree [kree], alcool 
 [alkool], cooperation [koopera'sjo], je Pai evite [59 le evite], 
 les heros [le ero], au haut bout [o o bu]. Passy observes 
 that a vowel may occur as many as four times in succession, 
 as in Papa a a aller a Paris [papa a a ale a pa'ri]. But 
 such combinations should be avoided, where possible, on 
 grounds of euphony. The transition between double vowels 
 is effected by a slight diminution and reinforcement of the 
 sound (see Syllabication, p. 73). The English-speaking 
 student will have to guard against a tendency to overstress 
 and diphthongize, e.g. to say [lei eiro] [kreiei] [ou ou bu]. 
 This must be avoided by keeping the jaws and tongue rigidly 
 in the one position. 
 
 When the second of two vowels (double or dissimilar) is 
 accented, the hiatus is sometimes avoided by the inter- 
 calation of a faint [h] : cree becomes [krehe], fleau [fleho], 
 reel [rehsl], cent un [sa hoe]. Such pronunciations must be 
 regarded as exceptional. They are not to be recommended 
 save in exclamations, like aha [aha], oho [oho], in which the 
 [h] is regularly heard. 
 
 On the other hand, no effort need be made to avoid the 
 glide [j] which is often interposed, by a natural movement 
 of the organs, between [i] and a following vowel. Oublier 
 may be pronounced [ublie] or [ublije], crier [krie] or [krije]. 
 But the introduction of this glide after other vowels than 
 [i], as in [kreje] for [kree] or [idejal] for [ideal], is vulgar. 
 
 In hasty speech the first of two vowels, if it is [i] [u] or 
 [y], is often transformed into a consonant or semi-vowel. 
 II y a [il i a] becomes [il j a] [i j a] or even [j a], tu as 
 [ty a] becomes [tqa], oit est-il [u et il] becomes [wst il]. 
 
 (vi) Transition from a consonant to a vowel which belongs 
 to another syllable. 
 
 Examples, which are comparatively rare, are found in 
 cette haie, quelle haine, une harpe, une haie, elle hait, il hait, 
 
1 64 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 dme haute. Where, in cases of this kind, an ' e mute ' figures 
 after the consonant, it is often pronounced : [sst3 s] [ksb 
 sin] [yno arp] [yns s] [sb s] [aims oit] ; the question under 
 consideration does not then arise. Again, the [h] may be 
 sounded, and we then have a simple transition between two 
 consonants : [sst hs] [ksl hsin] [yn harp] [yn he] [il hs] 
 [aim holt]. But if neither of these courses be adopted, we 
 have in immediate succession a consonant and a vowel 
 which do not belong to the same syllable. In English we 
 often unconsciously link in such expressions as an ass 
 [9-naes], not at all [nD-ta-to:!], an aim [a-nsim]. If we 
 carry this practice over into French in cases of the kind 
 under discussion, and pronounce // hait as [i-ls], we shall 
 be understood to say // est or il ait. But even where no 
 such ambiguity would result, there must not be a suspicion 
 of linking. The problem thus presented is solved by 
 sounding an off-glide after the consonant, or even by attack- 
 ing the vowel with a faint glottal-stop and pronouncing 
 [il ?e] [sst ?s] [ksl ?sin], etc. In the same way we may 
 pronounce an aim [an ?sim] when we wish to distinguish 
 it carefully from a name [9 nsim]. Care must be taken not 
 to exaggerate the glottal-stop. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 ACCENTUATION 
 
 OF no less' importance than the production of the right 
 sounds is a right distribution of the accents, and nowhere 
 does the French language differ more widely from English 
 than in its accentuation. By accent is here meant the 
 stress or degree of force with which a sound is uttered, 
 considered quite apart from the musical pitch or melody 
 of the phrase, a characteristic to which a later chapter will 
 be devoted. 
 
 At the outset we must distinguish accent from emphasis. 
 In English the difference is merely one of degree, em- 
 phasis there generally consisting in a reinforcement of the 
 normal accent. If, for example, we wish to emphasize the 
 expression It's ridiculous [its n'dikjulas], we simply increase 
 the stress on the second and normally accented syllable of 
 the adjective: [its ai"dikjul9s]. In French, on the other 
 hand, the difference is often, of a much more radical kind. 
 In ordinary placid utterance the group C'est ridicule is 
 accented on the last syllable : [ss ridi'kyl] ; but if feeling 
 be displayed, the stress shifts to the initial syllable of the 
 adjective : [ss "ridikyl]. Emphasis thus disturbs the normal 
 accent. This disturbance, which is very frequent, takes place 
 in a more or less methodical manner admitting of definition. 
 We shall, however, first direct attention to what may be 
 
166 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 called the normal method of accentuation, meaning thereby 
 the accentuation of dispassionate, emotionless speech. 
 
 (i) Normal accentuation. 
 
 The rule may be expressed as follows : In the absence 
 of special emphasis, the principal accent is borne by the 
 last full syllable of the stress-group. It is important to 
 observe that the incidence of the accent is determined by 
 the division of the phrase into stress-groups. 1 To say that 
 each word is accented on the last syllable is not true of 
 connected speech ; it holds good for the isolated word 
 only because the word is then a sound-group and stress- 
 group in itself. In ordinary speech, the stress-group, as we 
 have seen in an earlier chapter, more often contains 
 several words, and may comprise the whole of a short 
 sentence. We may refer to the example that was used in 
 illustrating the division into stress- and sound-groups : En 
 revoquant Pedit de Nantes Louis XIV porta un coup desastreux 
 au commerce de son pays, car les protestants s* expatrierent en 
 foule et porterent a I'etranger les secrets des arts et des industries 
 de France. If this sentence were being dictated very slowly, 
 it might be divided and accented as follows : [a revo'ka] 
 [ledi d9 'nait] [lui ka'torz] [porta de ku dezas'tr0] [o ko'msrs] 
 [d9 so pe'i] [kar le protss'ta] [sskspatri'sir] [d 'ml] [e por'tsir] 
 [a letrcr'se] [le sa'kre] [dez 'air] [e dez s'dys'tri] [da 'frais]. 
 Read in this manner, each group is at once a stress-group 
 and a sound-group. But, as we have seen, we may, and, in 
 ordinary circumstances, we should, combine two or more 
 stress-groups in each sound-group: e.g. [a revo'ka ledi d "nait] 
 [Iwi ka'torz porta de ku dezas"tr0] [o ko'msrs d3 so pe"i] [kar le 
 protss'ta sskspatri'srt a "ful] [e por'tsrt a letra'"3e] [le s'krs 
 dez 'a'r e dez s'dys'tri d "frais]. When several stress-groups 
 are thus combined in a single sound-group the final syllable 
 of all but the last is not quite so strongly accented as when 
 1 See p. 72. 
 
ACCENTUATION 167 
 
 they formed sound-groups ; but it still bears a heavier stress 
 than all the other syllables in the stress-group. This heavy 
 beat on the last syllable of each stress-group is therefore 
 called the principal or tonic accent. 
 
 All the other syllables of the stress-group are said to be 
 'unstressed' or 'unaccented.' They follow each other with 
 a more or less even march. Yet they are not all uttered 
 with precisely the same gentle stress. A delicate analysis 
 would reveal several degrees among unstressed syllables. 
 But for practical purposes it is not necessary to distinguish 
 more than two, which may be called secondary syllables and 
 weak syllables. 
 
 To lay down rules for the distribution of secondary 
 accents is impossible. Their incidence depends not only 
 on the number of syllables in the group, but often on the 
 nature of the words, and it may become a matter of style 
 and taste. They have, however, a strong tendency to 
 alternate with weak syllables in iambic or trochaic rhythm. 
 In the group of three syllables the order will generally be 
 secondary-weak-strong. This is the case in the following 
 groups: voulez-vous ; montrez-moi ; entrez done: Parmee d& 
 France ; tu Pas dit ; a-t-il dit ; Pexamen ; tableau noir ; 
 simplement ; PAustralie. Four syllables will generally follow 
 each other in the order weak-secondary-weak-strong : 
 e.g. le voulez-vous ; montrez-le-moi ; vous a-t-il dit ; rlpondit- 
 elle ; Tarmee d' Espagne ; le grand tableau ; profondement ; 
 la jalousie ; reconnaissance. Similarly a group of five will 
 commonly begin with a secondary accent : e.g. popularity 
 efficacite, generosite, nous apercevons. This rhythmic alterna- 
 tion is, however, no more than a tendency. Two weak 
 syllables in succession, or two secondary ones, and the 
 series weak-secondary-strong are of frequent occurrence : 
 e.g. Page de mon frere ['ld'3 d9 mo "frsir] ; P examinateur 
 [leg'zamina"tceir] ; la nation ['la 'na'"sjo] ; le roi Jean 
 
i68 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 ['to 'rwa "30] ; monfrere Charles ['mo 'frs-r "$arl] ; civilisation 
 ['sivili 'za'"sjo] ; voulez-vous me dire ['vule Vu m "diir]. 
 A half-long vowel often enough attracts the secondary 
 accent: e.g. mon baton [mo 'ba 1 "to] ; // courait [il 'ku f// rs]; 
 definitivement ['defmi'ti'v"ma]. 
 
