LIBRARY OF THE University of California. GIKT OR CALIFORNIA WINE MAKERS^ CORPORATION Accession S7243 Class different from what they are sup- plied wi th as Cocoa. No reference is made here to the great praise bestowed on VAN HOUTEN'S COCOA by the Lancet and other competent authorities, but the pub- lic may judge for themselves by ob- taining, free of charge, sample bot- tles, containing sufficient for six lai^e cups, from their own Grocer or Chemist, or from the Chief Depot of VAN HOUTEN'S COCOA, at 6 and 7 Coleman St., London, E.C. VAN HOUTEN'S COCOA will prove to them — That Cocoa can be both pure and soluble. That it can be made simply with boil- ing water instu nt meously. That it forms one of the most deli- cious beverage . That such pure Cocoa is the most nutritious article of food, and is easily assimilated by ever so deli- cate a digestion. That One Pound is sufficient for 100 breakfast cups. That, in short, it excels in quality and relative cheapness every other known Cocoa. an inestimable boon, as thousai can be provided with this wholeso: and agreeable drink at a momeD notice and at a very small cost. Those interested in spreading temj rate habits are particularly invii to study the merits of PURE SOL BLE COCOA, and it may predicted, if once the public i familiar with the true qualities Cocoa, that Cocoa will become c of the most popular drinks. Sold (full weight) in 1 lb., ^ lb. a ^ lb. Tins, 35. 9cf., 25., and Is., Grocers and Chemists. Each Tin, as well as each Sample Boti bears as guarantee the signature C. J. VAN HOUTEN and Zoon. WHOLESALE: LONDON.— Bare: and Son, Crosse and Blackwell, Edwards, E. Lazenby and S' Edward Pink, J. Sanger and So LEEDS .^Goodall, Ba ckhouse,l ind( LIVERPOOL.- ~~ Gardens. El3lNBURGH and GLASGOW. George Ballantine and Son. DUBLIN. — Alexanders and C Samuel Bewley & Co., Hugh M and Co., Th. McDonnell and ( A. Woods and Co. -W. H. Fleet, Ben Advertisements, I Possessing all the properties of the Finest Arrowroot, I ^ and serving all its uses, BROWN & POISON'S CORN FLOUR HAS TWENTY YEARS' WORLD-WIDE REPUTATION. Cheaper kinds recommended to the trade by the one merit of . I lowing extra profit, are sometimes supplied instead of BROWN iND POLSON'S. Every Genuine Packet bears the facsimile dgnaturcs For Puddings, Light Supper, Breakfast, Sfc. BROWN & POLSON'S PEARLINA [S HIGHLY NUTRITIVE AND EASY OF DIGESTION. PEARLINA is rich in nitrogenous properties, out of which bone, nuscle, and nerve are formed, and when used alternately with iROWN & POLSON'S CORN FLOUR, of which the properties re heat-giving, supplies all chat can be desired for completeness of iet. It is specially usefu for children and invalids. SOLE L OND 0^ ADDRESS— QUEEN VICTORIA STREET, E.C v/| Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/adulteratfooditsOOhassrich FOOD. LONDOX : PRINTED BY 8P0TTIS^V00IM: AXD CO., XEW-8TREErr SQUARE A>*U PAUHAMENT STREET FOOD: ITS ADULTERATIONS, AND THE METHODS FOR THEIR DETECTION. BY ARTHUR HILL HASSALL, M.D. Lond. Merribei' of the Royal College of Physicians of England; Senior Physician to the Royal Free Hospital, London ; Founder of and Physician to the Royal National Hospital for Consumption and Diseases of the Chest; Author of The Reports of * The Lancet Analytical Sanitary Commission ' on Food, published under title of 'Food and its Adulterations ;' of 'Adulterations Detected;' also of 'A History of The British Freshwater Algoe, * The Microscopic Anatomy of the Human Body,' ^The Urine in Health and Disease, and other works. ILLUSTRATED BY UPWARDS OF 200 WOOD ENGRAVINGS. LONDON: LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 1876. A II rights reseri-'td. <^ 4^ -^ ^ PEEFACE. Eighteen Years have elapsed since the Author's work entitled * Adulterations Detected in Food and Medicine ' was pub- lished. Since that date the knowledge of the subject of the Adulte- ration of Food has greatly extended, and the methods for its detection have become much more definite and precise. During the whole of the intervening period the author has himself been unceasingly occupied with the subject, having made numberless analyses, and having been constantly en- gaged in special investigations relative to the adulteration of certain articles of food. Although in the present work the Author has followed somewhat the method adopted in his previous books on the same subject, yet the volume now published contains a large amount of additional matter, several of the subjects being treated of for the first time, as the articles on Food, its Func- tions and Quantity; The Preservation of Food; Unwholesome and Diseased Meat ; Water; Aerated Waters; Lime and Lemon Juices ; Cider and Perry ; Tinned Vegetables ; and the Utensils 8724 O VI PREFACE. employed in the Preparation and Storage of Food ; while nearly the whole of the articles which are not entirely new have been much extended or entirely re- written. The Author has therefore deemed it best to bring the book out under a new title, and not as a fresh edition of his former work, 'Adulterations Detected.' He now desires to record the /)bligations he is under to his assistant, Mr. Otto Hehner, who has ably and cheerfully rendered him much valuable aid, more particularly in the purely chemical portions of the work. St. Catherine's House, Ventnor : NoveTnber 1875. CONTENTS, CHAFTEB I. On Food, its Functions and Quantity II. On the Presebvation of Food III. Wateb and its Impurities . IV. Tea and its Adulterations V. Coffee and its Adulterations . YI. Chicory and its Adulterations VII. Cocoa and its Adulterations VIII. Sugar and its Adulterations . IX. Coloured Sugar Confectionery . X. Honey and its Adulterations XI. Flour and its Adulterations XII. Bread and its ADLTiTERATiONS . Xin. Oatmeal and its Adulterations . XIV. Arrowroot and its Adulterations XV. Sago and its Adulterations XVI. Tapioca aitd its Adulterations XVII. Proprietary Alimentary Preparations XVIII. Melk and its Adulterations . XIX. Butter and its Adulterations . XX. Cheese and its Adulterations XXI. Lard and its Adulterations XXII. Isinglass and its Adulterations . XXIII. Gelatin and its Adulterations . XXIV. Unwholesome and Diseased Meat . 1 7 15 92 145 173 191 220 251 266 276 332 358 363 375 379 382 388 428 448 459 464 470 474 Vlll CHAPTER XXV. XXVI. XXVII. xxvni. XXIX. XXX. XXXI. XXXII. xxxni. XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI. XXXVII. xxxvni. XXXIX. XL. XLI. XLII. XLni. XLIV. XLV. XLVI. xLvn. CONTENTS. PAGE Potted Meats and Fish and thbie Adulterations. 483 Anchovies, their Substitutions and Adulterations 486 The Adulteration op Botti^d Fruits and Vege- tables , 493 Tinned Vegetables 498 Preserves and Jellies and their Adulterations . 500 Mustard and its Adulterations . . . . 510 Pepper and its Adulterations .... 529 Cayenne and its Adulterations 543 Spices and their Adulterations .... 554 Curry Powder and its Adulterations . . . 589 Turmeric and its Adulterations . . . .599 Liquorice and its Adulterations . . . . 603 Annatto and its Adulterations . . . .615 Vinegar and its Adulterations 628 Pickles and their Adulterations .... 644 Lemon and Lime Juices and their Adulterations . 649 Sauces and their Adulterations .... 658 Aerated Waters and their Adulterations . . 661 Malt Beverages and their Adulterations . . 669 Cider and Perry and their Adulterations . . 708 Wine and its Adulterations 715 Spirituous Liquors and their Adulterations . . 793 On the Utensils Employed in the Preparation AND Storage of Food 819 Appendix 826 General Summary of Adulteration . . . . 830 The Sale of Food and Drugs Act, 1875 . . 873 Index 885 FOOD: ITS ADULTERATIONS AND THE METHODS OF THEIR DETECTION. CHAPTEE I. ON FOOD, ITS FUNCTIONS AND QUANTITY. It will facilitate tlie comprehension of miicli that is to follow, and enable us to answer questions which will be often put to us as to the qualitj^, genuineness, wholesomeness, and quantity of the various kinds of food consumed, if we first bestow a few observations upon the fanctions performed by the several classes and kinds of food, and the amounts necessary to the growth, sustenance, and maintenance of the body in a state of health. The bodies of men and animals are built up of several substances ; some of these, from the fact of their containing nitrogen, are called iiitrogemcxus j others, being destitute of that principle, are termed non- tdtrogenouSy or ca7'bonace(ms, 7nine7'al constituents, and water. The principal nitrogenous substances of the animal body are fibrin, found in the blood and muscles ; albumen and globulin, abounding in the blood ; gelatine, in the bones, tendons, and ligaments ; and casein, in milk ; while the chief non-nitrogenous constituent is fat ; they are identical in their ultimate composition, and contain carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulphur, in the following proportions : — Carbon 53-5 Hydrogen 7-0 Nitrogen 15*8 Oxygen 22-1 Sulphur 1-6 100-0 Now, the vegetable has a composition resembling, in the main, that of the animal, it containing analogous nitrogenous substances, though usually in smaller amounts \ while the fat is represented chiefly by 2 ON FOOD, ITS FUNCTIONS AND QUANTITY. sugar and starcli, though in some exceptional cases fat or oil is met with, as in the seeds of various plants. All the nitrogenous substances entering into the composition of the human and other animal bodies are derived, either directly or indirectly, from the vegetable kingdom, the vegetable being constructive and the animal destructive. The nitrogenous elements are capable, under some circumstances, of furnishing both fat and sugar ; thus, there is evidence to show that the fatty matter of milk and the sugar of diabetes are thence derived, at least to some extent. Again, starch and sugar are sometimes trans- formed into fat, but the greater part of the fat of the body is derived from that contained in the food. Notwithstanding this partial and occasional formation of fat from the nitrogenous, starchy, and saccharine elements of the food, each separate class is needed to sustain the body in a state of health. Thus, perfect health cannot be maintained for any length of time on nitro- genous food alone, even with water and the mineral constituents ; and although it may be supported for a longer period on such food com- bined with fat, yet, for perfect health, the albuminates, fat, and the carbo-hydrates, as sugar and starch, are all necessary, though how the latter act in nutrition is not yet fully understood, since they do not enter into the composition of the tissues like the others. Further, it should be clearly understood that excess of lean meat increases the oxidation of the fat, thus tending to the reduction of obesity ; excess of the carbo-hydrates acts in the same way. Now, these several nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous constituents of ^ the food are constantly undergoing change and destruction in minister- ing to the several necessities of the living animal organization, as the growth, sustenance, and waste of the body, its heat, electricity, and muscular force ; and hence the necessity for a frequent supply of food. The various constituents of the food, having served the several pur- poses in the animal economy which have been already noticed, are eliminated from the system, the nitrogenous chiefly as urea, wic and hippuric acids, creatine and creatinine, and the non-nitrogenous in the forms of carhonic acid and water. While starch and sugar only want as much oxygen for complete combustion as is required to combine with their carbon, fat needs a larger proportion, for it contains an excess of hydrogen, which con- sumes a proportionate amoimt of oxygen to form water. By the com- bustion of fat, therefore, more heat — 2*4 times as much — is developed, than by an equal quantity of starch or sugar. Now, the process of respiration is merely an act of combustion ; the air carried to the lungs by inspiration is there deprived of much of its oxygen, while, in place of this gas, the expired air contains a propor- tionate quantity of carbonic acid, which is derived from the food introduced into the blood, and especially from its non-nitrogenous constituents, which may be termed ^ heat producers,' for by their oxidation the heat of the body is chiefly obtained. ON FOOD, ITS FUNCTIONS AND QUANTITY. With respect to the fatty puhstances which enter into the composi- tion of our food, we would remark that they are not merely heat pro- ducers, hut that they play a very important part in the process of digestion, not only increasing and accelerating greatly the digestibility of nitrogenous articles of food, but also aiding in the formation of bile. Again, the starch is converted in the system into glucose, which is carried by the blood to the lungs, where it is split up into carbonic acid and water, as already described. Another product of the oxida- tion of starch and sugar is lactic acidy an important constituent of the gastric juice. Starch, sugar, and fat have the following formulae and percentage composition : — Cane-sugar, Glucose, CeH.aO^ Starch, CeH.oO, Fat (stearine), Cs,H„oO, Carbon Hydrogen . Oxygen . 42-10 6-44 51-46 40-00 6-67 53-33 44-44 6-18 49-38 76-85 12-36 10-79 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 The mineral constituents of the body are not less necessary than the albuminates, fat, and the carbo-hydrates, and equally require to be renewed in the food consumed. Thus, sulphur and phosphorus are constantly present, combined chiefly with the albuminates. Phosphate of lime is found principally in the bones, teeth, and growing cells and tissues; phosphate of potash in the tissues, cells, and blood — the latter fluid is particularly rich in basic phosphate of potash, which forms by far the largest portion of its mineral constituents ; chloride of sodium in the liquids, iron in the blood, and, lastly, carbonic, lactic, tartaric, acetic, and some other acids, which are converted in the system into carbonic acid, are requisite to maintain the alkalinity of the body, the absence of which gives rise to scurvy. The fimction of chloride of sodium, or common salt, is but ill understood. It has been asserted that it is necessary for the assimila- tion of the food, but this seems not to be the case. Salt, in fact, is considered by some to be quite a superfluous addition to most of our articles of food, and nothing more than a condiment. It does not enter into the composition of any of the tissues, but is thrown out of the system in the excretions ; and it has been repeatedly shown that some tribes of natives of Africa do not know the use of salt at all, and consider it a luxury and delicacy. Iron is a most important constituent of the blood ; the colouring matter of the red corpuscles contains it in chemical combination. It is said to assist in the oxygenation of the blood. Again, the imbibition of a large quantity of water daily is likewise b2 ON FOOD, ITS FUNCTIONS AND QUANTITY. a necessity, in order to endow many of tlie constituents of the food — especially the albuminates — with certain physical properties, to render them plastic, soluble, or the more readily reducible to a state of solu- tion ; thus aiding absorption, nutrition, and elimination. To sum up then, there is between the composition of the body and the food consumed, whether animal oi vegetable, the closest possible resemblance. Having thus enumerated the various kinds of food required to sus- tain the body in health, we have to consider the quantities needed. It will be obvious from what has already been advanced, that the quan- tities will vary, being dependent upon age, weight, muscular exertion, climate, &c. ; but it has been determined by numerous independent inquiries, that the food daily consumed by an adult man of average weight — 140 lb. — and in moderate work, should contain about the following quantities of the several classes of food, the figures given being those of Moleschott, quoted by Parkes in his admirable work on ' Practical Hygiene, ' and which figures should be generally adopted, in order to save the multiplication of sums and calculations: — Dry food. Ounces. Nitrogen grains. Carbon grains. Albuminous substances Fatty substances Carbo-hydrates . Salts 4-587 2-964 14-257 1-058 317-0 None None 1073-6 1024-4 2769-4 22-866 One ounce of dry albuminate contains 69 grains of nitrogen and 234 of carbon; 1 ounce of dry fat, 336-0 grains of carbon, and the same weight of either of the carbo-hydrates, starch or sugar, 194*2 grains ; or 100 grains of albimiinates contain 15-8 of nitrogen and 53*5 of carbon -, fat, 76-8 grains of carbon, and starch and sugar 44*4 grains. But water to the extent of between 50 and 60 per cent, is contained in the food consumed, raising the amount to about 40 ounces. Now, nearly the whole of the nitrogen and carbon contained in the chief articles of our food may be thus divided and distributed : — Lean raw meat f lo uz.., less one-uita uon 3 = cooked, about 8 oz. Fat of meat h ounce. Egg ... . . . 2 Cheese 1 Butter 1 Bread. . 18 Potatoes . . . 16 „ Other vegetables . 8 ,, Milk 2 „ Sugar 1 „ i ON FOOD, ITS FUNCTIONS AND QUANTITY. I Having thus arrived approximately at the quality and quantity of tne several kinds of food required by an adult man of average size and weight, and in moderate v^ork, it next becomes important to explain how each person may calculate for himseK, and so ascertain the nutritive quality of his own, or any other, dietary. This important object may be accomplished by the help of the following table, taken, with one exception, Irom the work of Dr. Parkes, before quoted : — Table for calculating Diets. Water. Albumin- ates. Fats. Carbo- hydrates. Salt. Lean raw meat, bone- ) free. . . .f 75 15 8-4 ... 1-6 • Fattenedmeat (Gilbert 1 and Lawes) . j 63 14 19 ... 3.7 Roast meats (no drip-"^ ping being lost), j Ranke. (Boiled as- I 54 27-6 15-45 ..* 2-95 sumed to be the 1 same) . . j Bread .... 40 8 1-5 49-2 1-3 Flour .... 15 11 2 70-3 1-7 Biscuit .... 8 15-6 1-3 73-4 1-7 Rice . . 10 5 •8 83-2 •5 Oatmeal (Von Bibra) , 12 16 6-8 63-2 2 Oatmeal (Letheby) 15 12-6 5-6 63 3 Maize (Poggiale) . 13-5 10 6-7 64-5 1*4 Peas, dry 15 22 2 53 2-4 Potatoes 74 1-5 •1 23-4 1 Carrots (all cellulose) excluded) . . j" 85 •6 •25 8-4 •7 Cabbage 91 •2 •5 5*8 •7 Butter .... 8-8 2-7 85 3-5 Eggs, less 10 per cent. 1 for shell . . J 73-5 13-5 11-6 1 Cheese .... Milk (specific gravity ) 1030) . , i Milk (specific gravitv ") 1026) . . 1 36-8 86-7 33-5 4 24-3 3-7 6* 5-4 •6 90 3 2-5 3-9 •5 Sugar .... 3 96-5 •5 The use of the above table is exceedingly simple. Thus, the quan- tity by weight of any of the articles enumerated being known, the amounts of the albuminates, fats, and carbo-hydrates are easily calcu- lated by a simple rule-of-three sum. Thus, supposing the allowance is 12 oz. of meat, one-fifth must be deducted for bone ; the water in remain- ing 9-6 oz. will be ascertained as follows : ,^^ = 7*2 ; and so on for 100 the other constituents. 6 ON FOOD, ITS FUNCTIONS AND QtJANTITY. A few wotds in conclusion may be bestowed on the relative digesti- bility of different articles of food. It appears from Dr. Beaumont's experiments on Alexis St. Martin that * animal food is digested sooner than farinaceous, and, possibly, meat might therefore replace more quickly the wasted nitrogenous tissue than bread or peas ; and it may be true, as asserted, that the change of tissue is more quick in meat-eaters, who require, therefore, more frequent supplies of food.' ' Rice, tripe, whipped eggs, sago, tapioca, barley, boiled milk, raw eggs, lamb, parsnips, mashed and baked potatoes, and fricasseed chicken, are the most easily digested substances in the order here given, the rice disappearing from the stomach in one hour, and the fricasseed chicken in 2J hours. Beef, pork, mutton, oysters, butter, bread, veal, boiled and roast fowls are rather less digestible, roast beef disappearing from the stomach in three hours, and roast fowl in fout hours. Salt beef and pork disappeared in 4^ hours.' — Parhes, The admixtm-e of the different classes of food aids digestibility, and fat taken with meat helps the digestion of the meat. ^ According to the best writers on diet, it is not enough to give the proximate dietetic substances in proper amount. Variety must be introduced into the food, and different substances of the same class must be alternately employed. It may appear singular that this should be necessary ; and certainly many men and most animals have perfect health on a very uniform diet. Yet there appears no doubt of the good effect of variety, and its action is probably on primary diges- tion. Sameness cloys ; and with variety more food is taken, and a larger amoimt of nutriment is introduced. It is impossible, with rations, to introduce any great variety of food ; but the same object appears to be secured by having a variety of cooking.' — Parkes. ON THE PRESERYATION OF FOOD. CHAPTEE II. ON THE PRESERVATION OF FOOD, It will be desirable before entering on the question of the adulteration of food to devote a short chapter to the subject of the various methods employed for its preservation. The methods resorted to are exceed- ingly numerous, and many of them have been patented on account of their supposed commercial importance, but they maybeall referred to the following heads : — to preservation by temperature, including an eleva^ tion of temperature, resulting in more or less complete cooking, and a reduction of temperature, as by freezing ; by the exclusion ^ air, as when animal and vegetable substances are enclosed in henmetically- sealed tins; by coating the surface, as by paraffin, or when an artificial coating is formed by the coagulation of the albimien by plunging it into hot water; by immersing or mixing the sub- stances to be preserved with a material which acts in the pre- servation mainly by the exclusion of air, as syrup or sugar ; by compression, which serves to exclude the air partially, as also to remove superfluous moisture ; by the extraction of certain principles of meat by means of water, and the subsequent inspissation of the extract ; by the use of various antiseptic substances, as alcohol, acetic acid, salt, saltpetre, alum, creosote, and charcoal ; by the employment of certain acids and gases, as sulphurous acid and the sulphites, especially sulphite of soda, which retard decomposition by combining with the oxygen of the air, which, in spite of all precautions, cannot be alto- gether excluded from the preserved materia] ; by carbonic acid, which acts by exclusion of the air, and the substitution of an atmosphere unfavourable to decomposition. In many cases more than one of the above agencies are at work in the preservation of the food, as for example in tinned meats, in which not only is the air excluded, but the albumen of the meat is coagulated by cooking ; in preserved milk, in which the greater part of the water is removed by evaporation, the albumen coagulated by the heat employed, and the air partially excluded by the addition of powdered sugar. We will now give some brief examples illustrative of each of the methods of preservation above referred to. Elevation of temperature, — Heat is employed for the double purpose of partially cooking the materials to be preserved, whereby the 8 ON THE PRESERVATION OF FOOD. albuminous matters are coagulated, and of assisting in driving out the air ; as in the case of all jams and preserves, bottled fruits and vegetables, all tinned meats and vegetables; and, lastly, as in the coagulation of the albumen near the siu-face of a joint of meat. By reduction of temperature. — This principle acts by retarding decomposition, and the development and gro-wth of minute organisms, and, when the substance itself is actually frozen, also by the exclusion of air. Its effect is very great, as is known to every householder, and is shown by the remarkable cases which have been recorded of the preservation of hmnan and animal bodies, and of meat, through a long series of years in regions of perpetual frost. Every one is acquainted with the fact that perfectly well-preserved bodies of the Mammoth, a huge species of elephant, which died out ages ago, have been found imbedded in the ice of Siberia. In 1861 three human bodies were discovered under the Glaciere des Bossons, near Chamounix, in a perfect state of preservation. Forty- one years ago, in 1820, these men had lost their lives by an avalanche. In 1824, the Arctic exploring ship ' Fiu'y ' was v^recked in the Prince Regent's Inlet, and its stores were landed and placed upon the beach. After eight years' exposure. Sir John Ross found them in a perfect state of preservation, and after a further lapse of sixteen years, H.M.S. ^ Investigator' found them in the same condition. Our ordinary ice-safes are constructed on this principle, and one of the latest proposals is to import meat on a large scale in specially-con- structed ice compartments or safes. By exclusion of the air, — The most complete example of the employ- ment of this principle is furnished by the tinning of vegetable and animal substances, an operation which is thus conducted : — The meat or vegetable is put, with the addition of some water, into a suitable tin ; the lid, having a small hole at the top, is now fastened down. It is heated to boiling, and as soon as the steam has driven out all the air, the hole is closed by solder. In this case, the tin contains an atmo- sphere of steam. In other methods, the tin is filled with an inert gas, such as carbonic acid, or nitrogen. Other examples of more or less complete exclusion of the air have already been given. By the employment of sugar. — This substance is used extensively in the preservation of fruits, as Normandy pippins, pears, jams, preserves, vegetable jellies, fruit syrups, essences and acids, bottled and crystal- lised fruits, and condensed milk. By compression. — This principle has been in operation for a great many years, combined in some instances with partial drying, with great success in the preservation of vegetable substances. An illustration of this method is afforded by the various vegetables preserved by the patent of Masson. By removal of water. — This principle has also been resorted to with considerable effect either by itself or in conjunction with the employment of a certain temperature. It was applied especially by ^ ON THE PRESERYATION OF FOOD. 9 the author for the preservation of an article which he prepared termed * Flour of meat/ in which the lean portions of the meat were dried at a temperature below that at which albumen coagulates, and afterwards reduced, by g-rinding" and passing through sieves, to a powder as fine as that of wheat flour. This method has also been used very suc- cessfully under Edwards' Patent for the preservation of the Potato. This vegetable contains 75 per cent, of water, the greater part of which being removed by drying at a low heat, the potato is found to keep well, it reacquiring the water it had lost in the process of cooking. Condensed milk also owes its preservation in part to the removal of the water. By extraction with ivater and subsequent inspissation. — In this manner Liebig's Extract of Meat is prepared ; this extract contains neither gelatine nor albumen, and its mode of preparation is as follows : — the flesh is extracted with cold water, the solution is boiled, and thus freed from albumen : when clear it is evaporated to the consistency of a syrup. The concentrated beef-teas are also prepared by extraction with water ; one of the best of these is that made by Brand ; the beef is in this case extracted with boiling water. By alcohol. — The preservative powers of alcohol in a very great measure also depend upon the desiccation of the materials to be pre- served, alcohol having a very great afiinity for water. It moreover destroys any organic germs and organisms which may be present or prevents their developement and growth. In consequence of the cost of this substance, it is but little employed in the preservation of articles of food ; but cherries, and some other fruits, are sometimes preserved, as is well known, in whisky and brandy. By acetic acid. — This is generally used in the form of vinegar, and it is supposed to act by its antiseptic properties. It is the prin- cipal vehicle in which the various forms of pickles are preserved, and it forms an important constituent in most sauces. Closely allied in their action to vinegar are certain salts, such as coinmon salt (chloride of sodium), saltpetre (nitrate of potash), and almn (sulphate of alumina and potash), all being powerful antiseptics. The salting of meat, fish, and butter, and the preservation of meat by the addition of a little saltpetre, offer well-known illustrations of the use of these substances. By creosote. — The smoking of meat over wood fires, and its keeping qualities when thus prepared, depend to a great extent upon desiccation, but an important part is played by an interesting constituent of the smoke — namely, creosote. This substance prevents the growth of organisms and consequent putrefaction even when present in very minute quantity. It is closely allied and perhaps identical, chemically and in its mode of action, with carbolic acid, the most powerful of all known disinfectants. 10 ON THE PRESERVATION OF FOOD. By charcoal, — This substance operates "by its powerful absorbeni and oxidising properties ; these are so great that when meat is placed near to, or in contact with, vegetable charcoal, although it may be in an offensive state, it is quickly deodorised and all offensiveness removed. By sulphurous acidj free and combined. — This acid acts by taking up the oxygen of the air, with which articles of food are more or less impregnated, and which, when in the free state, aids in the de- composition of the organic substance, the sulphurous acid being con- verted into sulphuric acid. This acid is usually applied in solution to meat in the raw state, and, either alone or combined with other substances, it has been made the foimdation upon which several patents have been obtained. LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL PATENTS FOR THE PRESERVATION OF FOOD. This table has been chiefly compiled in a much abbreviated form from the chapter on the Preservation of Food contained in the work by Dr. Lethehy^ entitled * Lectures on Food.' • 1850 Date. Method and Name. 1835 1847-55 1848 1847 By drying. Newton . . "J Grimwade . V Louis ... J Davison and Symington. 1793 1851 1851 Donaldson . "J Robertson . v Borden . . J Liebig. . . . 185$ Blumenthal and Chollet. 1864 HassaU . . . 1780 John Graefer . 1820 Vallance . . . 1840 1840 Edwards . . . Grillet . . . Masson Preservation of milk by evaporation and the ad- dition of sugar. Preservation of eggs, by mixing the yolks and whites with flour, rice, or other starchy sub- stances, and drying. Preservation of extract of meat after the separa- tion of the fat, by mixing with farinaceous sub- stances, and prepared in the form of biscuits. Extractum Carnis, obtained by the action of water at a low temperature, gelatine and albumen being both excluded, and the liquid extract thickened by evaporation. Combining meat and vegetables in the fonn of tablets, by drying, then pressing, and finally successive immersions in rich soup. Drying meat at a temperature below that of the coagulation of albumen, and reducing it to a powder as fine as that of wheat flour. Dipping vegetables into boiling solution of salt and drying them. Diying of hops, and compressing them into a small space. Boiling, granulating and drj'ing potatoes. Preservation of cooked and uncooked potatoes by drying. Preservation of Vegetables by drj'ing and com- pressing them to one-seventh of their original bulk. ON THE PRESERVATION OF FOOD. 11 List of the principal Patents for the Preservation of Food-^cont. Date. 1874 1807 1817 1855 1807 Method and Name. J5y drying. Goundry Exclusion of air. 1 Francis Plowden Granholm Wortley . 1810 Appert . . . 1847 Bekaert . . . 1847 De Lignac . . 3 1810 Augustus de Heine. 1828 Currie . . , 1836 Leignette . . 1842 Bevan . . . 1846 Ryan .... Compression of tea into tablets by means of hydraulic power. In this state it somewhat re- sembles the * brick-tea ' of the Tartars, but in this case the leayes are held together by means of sheep's or bullock's blood. Preserving butcher's meat, animal and other comestible substances, by encrusting them with essence or extract of meatj and filling the inter- stices with the same. By covering meat with hot fat or hot animal jelly. Preservation in oil, chiefly of anchovies and other fish. Preservation of fruits without sugar. The fruit is put into bottles, heated in a water-bath to 160° to 170° F. and then the bottles are filled up with boiling water and immediately corked and cemented. Thus the air is expelled and the albumen coagulated. A little alum is fre- quentlj" added. The food is cooked to some extent, put into strong glass vessels, corked, wired, and exposed for some time to the action of boiling? water. Preservation of milk by evaporating it to half its original bulk, and adding some carbonate of soda. Preservation of milk by evaporation to one-sixth of its bulk before boiling it. Exhaustion of the air from the vessel containing the food. The vessel was furnished with a valve which allowed the air to be drawn out by means of a special apparatus. Aiter exhaustion carbonic acid is admitted into the vessel. An improvement on the preceding process. Surrounds the food with a solution of salt in water, lets it out through an aperture in an atmo- sphere of carbonic acid, which at the same time floats in to talie its place. Exhaustion of the air and substitution of a solu- tion of gelatine. Employment of acetic acid vapour and carbonic acid gas. 12 ON THE PRESERVATION OF FOOD. List of the prificipal Patents for the Preservation of Food — cont. Date. 1846 1823 1841 1855 Method and Name. Exclusion of air. Jones and Treve- thick. Angilbert Goldner and Wertheimer. 1846 Hogarth and Co. Nasmyth . . . McCaU . . . Warrington Exhaustion of the vessel containing the raw food in an air-tight trough of water, and admitting pure nitrogen and exhausting again. Lastly, admitting nitrogen with a little sulphurous acid, and thus any remaining trace of oxygen is removed by its combination with the acid. A rticles preserved in this manner will keep for several years. The food is put with a little water into a tin case with a hole at the top. The water is made to boil actively, and the steam thus formed es- caping freely by the hole, removes the air with it, the aperture being suddenly closed. Employment of a bath of muriate of lime to ob- tain a quicker and more regular generation of steam. This process is now commonly employed. The substance to be preserved is soldered down in canisters, a pinhole aperture being left in the lid. It is then subjected to the action of the bath at a temperature a little above 212*-* F. until the contents are about two-thirds cooked, and then, while the steam is escaping freely, the aperture is closed with solder. Lastly, the canister is subjected to a temperature high enough to favour decomposition, and if it shows no sign of bulging out from the generation of putrefactive gases, it is considered that the process has been effectually carried out. Use of steam, in place of the muriate of lime bath. Proposed to mix a little alcohol with the water to lower the boiling point. Recommended less boiling and the use of a little sulphate of soda to remove any remaining oxygen. Obtained a patent * for the use of common glue, gelatine, or concentrated meat gravies or thin cream of plaster of Paris, which, when set hard, was to be saturated with melted suet, wax, stearin,'&c. * The things were then to be wrapped in waterproof cloth or covered with caoutchouc or gutta percha, or coated with a varnish of these substances, or kept submerged in glyce- rine, treacle, elaines, oils, or other such matter not liable to oxidation.' ON THE PRESERVATION OF FOOD. 13 List of the Principal Patents for the Preservation of Food — cont. Date. Method and Name. 1855 Exclusion of air. Delabarre and Bonnet. 1855 Hartnell . . . 1855 Brooman . . . Bouett and Douein. Redwood . . 1846 Palmer . . . By cold. 1845 Lings .... 1800 1835 1847 1861 1854 1854 By heat. By chemical agents. Batley . . Long . . Horsley . Murdoch . Loury . . Bellfort . :} Preservation of meat, bread, eggs, vegetables, and pastry by coating them with a varnish of rich syrup made fi'om the bones and flesh of animals, the substance to be preserved being parboiled. Immersion of the animal or vegetable substances in baths of gelatine and treacle, drying, re- dipping, and covering with charcoal. Coating the meat with albumen and molasses, after the meat has been partially diied, and then suspended in an atmosphere charged with sul- phurous acid. Obtained provisional protection for the use of collo- dion, either alone or admixed with other suit- able substances. Employment of a coating first of paraffin and then of gelatine, mixed with glycerine or treacle. Preservation of melted fats by placing them in bladders or skins. Employment of ice in closed chambers. It has also been proposed to preserve food by the cold produced by the rapid evaporation of ether and ammonia, and various patents have been taken out for the formation of ice on this latter principle. This principle, as we have already seen, is also employed in the preservation of food, the tem- perature usuallv resorted to varying from 200° to 212° F. Curing and preserving fish, by salting them; vegetables, as olives, may be preserved in the same manner. Injection of meat with a solution of sulphite of soda. Employment of sulphurous acid ; obtained by ; burning sulphur. Provisional protection for the use of sulphurous acid with a minute quantity of hydrochloric acid, to prevent the sulphurous acid combining with the alkaline salts of the meat, and so giving rise to a disagreeable flavour. The acids were used in solution, and the meat immersed in it. 14 ON THE PRESERVATION OF FOOD. List of the principal Patents for the Preservation of Food — conf. 1855 Method and Name. By chemical agents. Brooman, mait. Hands. Gamgee . De- and Employment of sulphurous acid in a gaseous state, the substance being suspended in a closed chamber. Would cause the animal to inhale carbonic oxide gas, and when nearly insensible it should be killed. The cai'case is to be suspended in an air-tight chamber, from which the air is re- moved, and is replaced by an atmosphere of carbonic oxide gas, to which a little sulphurous acid has been added. After being thus exposed for 24 to 48 hours, it is to be hung up in dry air. It is said that meat thus preserved will keep several months. 1 i WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. 15 OHAPTEK III. WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. Since water enters more or less into tlie composition of all articles of food as well as drink, and is employed in many cases as an adul- terant, as, for example, in milk — to wliich sometimes it communicates the germs of disease — and in spirits ; and, further, since Food Analysts are constantly called upon to make analyses of water, it becomes not merely necessary that the subject should be fully considered in any comprehensive work dealing with adulteration, but that the first place -jhould be assigned it in such a treatise. Chemically pure water consists of a definite combination of hydrogen and oxygen, and anything additional therein contained may be looked upon as foreign matter, and be regarded in the light of an impurity. Thus viewed, there is really no absolutely pure water to be found in nature *, ice, snow, rain, and distilled waters are the nearest ap- proaches to purity, and yet they contain no inconsiderable amount of a variety of adinixtures and impurities. 1. Ice boater, — This water, though not absolutely free from con- taminations, is yet one of the purest waters in nature, owing to the very remarkable and beautiful fact, that in freezing, which is an act of crystallisation, all, or nearly all substances, or impurities, gaseous, organic and mineral, are cast out, and are to be found in the unfrozen portion of the water ; the absence of the usual gases renders, however, ice water somewhat flat and insipid. A well-known illustration of this fact is afforded by icebergs, which, although formed from the sea, yet when melted consist of water in a state of great purity. Another illus- tration is afforded by the method adopted in northern countries to obtain salt from the sea. The water being frozen, the salt is foimd in the briny mother-liquor which remains, and from which it is obtained by crystal- lisation. We have recently come across a third illustration of the same principle in the artificial production of ice on a commercial scale, by the low temperature produced by the evaporation of ether. In this case we submitted both the ice and the water from which it was produced to analysis with the striking results given on the next page, it being understood that only a small portion of the water actually employed was transformed into ice. 16 WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. Analyses of ice and the water from ichich it was obtained :- Original Water. Ice. Water left. Total solids . 27-0 3-0 14-2 Chlorine . . 1-94 ... 0-90 — Lime . . 10-53 ... trace. 14-11 2. Snoio water. — It follows from wliat lias already been said, tliat the water derived from the melting of snow is also soft and pure, but much less so than that obtained by the melting of ice, since many of the impurities are retained on the surface of the small and innumerable crystals of which snow is formed. 3. Rain water. — It will be readily understood that rain water will in most cases be found to contain various impurities, these being taken up by it from the atmosphere in its descent to the earth. These impuri- ties are for the most part of a gaseous and organic character, and, of course, their exact nature and quantities will vary with the con- dition of the air at the time when the rain falls. The principal of these impregnations and impurities are oxygen, the proportion of which some* times amounts to 32 per cent, of the whole of the dissolved gases, or to considerably more than occurs in the atmosphere itself — namely, 21 per cent, (this diiference arises from the greater solubility of oxygen in water) nitrogen, carbonic acid, ammonia, carbonate of ammonia, nitro- genous organic matter, nitrite and nitrate of ammonia and hj^drocbloric acid ; and in towns, carbon, sulphurous and sulphuric acids, and some- times sulphuretted hydrogen, derived from the coal fires. According to Parkes, the total nitrogen from the nitrogenous salts amounts to 0-0985 per 100,000. Boussingault found 0*4 part of ammonia in 100,000 parts of rain fallen in Paris, and 0-079 in that from the country. Barral obtained from 0-2 to 0-3 in Paris rain water. Bineau found in Lyons even as much as 3 parts in 100,000. According to Boussingault, the average amount of nitric acid is 0*02 in 100,000. During a hailstorm he found the rain to contain 5*5, and the melted hail 8*3 of that acid, owing to the highly electric state of the atmosphere — a condition which is attended with increased oxida- tion. On other occasions he met with from 0-04 to 0*21 in rain water. In the country he found only from 0*004 to 0*028. Barral met with from 0*2 to 3*6 in Paris. This latter observer obtained from 0-78 to '^i'^ total solids from rain water. The following analyses of Dr. Angus Smith show the nature and the varying quantities of the principal of the contaminations to which rain water is so subject : — •WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. 17 V Rain Water.^A verage Impurities per Million Parts. :2 T3 6 '33 . 1 05 o o -B^ «M'd •g s Where collected. g < 1 % I'i'a .2 1 ••si -5 1 •1 < i 1 i fl « c Ireland, Valencia 48-67 2-73 6 None •18 •03 •37 •05 Scotland, five sea-coast country' places, west 12-28 3-61 29 •14 •48 • 1 •37 -02 Scotland, eight sea-coast Country places, east 12-91 7-66 59 2-44 •99 •11 •47 -65 Scotland, twelve inland country places 3-38 2-06 61 •31 •53 •04 •31 •26 England, twelve inland country places 3-99 5-55 138 None 1^07 •11 •75 •47 Scotland, six towns (Glas- gow excluded) 5-86 16-50 282 3-16 3^82 21 116 1-86 Darmstadt .... -97 29-17 2998 1-74 — — — London .... 1-25 20-49 1645 3-10 3-4' •21 •84 __ England, six manufactur- ing towns 8-70 34-27 394 8-40 4-99 •21 -85 2-74 Manchester 5-83 44-82 768 10-17 5^96 •25 1-01 3-22 Glasgow .... 8-97 70-19 782 15-13 9^10 •30 2^44 10-04 Barral found 0*78 to 2'2 total solids in 100,000 parts, and Moleschott as the mean of five samples of water, per 100,000, 3-2 to 2-24 grains per gallon. But it must be remembered that rain water, which passes over the roofs of houses before being collected, or which is retained in cisterns of any kind, acquires further and especially mineral and metallic impurities, notably lead and zinc. 4. Distilled water. — By distillation water is freed from a great many of its impurities, and is obtained in a comparatively pure condition ; this will vary, however, with the water from which it has been distilled 5 the purer the water used for distillation, the better wiU be the distillate. Of course any volatile constituents present in the water will pass over, and as most waters contain more or less ammonia — either free or as carbonate or nitrite — these will be foimd in the first portion of the distillate, as also in some cases other volatile impurities of an organic character. Hence it is very necessary that the chemist should in all cases satisfy himself of the purity of the distilled water he uses in his laboratory, especially that required for water analysis and the employment of the Nessler Reagent. The distillation of water is carried out on a large scale on board many ships, it being prepared from sea water. The water thus obtained sometimes contains a little free hydrochloric acid, derived from the decomposition of the chloride of magnesium. 18 WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. The water so purified being deprived of carbonic acid and oxygen, requires, before it becomes palatable, to be re-aerated. This object is effected by an apparatus specially devised by the late Dr. Normandy, and which is much employed on board ship. Now, water possesses to a considerable extent the power of absorb- ing and holding dissolved a great variety of gaseous and solid matters ; these are sometimes poured directly into the water, but usually they come into contact with it in its passage over or through the various strata or substances of which the earth is composed. In tbis way all water becomes more or less contaminated or impregnated with a variety of impurities, whicb may be divided into three classes — the inoi^gamc or miner al, the gaseous, and the organic, the nature of the principal of each of wbich we shall next consider. THE MINERAL CONSTIirENTS. The ordinary mineral constituents present in water are liine, magnesia, soda, potash, and ammonia, with frequently iron and alumina, which are bases, and chlorine, sulphuric, carbonic, nitrous and nitric, and sometimes silicic and phosphoric acids, which are for the most part in union with these bases, though most waters contain considerable quan- tities of uncombined carbonic acid as well as of air. Now, these several bases and acids are variously combined, producing a variety of resulting salts ; but most potable waters contain carhoTiate of lime, held in solution by excess of carbonic acid, sulphate of lime, or of soda, and chloride of sodium, or salt. Now, none of these salts are injurious in themselves, unless when present in considerable amounts ; still they afford valuable evidence in many cases of the impurity of water, since a large excess of sulphate of lime and chloride of sodium is usually indicative of contamination by sewage. Not necessarily so ; but when these salts not merely occur in large amounts, but are also associated with certain organic matters to be . noticed hereafter, the evidence of impiu'ity is complete. It is found, as a matter of experience, that the two kinds of impurity often go together ; thus chlorine, sodiiun, and sulphuric acid, in their combined state, are all derived largely from our food ; from this they pass into the excreta, thence into the sewers and soil, and finally into rivers and surface-wells, which are still too often the sources of our water supply. Whenever, then, chloride of sodium and sulphate of lime are present in a water in large amount, together with any considerable quantity of the organic matters presently to be noticed, we may, as a rule, safely pro- nounce the water to be impure, and to have been subject to sewage contamination. Lastly, a very common constituent of our food is phosphoric acid, in the combined state. Should this, therefore, be discovered, even in the minutest amount, in a drinking water, its presence may be safely accepted as evidence of pollution by sewage. 1 f WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. 