 The rhythmic tendency which has been described is a 
 natural one, and it characterizes to some extent our own 
 language. It is more active in French, but must not be 
 exaggerated. The English-speaking student should rather 
 remember that the differences of stress in unaccented 
 syllables are much less marked in French than in English. 
 It is helpful to compare in this respect such pairs of English 
 and French words as difficulty [difikAlti] and difficulte 
 [difikylte], opposition [op9zi$ri] and opposition [opozisjo], 
 particularity [p9tikjulaejiti] and particularity [partikylarite], 
 incomprehensible [mkompuhenssb}] and incomprehensible 
 [s'ko'prea'sibl] ; and to observe closely, when occasion 
 offers, the Frenchman's pronunciation of English. It will 
 be found that the weak syllables are not so weak in French 
 as they are in English, and that the Frenchman who speaks 
 English imperfectly is very apt to give these syllables in our 
 language too much value. The near approach to uniformity 
 and balance between weak and secondary syllables is one of 
 the most striking features of French, and demands very 
 careful attention of the English-speaking student. 
 
 The principal accent, again, though stronger than the 
 secondary accents, is less heavy than the strong accent 
 in English. A stress-group composed of a half-long syllable 
 with a secondary accent followed by a short accented 
 syllable, such as we have in beaute ['bo'"te], creuser 
 ['kr0'"ze], seems often in untrained English ears to consist 
 of two equally stressed syllables, or even of a strong accent 
 followed by a secondary one. The accent which falls on 
 the last syllable of a sound-group containing several stress- 
 
ACCENTUATION 169 
 
 groups is, however, perceptibly stronger than all the other 
 tonic accents. Hence, from the point of view of accent, 
 the simple emotionless French sentence of several stress- 
 groups produces the effect of a succession of almost uniform 
 beats, punctuated from time to time by a slightly heavier 
 one, and ending with the heaviest. 
 
 (ii) Emphasis. 
 
 The foregoing account of accent is true only of dis- 
 passionate speech where the mere placid utterance of the 
 words conveys all the meaning intended. But in everyday 
 life such speech must be regarded as the exception, 
 especially in the everyday life of the Frenchman, who 
 is more emotional, or rather gives readier expression 
 to his emotions, than the average Englishman. More 
 commonly the speaker wishes to convince, to contradict 
 or contrast, to show sorrow, indignation, surprise, delight, 
 disgust, to call forth these feelings, to drive his meaning 
 home. For all these purposes he resorts to emphasis, 
 laying specia]^ stress on the words to which he wishes 
 to give a special value. 
 
 In emphasizing monosyllables the ordinary principles 
 of accentuation may be modified in one of two ways : 
 either a normally weak syllable may be stressed or a 
 normally strong syllable may be made still stronger. Thus 
 the weak negative in the simple statement Ce n'est pas vrai 
 [s9 ns pa Vrs], may become stressed under the influence 
 of emotion: [so ns "pa Vrs]. In the emphatic C'estfaux 
 [ss "fo], on the other hand, there is merely a reinforcement 
 of a syllable already stressed in unemotional speech. 
 Similar modifications result in English : compare the 
 phrase / didrit say so with the emphatic contradiction / did 
 "not say so ; and the simple statement It is false with 
 the energetic assertion I say it's "false. But certain 
 monosyllables of which the English equivalents may be 
 
T;O FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 emphasized cannot always be so treated in French. If, for 
 example, I wish to emphasize the pronoun-subject in Je 
 ne le crois pas, I must add another form of the word 
 and say Mot je ne le crois pas. To emphasize the pronoun- 
 objects in Qui fa (vous a, lui a) donne cela ? I must 
 say Qui fa (vous a, lui a) donne cela a toi (a vous, 
 a lui or a elle) ? The particle ne is not often stressed, 
 and in the familiar emphatic forms of such phrases as 
 Ce rtest pas vrai, Je ne sais pas, it is usually omitted 
 altogether: [ss pa vre], [3 se pa] or [se pa]. With such 
 reservations the treatment of monosyllables is essentially 
 the same in both languages. 
 
 The French method of emphasizing polysyllables, on 
 the other hand, is often widely divergent from the 
 English. While we say It's quite im" possible, It's "absolutely 
 in" credible, Most ri"diculous, simply increasing the force 
 of the ictus on the normally accented syllable, the French, 
 instead of stressing the final syllable as in emotionless 
 speech, shift the accent to an earlier syllable and say : 
 im" possible, ab"solument, in'croyable, "ridicule. 
 
 Emphatic accent does not vary with the position of 
 the word ; the same syllable is stressed whether the word 
 stands at the end or in the body of a stress-group. In 
 unemphatic speech, therefore, the word in question may 
 not bear a strong accent at all, but as in the absence 
 of emotion a strong accent always falls on the final 
 syllable, such emphatic accentuation of a non-final syllable 
 is commonly said to involve a displacement or shifting 
 of the accent. 
 
 Although the syllable of emphatic stress is fixed for 
 any particular word it varies from one word to another. 
 In the examples given it will be observed that it is the 
 first syllable of words beginning with a consonant, the 
 second of words beginning with a vowel. There is a reason 
 
ACCENTUATION 171 
 
 for these variations. They depend upon the essential 
 nature of emphasis. The ordinary accent is rhythmic 
 and characteristic of the particular language ; it is not 
 influenced by the meaning to be expressed ; it controls 
 the cadence of the phrase as a whole. On the other 
 hand, it is of the essence of emphatic stress to single 
 out particular words and reinforce their significance. And 
 in French a word tends to become most striking by 
 being accented on the initial syllable. But if this syllable 
 begins with a vowel the laws of linking would often require 
 the carrying over to it of the final consonant of the 
 preceding word, and this new and unusual syllable being 
 emphatically stressed would not readily call up any particular 
 idea. 1 Instead of casting added light upon the meaning 
 it would tend to obscure it. Hence the origin of the 
 rule : The emphatic accent falls on the first syllable if 
 the word begins with a consonant, on the second if the 
 word begins with a vowel. The reason given for the 
 rule is supported by the fact that words beginning with 
 ' h aspirate ' are emphatically accented on the first syllable, 
 e.g. hurler, honteux ; and that in positions where linking 
 is out of the question polysyllables beginning with a vowel 
 are capable of taking an accent on the initial syllable, 
 e.g. "Impossible, mon cher, "impossible? Further, when 
 polysyllables which differ only in a normally unaccented 
 syllable are contrasted, that syllable takes the abnormal 
 stress even though it be an initial one beginning with 
 a vowel : Lhomme "propose, Dieu "dispose ; Qui "s 'excuse, 
 "J accuse ; Eceuvre de Shakespeare est "amorale ; II trouve 
 toujours ses "expressions trop faibles pour ses "impressions. 
 
 1 This is not the case with monosyllables. Nor does the rule 
 apply to them. Compare the very common emphatic English Not 
 at all! [not 3 "to:l]. 
 
 2 This example is taken from Passy, Sons du Fran$ais. 
 
172 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 It should be observed that no displacement of the accent 
 occurs under the rule in the case of dissyllabic words 
 beginning with a vowel. The emphatic forms of enorme, 
 affreux, absurde are [e"norm], [a"fr0], [ap"syrd] with increased 
 stress upon the final syllable. In all other cases the accent 
 shifts. Dissyllables and polysyllables beginning with a con- 
 sonant are stressed, under emotion, on the initial syllable : 
 beaucoup ["bolku], toujours ["tusulrj, jamais ["same], par/ait 
 ["parfs], terrible ["teribl] ["terribl], splendide ["splaidid], 
 crier ["krie] ; merveilleux ["mervej0], prodigieusement ["pro- 
 di5J0 t zma], ravissant ["ravisa], miserable ["mizerabl]. Poly- 
 syllables beginning with a vowel usually have the second 
 syllable stressed when uttered with feeling : abominable 
 [a"bominabl], enormement [e^normema], extremement [sks- 
 "tremma], assommant [a^soma], epouvantable [e"puvcrtabl], 
 ahuri [a"ylri], ehonte [e"5ite]. Many of these words, and 
 others which by their nature are generally used with con- 
 siderable feeling, especially terms of abuse, are more often 
 heard with displaced than with normal accent. 
 
 Emphatic accentuation of a non-final syllable is not 
 invariably accompanied by a weakening of the normal 
 stress. If the syllable to which the accent shifts is not 
 felt to be sufficiently distinctive, if the essence of the word 
 seems to lie more particularly in the final syllable, the latter 
 may be given an equal value, and occasionally every 
 syllable in a word is stressed in this way. Exceptional 
 words of this kind are elegant, delice, devore. When a final 
 syllable containing a normally long vowel is weakened, the 
 quantity of the vowel may be slightly reduced, but it never 
 becomes quite short. 
 
 Finally, emphatic displacement of the accent may entail 
 other modifications of normal conditions. There is a 
 tendency to sustain the stressed syllable. A half-long 
 vowel under abnormal stress may become long, even abnor- 
 
ACCENTUATION 173 
 
 mally long: Au contraire, il y en avait beaucoup [o 'koltrsir 
 il j an avs "boiku]. A short vowel is not usually lengthened, 
 but the need to lengthen the syllable is often met by 
 lengthening the initial consonant : // est assommant [il st 
 a"sioma] ; jamais ["slams], faux ["flo'J, horrible [o^riibl]. 1 
 
 Again, the emphatic syllable is very frequently, in fact 
 generally, uttered at a higher than the normal pitch (see 
 Chap. VIII. p. 185). But perhaps the most remarkable 
 change occurs when a syllable which would normally be 
 elided is preserved to receive the abnormal accent, as in 
 the emphatic la seconde [la "scegoid] in place of [la z'gold]. 
 
 The English-speaking student will do well to give par- 
 ticular heed to the purity of his vowel and to his syllabication, 
 according as the vowel under abnormal stress is long or 
 short. The English habit of diphthongization is most 
 difficult to combat in the case of sustained vowels : to avoid 
 bad pronunciations such as [bouku] [pleiziir] the tongue 
 and lower jaw must be kept carefully in the one position. 
 As short vowels, on the other hand, do not occur in open 
 accented syllables in English, we are tempted to close such 
 syllables in French by annexing to them a consonant from 
 the following syllable, and special emphasis makes this 
 inclination specially hard to resist. As a rule, thorough 
 and constant drilling alone will enable the English-speaking 
 student to avoid assimilating, for example, the emphatic 
 open syllables of ridicule ["ri-di~kyl], miserable ["mi-ze-rabl], 
 ravissant ["ra-vi-sa], impossible [s'-"po-sibl], abominable 
 [a-"bo-mi-nabl] to the emphatic closed syllables of our 
 words ridicule ["jid-i-kjuul], miserable ["miz-9-i9b-l], 
 ravishingly ["j9ev-i$-irj-li], impossible [im-"pos-ib-l], abomin- 
 able [9-"bom-m-9b-l]. 
 
 1 See the following chapter on the Quantity of Vowels and Con- 
 sonants. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 QUANTITY 
 
 THE duration of the individual sounds is necessarily in- 
 creased or diminished with the rate of utterance, but the 
 relation between long and short sounds remains more or 
 less constant throughout such fluctuations. It is to these 
 relative differences that reference is made in speaking of 
 the quantity of vowels and consonants. 
 
 A. Vowels. 
 
 All the French vowels are subject to variation in point of 
 quantity. Of the many degrees that exist, it is unnecessary 
 to distinguish more than three : long, half-long, and short. 
 Accented vowels are either long or short ; unaccented, half- 
 long or short, the lengthened vowel of an unstressed syllable 
 being naturally less sustained than that of a stressed one. 
 In phonetic script the long vowel is indicated by the sign 
 [i] placed after the sign of quality, the half-long by ['], and 
 in the absence of either of these signs the vowel is short. 
 Thus in haut [o] the ' o ' is short, in hdte [oit] it is long, and 
 in hauteur [o'tcelr] half-long. 
 
 The length of the vowel is not always due to the operation 
 of phonetic principles. It serves in some cases merely to 
 distinguish words which are otherwise alike, and not seldom 
 varies with the speaker. It is, therefore, impossible to 
 formulate constant and exhaustive laws for vowel-quantity. 
 
QUANTITY 175 
 
 But the following rules will be found to cover the great 
 majority of cases. 
 
 I. In Normally Accented Syllables. 
 
 (i) In a final open x syllable the vowel is short. This 
 rule holds good even of the nasal vowels and of [o] and 
 [0], which are half-long or long in most other cases, and it 
 overrides all the vagaries of traditional spelling. Examples: 
 fini [fini], finie [fini], souris [suri], dit [di], git [3!] \ de [de], 
 gai [ge], je Vai [39 le], je sais [39 se], papier [papje], tuer 
 [tqe] ; fait [fe], je vais [33 vs], baie [be], pret [prs], parait 
 [pars] ; voila [vwala], crea [krea], aimat [s'ma] ; amas [ama], 
 pas [pa], bat [ba], droit [drwa] ; beau [bo], dos [do], eclot 
 [eklo], plutdt [ply to] ; fou [fu], boue [bu], bout [bu], gout 
 [gu] ; tribu [triby], tribut [triby], affut [afy] ; peu [p0], /*# 
 [p0], // [Ij0], //# [Ij0] ; vin [vs], ##/>& [vs], vingt [vs], 
 4^Y/ z/z/2/ [kil vs] ; .ra^g- [sa], ^^/ [sa] ; bon [bo], ^r^^<r [tro] ; 
 un [de], y^ [soe]- 
 
 This rule is a direct contradiction of the principle govern- 
 ing the quantity of vowels in the same position in English. 
 We lengthen, and therefore usually diphthongize a final 
 accented free vowel : e.g. fee [fii], delay [dilsi], true [tiuu], 
 skah [Jai] [Jai9], mow [moo] [mou]. English-speaking 
 students of French find great difficulty in combating this 
 tendency. It is true that final French vowels in open 
 syllables are not so short as short vowels in closed syllables, 
 and that they may become half-long in deliberate speech, 
 especially in the recitation of verse, but to convert them 
 into long vowels is dialectal. 
 
 (ii) In a final closed syllable all the nasal vowels, [s] [a] 
 
 [5] [de], and the oral vowels [o] and [0] are invariably long. 
 
 Examples: mince [mils], crainte [krs:t],y^/^^[fsidr], vinrent 
 
 [vsir], vente [vait], France [frais], monde [moid], humble [deibl], 
 
 1 An open syllable is one that ends with a vowel : see p. 73. 
 
176 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 faute [foit], cdte [koit], neutre [n0itr]. Hence the short 
 vowels of such masculine adjectives as grand [gra], long [15], 
 faux [fo], gracieux [grasj0] become long in the feminine : 
 grande [graid], longue [13ig], fausse [fols], gracieuse [grasj0Iz]. 
 
 (iii) Any vowel is long in a final closed syllable, if the 
 consonant closing the syllable is a voiced fricative other 
 than [1], viz. [r] [v] [z] [5] [j]. 1 Examples : pire [pilr], faire 
 [feir], poire [pwalr], soir [swa'r], rare [rair], mort [moir], cour 
 [kulr], pur [pyir], sceur [scelr], rive [rilv], cave [kalv], fleuve 
 [flceiv], tige [tils], page [pals], age [013], loge [hl$,juge [5713], 
 bise [bilz], aise [siz], base [baiz], chose [Jolz], muse [mylz], 
 fille [fiij], soleil [solsij], m'//<? [veij], tailk [taij] [taij], feuille, 
 [fceijj. This rule holds good of syllables ending with [vr] : 
 givre [siivr], livre [lixvr], lievre [Ijsivr], #z^?r [ceivr]. But 
 if [r] is followed by another consonant the vowel is short : 
 compare pere [psir] and perte [psrt], char [Jair] and charte 
 [Jait], rt?#r/ [kuir] and courte [kurt], r^^Ay [koir] and corse 
 [kors]. 
 