19 « So mucli for the significance to be attached to the presence of inor- ganic or mineral matter in water. THE GASEOUS COXSTITUTENTS. The gaseous impurities are chiefly oxygen, carbonic acid, nitrogen, with occasionally carhur-etted and sulphuretted hydrogen. The soil is said to contain two hundred and fifty times as much car- bonic acid as the air. This acid is, of course, readily absorbed by the water, when in its turn it acts upon and dissolves various sub- stances with which it is brought into contact by the descent of the water through the earth. THE ORGANIC CONSTlTUEKTS. We will now turn to the consideration of the organic materials and derivatives found in water — namely, albuminoid matter m solution, dead and decaying organic matter in suspension, and various living productions belonging both to the vegetable and animal kingdoms. The principal and most important substance found is albumen, or some allied albumi- Qoid matter. This has usually several sources. Thus (1) the decay of vegetable and animal remains in the water itself ; (2) vegetable and animal matter received from ditches and dykes, and dissolved out of the earth by the rain-water in its passage to a river ; (3) the discharge of sewers into the water ; (4) the entrance of hiunan excreta independent of sewers ; (5) the refuse of many manufactories on the banks of rivers. But this albuminoid matter, so long as it is undecomposed, and retains its integTity, is innocuous. Nobody finds fault with it in his soup, or suspects it of producing fever ; and yet in this it exists in quantities of course far exceeding that present in even the very worst of waters. Like, however, other allied organic substances, it speedily undergoes decomposition, resolving itself in part into nitrous and nitric acids, and ammonia. In the first place, therefore, the quantity of the albu- minoid organic matter affords a most conclusive and important test of the quality of the water, and in the second, the amounts of the nitrous or nitric acid and ammonia which are derived from the albuminoid matter. We stated that the undecomposed organic matter of water is non- injurious, and the same must be said of the nitrites and nitrates when not in very large amounts, and ammonia ; but the fact really is that the nitrogenous matter in water is constantl}^ undergoing change, not only being converted into the acids and volatile alkali above named, but into other compounds, the nature and properties of which are for the most part unknown. Even if it does not give rise itself to injurious compounds, it may possibly supply the food necessary for tjieir forma- tion or development. But waters also contain non-mitrogenous organic matters, the aature of which is but little understood, and the amount of which is but seldom estimated, except by Dr. Frankland, and those who adopt • c2 20 WATEK AND ITS IMPURITIES. his process of water analysis ; but we are of opinion tliat anytliinp: like a complete and practical analysis should embrace such an estimation. Some of these non-nitrogenous matters have been described as consisting of humin, uhnin, and of the acids derived therefrom, as hu7iiicy ulmic, ci-enic and apocrenic and geic acids j all of which are stated to combine readily with ammonia. Other organic acids which have been found in much contaminated waters are the following fatty acids : formic^ acetic^ p7^opnon{c, butyric^ and caproic acitU. As much as 1'5 gramme per litre, or 105 grains per gallon of hutyrate of Zme, have been detected by Schweitzer in the water of a much contaminated well. Lastly, waters frequently con- tain organic colounng matters^ extracted for the most part from decay- ing vegetable matter, as from peat. ON WHAT DO THE INJURIOTTS PROPERTIES OP SOME WATERS DEPEND ? Now, since none of the compounds we have named possess in- jurious properties in themselves, on what do the well-ascertained powers of a water to produce disease depend ? — what confers on the water its destructive and lethal power ? The answer to this all-im- portant question is unfortunately not so clear and definite as we could wish. But it is a fact, well attested by the concurrent evidence of many observers, that the waters which have been proved to give rise to disease are those in which the organic or albuminoid matters and their derivatives most abound. Again, it cannot be questioned but that the power of water to disseminate disease arises, in most cases, from the fact of that water containing the materies morhi, possibly the genns, of the disease itself. We are, then, entitled to demand, on the ground of experience, that the water we consume for drinking purposes should be of the highest standard of purity obtainable ; and we will hereafter attempt to fix what, in our judgment, should be that standard. THE HARDNESS OE WATER. Thehardness of a water mainly depends upon the amounts of carbonate and sulphate of lime present, the former giving rise to what is called temporary hardness, because it is, for the most part, removed by pro- longed boiling, by the precipitation of the carbonate of lime through the expulsion of a portion of the carbonic acid; and the latter to permanent hardness, because it is not thus removable, but the chlorides of calcimn and magnesium and the nitrites and nitrates of the same bases also contribute, in many cases, to the hardness of a water. Now a hard water is injurious for drinking, because its powers as a solvent for the food are impaired, and because it is taken up by the absorbents of the stomach with much greater difficulty than a soft water; thus impeding digestion. Further, a hard water is bad for cooking, because of the impairment of its solvent or extractiv€%)roper- WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. 21 ties. It is also bad for washing. ' Each degree of hardness indicates the destruction and waste of 12 lbs. of the best hard soap by 100,000 lbs. of water.' (Frankland.) The carbonate of lime in water decomposes about ten times its Weight of soap in washing — more exactly, 8*8 of white curd soap, and 10'7 of common yellow soap ; and other salts of lime act injuriously upon soap in proportion to the lime they contain, the soluble soap, steai^ate and olente of soda, being converted into an insoluble and useless compound, stearate and oleate of lime : the water, then, is deprived of Ume, or softened, at the expense of the soap. The lime in 100 gallons of Thames or New River water thus occasions the destruc- tion of about 34 ounces of soap before any portion of it becomes available as a detergent. The Chemical Commission of 1851 treated fuUy of this subject, especially as connected with the Metropolitan water supply, and their evidence was to the following effect : — ' The softer the water the better it is adapted for washing with soap, the earthy salts present causing a definite and calculable loss of soap, which may be taken as amounting, in every gallon of water used in washing, to 10 grains of soap to each degree of hardness of the water. Thus, with one gallon of Thames water of 14 degTees of hard- ness before boiling, the loss of soap would be 140 grains, and at 5 degrees of hardness, after boiling, the loss of soap would be 50 grains ; or with 100 gallons of water, the loss in the first case would be 32 ounces, and in the second about llh ounces.' Taking the whole quantity of soap used in the washing of linen, first to soften the water, and afterwards to cleanse the linen, the Commissioners estimate the loss at 42 per cent, when the water is employed cold, and 14 per cent, with woollens ; or where the same water is softened by boiling, at 20 per cent, for linen, and 5 per cent, for woollens. Now there is a great fallacy or source of error pervading the cal- culations as to the loss of soap, arising from the use of the boiled water. Much of the water thus used has not been softened to anything like five degrees of hardness ; and hence the destruction of soap is much greater than that stated in the calculations above given. Now, the hardness of the London waters has led to the extensive employment of soda. This precipitates all salts of lime, and so softens the water, and therefore effects a great saving of soap ; but the soda costs something, and it exerts a highly injurious effect on the fibre of the linen or cotton, as also on the colours of certain prints. Further, the Commissioners state, ^ It is found proper to avoid boiling any portion of the Thames water that is used in the wash-tub, or even heating the water above a certain point ; for the carbonate of lime precipitates on the linen, carrsdng down the colouring matter of the water with it, producing stains which there is the greatest difficulty in afterwards removing from the linen. The colour of the water is thus, indeed, fixed upon the cloth by the precipitated lime 22 WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. with the tenacity of a mordant. The evil of the hardness of the water is, therefore, aggravated by the Jiood-tinge, or clay-colour^ which the London waters often exhibit for several months in the year. • The number of gallons of water generally used with a certain weight of soda is considerably greater in London washing than in the practice of the Lancashire bleachers, so that the waste of soap from hardness cannot fall below, but may exceed, the previous estimate. ^ In the washing of the person the saving of soap by the use of soft water is most obvious. For baths, soft water is most agreeable and beneficial, and might contribute to their more general use. Its superior efficiency to hard water in washing floors and walls is calculated also to promote a greater cleanliness in the dwellings of all classes, both within doors and externally.' The witnesses examined on this point were Mr. Bateman, Mr. Hawksley, Mr. Rawlinson, Mr. Way, Mr. Duncan, Dr. Letheby, Dr. Playfair, Dr. Parkes, Mr. Samson, Dr. Frankland, Dr. Odling. Dr. MiUer, Dr. Angus Smith, and Mr. Heron. They all concur in the great advantages of the use of soft water for the washing of linen and of the person, for dyeing, with some exceptions, and for many manu- facturing purposes. Dr. Letheby, in estimating the loss of soap, proceeds on the basis that all the heated river water used is reduced to a uniform standard of 5 degrees of hardness. In reference to this point. Dr. Frankland states that he considers ^ the advantages of tem- porary over permanent hardness have been considerably overrated ^ as water used hot for domestic purposes is either not boiled or boiled for too short a time to produce the full softening effect.^ With respect to the effects of hard water upon health, Dr. Parkes gave the following evidence before the Royal Commission on Water Supply of 1869 :— ' With regard to the effects upon health of the use of hard waters, distinguishing between the carbonate of lime water and the sulphate of lime and sulphate of magnesian waters, the carbonate of lime waters appear, in some cases, certainly to produce some effect upon health — for instance, dyspepsia ; and they do not agree with some class of persons, whereas to others they appear quite harmless. There is a large population living upon chalk water, and we cannot trace any very decided effect upon their health in the production of any class of dis- ease — calculus, or anything of that kind ; but at the same time persons do sometimes sufter from indigestion.' When asked ' Would 16 or 20 degrees of hardness be prejudicial ?' he replied, ^I think that degree of hardness would be certainly prejudicial. I think that very probably it might disagree with a great many persons; but supposing it reached to 8 or 10 or 12 degrees of hardness from car- bonate of lime, it might be considered probably good water so far as that was concerned ; but I should draw a marked distinction between that and the hardness arising from sulphate of lime, or sulphate of magnesia or chloride of calcium, which would certainly disagree in WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. 23 inucli smaller quantities : so that the goodness of water for drinking purposes I would estimate according to its permanent hardness rather than its temporary hardness.' Pressed with other questions, the witness replied : ^ for troops, in all cases we should prefer a soft water, if it were possible to obtain it.' ' Speaking generally, you are of opinion that the mere presence of carbonate of lime of 15 degrees of hardness would not be injurious to health ? ' — ^ With 15 or 16 degrees of carbonate of lime hardness, I should say that it would be a hard water, and with some persons it would disagree and produce dyspepsia. I think it should not exceed 10 or 12 degTees, if possible. At the same time, I should wish to state that I would prefer water free from that even.' For many years past we have never lost an occasion to advocate the use of soft water in preference to hard ; and we have more than once treated of this important subject in the pages of ^ Food, Water, and Air.' The introduction of soft water for the use of towns and cities met with, at first, great opposition, and this from quarters whence it might have been the least expected ; namely, on the part of some medical men and chemists. It was affirmed that the lime of the water was necessar}^ to the growth of the bones, that without it they would become soft ; and, indeed, that the whole frame without a powerful osseous skeleton would become weak and stunted. Those who made use of this argument forgot that phosphoric acid is as necessary to the bones as lime, and that water does not furnish a particle of this acid to the bones, it being obtained from the various articles of food con- sumed ; and if a sufficient supply of phosphoric acid be obtainable from this source, why not the requisite quantity of lime ? For a long time this objection to the use of soft water prevailed, and prevented, in many cases, its introduction for the supply of towns. In some quarters the notion still lingers, and this groundless objec- tion continues to be urged with pertinacity, especially where interest points to the use of hard water. That it is without any real foundation has now been proved by the experience of those towns which have for some years been supplied with soft water. A further objection persistently urged against the employment of soft water for a town supply is the liability of such water to act on lead piping. But experience has also shown that this fear has been greatly exaggerated. Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, and many other cities are now supplied with very soft water and this without any detriment to health. Here then we have a large body of evidence of a very clear and convincing character all in favour of the use of a soft water. It is therefore abundantly established that hard water is wasteful of soap in the washing of linen ; that it renders the operation more laborious and less effective ; that it is injmious to the linen it- 24 WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. self ; that it is wasteful of soap in personal ablutions, besides being far less agi'eeable and eificient; and, in fact, that it is objectionable for cleansing purposes generally, and that it is a serious hindrance to the sanitary use and effeAs of such water. THE SOFTENING OF WATER. Many years since the late Professor Clarke, of Aberdeen, took out his well-known patent for softening water. The principle of this process consists in adding a solution of caustic lime to the water to be softened. The effect of this is, to abstract a portion of the carbonic acid from the carbonate of lime in solution, both portions of lime being thus brought into the condition of a neutral carbonate, so little soluble is water, and which 'hence becomes gradually precipitated. The water to be softened is divided into two portions, a larger one consisting of about three-fourths and a small one of one-fourth. The larger quantity is rendered decidedly alkaline by the addition of lime water, and then the second portion is added to it. The quantity of lime water required is thus determined for each water for which the process is employed. The alkali may then be added with frequent stirring to the great bulk of the water to be softened, as contained in one or more reservoirs, lined with concrete. Care must be taken to render the water as nearly neutral as possible, as any excess of free lime would be very objectionable, and this may be guarded against by the employment, as indicator, of a solution of nitrate of mercury, added to a small quantity of the water, the black sub-oxide of mercury being thrown down on the addition of the alkali. This process does not of course remove the lime from those com- binations which give to water its permanent hardness ; but since usually the greater portion of the hardness of a water is of the temporary character, it is in most instances highly effectual in the softening of a water, often removing nearly the whole of the hardness. The Chemical Commission of 1851 recommended the adoption of this process to the Thames water with which London is supplied, and they estimated the cost at about 20s. per million gallons of water. The process has, in fact, been applied in several instances to the softening of the water supply of towns with very great success and advantage. And it may be said, in fiu-ther recommendation of it, that it not merely softens the water, but that it also purifies it to a consider- able extent, the carbonate of lime carrying down with it all the sus- pended organic matter, with but a small portion only of the dissolved organic matter. The carbonate of lime obtained by this process should be collected, made into cakes and sold. It is often of a superior quality, and its sale would repay part of the cost of the process itself. WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. 25 ON THE QUALITY OP WATER. The quality of a water and its suitability or otherwise for domestic iise depend first upon the nature and quantity of the several mineral constituents which enter into its composition, and secondly, on the organic ingredients, in solution, in suspension, or in the form of living ovganisms. It has been shown that all the salts of lime and magnesia found in water render it hard, and therefore if they are present in considerable amount, the water is thereby rendered unsuitable for drinking, cooking, and washing. Other mineral constituents of water, which, if present in anything like considerable amount, are to be viewed with suspicion, are the chlorides, especially chloride of sodium, and the sulphates, particu- larly sulphate of lime. The reason of this is, that while there are but few natural sources of sulphates and of chloride of sodium, they are abundantly contained in the excreta, and make their way into our drinking water either by percolation through the soil, or by being cast as sewage into our rivers and streams, which are too often the source of our water supplies. Dr. Angus Smith, in his evidence before the Royal Commission on Water Supply in 1869, thus refers to the occurrence of nitrates and chloride of sodium in waters. The nitrates, he says, ^ ar*^ what I have called Old Organic Matter. Where nitrates are caused by matter from animals, there is always a corre- sponding amount of common salt. Men take from 200 to 300 grains at least of common salt every day, and it is given out every day. This is the most unchangeable accompaniment of sewage. Whenever chlorine is largely in water, it is necessary to look for nitrates derived from sewage ; and, as a rule, it is so constant that there is scarcely any exception. When we find much more than the average quantity in a weU-water, nitrates are foimd also, and if the water in a district is pretty well known — that is to say, if the amount of chlorine in water Irom any district is pretty well known, and a specimen of that water should indicate rather more chlorides than usual — you may conclude with almost certainty that it is from sewage.' With regard to its organic constituents any considerable amount of albuminoid m'ganic matter renders the water unfit for use, and the same may be said to a certain extent of the organic matter sus- pended in water, and especially of the living productions which impure waters so frequently contain in such abundance. But it must be remembered that in this latter case this dead and living organic matter is capable of being removed to a large extent by an efficient process of filtration. Another circumstance to be taken into consideration in expressing an opinion as to the quality of a water supply are the fluctuations in 26 WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. the amounts of the nitrogenous organic matter found in certain waters, especially river waters m summer and winter. These are shown in the analyses of Drs. Frankland and Odling, made for the Royal Com- mission on Water Supply, ] 869, to be very great and remarkable. Thames below weir, at Staines. Filtered Thames water at Hampton. May 2nd. Oct. 28th. May 4th. Oct. 28th. In 100,000 parts or- ganic nitrogen . Ditto carbon . •027 •304 •097 •304 •024 •260 •057 •263 The following causes appear to us to afford some explanation of this striking diiference, and to account for the much larger quantity of albuminoid organic matter in winter. First, the streams and floods of winter w^hich wash out the dykes and ditches in communication with the Thames; second, the death and decay of many forms of vegetable and animal life ; third, the diminution in the amount of minute and infusorial life in the water ; and, fourth, the slower decom- position and destruction of the organic matter in wdnter. The presence likewise in considerable amounts of ammonia, nitrous, and nitric acids, derivatives of urea and albuminoid matter, would also serve, especially when taken in conjunction wdth other unfavourable results of analysis, to condenm a water. With respect to nitrous and nitric acids in water much has been said and written, and much dis- cussion has taken place as to their significance and importance in potable waters. PTJRrFICATIOlT OF WATER. Impure water, when left for a time, undergoes two different processes of purification. The one results from the decomposition of the organic matters contained in the water, and their breaking-up into ammonia, carbonic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, &c. ; the other is due to the oxidation of that matter, the oxygen being derived from the air continually absorbed by the water. This process of oxidation is, of course, gi-eatly promoted by the mocion and agitation of the water, as this brings the oxygen into more intimate contact with the organic matters in solution. Both these methods, judged by their practical results, and especially the latter, are highly important; and were it not for them, disease resulting from the drinking of impure water would be of much more frequent occurrence than it now is, and it is only of late years that the importance of the purification of water by oxidation has been at all adequately recognised. But even now the extent and limits of its WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. 