 (iv) In closed syllables, other than those specified in the 
 preceding rule, [a] is always long, except in the words droite 
 [drwat], adroite [adrwat], etroite [etrwat] 9( /faft& \frwQd], frrisse 
 [frwas], paroisse [parwas]. Examples : basse [bais], casse 
 [kais], passe [pals], flamme [flaim] [flaim], fable [faibl], sabre 
 [saibr]. 
 
 [i] [a] [D] [u] [y] [ce] are short. Examples : riche [rij], 
 signe [siji] ; balle [bal], femme [fam],/a/# [pat], nappe [nap] ; 
 bonne [bon], J<5>/ [sol], w<^//^ [mol], Rome [rom] ; ^/? [bul], 
 groupe [grup], route [rut], souffre [sufr] ; w^ [myl], commune 
 [komyn], sud [syd] ; meuble [mcebl], seul [seel]. 
 
 This section of the rule is, however, subject to the follow- 
 ing reservations : 
 
 (a) There is no unanimity of practice with regard to the 
 quantity of the six vowels last-mentioned when the consonant 
 1 Close e [e] does not occur in this position. 
 
QUANTITY 177 
 
 closing the syllable is a voiced explosive: [b] [d] [g]. 
 Words like fade, bague, vague, vide, figue are often heard 
 with a long vowel. 
 
 (/?) In the Greek and Latin endings -os, -us, usage wavers 
 between the long and the short vowel : Minos [minos] or 
 [minois], obus [obys] or [obyis], crocus [krokys] or [krokyis]. 
 
 (7) T0us 9 veule have long vowels : [tuis] [vceil], and are 
 thus distinguished from tousse [tus], veulent [vcel]. The 
 lengthening of [u] before [1] is generally considered dialectal, 
 but the pronunciations il coule [il kuil], il roule [il ruil] are 
 Parisian. 
 
 (8) A circumflex accent on a vowel in a closed syllable 
 generally indicates a long sound, as in abime [abilm], boite 
 [bwait], poele [pwail] [pwail]. But the vowel is often 
 pronounced short in lie [il], gite [sit], dime [dim], dine [din], 
 fltite [flyt], voute [vut], and in the endings -dmes, -ates of the 
 
 past definite tense, e.g. parldmes [parlam], arrivates [arivat], 
 Aumdne is sometimes pronounced [o'mon] instead of 
 [o'moin]. 
 
 The vowels [i] [u] [y] in this position demand special 
 attention. The close sounds [i] and [u] are never found in 
 short syllables in English, their place being taken by the 
 open sounds [i] and [u] which are unknown in French. 
 The learner may, therefore, be inclined to assimilate the 
 vowels in mille [mil] and poule [pul] to those in our words 
 mill [mil] and pull [pul], and by analogy to pronounce 
 the [y] in hutte [yt] like the open vowel in the German 
 word Hiltte [hvta]. Care must be taken not to relax the 
 organs in shortening these sounds. Conversely, the [i] and 
 [u] being found only in long syllables in English, the learner 
 is apt to conclude, on hearing the short sounds correctly 
 pronounced, that they are long : e.g. that the vowels in 
 libre [libr] and livre [liivr] are of the same quantity. Only 
 by constant observation and practice will the ear become 
 F.P. M 
 
178 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 quick to detect the difference in length. A still more 
 serious mistake is to substitute the English diphthongs [li] 
 and [uu] for the short French vowels : e.g. to assimilate 
 milk zx\& poule to our words meal [miil] and/00/ [puul]. 
 
 [&] is perhaps usually short, as in sec [ssk], sel [ssl], faites 
 
 [fet], mettre [metr], lettre [letr], belle [bel]. But it is long : 
 
 (a) when written e, ai : tete [tsit], rene [rein],fe t te [felt], 
 
 faite [felt], chaine [Jem], naitre [neitr], maitre 
 
 [meitr] ; etes [et] and arrete [arst] form exceptions ; 
 
 (/3) in the endings -erne, -aime, -ene, -eine, -es, -aisse : 
 
 theme [ts;m], il aime [il sim], il mene [il msin], 
 
 scene [ss'n], reine [rein], veine [vsin], pataques 
 
 [patakeis], caisse [ksis] ; the numerals in -erne 
 
 form exceptions : deuxieme [d0'zjsm] ; 
 
 (y) in the words aide [eid], aigre [eigr], r^/r [ssidr], 
 
 gaine [gem], haine [e:n], ^g?r [neigr], /<?^/<? [paeit], 
 
 traite, in the sense of trade [trsit], // traite [il trsit]. 
 
 In a considerable number of words the quantity is not 
 well denned. Thus usage varies between the long and the 
 short vowel in aigle^ aile^ cesse^ cede, collegue, Grece, graisse, 
 laide, laine, metre, presse, peine, same, seme, vaine, zele. 
 
 Summary. Exceptions apart (numerous only in the case 
 of [e]) we may sum up the rules for the quantity of accented 
 vowels as follows : 
 
 (1) In an open syllable the vowel is always short. 
 
 (2) In a closed syllable the nasal vowels and [o] [0] [a] 
 are long; but all other vowels are short unless they are 
 followed by a voiced fricative other than [1] or bear a 
 circumflex accent. 
 
 II. In Unaccented Syllables. 
 
 (i) In a stress-group composed of several words, the final 
 vowels of all words but the last are short if they would have 
 
QUANTITY 179 
 
 been short under the accent, and usually half-long if they 
 would have been long under the accent : grand homme 
 [grot om], grande ceuvre [grd'd ceivr], dans la salle [da la 
 sal], point d'appui [pws dapqi], brave homme [bra'v om], une 
 chose a faire [yn o'z a fsir]. The otherwise long vowel, 
 however, may become short in unimportant words : e.g. pour 
 vous [pur vu]. But a short vowel is not liable to be 
 lengthened. Compare une heureuse enfance [yn cer0'z a 'fa is], 
 qu'il rende un service [kil ra'd de ssrvis] with un heureux 
 enfant [den cer0z a 'fa], il rend un service [il rat de servis]. 
 The vowels [0] and [a] remain short in the last two 
 examples although the normally mute consonant following 
 is sounded. Thus liaison does not affect the quantity of 
 vowels. 
 
 (ii) In initial or medial syllables the nasal vowels and the 
 oral vowels [a], [o] and [0] are regularly half-long : bontt 
 [bo'te], chanter [Ja'te], maintenir [ms'tniir], humblement 
 [de'bbma], beaute [bo'te], fausser [fo'se], creuser [kr0'ze], 
 bdtir [ba'tiir], tailleur [ta'jceir]. 
 
 (iii) Other vowels than those of rule (ii) are regularly 
 short in an initial or medial syllable : regarder [ragarde], 
 amertume [amsrtym], murmure [myrmylr], souvenir [suvniir], 
 feuilleter [fcejte], amateur [amatceir], naissance [nssais], 
 devouement [devuma], parallele [paralel], courageux [kuras0]. 
 The vowels of this rule sometimes become half-long in 
 penultimate syllables, but not elsewhere. Thus in adverbs, 
 nouns, and adjectives formed from adjectives or nouns by 
 the addition of a suffix (other than eux\ the root generally 
 preserves its identity sufficiently to be treated as a separate 
 word under rule (i). Hence words like the following have 
 a half-long vowel in the penultimate syllable : incurable 
 [s'ky'rabl], purement [py'rma], purete [py'rte], durement 
 [dy'rma], vivement [vi'vma], definitivement [definiti'vma]. 
 anterieurement [a'terjce'rma], rougatre [ru'3aitr], gravement 
 F.P. M 2 
 
i8o FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 [gra'vma]. Again, where, under the rules for accented 
 syllables, a vowel is long in the singular present indicative 
 of verbs, that vowel is nearly always half-long in all other 
 parts of the verb in which it occurs in an open syllable as 
 an unaccented vowel : compare brise [briiz] and briser 
 [bri'ze], trouve [truiv] and trouver [tru've], aime [sim] and 
 aimer [s'me], laisse [leis] and laisser [Is'se], dure [dyir] 
 and durer [dy're], dore [doir] and dorer [do're], tire [tilr] and 
 tirer [ti're], effleure [eflcelr] and effleurer [sflce're], desire 
 [deziir] and desirer [dezi're]. But if the vowel be followed 
 by [j], it is usually pronounced short : brille [briij] but 
 briller often = [brije], pille [piij] but piller often = [pije], 
 accueille [akceij] but accueiller [akcejiir], someille [somsij] but 
 sommeiller [somsje]. 
 
 A third class of exceptions consists of words, particularly 
 disyllables, with open penultimate syllable. The vowel of 
 this syllable is often lengthened if followed by a voiced 
 fricative other than [j] or [1], viz. [v] [z] [5] [r] : perir 
 [pe'rilr], parisien [pari'zjs], carre [ka're 1 , cure [ky're], mari 
 [ma'ri], Paris [pa'ri], maison [me'zo], raison [re'zo], raisin 
 [re'ze], dejd [de'3a], plaisir [ple'ziir], paisible [ps'zibl], lisant 
 [li'za]. But the vowel is perhaps no less frequently short in 
 this position : saurais [sorsj, aurais [ore], pouvait [puve], 
 savoir fsavwair], oiseau [wazoj, civil [sivil], hiver [ivsir], 
 heureux [cer0]. The length in many cases is by no means 
 well denned. 
 
 III. In Abnormally Accented Syllables. 
 
 When the accent is disturbed by emphasis, and a non- 
 final syllable becomes stressed, the vowel is lengthened if it 
 was already half-long, but, as a rule, not otherwise. Hence 
 the accented vowel, though not final, is long in the emphatic 
 forms of beaucoup ["boiku], durement [" dyir ma], vivement 
 ["vilvma], plaisir ["plelziir] ; short in those of impossible 
 
QUANTITY 181 
 
 [e'"posibl], aga$ant [a"gasa], jamais ['^ame]. The vowel [s] 
 in such a case is generally changed to [0] or [ce] : ilgrelottait 
 [il grsbte], with disturbed accent becomes [il "grcebte] and 
 when second [sago] is contrasted with premier it is generally 
 pronounced ["scego]. 
 
 On the other hand, if the accent shifts to another final 
 syllable, the vowel of that syllable is very frequently 
 lengthened, even though it would have been short under 
 a normal accent : un gros village with stress on the adjective 
 becomes [ce "groi vilais] ; an emphatic tant mieux is ["toi 
 'mj0i], deux fois ['d0i fwa], trois hommes ['trwaiz om], trh 
 bon ['trsi bo], dix ans ['dilz a], 
 
 B. Consonants. 
 
 The lengthening of consonants in French, as in English, 
 takes place only in accented syllables, and is governed in 
 general by the laws which control the same phenomenon in 
 our own language : 
 
 (i) A final consonant is lengthened after an accented 
 short vowel. Hence, when the words in question are 
 accented, the [1] of belle [bell] is longer than that of bele 
 [bsil], the [n] of renne [rsni] longer than that of reine [rein], 
 just as the [1] and [n] of the English words bell [bell], wren 
 [jen:] are longer than those of bale [bed], rain [asm]. 1 
 
 (ii) If an accented syllable is closed with two consonants, 
 the first is lengthened when the second is voiced. Compare 
 courbe [kurlb] and course [kurs] or courte [kurt], marge 
 [marls] and marche [mar], targue [tarlg] and marque 
 [mark], Elbe [elib] and Alpe [alp]. Similarly, in English we 
 say felled [felid] and felt [felt], mend [men id] and meant 
 [ment]. 
 
 1 Professor Passy's opinion that the difference in length is not so 
 marked in French as in English (Sons du Fran^ais, p. 67) is perhaps 
 open to question. 
 
182 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 (iii) An initial consonant of a syllable bearing an 
 abnormal stress is often lengthened, especially when the 
 following vowel is short : jamais ["slams], bourreau ["bluro], 
 an emphatic non I [nio]. Mon cher ami, with unusual stress 
 on the adjective, may become [mo Jisr ami]. In English we 
 more usually preserve the short consonant ; yet in emphatic 
 but deliberate speech, the consonant is occasionally 
 sustained : e.g. very is sometimes pronounced [visji], no 
 [niou]. 
 
 (iv) In elliptical expressions, such as sais pas for/ ne sais 
 pas, the initial consonant may be lengthened : [sie pa]. 1 
 
 1 On the subject of Quantity the student is recommended to study the 
 very careful transcripts in the Chrestomathie fran^aise^ par Jean Passy 
 et Adolphe Rambeau (New York : Henry Holt & Co. ). 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 PITCH 
 
 DIFFERENCES in stress are generally accompanied by 
 differences in pitch ; in other words, the voice usually rises 
 or drops in passing from a syllable of one degree to that of 
 another. As long as the language is entirely emotionless 
 and the accentuation what has been described as normal, 
 these variations in pitch are more or less regular. They are 
 controlled partly by the accentuation and partly by the 
 meaning of the phrase, and may be reduced to the following 
 rule : While the sense of the phrase is incomplete, an 
 increase in stress implies a rise in pitch ; but the voice drops 
 slightly in uttering an accented syllable that completes an 
 idea. Thus, in the sentence Andre Chenier perit sur 
 richafaud the voice is lowered for the final syllable. But if 
 the idea as a whole were Andre Chenier perit sur Pechafaud a 
 Page de trente-deux ans, it would be natural to raise the voice 
 for the last syllable of echafaud, and if, on the contrary, the 
 voice were lowered, the rest of the sentence would have the 
 force of an afterthought. 
 
 The pitch of the English phrase might be described in 
 the same terms. But the difference in the distribution of 
 the accents carries with it a difference in musical effect and 
 makes comparison misleading. Thus, even if the voice 
 were raised at such a word as gallows, which is accented on 
 
1 84 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 the first syllable, there would still be a relative drop in 
 passing to the second syllable. Most English words of 
 more than one syllable having a weak final, this drop in pitch 
 is characteristic of our language. But it is a direct contra- 
 diction of the French system, the last syllable being there 
 uttered at a higher pitch than any other. His failure to 
 observe this contrast is largely responsible for the English- 
 speaking student's faulty intonation of French. 
 
 Again, although the voice drops at the end of a sentence 
 in French, it does not, as a rule, drop so low as in English. 1 
 The difference is especially noticeable when the English 
 sentence ends with a word of the kind just referred to, 
 in which the final syllable is weak, because the voice drops 
 still lower for this syllable than for the accented one. Some 
 teachers of French have even found it advisable to inform 
 their pupils that the pitch remains level or rises at the end 
 of an affirmative sentence. 
 
 The marks of punctuation have much the same values in 
 French as in English, 2 and parenthetical expressions are 
 pitched in a lower key than the rest of the sentence. But 
 the voice will sometimes drop at a colon or semi-colon when 
 the sense has a certain completeness, while the pitch may be 
 sustained or even raised at a full-stop when the speaker's 
 idea is imperfectly expressed by the single phrase. The 
 mark of interrogation being a sign of incompleteness regu- 
 larly implies a raising of the voice, and as in modern 
 French the direct construction is becoming more and more 
 customary in interrogative clauses, there is often nothing 
 
 1 In America the voice is raised at the end of an affirmative sentence. 
 The same tendency is often observable in the pronunciation of the 
 native-born Australian, but it is as yet less characteristic of the 
 ' Australian accent ' than the drawl. Nothing could differ more widely 
 than the latter from the delivery of the Parisian. 
 
 2 But see p. 7 1 . 
 
PITCH 185 
 
 but this rise in pitch to distinguish a question from a 
 statement. 
 
 While the sense is incomplete the voice is raised higher 
 for an accented syllable than for a secondary one, higher 
 for a secondary than for a weak syllable. And as there is a 
 closer approach to equilibrium in point of stress between the 
 various syllables of a French sound-group, the weak syllables 
 of French being rarely as weak as those of English, 1 it 
 follows, first, that there is more monotony, more evenness of 
 tone, in unemotional French than in unemotional English ; 
 and secondly, that the general pitch of the French phrase is 
 higher than that of the English. This result is, of course, 
 relative and unaffected by differences in the pitch of 
 individual voices : the same voice speaking French and 
 English will seem to have a higher pitch in French because 
 there are fewer low notes in the French sentence. It is 
 interesting for the learner, if opportunity offers, to observe 
 a French student speaking English : in his mouth our lan- 
 guage has a higher pitch and produces a more monotonous 
 effect. Various causes contribute to bring about this result, 
 but the overstressing of weak syllables is not the least 
 important. 
 