27 operation are but ill defined, and exact experiments are still required to test its full value. In reference to this question of the purification of water by" oxida- tion, Dr. Letheby made the following statements in evidence given before the Royal Commission on Water Supply in 1869, when asked the question, ' Have you at all ascertained in what length of time or distance polluted matter will be decomposed and transformed in its chemical qualities ; for example, supposing we had the sewage from Eichmond poured into the Thames, how far down the river would it be lost as sewage and broken up into other chemical elements ? ' he thus replied : ' I have made a very great number of chemical experiments to determine that. I have examined most of the rivers in England, and this is the conclusion that has been come to, not only in my mind, but m the minds of all the engineers who have devoted their attention to this subject, — that if ordinary sewage, containing, we will say, nearly 100 grains of solid matter per gallon, such as our London sew^age, out of w^hich probably something like 14 or 15 grains are organic, be mixed with twenty times its bulk of the ordinary river water and flows a dozen miles or so, there is not a particle of that sewage to be discovered by any chemical processes. ' Mr. Wanklyn gave the following evidence before the Koyal Com- mission in reference to the same matter. In reply to the observation : ^ Q. 5482. It has been stated in evidence before us that if you pour into water a volume of sewage equal to 5 per cent, of the volume of water into which it is cast, the water will so operate upon it in deodorizing and destroying, and breaking up its elements — into its primitive elements, in fact — that it would no longer be sewage, or possess any of its noxious qualities. You apparently hold a contrary opinion ? — This I am sure of: the urea in the sewage in such a water would be very readily broken up into ammonia and carbonic acids, and a little exposure would dispose of the urea; but the albuminoid matter in sewage is extremely persistent, and one of the results of the whole investigation is this, that albuminoid matter is very persistent indeed, and you could not depend upon any treatment such as you have men- tioned getting rid of the albuminoid matter. ^ 5485. But will not certain changes take place even in the albu- minoid matter ? — Yes, certainly ; but the change is very slow, and it is very irregular.' Of the evidence of Dr. Frankland, the following questions and answers embrace the more important parts : — ^ Q. 6222. What does yoiu* experience teU you is the effect of the quality of the present supply in London on the health of the popula- tion generally? — I cannot, of course, trace any direct connection between the present supplv and the health of the population, but I consider that water contaminated with sewage contains that which is noxious to human health. There is no process practicable on a large scale by which the noxious material can be removed from water once 28 WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. so contaminated ; and therefore I am of opinion that water which has once been contaminated by sewage or manure matter is thenceforth unsuitable for domestic use. * 6226. You state that you have come to the conchision that sewage has been the cause of the contaminations of this water, because you find a skeleton there in the form of nitrates and nitrites ? — Yes ; and also of ammonia, which I think I omitted to mention j but that is a very insignificant part of the skeleton. ' 6227. Is it possible that those nitrates and nitrites could be pre- sent in the water without its having been contaminated with sewage ? Coidd they be produced by some other cause than that of sewage ? — They could be caused by manure thrown into the water, or by manure applied to the land. ' ^^^%, But are they attributable to nothing else ? — No ; nothing else, I believe. * 6223. With regard to the Kent water, we had some evidence yesterday to the effect that you must have been mistaken in finding traces of sewage in these chalk wells, the water being taken at a depth of 250 feet in the chalk, and the upper part of the wells themselves being lined ; therefore the water must have filtered through the chalk ; and there could be no trace of the skeleton of sewage. Is it your opinion that the skeleton of sewage, as you describe it, will find its way down to a depth of 250 feet, and that after filtration through gravel, and ultimately through the chalk, its presence will still be detected? — There cannot be a doubt about it, that this skeleton of which I speak, but which is a very different thing from the sewage itself, is present. I have never stated that the water which has filtered through the chalk in this way contains unaltered sewage ; it is this imaginary skeleton of sewage that I find in water so filtered. ' 6240. The presence of what other elements would lead you to a conclusion upon the quality of water as injurious to health ? — In the first place, when water is once contaminated with sewage, there is no process to which it is afterwards subjected which will effectually remove all that sewage contamination from the water ; filtration will not do it, in certain cases, at all events. I have found the excrements of cholera patients cannot be filtered out of water ; that after a degree of filtration which I believe is never attained by the water companies, and rarely attained, perhaps, by the passage over soils in irrigation, this water still remains opalescent from the rice-water evacuations with which it has been mixed. The degree of danger which still remains in waters from different sources varies, obviously, according to the amount of filtration that the water undergoes. I would much rather drink the chalk water of the Kent Company, even if it had been con- taminated to four times the extent of the Thames water, than I would drink the Thames water ; because, if I could have the assurance that none of that sewage or manure water had found its way into the well through fissures in the chalk, the chalk water having passed through WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. 29 say 100 feet of chalk, would be very mucli better filtered than any water which finds its way to the Thames. ^ 6292. You conclude that it is a very difiicult thing to get rid of sewage matter by running water ? — I do. That portion of it which remains undecomposed after its passage through the sewers oxidizes with extreme slowness. ' 6297. Did I rightly understand you to say that you cannot dis- tinguish in those cases whether it (the organic nitrogen) is derived from vegetable matter or from animal matter? — 1 have said that until recently it had been impossible to distinguish between the two ; but that now I considered that the proportion between the carbon and the nitrogen in the two cases afforded a basis from which we could in many instances decide. ^ 6328. It would seem that you cannot very well refer the presence of nitrates and nitrites in the water exclusively to pre\dous sewage con- tamination. — [After alluding to the presence of materials in rain-water which may fiu'nish a small quantity of nitrates and nitrites, Dr. Frankland observed] : But it is a remarkable circumstance that waters which it is well known cannot be contaminated by manure or by sewage, never do contain those nitrates in a proportion bringing them near to the point of contamination. ' Q^72. Then you do not accept the theory that sewage discharged at point A, and travelling down the river, is so oxidized as it passes a distance of six or seven miles, and is so entirely destroyed, that its original elements are not to be found ; but it is converted into some other substance or substances which are not detrimental to human health ? — I believe that it is by no means a generally true proposition.' Dr. Odling s evidence was to the following effect : — * Q. 6448. Have you found in those examinations of the Thames water the presence of sewage not decomposed ? — I have not. / 6451. Has your attention been directed to the important principle of the self-purifying process which is going on in rivers running at a given velocity? — ^Yes, it has. There may be great difference of opinion as to the degree to which that self-purification takes place, but that it does take place to a very considerable extent I think is undeniable. ^ 6462. Is it your opinion that those (nitrates) which have been found in challt water are due to sewage ? — It is a point upon which there is no positive evidence, but I am inclined to think that it is not so, for we find them distributed so irregularly. For instance, the deep- well water at Trafalgar Square and the deep-well water from the green sand and the lower chalk, all over London, is nearly free from nitrates and nitrites, whereas the water of equally deep wells elsewhere in the chalk is found to contain very considerable quantities of nitrates and nitrites. The deep-well water from nearly all formations has been found to contain nitrates. Then, moreover, a proportion of the nitrates which the sewage itself undoubtedly does furnish in one case is destroyed, and in another is not ; and so far as the history of the water is con- 30 WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. cemed, in tlie one case where the nitrates are destroyed that water may- show but a very small amount of previous sewage contamination, whereas it might have had a much larger amount than the other.' The more important portion of the evidence of the next witness, Sir Benjamin Brodie, was to the following effect :— ^ 6991. Br. Frankland states vei-y distinctly that water once contaminated with sewage is unfit for human use, and that you will still find what he calls the skeleton of sewage present, although it may have travelled 100 miles, and been exposed to filtration. — I think what is asserted by Dr. Frankland is true, that there are no known causes in existence on which we can adequately rely to remove the sewage from the water. Medical statistics will tell you more about the inju- rious or non-injurious character of sewage water than any analysis would do. ' 7009. Dr. Frankland considers that this organic nitrogen in the London water is of a very different value from that in other waters, because the proportion of organic carbon to the nitrogen in the waters is different ? — Yes ; this appeal's to me a very important fact. ' 7011. You think that the tests of the greatest delicacy are yet in- sufficient to determine the points at which sewage ceases to be present ? — I will state a case, which Js really an absolutely analogous case to the case of water ; namely, the case of the atmosphere. You may look at the atmosphere as really a great ocean. Gases from drains are being discharged into this gaseous ocean, just as the water from the drains is going into the river. These gases are so diluted when they get into the atmosphere, that chemical analysis is absolutely impotent to reveal their presence in any given portion of the atmosphere. But nobody can doubt the injurious effects, under certain conditions, of the gases and other organic matters present in the atmosphere. Another most important thing is this, that really there is no reason whatever to be- lieve that the injurious character either of sewage or of gases from a drain depends, fundamentally, upon the quantity of that sewage or of that gas ; in all probability it far more depends upon the quality of the sewage — namely, w^hat it consists of. Now, what is the nature of the poisonous matter in the atmosphere or in the sewage ? We do not know that at all. Therefore, how can we possibly say when that poisonous matter is got rid of from the water or from the air ? It is a question that, with the means at our disposal, it is absolutely impos- sible to answer ; . . . but the question arises, as I said before, whether a prudent person likes to drink water which contains a certain quantity of nitrates and nitrites, or that when analysed is found to contain a certain quantity of organic carbon and nitrogen — water into which you have deliberately put cartloads of sewage at some time or other in its course. ^ 7041. If water is supplied to a town from a river which in a part of its course has received previous sewage contamination, and if that water is used on a large scale by that town, and produces no ill results, WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. 31 and chemical analysis fail to detect anything unusual in its character, is it not a fair presumption that such water is wholesome, and good water for the use of a town supply ? — The question is whether it can be always and perinanently so used. That seems to me to he the 7'eal point at issue. We should have found out long ago the injurious effects even of S7nall quantities of setvage if the sewage ivere ahoays injurious ; hut that is not asseHed, It is only supposed that under certain exceptional conditions J even seioage may become vety injurious. The injurious cha- racter of a zvater impregnated ivith sewage matter might not he dis- covered for yeai'S. You might go on using it for years, and it might not be discovered ; and yet you might have some outbreak of disease in the place, which nevertheless might be connected with the use of that sewage VMter.'' Following the evidence of Sir Benjamin Brodie came that of the late Dr. Miller and Dr. Angus Smith. From this it is not necessary to quote, hut it will he sufficient to ohserve that these gentlemen sup- ported to a considerable extent the views of Dr. Frankland relative to the nitric acid in water. The Commissioners themselves make the following observations in reference to the self-purification of streams : — ^ But though for these reasons we believe that the organic con- tamination of the Thames is much less than is commonly imagined, still it would be sufficient to do great mischief, were it not for a most beneficial provision of Nature for effecting spontaneously the purifica- tion of the streams. Some of the noxious matter is removed by fish and other animal life, and a further quantity is absorbed by the growth of aquatic vegetation ; but in addition to these abstractions, important changes are effected by chemical action. The organic compounds dis- solved in the water appear to be of a very unstable constitution and to be very easily decomposed, the great agent in this decomposition being oxygen, and the process being considerably hastened by the motion of the water. Now, as such water always contains naturally much air dissolved in it, the decomposing agent is ready at hand to exert its influence the moment the matter is received into the water ; in addition to which the motion causes a further action by the exposure to the atmosphere : and while (as in the Thames) the water falls frequently over weirs, passes through locks, &c., causing farther agitation and jieration, the process must go on more speedily and more effectually. ' The effects of the action of oxygen on these organic matters when complete is to break them up, to destroy all their peculiar organic constitution, and to rearrange their elements into permanent inorganic forms, innocuous, and free from any deleterious quality.^ On this pleasing picture we would now offer a few comments. First, with regard to the removal of some of the noxious matters by fish and vegetables, we would remark, that during their life they perform execretory functions, giving up to the water, products, the nature and properties of some of which are not well ascertained, and 32 WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. the imbibition of wliich by human beings is not altogether a pleasant subject to contemplate. Again, it must be remembered, that the time arrives when these animals and vegetables die, and aid in the corrup- tion of the water •, there is always in every river a vast quantity of de- caying vegetable, and not a little animal, matter. Secondly. Although the oxidising process above described does in time effect the destruction of certain forms and kinds of organic matter, no evidence has yet been obtained showing that it really does destroy the mateines morbi of cholera, typhoid, and other epidemic and con- tagious diseases, and of which it has been found that water is a frequent distributor. Thirdly. Neither has it been proved that the action of oxygen is to convert, even in those cases in which changes are really effected, all the organic substances ^ into pet'manent inorganic fonnSj innoxiotcs and free from any deletei^oiis quality ; ' in fact, the usual effect of the transformation is to convert one series of organic compounds into another of a different nature. Fourthly. The important fact is overlooked that the apparent purification is in part due, not to chemical transformation at all, but to precipitation. It is in this way that the faecal and much other sus- pended matter is removed from running water ; it falls to the bottom of the river, fouling the bed, and in its turn polluting the water. We will now make a few further remarks as to the significance to be attached to the presence of the nitrogenous organic matter, ammonia, and nitric acid found in water. These are in themselves in no respect injurious except when contained in water in very considerable amount ; waters are met with which contain but small quantities of such sub- stances, and yet have been productive of disease ; on the other hand, waters are in use largely contaminated with such compounds, and which have yet not been known to produce disease. The interest which attaches to the nitrogenous organic matter, the nitric acid, &c., of water, and the reason for determining the quantities in which these are present, lies in the fact taught by experience, that, as a rule, to which there are many exceptions, waters which abound in those substances are those which most frequently give rise to disease; but the pui-est distilled water zvould do the same thing if in any zvay it ivere to become conta?ni- nated ivith the infectious or contagious matter of typhoid fever : ?ai^ hence the public ought obstinately to refuse to drink water, and espe- cially river water, polluted with sewage, and this although they are assured it has been filtered after the manner usually practised by water companies. The next point to which we would advert is the interpretation to be put on the presence of nitrates and nitrites in water. Dr. Frankland affirms that they are derived from the oxidation of various kinds of nitrogenous matter proceeding from several different sources, and that their amount indicates the extent of the contamination to which the waters containing them have been, at some time or other, subjected. WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. 33 Dr. Odling dissents from these views, and thinks there may be other sources of the nitrates and nitrites, but does not indicate a single additional source, while the facts adverted to in reply to question 6462 rather confirm than otherwise Dr. Frankland's views as to the source and origin of those oxidized nitrogenous compounds. It is only when Dr. Frankland bases his estimate of the pre^dous sewage contamination on the quantity of nitrogen thus found that he seems to be at fault ; but even here the fault is rather in the opposite direction to that indi- cated by the objectors to Dr. Frankland's views. Thus in waters con- taining much vegetation, part of the nitric and nitrous acids, as well as of the undecomposed nitrogenous matter, are absorbed, and so dis- appear, and are lost to analysis and subsequent calculation. The late Dr. Miller, like Dr. Odling and one or two other witnesses, expressed the opinion that the nitric acid found in water might be derived from other sources than decaying organic matter, vegetable or animal, in air or water ; but Dr. Miller, like other witnesses, failed to indicate any other source than that mentioned, and we believe we may take it as an established fact, so far as relates to the waters in domestic U3e in this country, that the nitric acid contained in them is invariably derived from organic matter of some kind or other, and it is for this position that Dr. Frankland has so long and ably contended. Nitric acid in water is, then, reaUy to be regarded as the represen- tative of decayed organic matter; or, as Dr. Frankland somewhat figuratively denominates it, as the skeleton of sewage, and as the evi- dence, and to some extent the measm-e, of previous sewage contamina- tion. But this being so, it does not follow that every water containing il^, even in large amounts, is to be condemned ; on the contrary, sup- posing the nitric acid to be unaccompanied by nitrogenous matter, and further, supposing the water not to be liable to ready contamination by such matter— as, for example, the waters of the deep wells of Kent — then we may safely presume such water to be safe for use, even for drinking purposes ; although this water is too hard to be the type of really the best and most suitable water for domestic use. When, however, a water contains any considerable amount of nitric acid, and at the same time any great amount of nitrogenous organic matter, or, if even free from such matter, is placed under such circumstances as to render it liable to such contamination, then the water should be condemned and avoided. To the above observations of our own may be added some of the criticisms of the Commissioners relative to the inferences based upon chemical analyses made for them, and especially the conclusions of Dr. Frankland, to which we have already referred at such length. The Commissioners specially object to the term ' original sewage contamination,' and to the statement that the quantity of nitrites and nitrates found represent the measure of the ^previous sewage con- taminations.' They remark that Dr. Frankland refers the origin of the nitrites and nitrates ^ not simply to organic matter taken generally, D 34 WATEK AND ITS IMPURITIES. but to sewage or manure matter specially ; * and they state, ' this seems to be an inference which can hardly be accepted. It would be perfectly correct if all the nitrogenised matter supplied to the Thames or other waters was after conversion into nitrites and nitrates retained in the water, and if also all those salts could be referred to sewage and manure matter only. But such is not the case. ' All the analyses,' they say, ' show how variable the quantity of those salts is in different parts of the river's course, and that the quantity present at any place IS not so much dependent upon the sewage received as the removal which has been effected by vegetation and other causes, by the inter- ference of the tributaries, and by the addition from springs ; so that, even supposing them to originate solely from animal matter, the residue affords no comparative results as to the amount of the original con- tamination. The interfering causes are too numerous to allow us to assign any value to the remainder.' These strictures of the Commissioners are to a certain extent correct ; there is no doubt but that nitrous and nitric acids in water are formed from the decomposition of almost any kind of organic matter, though in sewage-polluted rivers they are doubtless largely derived from sewage, and animal nitrogenous matter ; also that these acids once formed disappear from water, from the causes mentioned by the Commissioners. What then we have to bear in mind is that the acids in question take their origin in nitrogenous organic matter of some kind or other j not exclusively sewage ; and next that ^ the interfering causes' are causes of decrease, so that the quantities of nitrous and nitric acids actually found represent usually far less than * the previous organic contamination.' To get at an approximation of the organic pollution of water, at least three things must be deter- mined: the free ammonia, the nitrous and nitric acids, and the albuminoid or nitrogenous matter. The Commissioners further observe that the sources, such as springs and wells, most free from possible contamination, show the larger skeletons, that is to say, the largest amount of nitric acid, and, it may be remarked, the smallest amount of undecomposed nitrogenous matter. This, of course, it is important to bear in mind ; but still the fact remains, that the nitric acid of springs and wells, however deep, of chalk itself, and of soils, owes its existence to oxidised orgamc matter, and that the quantity found does really represent a certain quantity of that organic matter. The water of deep wells makes its way into those wells from the surface, carrying down with it organic matter, which, for the most part, ere it reaches these wells, has become converted into nitric acid. It here occurs to us to remark that in most analyses the oxidized oi^anic matter is put down as nitric acid, and no attempt is made to determine whether the acid really exists in that form or as nitrous acid. Now this is really a distinction of great practical importance, WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. 