 When we pass from the simple statement to speech that 
 implies feeling and speech generally implies feeling the 
 problem of pitch loses all its simplicity. Except in more 
 or less extreme cases, where notable stress is laid upon 
 a word, emphasis is a subtle affair, and the learner of a 
 foreign language devoting his attention to difficulties 
 presented by the form of expression or the nature of the 
 sounds is inclined to overlook the finer points of stress and 
 pitch which give life to the phrase. But even if the English- 
 speaking student succeeds in reading and speaking French 
 with such emphasis and variations of pitch as would 
 1 See Accent, p. 168. 
 
1 86 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 characterize, mutatis mutandis, an intelligent use of his 
 own language, the problem is still far from being solved. 
 The intonation, the melody of emphatic French is often 
 far from being what would seem natural to the English- 
 man. Not that the difference is so often one in kind : 
 on the contrary, the various feelings and emotions 
 surprise, delight, contempt, incredulity and the rest are 
 rendered, generally speaking, much in the same way in 
 French as in English. The Frenchman's voice, that is, 
 does not often rise where the Englishman's would drop, 
 and conversely seldom drops where the Englishman's would 
 rise ; but it very often rises or drops much more abruptly, 
 much more emphatically than the Englishman's. A modifi- 
 cation of the tone, a raising or lowering of the pitch, often 
 adds infinite force to a word or idea, gives it a significance 
 which it would not otherwise possess ; and the Frenchman 
 takes advantage of this fact much more than the Englishman. 
 The idea may, after all, be a trifling one, and may seem to 
 the Englishman not to call for such a show of feeling : but 
 the Frenchman does not leave his hearer to guess part of 
 the meaning. With him, moreover, each phrase is treated 
 as an artistic creation : to neglect the intonation would be 
 comparable to the disregard of light and shade in a painting. 
 It is, indeed, just another aspect of his craving after elegance 
 and clearness that leads the Frenchman to put so much 
 music into his phrase ; and if the Englishman is to speak 
 French quite as the Frenchman does, he must be prepared to 
 * come out of his shell ' and to make the expression of his 
 feeling strikingly clear by the same effective means. 
 
 Theory can here do very little. To indicate the varied 
 changes that can be rung in upon the gamut of speech- 
 sounds would be a herculean task. Moreover, it would be 
 hazardous to lay down general rules beyond those which 
 are instinctive to Englishman and Frenchman alike. The 
 
PITCH 187 
 
 personality stands for much in this matter, and the 
 differences are without end. One might as well attempt 
 an account of gesture, which, like pitch, often plays an 
 important part in reinforcing the French vocabulary. 
 Observation of the living idiom is in the last resort 
 indispensable. We must be prepared to admit that there 
 is a point at which precept fails, and that a language cannot 
 be mastered through the medium of paper and ink. 
 
INDEX 
 
 NOTE. [D] and [is] follow a, [(5] follows d^ [9] follows /, [9] follows , 
 [p] and [rj] follow ^, [j] and [H] follow r, [J] follows J-, [3] fol- 
 lows , [A] follows #, [q] follows jy. 
 
 [a], 2, 4, 10, n, 14, 21, 22-23, 
 
 176, 179. 
 
 [a], i, 4, 36, 81, 175, 179- 
 [a], 4, 14, 20-22. 
 
 0, 20, 22. 
 
 a, 2. 
 
 <?, 2O, 22. 
 
 abnormal oral vowels, 27. 
 
 ,, stress see emphasis. 
 ,, vowels, 10-11, 13, 
 
 27. 
 abnormally accented syllables, 
 
 pitch of, 185-186. 
 abnormally accented syllables, 
 
 quantity of vowels in, 180. 
 accent, principal or tonic, 7, 
 
 166-169. 
 accent, secondary, 12, 167-168. 
 
 ,, weak, 12, 167-168. 
 accented syllables, 165-173. 
 ,, pitch of, 183- 
 
 187. 
 accented syllables, quantity of 
 
 vowels in, 175-178. 
 accents, 2, 3, 177. 
 accentuation, 165-173. 
 Adam's apple, 43. 
 
 [se], 4, 21, 22, 34, 35. 
 
 at, 1 6, 19, 30. 
 
 of, 178. 
 
 aie, 19. 
 
 aim, i, 35. 
 
 ain, I, 35. 
 
 ais, 1 6, 19. 
 
 ait, 19. 
 
 alphabet, phonetic, 3-6. 
 
 am, i, 22, 36. 
 
 American pronunciation, 17, 25, 
 
 33, 65, 184. 
 -dmes, 2, 177. 
 an, i, 36. 
 aon, i, 36, 141. 
 aoiit, aodter, 141. 
 arrete, 178. 
 
 aspiration see breathing. 
 assimilation, 146-154. 
 -dies, 2, 177. 
 au, 23, 25. 
 aumdne, 177. 
 Australian pronunciation, 17, 21, 
 
 25, 33, 65, 184. 
 ay, 16. 
 [D], 4, 36 
 [], 4< 29. 31, 32. 
 
INDEX 
 
 [b], 5, 44, 46, 48-49> 57- 
 
 /;, bb, 47, 48. 
 
 back -breath- stop see [k]. 
 
 back-stops, 44. 
 
 back-voice-stop see [g]. 
 
 back vowels, 14. 
 
 balance between weak and 
 
 secondary syllables, 168. 
 Bleton, 85, 89. 
 breath consonants, 42 ff. 
 breath-stops, 45. 
 breathing, 6, 45* 
 
 c, 2, 51, 52, 62. 
 
 f, 2, 62. 
 
 Caen, 141. 
 
 careless pronunciations, 86, 142. 
 
 cc, 51. 
 
 <r^, 51. 
 
 cet homme^ 140. 
 
 <r/ft? annee, 140. 
 
 ^/z, 51, 63. 
 
 Ckrestomathiefranfaisti 71,856., 
 
 112, 121, 123, 125, 126, 129, 
 130, 131, 138, 142, 145, 162, 
 182. 
 
 close a see [a]. 
 
 close e - see [e]. 
 
 close eu see [0]. 
 
 close French u see [y]. 
 
 close 2 see [i]. 
 
 close o see [o]. 
 
 close ou see [u]. 
 
 close vowels, II. 
 
 closed syllables, 73, quantity of 
 vowels in, 175-181. 
 
 Cockney, 17. 
 
 combination of speech-sounds, 69. 
 
 Comtdie francaise, 66. 
 
 comparison of Fr. and Eng. con- 
 sonant-systems, 43. 
 
 comparison of Fr. and Eng. vowel - 
 systems, 12. 
 
 Conservatoire, 66. 
 consonant-systems compared, 43- 
 
 44- 
 consonants, kinds of, 42-43. 
 
 ,, quantity of, 181-182. 
 
 continuants see fricatives, 
 cqu, 51. 
 
 [d], 5, 44, 46, 50-51, 57. 
 
 tf, dd> 49, 50. 
 
 defectiveness of French ortho- 
 graphy, I ff. 
 
 denasalization, 80-8 1. 
 
 delayed elision, 135, 136, 139. 
 
 devocalization, 6, 147-152, 153. 
 
 diagrams, 13, 27, 32, 44, 54, 57. 
 
 dictionary with phonetic script, 
 21, 80. 
 
 diphthongization, Eng. habit of, 
 12, 13, 15, 17, 18, 20, 25, 26, 
 163, 173, 175, 178. 
 
 diphthongs (so-called), 39-41. 
 
 displacement of accent, 170-173. 
 
 double consonants, 156-159. 
 
 double signs, 118, 156. 
 
 double vowels, 162-163. 
 
 &], 5- 
 
 [e], i, 4, 10, u, 12, 14, 16-18, 
 
 29, 176. 
 [e], 1,2,4,14,18,19-20,31,38,178. 
 
 K], 4, 34-35, Si, 175- 
 [e], 28, 30. 
 e, i, 16, 19, 20, 30. 
 /, 16, 19. 
 
 , 2, 19. 
 
 2, 2, 16, 19, 178. 
 eau, 25. 
 ee, 14. 
 , 19. 
 ein, T, 34. 
 
 elision of [a] following a single 
 consonant, 118. 
 
1 90 
 
 FRENH PHONETICS 
 
 elision of [e] following a vowel, 
 
 117. 
 elision of ,[9] following two or 
 
 more consonants, 125-132. 
 elision of [9] in final syllables, 
 
 116, 125, 127, 128, 129. 
 elision of [9] in initial syllables, 
 
 115, 122-124, 126. 
 elision of [9] in inner syllables, 
 
 124-125, 126. 
 elision of [9] in monosyllables, 
 
 115, 118-122, 126. 
 elision of [9] in ne, 121-122, 145. 
 ,, mque, I2I-I22, 145. 
 
 , , in series of syllables, 
 
 132-140. 
 elision of [9] in single syllables, 
 
 114-132. 
 
 elision in verse, 143-145. 
 elision of consonants, 128, 141- 
 
 142. 
 
 elision of [k], 141, 142. 
 [1], 141, 142. 
 ,, other vowels than [9], 
 
 140. 
 
 em, i, 36. 
 
 emphasis, 17, 165, 169-173, 185. 
 e mute see [9] below. 
 en, I, 34, 36. 
 et in linking, 103, 107. 
 ties, 2, 178. 
 eu, i, 3, 28, 29, 31. 
 eu, 3, 28. 
 eue, 29. 
 eun, 37. 
 eux, 29. 
 
 explosives see stops, 
 extraordinaire, 140. 
 [9], i, 4, 12, 13, 20, 30-31, 163, 164. 
 [9] elided see elision. 
 [9] not elided, 115, 118, 119, 
 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 
 
 128, 163, 164. 
 
 ], 5, 57, 60, 80. 
 
 , 60. 
 
 falling diphthong, 39. 
 faon, 141. 
 
 Fran$ais parti, 89, 105, 112, 
 119, 127, 129, 133, 136, 139. 
 French and English vowel- 
 systems, 12. 
 fricatives, 42, 57-68. 
 front-voice-fricative, 67. 
 front vowels, 14. 
 
 [g], 5, 44, 46, 52-53, 57. 
 ,51, 52, 64. 
 &> 52. 
 glottal-breath-fricative, 68. 
 
 ,, fricative, 57. 
 
 ,, stop, 6, 44, 53, 57, 162, 
 
 164. 
 
 glottis, 9, 44, 45, 50, 52, 53. 
 glides (see also transition], 155- 
 
 164. 
 gn, 56. 
 gu, 52. 
 
 [h], 5, 57, 68, 163, 164. 
 
 h, 68, 79, 
 
 half- long vowels, 7, 174, 179- 
 
 180. 
 
 half-open vowels, n. 
 half- wide vowels, n. 
 hard consonants, 43. 
 hiatus, 162, 163. 
 
 high-back-narrow vowel see[u]. 
 high -back -wide vowel see [u]. 
 high-front-narrow-round vowel 
 
 ^ see [y]. 
 
 high-front-narrow vowel see [i]. 
 high-front-wide vowel see [i]. 
 Hyacinthe, le Pere, 89, 104. 
 
 [i], 4, 10, u, 12, 14-16, 28. 
 [i], 4, 15, 18. 
 
INDEX 
 
 191 
 
 >, 2, 14, 20, 22, 4 0, 67. 
 *, 14- 
 *, IS- 
 
 *V, 14. 
 
 *'/, 141-142. 
 
 -?7, -///<?, 67. 
 
 , *, i, 35. 
 
 inconsistency of French ortho- 
 graphy, i ff. 
 
 ing, 35- 
 
 International Phonetic Associa- 
 tion, 3, 113. 
 
 Irish r, 65. 
 
 [j], 5, 15. 39, 40, 57, 67-68. 
 
 /, 64. 
 
 Jacob, M., 85, 89, no. 
 
 [k], 5, 43, 44, 45, 5^52, 57- 
 
 *,5i. 
 
 kinds of consonants, 42-43. 
 kinds of vowels, 9-10. 
 Koschwitz, E. (see also Parlers 
 parisiens}) 71, 85 ff., 112, 119, 
 
 123, 126, 136, 139, 145, 158, 
 
 160. 
 
 PI 5, 43, 57, 61. 
 
 /, 61. 
 
 Legouve, Ernest, 87, 95. 
 
 liaison see linking. 
 
 linking, 78-113, 171. 
 
 ,, in compound expres- 
 sions, 84, no. 
 linking obligatory, 82-84. 
 
 ,, of adj. and noun, 82. 
 
 ,, of adj. or adv. and com- 
 plement, 101. 
 linking of adv. and adj., 83, 101. 
 
 ,, of adv. and object, 99. 
 
 ,, of adv. and subject, 102. 
 
 ,, of adv. and verb, 93. 
 
 ,, of article and noun or 
 
 adj., 82. 
 
 linking of auxiliary and past 
 
 part., 83. 
 linking of a word with et and 0u, 
 
 103. 
 linking of demonstr. adj. and 
 
 noun, 82. 
 linking of direct and indirect 
 
 object, 103. 
 linking of dont, 84. 
 
 ,, of fare and complement, 
 
 8 3 . 
 
 linking of mats and foil, word, 
 
 107. 
 linking of noun and adj., ,87-89. 
 
 ,, of noun-subject and pre- 
 dicate, 90. 
 linking of numeral, 82. 
 
 ,, of poss. adj. and noun, 
 82. 
 
 linking of preposition and com- 
 plement, 83. 
 linking of pronoun and verb, 82. 
 
 ,, of quand, 84. 
 
 ,, of rel. pron. and foil. 
 
 word, 109. 
 linking of two adverbs, 100. 
 
 ,, of two verbs, 90. 
 
 ,, of verb and adv., 93. 
 
 ,, of verb and object, 96. 
 
 ,, of verb and pron., 82. 
 
 ,, optional, 85-113. 
 
 ,, words not admitting of, 
 
 79- 
 
 lip-back-voice-fricative see [w]. 
 lip-breath-stop see [p]. 
 lip-fricatives, 57. 
 lip-front-voice-fricative, 59-60. 
 lip stop-nasal see [m]. 
 lip-stops, 44, 54. 
 lip-teeth-breath-fricative see[f]. 
 lip-teeth-voice-fricative see [v]. 
 lip-voice-stop see [b]. 
 liquid /, 68. 
 
192 
 
 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 //, 61. 
 
 / mouiltte, 68. 
 
 long consonants, 181. 
 
 long vowels, 1746. 
 
 lovv-back-wide-nasal see [a]. 
 
 low-back-wide vowel see [a]. 
 
 low-front-narrow vowel see [a]. 
 
 [m], 5. 33 35, 54-55. 57- 
 
 m, 54. 
 
 Mattre phonttique, 113. 
 
 mid-back-narrow vowel- see [o]. 
 
 mid-back-wide-nasal see [5]. 
 
 mid-back-wide vowel see [o]. 
 
 mid - front - half - narrow - round 
 
 vowel see [a], 
 mid-front-narrow-round vowel 
 
 see [0]. 
 
 mid-front-narrow vowel see [e]. 
 mid-front-wide-nasal see [e]. 
 mid-front-wide-round-nasal see 
 
 [&] 
 
 mid-front-wide vowel see [e] 
 mid-palate-stop-nasal, 56. 
 ww, 54. 
 mn, 55. 
 mute e see [a], 
 
 M, 5, 33 35 44, 55-56, 57. 
 
 , 55- 
 
 narrow vowels, II. 
 
 nasal a see [a], 
 
 e see []. 
 
 ,, see [5]. 
 
 ,, u see [03]. 
 nasal consonants, 54-56. 
 
 ,, ,, in linking, 80. 
 
 nasal consonant not pronounced, 
 
 33-34, 35, 36, 37, 38. 
 nasalization, I, 32 ff., 147, 153, 
 
 154. 
 
 nasalized abnormal vowel, 37-38. 
 nasalized normal vowels, 34-37. 
 nasalized vowels, 10, 13, 32-38, 
 
 175, 179. 
 neuf, 80. 
 non-elision of [a], 115, 118, 119, 
 
 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 
 
 128, 163, 164. 
 
 normal accentuation, 165-169. 
 normally accented syllables, 
 
 quantity of vowels in, 175. 
 normal oral vowels, 13. 
 normal vowels, 10-11, 12-13. 
 Northern English, 17, 19, 25, 
 
 65, 66. 
 
 [Ji], 5, 35^ 43, 56, 57- 
 [&]. 5, 33, 34, 153- 
 
 [o], 4, 10, 12, 14, 25-26, 29, 
 
 175, 179- 
 [o], 30. 
 [o], 2, 4, 14, 23-25, 31, 37. 
 
 [5], 5, 36-37, So, 175. 
 [01 5, 29-30, 175' 179. 
 o, 23, 25, 58. 
 &, 23, 25. 
 