35 and no chemist, we apprehend, would refuse to condemn a water in which nitrous acid was present in any considerable amount. Purification hy Filtratimi. Another highly important means of purification is hy filtration. The process of purification which finds its best exemplification in na- ture — namely, percolation through soils — is more or less imitated in the vaiious methods and media adopted for artificial filtration. The prin- cipal of these media consist, of animal and vegetable charcoal j including that derived from peat^ metallic iron, magnetic oxide of iron, peroxide of fnanganese, a mixture of silica and charcoal or silicated carbon, and of carbon and magnetic oxide of iron or magnetic carbide, sand, gravel, clay, and a great variety of porous substances, including sandstones, wool, sponge, &c. Of the mode of action of several of these, special explana- tions will be given, but many of them act in the two following ways — first, by the removal of suspended matters, and, second, by dividing the water and so bringing it into intimate contact with the air which per- meates and fills the interstices of the several filtering media through which the water passes. Of course, the powers of all filters are limited, and they speedily become spoiled when too much work is thrown upon them at one particular time — that is to say, when water containing a large quantity of organic matter, say six or eight grains per gallon, is rapidly passed through them. In this case the requisite time is not afibrded for the due action of the filters, which become simply clogged ; but when water containing only a moderate amount of impurity, as one grain per gallon, especially of organic matter in solution, is passed through, then the action of the better filters, particularly those containing charcoal, is not only satisfactory, but continuous. Still, all filters require to be cleansed from time to time, including even those into the composition of which charcoal enters. Dr. Parkes gives the following directions for the cleansing of domestic filters : * Every two or three months (according to the kind of water) 4 to 6 ounces of the Pharmacopoeial solution of potassium permanganate, or 20 to 30 grains of the solid permanganate, in a quart of distilled water, and 10 drops of strong sulphuric acid, should be poured through, and subsequently a quarter to half an ounce of pure hydrochloric acid in 2 to 4 gallons of distilled water ; this both aids the action of the permanganate and assists in dissolving manganic oxide and calcium carbonate. Three gallons of distilled or good rain water should then be poured through, and the filter is fit again for use/ In order to insure the freedom of the animal charcoal used fi?om phosphate and carbonate of lime, it should be well washed with hydrochloric acid, and should it be desired to ascertain to what extent any charcoal has become deteriorated by use, the nitrogen is to be D<2 36 WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. estimated by distillation with permanganate of soda or potash, or by combustion with oxide of copper. It is well known that the best of all filtering materials is animal charcoal, as also that its efficiency depends mainly upon its extra- ordinary absorbing and oxidising properties, and hence this substance enters into the composition of nearly all the portable and domestic filters in use. For details respecting the action of animal charcoal in the puri- fication of water see * Parkes' Hygiene.' Metallic iron in the form of wire and spongy iron and magnetic oxide of iron are all employed in the filtration and purification of water. Their action is mainly limited to the albuminous matters and the nitrites and nitrates in water, which they deoxidise into ammonia. The water is decomposed by the metallic iron, oxide of iron, and hydrogen being formed. This hydrogen com- bines with the nitrogen of the organic matter to form ammonia. The action of the magnetic oxide is simply that of a reducing agent with- out decomposition of the water. Purification hy Precipitation, Another method of purification, which is for the most part mecha- nical, consists in the precipitation of the mineral and organic matter held both in suspension and in solution in the water. The lime pre- cipitated in Clarke's softening process, as already mentioned, carries down with it no inconsiderable portion of albuminoid matter in solution in the water, and it is affirmed that organic matter is pre- cipitated when calcareous waters such as that of the Oolne are mixed with peaty waters, like that of the Way. We have fiu*ther to notice another most important means of the purification of water by the development and growth in it of innu- merable forms of living 07'ganic productions, both vegetable and animal, and this we shall do at some length and in the following sepa- rate section. By boiling also, water may be purified to a considerable extent, it causing the precipitation, if properly carried out, of the whole of the carbonate of lime which carries down with it a portion of the organic matter, it killing the infusoria and the other living organic produc- tions, and it is also possibly rendering innocuous the animal poisons productive of special diseases *, and therefore, should it be necessary to make use of a suspected water for drinking purposes, it should first be boiled, and this precaution should never be neglected. Or a few drops of permanganate may be added, as it assists greatly in ren- dering a water pure ; and this compound, used in so small a quantity, would not exert any injurious effect. The solution should be added until the water becomes slightly pink, and further small quantities at intervals of three or four hours, until it ceases to become decolorised. The permanganate readily removes in most cases the offensive smell of impure water, and if this be due to sulphuretted hydrogen, it will * WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. 37 be converted into sulphuric acid, sulphates of manganese and potash being formed. With most waters treated in this manner, a precipitate of peroxide of manganese occurs, and this likewise assists in the puri- fication of the water, by carrying down suspended matters. The action of this test is promoted by warming the water previous to its employment. Waters thus treated sometimes exhibit a faint yellow tint, arising from the suspended oxide of manganese. This is most easily removed by filtration through animal charcoal, but by the use of alum the same object may also be usually accomplished, the combination of the two methods producing more effectual purification. Or, lastly, alum only may be added to water, in the proportion of about 6 grains to the gallon. This substance acts best in those waters which contain appreciable quantities of carbonate of lime, sulphate of lime being formed, and these, together with hydrate of alimiina, / become precipitated, carrying down with them in their descent most of the organic matter in suspension, with a little of that also in solu- tion. No reliance, however, should be placed upon this test for the purification of a really bad and disease-contaminated water. Should a water be deficient in carbonate of lime, a little chloride of calcium and carbonate of soda may be added, and the water allowed to stand for some time. Carbonate of soda boiled vrith the water contributes in a gTeater degree to the purification of water than does simply boiling, since not only is the carbonate of lime precipitated by the boiling, but those salts which contribute to the permanent hardness of water are also decomposed, the following reactions taking place. The lime and mag- nt^sia of the sulphates combine with the carbonate of soda, forming insoluble carbonate of lime or magnesia, while the sulphuric acid re- mains in solution as sulphate of soda. The chlorides of the same bases are converted into carbonates, chloride of sodium resulting. Lastly, the nitrites and nitrates of lime of magnesia are likewise converted into carbonates, nitrite and nitrate of soda being formed. It will thus be seen that the chemical action of carbonate of soda in softening water is very complete, and this explains the popularity of the use of soda for washing, cleansing, and even cooking purposes. ON 'LIVIN^G ORGANISMS' IN POTABLE WATER. As we were the first to employ the microscope to determine the exact nature of the organic matter held in suspension in many v^ aters, we have some right to express an authoritative opinion of the significance to be attached to the presence of ^ living- organisms' in potable water. The suspended organic matter contained in many waters is proved on examination with the microscope to consist of vegetable and animal matter, both dead and living, the dead consisting, for the most part, of particles of decaying vegetable and animal tissues, chiefly the 38 WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES, former, and the living of either the sporules or ova, or the fully deve- loped organisms of a great variety oi Fungi and Algce^ including Diato- macece, Dmnideee, and Confervece ; of Infusoria or animalcules ; of EntomostracecB or water-fleas, of Annelidce or worms, and of countless other productions. Pig. 1. Thames Water at Richmond, 1851. This engraving exhibits the principal animal and vegetable productions then contained in the water of the Thames at Richmond, Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 220 diameters. In some waters these several living organisms greatly abound, and, indeed, to such an extent, that from a Winchester quart filled with any such water it would be possible to obtain illustrations sufficient to fill a whole volume. Now, it should be remembered that these WATEH AND ITS IMPURITIES. 39 organisms, minute as are many of them, are all, or nearly all, to be found elaborately described and figured in a variety of works on natiu'al history, each having its place in a system of classification, and each being distinguished by a scientific narue. Thames at Waterloo Bridge, 1851. This engraving shows the more remarkable animal and vegetable productions, dead and living, found in the water of the Thames at Waterloo Bridge^ in- cluding fragments of muscular fibre, magnified 220 diameters. Now it is especially in the water of rivers, and particularly those contaminated by sewage, that these living productions most abound ; these waters may in general be said to swarm with them. They also occur abundantly in the water of ponds and lakes, and occasionally to a much less extent in that of shallow wells ; but usually they 40 WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. are absent irom such waters, as they are invanahly from those of the deeper and purer springs and wells. The purer waters "being free from them, they are hence in no respect essential to water ; they all contain nitrogen, which they derive from the nitrogenous matter contained in the water, and they are therefore. Fig. 3. Grand Junction Company, 1851. This enpravinsr represents the animal and r^g'^toft^e productions then contained in the water as supplied by the Grand Junction Company, 220 diameters. beyond all question, an evidence of the existence of impurity in the waters in which they are found. ^ That they also help to purify such water by appropriating a por- tion of the dead organic matter in solution, and'^fixing it in their own WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. 41 living tissues, and so arresting decomposition, is also true ; but those wlio drink such waters are still under the necessity of swallowing them in the li\dng state. Now these well-known and scientifically-named living organisms abound in the unfiltered waters of the Thames, Lea, and New Eiver ; Fig. 4. West Middlesex Company, 1851. Exhibits the principal animal and vegetable productions then contained in the water of the West Middlesex CoiiPANY. 220 diameters. but by the process of filtration to which the waters of the London water companies are now subjected, a very large proportion of them is removed ; but usually by no means the whole. So that the nimiber, variety, and size of the living organisms still contained in the 42 WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. London waters after filtration, as delivered by tlie companies to tlie consumei's, afford an excellent test of the efficiency or otherwise of the means of filtration adopted. Any person, therefore, who fails to testhy the microscope the efficiency of the filtration of any water known to contain such Fig. 5. Chelsea Compaiiy, 1851. Exhibits the chief animal and vegetable productions, including husk of wheats present in the water of the Chelsea Company. 220 diameters. organisms, neglects to employ a very valuable means of ascertaining so important a fact. So great is the effect of filtration in reducing the number of living productions in water, that we are even led to entertain the hope that ■WATER AND ITS IMPUKITIES. 43 a process of filtration may be devised and practised whicli will entirely, or almost free, our metropolitan drinking-waters from these Hghly objectionable inhabitants. This result, it should be borne in mind, however, is as yet far from beiQg realized. Fig. 6. SOUTHWARK AND VaUXHALL COMPANY, 1851. Exhibits the principal animal and vegetable productions then contained in the water as supplied by the Southwauk and Vauxhall Company. 220 diameters. We now beg to call the special attention of the reader to the fol- lowing remarks. * It is the belief of many medical men of high position and attain- ments that cholera and some other diseases owe their origin and diffii* 44 WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. sion to minute germs contained in water, and especially in the water of rivers. Well now, if the process of filtration is not efficient enough to remove all those more considerable and well-known creatures, which are named, described, and figured in scientific books, it cer- tainly must fail to remove the minute cholera germs, &c. Fig. 7. Lambeth Company, 1851. Exhibits the organic matter, living and dead, especially the Thames Paramecium and husk of wheat, then contained in the water as supplied by the Lambeth Company, 220 diameters. . ' Ah, but,' exclaims somebody, ^ I don't believe in cholera germs.' Well, at all events, the fact is established to the satisfaction of most scientific men, that cholera is communicable through the medium of WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. 45 impure water, and that it has thus, more than once, been diffiised by Tliames water ; and if the poison of that disease be not in the solid, it must be in the liquid form; and if the process of filtration now adopted is not sufficient to remove solid impurities — 'living Fig. 8. East London Company, 1851. Sample of the water of the East London Company, showing the chief animal and vegetable productions then contained in it as supplied to the public. 220 diameters. organisms' — it is certainly inadequate to the abstraction of the liquid poison. So, view the matter how we will, it is impossible to arrive at any other fair or safe conclusion than that the presence of these organisms 46 WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. in potable water is of very considerable importance. Bearing all these particulars in mind, we shall now be in a position to judge whether Dr. Frankland has exceeded his duty in instituting microsopical examinations of the metropolitan waters, and how far he is open to any Fig. 9. New River Company, 1861. Sample of the water of the New River CoMPAirr, showing the more remark- able animal and vegetable productions then contained in it as supplied to the consumers. 220 diameters. just animadversion for publicly commenting on the presence of living organisms in such water. In our judgment, had he not done so, he would have fallen short of that plain duty which he has discharged, in the interests of the public, so ably and so coura- WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. 47 geously. That a charge of exaggeration should have been made under this head is the more to be regretted, since it emanates from those who from their position and duties should have been better informed than to have made it, and since their authority is calculated to mislead, and so do much injury to the public. Fig. 10. Hampstead Company, 1851. Sample of the water of the Hampstead Company, exhibiting the principal living productions then detected in it as supplied by this Company. 220 diameters. With a quotation from one of the reports of Major Bolton, the recently -appointed Water Examiner to the Board of Trade, and who is, we believe, an engineer, and not a chemist or microscopist, and with 48 WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. one or two brief comments thereon, we will bring these remarks to a conclusion : — ' I think it is to he regretted,' reports the Water Examiner, ^ that such terms as " living organisms " and " moving organisms " have been Fig. 11. Kent Company, 1851. Sample of the water of tlie Kent CoivrPANY, exhibiting the animalculse in ifc then as supplied. 220 diameters, used so frequently and indefinitely. It is well known that it is impos- sible altogether to get rid of the simplest forms of vegetable and animal life, which should be understood by such terms, even by the most perfect filtration/ &c. There appears to us to be far more reason to regret that the Water WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. 49 Examiner, to wliom the public, froin his official position, naturally look for sound advice and protection, should have penned such a paragraph. Water op Grand Junction Company (from Cistern), 1854. Fig. 12. a, Paramaecia, 2 species ; b, Yorticella convallaria ; c, Coleps hirtus ; d, Pan- dorina Morum ; e, Scenedesmus quadricauda ; /, Navicula amphisbeena ; gr, Navicula sphgerophora ; h, Asterionella formosa ; i, Fragilaria capucina ; k. Brown active sporules ; I, Stationary green sporules ; m, Threads of slender fungus ; n, Organic and earthy matter ; o, Anguillula fluvialis. Magnified •220 diameters. So far from too much attention having been paid to the presence of living productions in the Metropolitan waters, the reverse is the case ; and in most examinations of such waters by chemists their existence is 50 WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES. usually altogether overlooked. We remind the Water Examiner that in the purer waters, those freest from dangerous contamination, such as those of springs and deep wells, these productions do not occur at Water of Southwark and Vauxh^l Company (from Cistern), 1854, Fig. 13. a, Blood-red Amelidae ; &, Brachionus polyacanthus ; c,Euplotes charon ; 5Q diameters. Fig. 21. Under surface of Tea-leaf, showing the stomata and cells of this portion of the leaf, as well as a part of one of the hairs by which this surface is clothed. Magnified 350 diameters. TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 97 distinctly visible. Tlie stomata are confined to tlie under surface of the leaves, are rather numerous, oval, or sometimes nearly round, and formed of two reniform cells, which encircle a very apparent aperture. The epidermic cells, to adapt themselves to the form of the stomata, are themselves curved. The hairs are also confined to the under surface of the leaf. They are very numerous on young leaves, less abundant on those of middle age, and on old leaves are nearly altogether wanting. They are short, pointed, and undivided. The cells forming the paren- chyma of the leaf resemble those of most other leaves, and do not present anything remarkable. Fig. 22. Tea-leaf, A, npper surface of fully- developed leaf, representine: the cells of which it is con- stituted ; B, under surface, showing its cells and stomata ; C, chlorophylle cells. COMPOSITION OF TEA. The infusion made from tea contains colouring matter, gum, sac- charine matter or glucose, tannin, a peculiar volatile oil, a nitrogenous alkaloid or principle called Theine, identical with caflfeine, albuminoid mattet\ and various organic and inorganic salts; while that portion which is insoluble in hot water consists chiefly of the albuminoid matter, colouring matter, and celluluse, in the forms of cells and fibre. A very good idea of the age a^d quality of a tea may be gathered from the relative proportions of matter, soluble and insoluble, in hot water. The following table exhibits the quantity of extractive matter 98 TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. farnislied by samples of black and green teas of various qualities and descriptions : — Quantity of Extractive Matter. Black Teas. Ankoi Congou Pekoe Congou Pekoe Souchong Assam Souchong Pekoe Souchong Moning Congou Kaisou Congou Orange Pekoe ; Mixed Black »» j» ; Pure Black . Mixed . : Moning Congou Java Souchong Assam broken Green Teas. Pearl Gunpowder Moyune Hyson . "Mixed Green » » • Pure Green . .Java \Young Hyson » » »> -Japan Oolong 28-16 26-23 24-63 37-76 38-15 29-47 26-36 39-00 31-08 40-08 40-00 41-58 37-66 47-40 46-60 27-70 39-03 46-64 41-36 43-32 50-38 45-88 44-46 Black Teas, Ramoo broken Broken Orange Pekoe Pekoe, Ramoo Ramoo Pekoe Souchong Black tea 33-25 40-99 42-25 39-14 33-25 28-24 25-34 25-14 28-76 32-79 26-15 24-72 Average . 33-85 Green Teas. Kumaon Young Hyson . 46-50 Green tea , , . 39-06 Foo Chow Caper . . 38-21 Gunpowder . . 37-47 Green tea . 35-68 Average 41-20 According to Peligot, black tea furnishes an average extractive of S9'6 per leaf, and green tea of 42*9 per leaf. There is no doubt that Peligot's average for black tea is far too high, and this undoubtedly firises from the fact of his having included among his black teas a number of really green teas, as the Pekoes. According to Mulder's analysis, 100 parts of tea consist of — Essential oil (to which the flavour is due) Chlorophylle Wax Resin . . Gum Tannin Theine Extractive . , Dark extractive deposit Coloured matter, separable by hydrochloric acid Albumen Vegetable fibre 17-08 Ash """ 104-34 104-04 Green Black 0-79 0-60 2-22 1-84 0-28 2-22 3-64 8-56 7-28 17-80 12-88 0-43 0-46 22-80 19-88 — 1-48 23-60 19-12 3-00 2-80 17-08 28-32 5-56 5-24 TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 99 Moleschott gives the following mean analysis of black tea, com- piled from tlie analyses of Mulder, Warrington, Stenhouse and Peligot: — • Theine .... 1-576 Albumea 2-375 Dextrin .... 8-668 Cellulose 20-077 Wax .... 0-130 Chlorophylle . 1-901 Resin .... 2-203 Tannic acid . 13-969 Ethereal oil . . 0-669 Extractive matters 18-410 Apothema 0-690 Ash ... . 4-808 Water .... 6-500 81-976 The albumen or legumin is obviously greatly underrated in the above analysis, and the figures given, as will be seen, do not make up a hundred parts, although doubtless the analysis represents the per- centage composition of tea. It is not quite clear what has been omitted, unless it be the coloured matter of Mulder, separable by hydrochloric acid, and which probably consisted in the main of albuminous matter. Analyses recently made by the author furnished the following results : — Black Water . 11-56 Tannin 15-24 Gum. ......... 6-70 Albuminous matter , 15*55 ■ Theine 2-53 Ash 5-82 Chlorophylle and other undetermined extractive \ g.24 matter j Matter insoluble in water ; cellulose, &c., minus albuminous matter 88-36 Green 9.37 18-69 ft-89 24-39 2-79 5-38 1-83 31-66 Total extractive matter 100-00 33-25 1-82 1-38 Nitrogen in the insoluble Nitrogen in the soluble Total nitrogen 3*20 Parts of ash soluble in water 62-69 Insoluble in water 37-31 100-00 100-00 89-06 2-48 2-07 4-55 68-05 31-95 100-00 The following quantities of nitrogen have been found in tea by dif- h2 100 TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. ferent chemists. Pelig'ot obtained in Pekoe tea, dried at 100° C, 6*58 per cent. ; in Gunpowder 6*15, in Soucliong 6*15, and Assam 6*10. The aqueous extract of dried Gunpowder tea yielded 4*3, of p^reen Souchong 4*7 per cent., while the exhausted leaves furnished 4*6 per cent, for the Souchong, and 4*4 per cent, for the Gunpowder. These quantities appear to he too 'high. We obtained from a sample of black tea, not previously dried, as ^\all be seen by our analyses, 3*20 per cent., and from green tea 4'55 per cent. Theine, when pure, crystallises in fine needles of a sillty lustre. They lose at 100° 0. one atom of water of crystallisation, amounting to about 8 per cent, of their weight. They are bitter and have no smell ; they melt at 178° 0. and sublime at 185° C, without decomposing. It is freely soluble in boiling water, and less soluble in ether and alcohol ; in 93 parts of water of ordinary temperature and in 300 parts of ether, according to Peligot. The crystals which separate from the ethereal solution are anhydrous. When heated with soda lime it yields cyanides. Theine is a feeble base, and is precipitable by tannin from its solutions ; its formula is OgHjoN^Og, according to which it con- tains 28*87 per cent, of nitrogen. The theine in Mulder's analyses is obviously much underrated. Stenhouse gives in the teas of commerce an average of 1*39 per cent, based upon 8 analyses, while our average, founded upon 25 determina- tions, amounts to 2*1 ; but Peligot obtained much larger quantities : in Hyson 2*4 and 2'56 per cent. ; in a mixture of equal parts of Gun- powder, Kaisou, Caper and Kaisow tea, 2*7 ; in Gunpowder tea 3*5 and 4'1 per cent., and even 6*21 per cent., of which 3*84 per cent, crystallised out from the concentrated solution, and 2*37 were obtained by precipitation with tannic acid. Many of these numbers are obviously too high, and Peligot must have obtained, one would sup- pose, the theine in an impure state. The quantities, however, present in tea, as will be seen by the fol- lowing table, vary greatly ; but, as a rule, gTeen teas contain more than black. It does not appear that any strict relation exists between the amount of theine present and the quality of tea. Quantities of Theine in Genuine Teas. Ankoi Congou Pekoe Congou ' Pekoe Souchong Assam Souchong Pekoe Souchong Moning Congou Kaisou Congou Orange Pekoe Mixed Black Pure Black . Blaclr Black 1-67 Mixed . . 