 <>, 2. 
 
 obligatory liaisons, 82-84. 
 
 []> 5, 31-32. 
 
 [oe], 5, 37-38, 81, 175- 
 
 as, I, 31. 
 
 teu t I, 29, 31. 
 
 Ot t 2, 20, 22, 58. 
 
 om, on, 37. 
 
 open a see [a]. 
 
 open e see [e]. 
 
 open eu see [ce]. 
 
 open o see [o]. 
 
 open syllables, 73 ; quantity of 
 
 vowels in, 175-181. 
 open vowels, 6, tl. 
 oral vowels, 9. 
 
INDEX 
 
 193 
 
 orthography, defective, I ff. 
 ou, 2, 26, 40, 58. 
 oil, 26. 
 oit, 26. 
 
 M, 5. 43, 44, 45> 47-48, 57- 
 
 A 47- 
 
 paon, 141. 
 
 parce que, 141-142. 
 
 Paris, Gaston, 119, 120, 121, 
 
 122, 123, 126, 128, 130, 131, 
 
 133, 136, 139. 
 Parlers parisiens (see also Kosch- 
 
 witz], 71, 82, 85 ff., 112, 119, 
 
 127, 128, 129, 133, 136, 139, 
 
 145, 158, 160. 
 Passy, Jean (see also Chrest.fr. ), 
 
 71, 85, 92, 95. 
 Passy, Paul, 78, 88, 91, 104, 108, 
 
 112, 119, 122, 123, 126, 130, 
 
 131, 133, 136, 139, 149, 163, 
 
 171, 181. 
 peut-tire, 140. 
 ph> 60. 
 
 phonetic alphabet, 3-6. 
 phonetic texts, 112. 
 pitch, 183-187. 
 
 point-teeth-breath-stop see [t]. 
 point-teeth-lateral-voice-fricative 
 
 -see [1]. 
 
 point-teeth-stop-nasal see [n]. 
 point-teeth-stops, 44, 54. 
 point-teeth-voice-stop see [d]. 
 point-trill see [rj. 
 
 M 47- 
 
 Precis de pron. Jr. (see also 
 
 Rousselof), 71, 88, 142. 
 principal accent, 166-169. 
 progressive devocalization, 150- 
 
 152. 
 
 puisj 140. 
 
 punctuation, 7 1 * 184. 
 pure vowels see oral vowels. 
 
 q, qu, 51. 
 
 quantity of consonants, 181-182. 
 
 quantity of vowels, 168, 172, 
 
 173, 174-181. 
 quelque, 141, 142. 
 
 W. 5, 44, 57, 65-67. 
 
 [R], 5, 43, 57, 66-67. 
 
 r, 65, 67, 1 12. 
 
 Rambeau, Adolphe (see also 
 
 Chrest. fr.), 71, 856., 112. 
 regressive devocalization, 148- 
 
 150. 
 
 regressive vocalization, 125, 152-3. 
 relaxed organs see slackness, 
 r grasseyte, 66. 
 
 rhythm, 127-129, 167-168, 171. 
 rising diphthong, 39. 
 Ritter, M., 85, 89, 104. 
 rounded front-vowels, 27. 
 rounded vowels, 14, 27. 
 Rousselot, M., 71, 85, 88, 89, 
 
 9i, 95,99, 104, 109, 1 10, 142. 
 rr, 65, 67. 
 
 W, 5, 6 5 . 
 M, 66. 
 
 [s], 5, 44, 57, 62. 
 s, 2, 62, 63. 
 Sadne, 141. 
 
 SC 9 2, 62. 
 
 sch, 63. 
 
 Scotch pronunciation, 15, 17,25, 
 
 26, 65, 125. 
 
 secondary accents, 12, 167-168. 
 secondary syllables, 12, 167- 
 
 168. 
 
 semi-vowels, 40, 79, 151, 163. 
 sentence, 69. 
 sA, 63. 
 
 shifting of accent, 170-173. 
 signs, phonetic, 2, 4ff. 
 
194 
 
 FRENCH PHONETICS 
 
 slackness of organs in English, 
 12, 13, 16, 43, 45, 47, 50, 58, 
 60, 61, 62, 64. 
 
 soft consonants, 43. 
 
 Sons du Franfais, 78, 171, 181. 
 
 sound-group, 70-71, 166-167. 
 
 sounds and symbols, I ff. 
 
 Southern English, 17, 19, 21, 23, 
 24, 25, 30, 31, 65. 
 
 SS, 2, 62. 
 
 standard French, 7. 
 
 stops, 42, 44-56. 
 
 stress see accentuation, prin- 
 cipal accent, secondary accent, 
 weak syllables, etc. 
 
 stress group, 72, 166-167. 
 
 subsister, 149, 150. 
 
 supporting- vowel, 125. 
 
 syllable, 6, 72-73. 
 
 syllabication, 64, 73-76, 156, 157, 
 
 173^ 175- 
 
 symbols, phonetic, 2, 4ft. 
 [J], 5, 44, 57, 63-64. 
 
 [t], 5, 43, 44, 45, 49-5, 57- 
 
 t, 2, 49, 62. 
 
 taon, 141. 
 
 teeth-blade consonants, 57. 
 
 teeth-(broad) blade-breath-frica- 
 tive, 63-64. 
 
 teeth - (broad) blade - voice - frica- 
 tive, 64-65. 
 
 teeth -(narrow) blade - breath - fri- 
 cative, 62. 
 
 teeth-(narrow) blade -voice -frica- 
 tive, 63. 
 
 teeth-stops, 44. 
 
 texts in phonetic script, 112. 
 
 th, 49. 
 
 tonic accent, 166 ft. 
 
 transition, 155-164. 
 
 ,, between dissimilar 
 
 stops, 161. 
 
 transition between identical con- 
 sonants, 156-159. 
 
 transition between stops pro- 
 duced at same place, 159-161. 
 
 transition between vowels, 162- 
 163. 
 
 transition from consonant to 
 vowel in another syllable, 163- 
 164. 
 
 #, 49- 
 
 [0], 6. 
 
 [u], 5, 10, 11, 12, 14, 26-27, 28, 
 
 59. 
 
 [u], 5^ 27. 
 
 u, 2, 23, 28, 37, 40, 58, 59. 
 
 rf, 28. 
 
 ue, I; 31. 
 
 urn, i, 23, 37. 
 
 un, i, 37. 
 
 unaccented syllables, 1 6, 1 8, 20, 
 
 22, 24, 26, 27, 31, 167, 178- 
 
 180, 183-186. 
 units of speech, 69-77. 
 unstressed syllables see unae- 
 
 cented syllables. 
 uvula, 32 ff. 
 uvula-trill, 57. 
 uvular r, 66. 
 
 [v], 6, 44, 57, 60-61. 
 
 v, 60. 
 
 velum, 9, 32ft. 
 
 Victor, Prof., 21. 
 
 vocal chords, 9. 
 
 vocalization, 6, 125, 147, 148, 
 
 152, 153- 
 voice, 6, 9, 46. 
 voice-consonants, 42 ff. 
 voice-stops, 44, 46. 
 
 ,, quantity of vowels 
 
 before, 177. 
 voila, 140. 
 
INDEX 
 
 195 
 
 vowel-signs representing con- 
 sonants, 2, 39, 40. 
 
 vowel -systems compared, 12-13. 
 
 vowels, 9-38. 
 
 ,, in unaccented syllables, 
 . 12-13, J 6 18, 20, 22, 26, 27. 
 
 vowels, kinds of, 9. 
 
 ,, quantity of, 174-181. 
 
 voyelle d'appui, 125. 
 
 [A], 4, 13- 
 
 [w], 6, 39, 40, 43, 57, 58, 59. 
 
 w, 58, 60. 
 
 weak syllables, 12, 167-169. 
 
 ,, ,, quantity of vowels 
 
 in, I78ff. 
 wh, 58. 
 
 wide vowels, n. 
 
 word not phonetic unit, 76-77. 
 
 x, 2, 51, 52, 62, 63. 
 
 XC, 2, 62. 
 
 [y], 5, 28-29, 59. 
 
 [Y], 2 9 . 
 
 y, 14, 67. 
 
 M> 5 39, 40, 43. 57, 59-6o. 
 
 W, 6, 57, 63. 
 
 * 63- 
 
 Zola, 85, 89. 
 
 *z, 63. 
 
 [5], 5, 44, 57, 64-65. 
 
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