1-58 3-04 Assam broken . 1-66 2-13 Ramoo broken . 1-93 1-36 Broken Orange Pekoe . 2-05 1-61 Kumaon Young Hyson . 2-37 1-83 Ramoo Pekoe . 2-80 2-31 Ramoo Pekoe Souchong . 2-29 1-90 Black tea . 2-63 2-08 2-73 1-74 Average . 2-08 TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 101 Green Green Pearl Gunpowder . . 1-61 Foo Chow Caper . . 2-59 Moyune Hyson . 2-59 Green tea . . 2-79 Mixed Green . . 1-08 „ „ . . . 2-36 Av erage . 2-17o/ The volatile oil is uot present in fresh tea, but is developed in the course of drying and roasting. It is of a lemon colour, readily solidi- fies, and becomes resinous on exposure to the air. It is to it that the aroma is mainly due. The amount present in tea is stated to be about 1 per cent., a statement we consider to be open to much doubt. The ash of tea. — The question of the quantity and composition of the ash of tea possesses considerable importance in relation to the age, quality, and purity of the tea. We will first refer to the weight of the ash of genuine tea, both black and green. To determine this point we have made numerous observations, a few of which we here introduce : — Genuine Black Tea. Broken leaf . . 6-34 Scented Orange Pekoe . 5-78 Congou . . . . . 5-23 Black tea . 5-76 Assam broken . 6-86 » >» . 6-10 Java Souchong . 5-63 Assam . . 5-07 Moning Congou . . G-03 Congou . . 6-83 Black tea . 6-03 » • . 5-70 »> >» • • . 6-05 Black tea . 5-82 »> >» • • . 5-96 Broken leaf . 6-06 Ankoi Congou . 5-63 „ „ . 6-50 Pekoe Congou . 6-43 Eamoo Pekoe Souchong . 5-24 Assam Souchong . . 6-10 Raraoo Pekoe . 5-72 Pekoe Souchong . . 6-70 Moning Congou . 6-71 Average . 5-78 Kaisou Congou . 6-46 Unfaced Green Tea. Pearl Gunpowder . . 6-86 Japan Oolong . 5-78 Moyune Hyson . 6-30 Java Young Hyson . 5-90 H\soa . . 5-24 « „ „ . . 5-61 Green tea . 6-42 Green tea . 5-40 Uneoloured China tea . 5-13 Oolong . . 5-93 Averag e . 5-75 Kumaon Youtfg Hyson TTl J 1 -1 i . 6-66 j.l-_j. aA. _ 1 J. __!, i-^^^i in black tea was 5*23 and the highest 6*71 per cent., and the mean of all 5-78 ; while in green'teas the ash ranged from 5-13 per cent, to 6*42 per cent., the mean being 5*75. It will be seen that a few of the samples furnished ashes exceptionally high, and it is quite possible that in these cases a little extraneous matter may have found its way into the teas, but we have thought it best not to exclude them from the 102 TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. tables. Perhaps, after all, a more certain datum of the genuineness of the tea than the ash would be the amount of extraneous silica which it contains. It is of consequence to notice that the ashes of genuine and pure teas are entirely non-magnetic. It will be seen from the following tables that the quantities of iron and extraneous silica in genuine black and green teas vary considerably, the average of the iron being 0*12 and of the silica 0*51 in the black, while in the green teas the averages are 0*16 and 0*41. In the laced green teas it is curious to observe that the 'average percentage of iron is so little increased, but the amount of silica is augmented to the extent of one-third. Genuine Black Teas. Name. Ash. Silica. Iron. Black Broken leaf ... »» »> ... Ramoo Pekoe Souchong Ramoo Pekoe Ramoo broken Orange Pekoe Ramoo brf>ken leaf Moning Congou Canton Orange Pekoe 5-82 6-06 6-50 6-24 5-72 6-70 5-65 6-06 5-75 0-33 0-28 0-18 0-69 0-67 0-66 0-74 0-74 0-43 0-17 0-14 0-12 0-09 0-12 0-08 0-11 0-17 0-10 Average 5-61 0-51 0-12 Omitting the four samples of Ramoo or Indian teas, the average percentage of silica in the Chinese teas amounts to only 0*30 per cent. Unfaced Green Teas. Name. Ash. Silica. Iron. Green .... Uncoloured China Oolong .... Kumaon Young Hyson Japan Oolong Java Young Hyson . Ditto Green .... 6-42 6-13 6-93 6-66 6-78 6-90 5-61 5-40 0-37 0-14 0-77 0-36 0-21 0-11 0-24 0-10 5-73 0-41 0-16 It will thus be seen that the ash of uncoloured green teas corre- sponds closely in weight and in the amount of iron present with that TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 103 of genuine black tea. If the Oolong be omitted, the iron and extra- iieoiis silica are rather less than in black tea. It appears from the analyses of Zoller, reported in ^Liebig's Annalen/ that the age of tea-leaves may be determined from the analysis of the ash — a fact of much interest and of considerable value. Thus young leaves, of v^^hich the best teas consist, contain much larger amounts of potash and phosphoric acid than the older leaves, which are comparatively deficient therein, while they become richer with age in lime and silica. Much potash and phosphoric acid, with little lime and silica, indicate, therefore, good tea ; the reverse bad tea. The ash of a sample of young tea grown in the Himalayas amounted to 5*63 grains per cent., and it contained in 100 parts 39*22 of potash, 4'24 of lime, 4*38 of oxide of iron, 4*35 of silica, and 14*55 of phosphoric acid. From the same sample of tea 4*94 per cent, of theine were obtained, and 13*7 of proteine compounds. The following table of the analysis of the tea ash is from ' Watts's Dictionary :' — 11 •^ o 1^ bcg 51) Ill 1.. i u f Soda Potash . Magnesia Lime Oxide of iron Oxide of mancjanese Phosphoric acid . Sulphuric acid Silicic a'id Carbonic acid Chloride of sodium. 26-46 3*70 9-69 11-36 8*42 12-62 10-14 16-04 2-40 1-70 44.96 8-41 8-77 6-80 11-46 6-96 8-79 2-15 40-00 12-38 6-17 7-68 7-18 8-26 8-27 7-81 2-25 9-26 33-96 6-79 8-17 4-76 •16-64 4-89 10-89 4-66 12-88 28-38 8-39 19-31 17-44 4-76 6-59 3-26 5-03 47-46 6-84 1-21 3-29 0-71 9-88 8-72 2-31 10-09 3-62 0-66 39-22 6-47 4-24 4-38 1-03 14*55 trace 4-35 24-30 0-81 chlorine 0-69 7-34 11-45 10-76 9-63 1-97 26-41 trace 7-67 26-28 / trace Ash per cept of drj'- substance . 99-73 5*48 100-00 6-11 100-00 6-14 100-00 6-94 100-00 4-73 99-18 19-69 100-00 100-00 It will be seen that Lehmann gives manganese as a constituent of the ash ; this, like iron, is of constant occurrence. Fleitman, in an infusion of 70 grammes of Pekoe tea, is stated to have met with as much as 0*20 gramme of manganous oxide, but this quantity is evidently excessive. 104 TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. THE PROPERTIES OF TEA. Tea owes its properties mainly to the tannin, the theine, and the volatile oil. The lirst gives it astringency ; the second stimulates both the vascular and nervous systems, and subsequently produces narcotic effects ; while the third not only acts as a stimulant, but imparts the aroma, which is so characteristic of good tea and which is so «:rateful to many. Tea exerts its power chiefly on the nervous system. It excites the activity of the brain and stimulates the flow of thought ; but in excess produces sleeplessness, anxiety, trembling, and sometimes even spasm. It increases a little the action of the heart, and also the insensible perspiration. The pulmonary carbonic acid is also, according to E. Smith, increased, but the question as to whether the m^ea is augmented or diminished appears as yet undecided. The common belief is that it is decreased. Liebig and Lehmann both found it to be increased, but Boker, on the other hand, states that it is diminished. Pereira, in his ' Materia Medica, ' remarks : ^ Another quality pos- sessed especially by green tea is that of diminishing the tendency to sleep. Tea appears to possess a sedative influence with regard to the vascular system. Strong green tea taken in large quantities is capable in some constitutions of producing most distressing feelings, and of operating as a narcotic. ' Professor Johnston writes: ^It exhilarates without sensibly in- toxicating. It excites the brain to increased activity, and produces wakefulness. Hence its usefulness to hard students ; to those who have vigils to keep, and to persons who have to labour much with the head. It soothes, on the contrary, and stills the vascular system, and hence its use in inflammatory^ diseases and as a cure for headache. Green tea when taken strong acts very powerfully upon some constitutions, pro- ducing nervous tremblings and other distressing symptoms, acting as a narcotic, and in inferior animals even producing paralysis. Its exciting Effect upon the nerves makes it useful in counteracting the eflects of opium and of fermented liquors, and the stupor sometimes induced by fever.' With reference to the action of the volatile oil Prof. Johnston obsei'ves : ^ That it does exert a powerful, and most likely a narcotic, influence is rendered probable by manj^ known facts. Among them I mention the headaches and giddiness to which tea-tasters are subject ; the attacks of paralysis to which after a few years those who are employed in packing and unpacking chests of tea are found to be liable, and the circumstance already alluded to, that in China tea is rarely used till it is a year old, because of the peculiar intoxicating property which new tea possesses. The effect of this keeping upon tea must be chiefly to allow a portion of the volatile ingredients of the leaf to escape. And, lastly, that there is a powerful virtue in this oil is ren- dered probable by the fact that the similar oil of coffee has been found by experiment to possess narcotic properties.' TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 105 The operation of the second active constituent of tea, Theine, has been determined by experiment. In the quantity in which it is daily consumed by most tea-drinkers — that is to say, some four or live grains, ordinarily present in about half an oimce of good tea — it has been found to diminish the waste of tissue, the necessity for food to repair the waste being lessened in an equal proportion ; one of the effects of tea is therefore to save food. If an o.unce of tea of good quality be daily partaken of, which would contain from 8 to 10 grains of theine, the pulse is rendered more frequent, the action of the heart stronger, trembling ensues, and there is a perpetual inclination to micturition. ^ At the same time the imagination is excited, and after awhile the thoughts wander, visions begin to be seen, and a peculiar state of intoxication comes on. All these symptoms are followed by and pass off in deep sleep.' It is evident, therefore, that the effects of strong tea are attributable, in a great measure, to the theine therein contained. The third active principle of tea, the tannin or tannic acid, causes the infusion to exert a slightly constipating effect upon the bowels. A fourth not unimportant constituent of the tea-leaf is gluten, which sometimes forms no less than one-fourth of the weight of the dried leaf. Zoller found in a sample which he tested 13'7 per cent, of gluten, while we have obtained from 15-5 in black to 24*4 in green tea. As tea is consumed in this country the benefit of the gluten is in most cases lost, since it is not dissolved by the hot water, but remains in the leaves, with which it is thrown away; but if soda be used, much of the gluten is dissolved and will then be consumed with the infusion. In some countries the tea-leaves from which the infusion has been made are themselves eaten, and in this way the whole of the properties of the tea are secured. Amongst the Japanese the leaves are ground to powder and drank with the infusion. The more wealthy Chinese simply infuse the leaves in a porcelain cup, furnished with a cover ; the leaves for the most part sink to the bottom of the cup, but occasionally a few float and rise to the surface. To prevent this inconvenience a thin piece of silver filagree-work is sometimes placed upon the leaves. It appears that in China, tea is the common beverage of the people. The late Sir George Staunton informs us Hhat tea, like beer in England, is sold in public houses in every town and along public roads, and the banks of rivers and canals ; nor is it unusual for the burdened and weary traveller to lay down his load, refresh himself with a cup of warm tea, and then pursue his journey.' Lo-Yu, a learned Chinese, who lived in the dynasty of Tang, A.D. 618 to 906, gives the following agreeable account of the qualities and effects of the infusion of the leaves of the tea-plant : — ' It tempers the spirits and harmonizes the mind ; dispels lassitude and relieves fatigue ; awakens thought and prevents drowsiness, lightens or re- freshes the body, and clears the perceptive faculties.' 106 TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. THE ANALYSIS OF TEA. It has already been stated tliat the chief constituents of tea consist of chlorophylle, gum, glucose, gluten, cellulose, tannin, theine, volatile oil and mineral matter. For the purpose of estimating the soluble constituents of tea, the leaves must be thoroughly exhausted by boiling with repeated quan- tities of distilled water until the infusion is no longer coloured and ceases to yield on evaporation any solid residue. The different infu- sions thus obtained are mixed together and reduced by evaporation to a certain bulk. One portion is evaporated with magnesia to dryness on the water bath, the magnesia being used to neutralise the tannic acid and to set the theine free ; and in this the theine is estimated in the manner to be hereafter described. Another quantity of the infusion is mixed with spirits of wine, to precipitate the gum, while a third quantity is taken for the estima- tion of the tannin. The insoluble portion of the leaves is dried and weighed ; the diiFerence in the weight as compared with the original quantity taken gives the proportion of the constituents soluble in water. For the determination of the nitrogenous matter, sometimes termed Legumin, a separate portion of tea must be taken, and a combustion analysis for nitrogen made, the amount of nitrogen present in the theine being deducted from the total amount obtained. The remaining nitrogen, multiplied by 6 "33, gives the proportion of nitrogenous matter or gluten. The usual soda-lime process does not fiu'nish the whole amount of nitrogen, since the theine ^delds, on heating with alkalies, some cyanide, which of course would not be obtained as ammonia. The oxide of copper combustion, although exact, involves a very great deal of trouble and labour. We give the following outlines of the process : — 0-2 to 0'5 gramme of tea are mixed intimately with recently ignited oxide of copper. A combustion tube, drawn out in the usual way, is first charged for the length of 4 inches with a mixture of bicarbonate of soda and of bichromate of potash, then v^th a few inches of pure oxide of copper, then with the mixture containing the tea, then with another layer of pure oxide of copper, and lastly with a spiral of metallic copper. The air contained in the tube is first driven out by heating the layer of bicarbonate of soda, and thus gene- rating carbonic acid. The gases produced by the combustion of the tea-mixture are collected over mercury, freed from carbonic acid by means of caustic-potash solution, and the nitrogen is measured, atten- tion of course being paid to the temperature, pressure of the air, and the moisture of the gas ; for all of which circumstances tables have been specially prepared. For the estimation of the tvater and the ash a separate portion TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 107 must be taken ; the tea should be dried on a water bath ; the loss re- presents the water ; the residue is incinerated and the ash weighed. For the estimation of the volatile oil a considerable quantity of tea must be operated upon. This must be distilled with water and the distillate received into a cool receiver ; the oil should be found floating on the surface of the water. We may state, however, that, in certain attempts we have made, we have failed to obtain any weighable amount of the oil ; the distillate had the odour of tea, but no oil drops were visible. Such is a brief outline of the processes to be adopted in the analysis of tea. The estimation of the sugar and chlorophylle are exceedingly difficult, the tannin decomposing into sugar and gallic acid, and hence reducing the copper solution in the same manner as sugar. They are seldom if ever required, and therefore it is unneces- sary to give any details respecting their determination. To resume. For the infusion from which the theine, gum and tannin are to be estimated take five grammes of tea ; for the combustion half a gramme, and for the estimation of water and ash three grammes. Of the infusion of the five gTammes reduced to a bulk of 500 cc, 300 cc. are used for the estimation of the theine, 100 cc. for the gum, and the last 100 cc. for the tannin. The estimation of the Theine. — The theine may be conveniently and simply estimated by Mulder's process, which is thus carried out : The 300 cc. of the solution are to be evaporated, with the addition of some magnesia, to dryness ; the residue is then finely pow^dered and transferred to a flask, capable of holding about 200 cc. ; 30 cc. of ether are pom-ed over it, and allowed to digest for two days, with occasional shaking. The ether is then heated to boiling and poured into a 'small weighed flask. The residue is heated two or three times with suc- cessive quantities of ether, until this on evaporation ceases to furnish any crystalline deposit of theine. These several quantities are added to the first quantity of ether employed, and the whole is evaporated on the water-bath to dryness. The theine is left in a crystalline condition, and is then weighed together w^ith the flask. The difficulty of the solubility of theine in ether has suggested to jMr. Otto Hehner a modification of this process. In this absolute alcohol is used as a solvent, theine being much more soluble in this menstruum. The alcohol by boiling extracts not only all the theine, but a small quantity of other substances which are to be thus removed. The alcoholic solution is evaporated on the water bath to a few drops and ether is added ; this precipitates the foreign substances, but does not n ow throw down the theine, since it is already in a state of solution. The ethereal solution is evaporated and the theine in the manner described above. Of course, it is necessary to thoroughly exhaust the extractive matter by treatment with two or three successive quantities of alcohol. Another method, but one involving more time and trouble, is the fallowing, as proposed by Peligot. The tea is exhausted with boiling 108 TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. water, and siibacetate of lead is added in excess to the solution to precipitate the tannin, gum, and colouring matter. The mixture is boiled for some time, filtered, and the precipitate carefully washed on the filter with boiling water. The filtrate is freed from lead by a current of sulphuretted hydrogen, and after a second filtration evaporated at a gentle heat. It yields, on cooling, a crop of crystals of nearly pure theine, containing one molecule of water of crystallisation ; an addi- tional quantity being obtained by concentrating the mother liquor and leaving it to crystallise. The theine thus obtained is, however, less pure than that separated by the first process, and, moreover, a portion still remains in the mother liquor. These objections may be obviated by evaporating the watery solution to dryness and boiling with a sufiicient quantity of ether. But this, of course, adds much to the time and trouble involved. Stenhouse has recommended for the estimation of theine the pro- cess of sublimation, this alkaloid being volatile. The dried and powdered extract is subjected to heat, and the theine becomes deposited in a paper cone placed over it ; we believe, however, that it is not possible to obtain the whole of the theine present by this procedure. Estimation of Tannin. — The tannin 'may be estimated by one or other of the following processes. It may be precipitated by means of a titrated solution of gelatine and almn, as recommended by Miiller, from the aqueous solution of the tea evaporated to a certain standard. One cc. of the gelatine solution should correspond to 0*01 gramme of tannin. Or the quantity of tannin may be determined by the weight of the precipitate, 100 parts of which contain 40 parts of tannin. Neither of these processes furnishes very exact results. Mr. Allen recently proposed in the Chemical Neivs a method for the estimation of tannin in tea by means of a solution of acetate of lead, using as indicator an ammoniacal solution of ferricyanide of potassium. Five grammes of acetate of lead are dissolved in 1 litre of water, and the exact strength of the solution is determined by means of a standard solution of tannin. Two gTammes of tea are exhausted with boiling water, and the infusion is made up to 250 cc. Ten cc. of the standard lead solution are measured into a beaker, and diluted with 90 cc. of water. The tea infusion is added from a burette as long as any precipi- tate is thrown down ; a small portion is filtered and tested with a drop of a weak ammoniacal ferricyanide solution. A red coloration indi- cates that all the lead is precipitated, and that tannin is in solution. From the volume of lead solution used the quantity of tannin is calculated. Another method, which has the advantage of being easy and quick of execution if a p:reat number of estimations are to be made, has been proposed by Lowenthal. We give it in its modified and improved form as described by Neubauer, ' Zeitschrift fiir Analytische Ohemie,' X. It is based upon the fact that tannic acid is destroj^ed by the action of a solution of permanganate of potash, a solution of indigo I TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 109 Ijeinp: at tlie same time emploj^ed to indicate by its decolorisation the oxidation of tlie last trace of tannic acid. The following are the solutions required for the execution of the method : — 1. A Solution of Sulphate of Indigo. 30 grammes of pure sulphate of indigo are dissolved in distilled water, the solution is filtered, and diluted to 1 litre. This solution decomposes very easily by the action of a peculiar fungus ; it is best therefore to heat the solution in closed bottles in the water-bath to about 70° 0, by which opei-ation the germs of the funo-us are destroyed, and the liquid keeps an indefinite period of time. The indigo must be very pm*e, and ought not to contain any indigo-red. 2. A Solution of Pure Tannic Acid. Two grammes of tannin of the purest description, dried at 100° 0., are dissolved in 1 litre of water. The tannin must be perfectly white, and if possible chemically pure. K it cannot be obtained in a state of purity, the following method wiU be found to be convenient for the estimation of its strength ; — Three grammes of the dried substance are dissolved in 250 cc. of water. The specific gravity of this solution is estimated at 15° 0. by means of a specific gravity bottle. Tables have been constructed for the solu- tions of tannin of different strength, one of which will be found in Fresenius' ^ Quantitative Analysis.' From these tables the quantity of tannin is obtained. 150 cc. of the solution are now to be freed from tannin by the action of well-washed, dried and powdered skin. The specific gravity of the liquid after this treatment is then taken, the tables again consulted, and the quantity of tannin corresponding to this second specific gravity is subtracted from the amount obtained from the fij*st specific gravity. Supposing we find in the 250 cc. 2*93 grammes of pure tannin, then the crude tannin employed contains 97*33 per cent, of pure tannin. 3. A Solution of Permanganate of Potash, of such strength that 20 cc. of the solution of indigo require from 12 to 14 cc. of the perman- ganate, and 10 cc. of the standard tannin solution containing 0.2 per cent, of tannin, require from 9 to 10 cc. A solution of such strength is obtained by dissohing 10 grammes of pure crystallised permanganate of potash in 6 litres of water. 4. Dilute Sulphuric Acid. The operation of the method is as foUows : — 20 cc. of the indigo solution are diluted with | litre of distilled water, 1 cc. of dilute sul- phuric acid are then added, and the beaker containing the blue liquid is placed upon a white sheet of paper. The permanganate solution is now added from a Gay-Lussac burette drop after drop, with constant vigorous stirring of the liquid. The deep blue colour of the solution is changed into dark green, which soon tiu-ns into light green, and after- wards yellowish green. A drop or two more of the permang-anate solu- tion cause the appearance of a brightgolden yellowcolour, when the reac- tion is finished, and the volume of the permanganate used is read oiF. 20 110 TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. cc. of the indigo are then diluted exactly as before to f of a litre ; and, moreover, 10 cc. of the standard tannin solution are added. As above described, the permanganate solution is dropped into the liquid until the golden yellow colour appears. From the number of cc. used, the quantity of permanganate required for the oxidation of the 20 cc. of indigo solution is subtracted, and thus the amount of permanganate is obtained which is necessary for the oxidation of 10 cc. of the standard tannin solution. The strength of the permanganate solution is thus known, and of the infusion of the tea, obtained by exhausting 2 grammes with successive quantities of hot water, and bringing the solution up to 500 cc. ; 50 cc. are titrated with the addition of 20 cc. of indigo as above described. From the quantity of permanganate solution used, the amount of tannin in the 50 cc. of tea infusion, and therefore in the 2 grammes of tea, is calculated by a simple rule of three sum. There is no doubt that other substances besides the tannin are acted upon by the permanganate. Neubauer, therefore, removes the tannin and the gallic acid from a measured quantity of the infusion, by means of animal charcoal, and estimates the number of cc. of permanganate required for the oxidation of the remaining substances, which he subtracts from the total amount of permanganate used in the fii'st experiment. Thus the exact quantity of tannin and gallic acid is obtained, indicating the total astringency. Mr. Estcourt was the first to employ Lowenthal's method for the estimation of tannin in tea. He estimates the total astringency as above described ; precipitates from another portion of the infusion the tannin by means of a solution of gelatine added slightly in excess *,' filters, and titrates the gaUic acid in the filtrate with permanganate and indigo. Estimation of Gum. — The gum maybe estimated from the aqueous solution evaporated to the consistency of a syrup, and treated with strong alcohol. The gimi is dried and weighed, and afterwards burned and the ash deducted, a precaution of importance and one usually neglected. Estimation of Cellulose. — Two grammes of the tea are exhausted, first with boiling water, then with a one per cent, solution of soda, and lastly with an equally dilute solution of hydrochloric acid. The cellulose thus left is dried, weighed, and afterwards incinerated. The ash, if any be found, is to be subtracted. Analysis of the Ash. — It is unnecessary to describe in this place all the various processes requisite for the full analysis of the ash ; the details, if given, would apply to the analysis of the ashes of all other plants, and the methods of procedure are well known to chemists. We shall confine ourselves, therefore, to the determination of the phos- phoric acid, potash, iron, and extraneous silica, all points of import- ance in connection with the question of the quality and purity of tea. Estimation of Phosphoric Acid, — For the estimation of the phos- I TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Ill I ■ phoric acid 3 grammes of tea are incinerated, and tlie ash is dissolved in nitric acid. The solution is evaporated to dryness on the water-bath to separate the silica naturally present in the ash. The residue is moistened with nitric acid, dissolved in boiling water and filtered. The filtrate is evaporated to a small bulk, and the phosphoric acid precipitated with a solution of molybdate of ammonia. A yellow com- pound, phosphomolybdate of ammonia, soon separates, especially on gently heating the liquid. This precipitate is filtered after standing twelve hoiu's and dissolved in ammonia. To the ammoniacal solution is added chloride of magnesium, which combines with the phosphoric acid, forming phosphate of ammonia and magnesia, which is separated by filtration, burnt and weighed. 100 parts of this precipitate contain 63*96 parts of phosphoric anhydride, P2O5. Esti7nation of Potash, — For the purpose of estimating the potash another 3 grammes of tea are incinerated. The ash is boiled with water and the watery solution filtered. The phosphoric acid is then removed by the addition of some lime water. The liquid is again filtered, and ammonia, carbonate of ammonia, and oxalate of ammonia are added in excess. After filtration the liquid is acidulated with hydrochloric acid, evaporated to dryness, and heated to incipient redness. Moisten again with water, filter, evaporate to a small bulk, and precipitate with a strong solution of chloride of platinum, which, combining with the chloride of potassium, forms potassio-platinic chloride, which is filtered through a weighed filter, dried and weighed. 100 parts of this pre- cipitate correspond to 19*272 parts of potassa, KgO. Estimation of Silica. — For the estimation of the iron and extraneous silica, the following simple method is conveniently employed. The ash of 5 grammes of tea is boiled with strong hydrochloric acid, which dis- solves all but the extraneous silica, which is collected on a filter, washed and weighed. Estimation of Iron. — The filtrate containing the iron in solution, partly as ferric, partly as ferrous chloride, is heated to boiling, and mixed with a dilute solution of stannous chloride, which reduces all iron to the ferrous state. The completion of the reduction is pretty accurately indicated by the liquid becoming colourless. A solution of bichloride of mercury is added, to remove the excess of the stannous chloride. A standard solution of bichromate of potash is now gradually added from a burette divided into tenths of a cubic centimetre. Successive drops of the liquid are taken out with a glass rod, and placed on a porcelain dish in contact with a small drop of ferri- cyanide of potassium ; as long as there is any iron in the ferrous state a blue coloration of ferrous ferricyanide will be produced. As soon as this coloration ceases to appear, the reaction is at an end; the volume of the bichromate solution is read ofi*, from which the quantity of the iron present is calculated. A solution of bichromate of potas- sium, containing in 1,000 cc. 1*4759 gramme, is of such strength that 1 cc. of it is capable of oxidising 0*00168 gramme of iron. 112 TEA AND ITS ADULTEKATIONS. A more detailed description of tlie processes above given will be found in Fresenius' work on ' Quantitative Analysis. ' A deduction of O'o per cent, of silica and of 0'15 per cent, of iron has to be made from tbe amounts of these substances found these fio-ures representing the averages of silica and iron present, in genuine teas based upon the examination of numerous samples. Zoller found in the ash of genuine tea that the ferric oxide amounted to 4*38 of the ash, while Liebig found 3'29 per cent. THE ADULTERATION" OE TEA. Formerly tea was extensively adulterated in this country, but in consequence of the gradual reduction of the duty, this practice has now nearly ceased. The adulterations resorted to were in principle similar to and in imitation of those so ingeniously designed by the Chinese themselves, as will be seen hereafter. The adulterations resorted to hy the Chinese may be described under the four following heads : — 1. With foreign leaves. 2. With lie-tea. 3. W^ith mineral substances. 4. W^ith materials used for the coloration, painting, or facing of tea. I. With foreign leaves. — It will be a satisfaction to learn that the great bulk of the ordinary black teas, the Congous and Souchongs, con- sumed in this country are free from admixture with foreign leaves and all other adulteration. The foreign leaves, when employed, are found principally in very low-priced and much broken teas, and in the lower qualities of black and gTeen gunpowder teas ; in Twankay tea, and especially in an article, to be described hereafter, extensively employed for the adulteration of tea, and very candidly designated by the Chinese themselves 'Lie-tea.' Still, although the bulk of the black teas is genuine, yet many samples are to be met with, from time to time, con- taining an admixture of leaves other than those of the tea-plant. We have ourselves, in an experience extending over many years, met with a not inconsiderable number of such samples ; the foreign leaves, how- ever, rarely form more than a small proportion of the bulk of the article. Dr. Dixon, writing many years since in the ' Penny Cyclo- paedia,' states : ' The Chinese annually dry many millions of pounds of the leaves of diiferent plants to mingle with the genuine, as those of the ash, plum, &e. ; so that all spurious leaves found in parcels of bad tea must not be supposed to be introduced into them by dealers in this countrv. While the tea trade was entirely in the hands of the East India Company, few of these adulterated teas were shipped for this country, as experienced and competent inspectors were kept at Canton to prevent the exportation of such in the Company's ships ; but since the trade has been opened all kinds find a ready outlet ; and as the TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 113 (demand for tea exceeds tlie supply, a manufactured article is furnished to tlie rival crews.' The teas, therefore, in which foreign leaves are liable to be met with are Congou and Souchong, but especially Twankay, gunpowder, caper, and lie-tea, which last is made up in imitation of these and other descriptions of tea, and is often used to adulterate the ordinary black teas of commerce. Fig. 23. Foreign Leap m Lie-tea. a, upper surface of leaf ; 6, lower surface, showing the cells with their slightly- beaded margins, of which it is composed ; c, chlorophylle cells, so disposed as to form very large areolge ; d, elongated cells found on upper surface of the leaf in the course of the veins ; e, spiral vessel ; /, cell of turmeric ; g, fragment of Prussian blue ; h, particles of the white powder, probably China Clay, Among the leaves very frequently employed, in addition to those of the plants already named, are the leaves of Camellia Sasanqua, Chloranthus inconspicuus, and of Valonia. The brick-tea of the Tartars consists of tea-leaves mixed with the leaves and stems of the Mhamnus Theezans, Rhododendron, Chrysanthemum , Rosa canina, and other plants, the leaves being agglutinated with bullock's or sheep's 114 TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. blood. The venation of these leaves, as well as the ultimate structure as revealed by the microscope, differ from that of the tea-plant. The presence of the leaves of Valonia is detected by the acicular crystals observed under the microscope. But other ^ vegetable substances besides foreign leaves are sometimes met with in adulterated teas ; in particular Paddy hush Again, some teas often contain an undue pro- portion of stalks. Foreign Leap in Lie-tea. a, upper surface of leaf ; h, lower surface ; c, chlorophylle cells ; d, elongated cells ; c, portion of one of the branched and spinous hairs situated on the under surface of the leaf ; /, ceU of iurmeHc ; g^ fragment of Prussian blue ; h, par- ticles of the white powder. II. Adulteration with lie-tea. — ^We have abeady adverted to the fact that this article has received the name of ' lie-tea' because it is spurious, and for the most part not tea at all. It consists no doubt in some cases in part of the du^t of tea-leaves, but often of foreign leaves, sand, quartz, and magnetic oxide of iron — all these being made up with great skill and ingenuity, by means of a solution of starch, into little masses of various forms and sizes in imitation of different kinds of tea. These masses, if intended for the adulteration of ordinary black tea, as Congou, TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Fig. 25. 115 Leaf of Camellia Sasanqua, found in Sample of Twankay. A, upper surface of leaf, showing the cells of which it is composed ; B, under surface, exhibiting its cells and stomata ; C, chlorophylle cells. Fig. 26. Leaf of Plum, found in sample of Twankay. A , upper surface of leaf ; B, under surface ; C, chlorophylle cells. *l2 116 TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. being unfaced, "but if designed to imitate caper or Shulan tea, being coated with plumbago or black lead, and if gunpowder, with Prussian blue, turmeric, China clay, or other white mineral powder. The cleverness exhibited in the manufacture of the different kinds of lie-tea is something really surprising, and so close is the imitation in many cases that much practice and skill are required for its detection. The better descriptions of lie-tea consist of the dust of tea only, made -4, leaf of Chloeanthus inconspicuus ; B, ditto of Camellia Sasanqua ; leaves used to adulterate tea. Tip into little masses, or of this dust mixed with that of foreign leaves ; but the great bulk of the lie-tea encountered is compounded of tea- dust, with sometimes the dust of foreign leaves and large quantities of mineral matter ^ of which silex and magnetic oxide of iron form a considerable proportion, the masses or pellets being artificially coloured or coated with the substances which have been already enumerated. The following analyses, selected from many others, which we have made from time to time, will serve to show the amount of mineral TEA AND ITS ADIJLTEEATIONS, 117 matter contained in this article, as well as the quantities found in a few teas recently examined by us. Percentage of Mineral Matter in Percentage op Lie-tea met Lie-tea. Black tea. Green tea. Black tea. Green tea. %7%} 28-18 Capers . 31-40 GuDpowder 14*87 Mixed teas 13-0 Mixed teas 23-8 23-82 « „ 17-7 „ „ 12-0 „ . . 25-91 13-13 » „ 13-4 ,, „ 9-3 •» . 33-43 19-76 „ „ 6-0 Gunpowder 1-38 ♦> . . /)2-92 35-92 Orange Pekoe 7-98 „ 13-68 „ . 23-34 28-43 The percentages „ 6-68 w . 17-70 24-63 of lie-tea in the 36*67 » . . 49-76 46-01 -capers were not 37*69 >» . 13-05 39-97 determined. 48*46 >» . 36-46 30-34 „ 28-95 » . 27-20 „ 34-66 39-42 . 26-38 „ 29-30 „ 14-21 „ . 23-83 32-61 „ 35-23 »> . 45-70 42-06 20-06 >» . 15-35 46-62 38-31 » . 15-28 Mixed teas 56-34 „ 11-47 » . 24-89 „ „ 19-50 37-30 » . 17-61 „ „ 16-03 26-12 . 23-98 22-98 Miied'teas 26-84 „ 40-86 „ 22-11 „ 20-30 ^Ir. Warrington, in a paper read l}efore the Chemical Society of London in 1851, stated: ^On inquiry, I have learned that about 750,000 pounds' weight of these teas have been imported into this country within the last eighteen months, their introduction being quite of modem origin ; and I understand that attempts have been made to get them passed through the Customs as manufactured goods, and not as teas — a title which they certainly richly merit, although it must be evident from a moment's consideration that the Revenue would doubt- less be defrauded, inasmuch as the consumer would have to buy them as teas from the dealer. It is to be feared, however, that a market for them is to be found elsewhere. The Chinese, it appears, would not sell them except as teas, and have the candour to specify them as lie- teas ; and if they are mixed with other teas of low quality, the Chinese merchant gives a certificate stating the proportion of lie-tea present with the genuine leaf. This manufactiu'e and mixing are evi- dently practised to meet the price of the English merchant. In the case of the above samples, the black is called by the Chinese Lie 118 TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Flower Caper ^ the green Lie Gunpowder. The average value is from eightpence to a shilling per pound. The brokers have adopted the curious terms gum and dust as applied to these lie-teas or their mixtures, a cognomen v^hich at first I had some difficidty in understanding, from the rapid manner in which the first two words were run together.' Fig. 28. Imitation Caper or Gunpowder, a a, fragments of the tea-leaf or tea-dust; b b, particles of sand; e c, starch corpuscles; dc?, groups of granules of black-lead; ee,-paTticle%ot mica-tike substance ; //, cells of turmeric ; g g, fragments of indigo. Magnified 350 diameters. III. Adulteration with mineral matter. — We have already ad- verted to the fact that mineral matter, chiefly mnd, quartz y and magnetic oxide of irouy enter largely into the composition of lie-tea ; but the latter mineral is not unfrequently found in tea independently of lie-tea, while, lastly, China clay, soapstone, Prussian blue, and other mineral substanceSy are extensively employed in the artificial coloration or painting of teas, both black and green. The following table shows the quantities of mineral matter we have met with in adulterated teas^ both black and green: — TEA AND ITS ADULTEEATIONS. Quantities of Mineral Matter in Adulterated Teas, 119 Black tea, chiefly Caper. Green tea, chiefly Gunpowder. Caper teas .... 14-94 Gunpowder .... 8*49 „ „ 17-27 » . 13-68 18-97 19-32 . 20-52 . 25-66 }> »5 24-94 » . 23-69 ;» j> 14-33 »» . 18-49 15-33 )> . 17-56 j» j» 18-00 )) . 19-03 » »> 8-77 j» . 33-49 17-89 . 20-08 11 9f . 22-26 . 26-12 » >» 15-11 11 . 11-79 »> » 15-48 )> . 24-47 J> » 11-59 8-32 . 20-28 . 18-10 5> » 9-84 »> . 15-20 5> » 19-95 11-69 16-61 Mixed teas . 18-00 . 8-32 . 21-83 Siftings 15-32 11 11 . 1-2-95 Mixed teas 12-54 11 ii . 13-96 >» »» 10-51 »» » 10-77 » >) •-i.i^ ?„ J.1 9-51 _ •- i_*-i- -.- - J __ J - Almost invariably in those cases in wliicli sand and quartz are met with, magnetic oxide of iron is also fomid. This association is so constant as to render it certain that the mixture either occurs naturally or is specially prepared, and in either case is employed in the adultera- tion of tea. The following table exhibits the quantities of magnetic oxide of iron actually extracted from various samples of adulterated tea: — Quantities of Magnetic Oxide of Iron extracted hy the Magnet. Black teas. Green teas. Black tea . . 0-69 Gunpowder . . . ,1*98 • . 0-36 }) 5-57 11 11 . 0-48 » . 2-94 ii ft • . 1-46 n . 8-76 Siftings . A P j.1-_ . 8-88 1 i_ ij^ 11 11 11 » 11 Green tea 11 11 11 11 „ xT- !_~ J 1-94 . 2-85 1-92 3-17 1-13 1-30 0-79 0-10 1-01 «j ^ A few months back it was a very common thing to read para- graphs in the papers containing the statement that certain teas had 120 TEA AND ITS ADTJLTEKATIONS. been met with which were ascertained on analysis to he adulterated with iron filings. In some instances these statements rested on the authority of chemists of high repute. A closer examination of the magnetic particles so frequently found in adulterated teas has revealed the fact that they really consist of the magnetic oxide of iron. Mr. Alfred Bird was, we believe, one of the first to point out this fact, but Mr. P. L. Symonds about the same time affirmed that the article used by the Chinese consisted of titaniferous iron sand. Mr. Bird, however, promulgated the opinion that this iron was derived from the soil, and foimd its way into the tea from the dust on the leaves. When the large quantity of iron present in many teas, and especially when the proportion of the iron to the sand and other mineral con- stituents, is taken into consideration, it becomes ob\dous that this opinion cannot for a moment be sustained. The principal proofs that the particles in question do not consist of iron filings are the following : — First, That when examined with the microscope they have not the torn and jagged appearance characteristic of iron filings, but exhibit a crystalline structure, in which the octahedral form is frequently to be discerned. Second, That they do not reduce the copper from a solution of the sulphate of that metal. Third, That they dissolve without effervescence, and the evolution of hydrogen in hydrochloric acid. And, lastly. That they are distinctly polaric — that is to say, the one extremity of them is attracted and the other one repelled by the same pole of the magnet, whereas iron filings are uniformly attracted. It should lae remembered, however, that iron filings when burned become themselves converted on the surface into magnetic oxide of iron. Iron filings in tea, burnt iron filings, and magnetic oxide are all acted upon by the tannic acid of the tea, tannate of iron being formed, which when burnt yields much ferric as well as some magnetic oxide. The action of the tannin is the most energetic on the iron filings, but its solution produces a dark fiuid with the magnetic oxide only. Again, a portion of the magnetic particles may diu-ing the incineration of the tea be converted into the ferric oxide. We will in the next place consider the question whether the pre- sence of this mao-netic iron and sand found in the teas here reported upon is attributable to accident merely. 1. We find that magnetic iron is never present in genuine tea — in tea which yields the normal proportion of ash, no matter how low its quality is, and how cheap it may be. We have examined many teas with a view to discover such magnetic particles, and in no instance have we ever met with a single such particle. 2. The cases in which they have been found have all been those in which there has been an TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 121 excess of mineral matter, and which has always consisted of silica in the several forms of sand, particles of quartz, and stone. 3. In most of the samples met with the quantity of magnetic iron has been suf- ficiently great to render the tea itself magnetic, a result which cannot be due to an accidental admixture. 4. That it is not derived from the admixture of soil containing silica and magnetic iron is shown by the fact, that in nearly all cases, after deducting the ash proper to tea, the silica and iron found made up the entire weight of the ash. Now, had these constituents been derived from a soil, there would not have been this correspondence, because a soil, to be fruitful, must consist of many other things besides iron and silica ; as alumina, lime, magnesia, soda, potash, phosphoric and sulphuric acids, and chlorine, &c. 5. Again, the quantity of iron found in some of the teas is so considerable, that if calculated into 100 parts of soil, the soil would be found to contain so much iron that it would be worth smelting ; this would be the case particularly with those ashes referred to in the above table, which fur- nish respectively 32, 19, and 24 per cent, of iron, corresponding to 44*6, 26'o, and 33*4 per cent, of magnetic oxide. But, again, the iron found in soils does not exist as magnetic iron, but as ferric oxide and silicate of iron. 6. A great portion of the silica and iron found pro- ceeded from the lie-tea present in nearly all the samples, and into which these substances were, beyond all doubt and question, purposely introduced. We conclude therefore that the iron and silica, quartz and sand, have been specially added. To say that they have made their way into the tea through the dust on the leaves and through careless- ness of preparation, is to tax greatly our powers of credulity; besides, as we have already remarked, this view is sufficiently disproved by the large quantities of sand and iron, often 30, 40, and even over 50 per cent, present in the lie-teas, with which nearly all the capers examined were adulterated. We will again remind the reader that genuine tea yields an ash which rarely, if ever, exceeds 6 per cent. ; that the iron in this seldom exceeds '15 per cent., and is often under that amount ; and that the extraneous and accidental silica which we have met with in genuine teas, even in those of the poorest quality and lowest price, seldom exceeds 0*30 per cent. We say accidental silica, having been careful to exclude that natural to the ash of genuine teas. But, after all, the questions as to whether the extraneous iron found in tea consists of altered, oxidised and burnt iron, or of mag- netic oxide ; and whether this iron and the silica are derived from dirt, earth or soil, or not, practically matters very little. They ought not to be there ; their addition is intentional, as proved by the case of the lie-tea ; and they are never present in any really pure teas, no matter how poor their quality and how low their price. It will be noticed that one of the samples contains no less than 5*86 per cent, of iron. Now, since tea contains a large quantity 122 TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. » of tannic acid, we have thus brought together the two chief consti- tuents which enter into the composition of ink ; and, by appropriate treatment, a bottleful of ink was manufactm'ed from the tea in ques- tion, with which this report was partly written. Now, what has thus been accomplished in the laboratory, it is not improbable may really, in some cases, take place in the human stomach into which ferruginous tea has been received. From these considerations the object of the Chinese in adding iron to tea becomes apparent ; the iron is slowly dissolved by the acid of the tea, a tannate of iron is formed, and the colour of the infusion made with such tea thus becomes darkened, and it is to bring about this darkening effect that the iron is in most cases added. The iron would also have the eifect of increasing the astringency of the tea, and of rendering it more stimulating. The effect of tannin on bright iron filings is very great, especially if the action be aided by heat. But the same darkening of colour takes place very markedly, though to a less degree, when tannic acid and magnetic oxide of iron are brought together, as in tea. It has been already stated that lie-tea especially furnishes much iron, partly magnetic. Now, since the mineral matter in this so-called tea often amounts to 60 per cent., it is just in such a compound that the iron is especially required, the tea-leaves themselves being so deficient therein. IV. The ai'tificial coloration and adulteration of tea. — A fourth kind of adulteration to which certain descriptions of tea are specially liable consists in the painting or artificial coloration of the leaves. This practice is resorted to for one or more of several purposes. To improve, as some consider, the appearance of some descriptions of tea, especially inferior kinds ; for the better concealment of certain adulterations, as where foreign leaves are used, and to disguise more effectually the nature of lie-tea. Several kinds of both black and gTeen tea are liable to be thus artificially coated or coloured. The &/«c^-coated teas are those known as Scented Caper, or black gunpowder. Orange Pekoe, and the black variety of lie-tea. The substance employed is known by the names graphite, plumbago, or black lead, and is one vdth which housemaids are particularly familiar. The teas coated with this substance present a particularly smooth and glossy appear- ance. Graphite contains a small percentage of peroxide of iron, and is non-magnetic. Occasionally small quantities of the same pigments as are employed in the coloration of green tea are used as well as the black lead, in order to impart a somewhat different hue to the Ohulan and black lie-tea. But it is with green tea that the practice of artificial coloration most prevails. The principal green teas imported into this country from China are Twankay, Hyson-Skin, Young Hyson, Hyson, Imperial, and Gunpowder. Now, the colour of nearly the whole of these teas is artificial, and is due to the adherence to the leaves of various colouring I TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 123 matters. Some few years since it was impossible to meet with a Chinese green tea which was not thus artificially coated, but recently samples of uncoloured green have been occasionally brought under our notice. Further, the Indian green teas are almost always free from colouring matter, and the Chinese tea Oolong, which, though described as a black, is really a green tea, is equally free from colouring material. We have already referred to black lie-tea. This is sometimes free from coating, and at other times is coated in imitation of black gun- powder ; but very much of it is faced in the same manner as green gTinpowder, in imitation of that description of tea. The usual pigmentary matters employed are ferroeyanide of iron or Prussian blue, twmeric, and China clay ; these are mixed in various proportions, so as to produce different shades of blue and green. The leaves are agitated with the mixture usually in a kuo, in which they are subjected to the action of heat, which renders them moist and Haccid, until they become faced or glazed, as it is termed. Occa- sionally other substances are employed by the Chinese — namely, indigo J sulphate of lime or gypsum, silicate of magnesia or soapstone, &c. Percentage of Ash in Artificially- Coloured Green Teas, Gunpowder 7*47 Hyson 6*18 Gunpowder 7*96 Ping Suey gunpowder 6*10 „ » » 6-49 Moyune gunpowder 6*10 Gunpowder 6*65 6-07 Shanghai Ping Suey gunpowder 6-65 Gunpowder 6-68 Ping Suey gunpowder 6-16 „ » „ . . 6-65 Green tea 6-34 Gunpowder . . , 6*25 Silicote Green tea ....... . 6*20 „ » 6-07 Young Hyson 6*07 Gunpowder 6*81 6-33 6-66 6-20 , ^ Average . 6*53 124 TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Percentage of Ash, Silica^ and Iron in Faced Green Teas. ■* Name. Ash. Silica. Iron. Gunpowder . . Hyson .... Gunpowder Ping Suey gunpowder « >j » • • Moyune gunpowder . Gunpowder Shanghai Ping Suey gunpowder Gunpowder Ping Suey gunpowder >» 91 >» • • 7-47 6-18 7-96 6-10 6-49 6-10 6-65 6-07 6-65 6-68 6-16 6-65 M7 0-84 0-79 0-53 0-77 0-57 0-73 0-97 0-94 0-74 0-54 0-75 0-16 0-13 0-18 0-12 0-09 0-11 0-10 0-11 0-12 0-15 0-09 0-08 Average . 6-59 0-78 0-12 From the preceding table it appears that the weight of the ash in faced green teas varies from 6*07 the lowest to 7*96, the highest amount; that is, that the mineral facing adds from ^ to 2^ per cent, to the weight of the tea. It is remarkable, notwithstanding the pretty free use in some cases of ferrocyanide of iron or Prussian blue, that the amount of iron in the ash is so little increased ; but under the head of ^ extraneous silica ' we find a sensible augmentation. It is to be noted, however, that the increase in the weight of the ash does not represent the whole of the matter added in the facing, because the Prussian blue is partly destroyed, and the turmeric wholly so, by the incineration. The total addition made may, therefore, be regarded as ranging from one to three per cent., and this of substances which are wholly extraneous to tea, which serve no useful purpose whatever therein, but which help to cover up, conceal, and render possible cer- tain other still more serious adulterations of tea, and which, if not positively hurtful in themselves, yet must be looked upon at least as so much added dust or dirt, helping largely to the consumption of the proverbial peck of dirt. The practice of colouring teas has prevailed for a very long time, as proved by the evidence of various travellers, testifying to the extent of the practice and the nature of the ingredients used. Dr. Koyle writes : ^ The Chinese in the neighbourhood of Canton are able to prepare a tea which can be coloured and made up to imitate various qualities of green tea, and large quantities are thus yearly made up.' Mr. Davies states that ^ the coarsest black tea^'leaves have been cut up, and then coloured with a preparation resembling the hue of green teas,' in imitation of Young Hyson, ^ But this was nothing,' continues I TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 125 Mr. Davies, ^in comparison with the effi-ontery which the Chinese displayed in carrying on an extensive manufacture of green teas from damaged black leaves at a village or suburb called Honan.' And again he says : * Certain rumours being afloat concerning the manufacture of green tea from old black leaves, the writer of this became curious to ascertain the truth, and with some difiiculty persuaded a Hong mer- chant to conduct him, accompanied with one of the inspectors, to the place where the operations were carried on. Entering one of these laboratories of fictitious Hyson, the parties were witnesses to a strange scene. The damaged leaves after being dried were transferred to a cast-iron pan, placed over a furnace, and stirred rapidly with the hand, a small quantity of turmeric in powder having been previously intro- duced. This gives the leaves a yellowish or orange tint; but they were still to be made green ; for this purpose some lumps of fine blue were produced, together with a substance in powder, which, from the names given to them by workmen, as well as their appearance, were known at once to be Prussian blue and gypsum. These were titurated finely together with a small pestle in such proportions as reduced the dark colour of the blue to a light shade ; and a quantity equal to a teaspoonful of the powder being added to the yellowish leaves, these were stirred as before over the fire until the tea had taken the fine bloom colour of Hyson, with very much the same scent.' Mr. Bruce states that ' in the last operation of colouring the green teas, a mixture of sulphate of lime and indigo, very freely pulverised and sifted through fine muslin in the proportion of 3 of the former to 1 of the latter, is added ; to a pan of tea containing seven pounds about half a teaspoonful of this mixture is put, and rubbed and rolled along with the tea in the pan for about an hour. The above mixture is merely to give it a uniform colour and appearance. The indigo gives it the colour, and the sulphate of lime fixes it.' Mr. Ball writes : * So far as the characteristic colour of green tea is concerned, the mode of producing it has been explained and established. If fictitous means are now generally or almost uni- versally adopted to imitate or increase the effect of the natural colour, it may be considered as a great and novel abuse, and ought to be dis- couraged by brokers and dealers. It is injurious to flavour.' JVIr. Bail quotes the testimony of a respectable Chinese tea merchant and factor, Tien-Hing, to the effect that Twankay tea is often mixed with false leaves, and that it is coloured with indigo, and calcined foliated gypsum. Mr. Fortune, who saw the colouring of tea performed in China, and who has described the process minutely, states that during one part of the operation the hands of the workmen are quite blue. ^ I could not help thinking,' he remarks, ^ that if any green-tea drinkers had been present during the operation, their taste would have been corrected and improved.' An English gentleman in Shanghai, being in conversation with some Chinese from the green tea country, asked them, writes Mr. 126 TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. rortune, 'What reasons they liad for dyeing the tea^ and whether it would not be better without undergoing this process ? They acknow- ledged that tea was much better when prepared without haying any such ingredients mixed with it, and that they never drank dyed teas themselves ; but remarked that, as foreigners seemed to prefer having a mixture of Prussian blue and gypsum with their tea, to make it look uniform and pretty, and as these ingredients were cheap enough, the Chinese had no objection to supply them, especially as such teas always fetched a higher price.' In the Museum of Economic Botany attached to the Kew Bota- nical Gardens will be found some specimens of tea dyes procured by Mr. Berthold Seeman from one of the tea factories at Canton. They con- sist of Prussian blue, turmeric, chalk, and either China clay or gypsum. In the same museum will also be found a series of samples of black and green tea, also of several varieties of lie-tea, all artificially coloured. They were met with by ourselves in the course of our investigations into the subject of the adulterations of tea, and were sent to the museum many years since. It might be supposed that the practice of thus artificially colouring tea with various mineral and vegetable substances was one which would be universally condemned, and that among analysts, at least, no difference of opinion could exist as to whether it constituted an adulteration or not. This we very greatly regret to state is far from being the case, some analysts boldly excusing the practice, while others say that when the addition is confined to certain limits it is not to be regarded as an adulteration ; a view of the matter which is not only wrong in principle, but impossible in practice. Thus, they would say that when the colouring matters do not exceed one or two per cent., such an addition is allowable, but when they exceed that amount the teas so coloured are to fall under the operations of any Act dealing with the question of adulteration. They at the same time overlook the fact that it is impossible with any certainty to determine the exact percentage of colouring matter employed in any particular case, so that no analyst who was careful of his reputation would venture to give evidence for the prosecution in any case of the artificial coloration of tea. Mr. A. H. Allen, Public Analyst for Sheffield, in answer to a ques- tion by the Chairman of the late Adulteration Committee, answers : ' I have stated that I do not call the colouring of green tea an adul- teration, and I do not call the colouring in mustard an adulteration.' Mr. H. C. Bartlett thus expresses his views before the same Com- mittee, with regard to the facing of tea : ' I consider that it would be much better to have tea without any facing, but at the present time the large majority of teas that I have analysed have been faced. Those of the better description have been faced with from IJ to 2 per cent, of facing material. As those have passed through the Customs and Ex- cise, and have been allowed to be sold in this way, I have not considered TEA AND ITS ABTTLTEHATIONS. 127 Ml in my own mind that there was any great sin on the part of the retailer in selling them, or that he was morally responsible for the sale of these articles merely as tea; hut when it exceeds the amount that has been put in in that way, although for the purpose of improving the appearance of the tea, then I think the other provision comes in, which brings it distinctly under the clauses of the Adulteration Act — that is, the increasing of the bulk of the article, by the addition of a cheaper or inferior material.' In reply to the question that, if the tea itself was of good quality, and contained from 1^ to 2 per cent, of facing, would he consider it to be adulterated ? Mr. Bartlett replied : ' I should much prefer if no facing were allowed ; but I should not consider that there is any very great amount of injury to health consequent upon that 1 J or 2 per cent., because of the very fact that Prussian blue in Prussia is entered into the Pharmacopoeia as a tonic' i^ll we can say, aa a comment to such a reply as the above, is, may we be delivered from having any of the potent remedies of the Prussian Pharma- copoeia poured down our throats under the name of tea ! Agam, Mr. Sutton, of Norwich, appears from his evidence to be in favour of allowing a certain amount of facing, but when this limit, which he does not define, is passed, he would call it an adulteration 5 but in reply to the question of that doughty champion of the tea trade, Sir Henry Peek, * I think I understood you to say that you would never consider the facing of tea, as it is done in China, an adulteration ? ' IVIr. Sutton answered : ^ I do not consider that it should be considered an adulteration under present circumstances, but I do not think myself that the tea need be faced.' Then, in reply to another question, he answers : ' I should not return it as an adulterated article unless it was excessively faced.' Another witness. Dr. McAdam, replied : ^ I would not regard it (the facing) as an adulteration. It is certainly a treatment of the material so as to produce a different appearance from what the tea would naturally present, but it is so well recognised and the quality of the tea is so well known as green tea, that I cannot say that it is an adulteration.' The following evidence by the same witness is highly instructive, and shows what little help the public have to expect from many professional analysts. A member of the Committee, Mr. C. Garnier, asked the following question : ' In the case of facing tea and colouring cheese and butter, and in colouring whiskey by putting it in sherry casks, and in colouring pickles by copper, and in other cases of colour- ing, would not the test be whether the colouring was done with a fraudulent intent or not ? ' To this question Dr. McAdam gave the following answer : ^ I think that that certainly should be a test. If it could be proved that sulphate of copper had been added to pickles for the purpose of colouring the pickles, I would say that in any quantity it ought to be called an adulteration ; but as the pickles are commonly prepared in a copper pan, the acetic acid or vinegar 128 TEA AND ITS ADULTEKATIONS. employed in compoundinof tliem will take up a sliglit trace of copper from the pan, and I do not think that that, if present in pickles, ouo-ht to be considered an adulteration.' But, most learned Doctor, the acetic acid will not cease to act on the copper pan when it has taken up ' a sliofht trace ' of copper only, but will continue to act upon the metal as lono- as the two are in contact. Besides, there is no necessity whatever for the employment of copper vessels in the preparation of pickles. Dr. 0. M. Tidy, who stated to the Committee that he had ex- amined 19,000 samples of articles of food in the course of six years, replied as to the facing of tea, ' I should not like to say very much about it. I am rather disposed myself to think, that it is one of those thino-s which had better not be interfered with.' Dr. Voelcker said : ^ I cannot look upon the facing" of tea as an adulteration, because we are so much in the habit of colouring articles of consumption that the dealer has, to a certain extent, to meet the tastes of his customers. I should like to have all articles of food sold without any facing or without ^any colouring, but then this colouring is a delicate question, because if you allow it in one article of food, it strikes me that you ought not to interdict it in another article of food, and if you were to set your face entirely ag-ainst all colouring, it would be difficult to say where to stop.' The same arguments might and indeed have been employed over and over again in jus- tification of nearly every species of adulteration practised. Nothing is more common than to hear many adulterations justified on the plea that they are perpetrated to meet the tastes of customers. Again, if objectionable practices are to be upheld simply because of their pre- valence, then since adulteration itself in all its many forms is extensively practised, it is well, according to Dr. Voelcker 's line of reasoning, not to interfere with it at all. After the above evidence, it is not a little amusing, as well as somewhat surprising, to come upon the following admission. After making the extraordinary statement that an anal}i:ical chemist can do very little in the examination of tea, and that a man who has got practical experience is a far more reliable judge of the purity of tea, Dr. Voelcker remarks : ' I may say, whilst on the subject of tea, that I have never found any adulterated tea.' An admission which surely deprives the evidence of the Doctor of any value which it might otherwise have possessed. We may say for ourselves that at least 100 samples of adulterated tea have passed through our hands in the last few months. The last witness whose evidence we shall quote is Mr. Wanklyn. When asked ' Do you regard the facing of tea as an adulteration ? ' he replied, ^No; I regard it as a perfectly legitimate practice.' And again, ^ Then you contradict the last witness (Dr. Hassall) very flatly upon that point ? ' * Quite flatly.' ' But you agree with almost ail the other scientific witnesses we have had, who have almost all said that the facing of tea is not an adulteration ? ' ^ I agree with them TEA AND ITS ADULTEBATIONS. 129 perfectly, and for the reason tliat facing is not necessarily injurious to health, and that faced tea does not add sensibly to the weight or volume- of the tea. It adds to the weight or volume just in the sense that, to throw a bucket of water into the Thames would increase the river • but it does not add to the volume in any sensible manner.' Is it possible to conceive of any scientific witness giving more t absurd evidence than this ? The colouring matters employed in the facing of tea amount to from 1 to 3 per cent., and they do therefore add sensibly to the weight of tea; and Mr. Wanldyn's comparison of throw- ing a bucket of water into the Thames is simply ridiculous; but as we have so often remarked before, the objections to the coloration of tea are not confined to the quantity or the character of the substances employed, and the practice is to be emphatically condemned in every degree, whether it be carried on to a small or large extent, on the ground that it is resoi'ted to, in many cases, to cover and conceal other more injurious and fraudulent adulterations. EESTJLTS OF THE RECENT EXAMINATION OE CAPEE, GUNPOWDER, AND OTHER TEAS. Adultei-ated Caper. — Of Chinese teas some descriptions are more liable to adulteration than others, the capers and gunpowders being specially so. 1. Thus of twenty samples of Caper Tea, fully reported upon in ' Food, Water, and Air,' for November 1873, one only was genuine, the Foo-Chow caper, and nineteen were adulterated. 2. All the nineteen contained lie-tea ; were faced with plum- bago, contained iron, chiefly in the state of magnetic oxide, sand, and quartz in variable quantities. 3. The quantity of iron in excess of that normally present in the ash of genuine tea varied from 0*06, the smallest amount met with, to 6'SQ per cent., the highest quantity found, the iron being present in many cases, both in the caper and in the lie-tea, especially in the latter. 4. The quantity of sand and stony particles in the whole tea varied from 2*09 to 12*83 per cent., and the amount of ash in the lie- tea from 13-05 to 52*92. 5. Eight of the teas contained foreign leaves, which were present in some of the samples in considerable quantities. 6. The extractive matter of genuine green tea, of which caper for the most part really consists, amounts to nearly 40 per cent., whereas the quantity in the adulterated teas varied from 26*69 to 37*94 per cent. 7. Tl^e quantity of theine, which in genuine green tea amounts to about 2*3 per cent., ranged in the adulterated teas from 0*82 to 2*68 ]3er cent., if we except one sample, in which the quantity of theine was unusually high. K 130 TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Some further details of the analyses of the samples above noticed are given in the subjoined table : — Tabh of Adulterated Caper Teas. Ash of whole tea. Ash of Lie-tea. Iron (extraneous). Silica (extraneous). 14-94 31-40 0-59 8-35 17-27 much 0-06 11-21 18-97 25-91 0-67 11-64 19-32 33-43 1-48 11-45 24-94 62-92 6-86 12-83 14-33 23-34 0-44 7-69 15-33 17-70 1-10 8-20 18'00 49-76 0-26 12-00 8-87 13-03 0-29 2-86 17-89 36-46 2-09 9-30 20-08 27-20 1-38 11-13 16-11 26-38 2-24 7-25 15-48 23-86 0-79 8-72 11-59 45-70 0-56 4-86 8-32 15-35 0-23 2-27 9-84 15-28 0-21 3-48 19-95 24-87 2-04 10-76 11-69 17-61 0-16 6-09 16-61 23-98 1-10 9-28 Adulterated Gunpowder, — 1. Of eighteen samples of Green Tea analysed and -reported upon in ' Food, Water and Air/ for January 1874, seventeen being samples of gunpowder tea, and one of Hyson tea, the whole were adulterated. 2. The whole of the teas were ai'tiflcially coloured or faced, in sixteen cases with Prussian blue, turmeric, and a white mineral sub- stance, usually a silicate, and in the two other samples with Prussian blue and the white powder only. 3. Sixteen of the samples contained lie-tea, which, with one ex- ception, ranged from 6-68 to 48*46 per cent, of the tea. 4. The quantity of iron in the teas, excluding four samples, ranged from 0*47 to 4*47 per cent. 5. The iron existed in all cases as magnetic oxide of ii^on, and in no instance were ' iron filings' found. This result has been confirmed by the examination of a great number of other teas, and it now, there- fore, appears that, notwithstanding all the statements made and pro- mulgated as to the frequent presence of iron filings in tea, they are of rare occurrence, even if they are ever found there. 6. The quantities of magnetic oxide of iron actually extracted from several of the teas were as follow: — 1*98, 5*57, 2*94, 8*76, 1*94, 2-85, 1-92, 3-17, 1;13, and 1*30 per cent. 7. The quantities of silica^ sand, and stong particles found in TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 131 the whole tea, excluding the two teas which were faced only, varied from 2*52 to 19*19 per cent., and the ash of the lie-tea from 13*13 to 46*01 per cent. Further results of the above analyses are shown in the following" table : — Table of Adulterated Gunpowder Teas. Percentage of Lie-tea. Ash of whole tea. Ash of Lie-tea. Iron. Silica. ♦1-88 8-49 14-87 0-12 2-52 13-68 18-00 23-82 0-36 10-90 6-68 8-32 13-13 0-15 2-95 36-67 20-12 19-76 1-35 12*14 37-69 25-66 35-92 3-01 15*86 48-46 23-69 28-43 1-79 14-46 28-95 18-49 24-63 0-5 L 10*32 39-42 17-56 20-33 0-47 9-02 14-21 19-08 46-01 0-18 12-31 35-23 33-49 39-97 4-47 19-19 20-06 22-26 30-34 1-43 13-02 38-31 26-12 34-66 2-33 16-20 11-47 11*79 29-30 1-18 4-12 37-30 24-47 32-61 2-48 14-85 26-12 20-28 42-06 0-94 18-17 22-98 18-19 44-62 0-82 11-80 Of the above teas, the whole, except the one thus distinguished (*), were decidedly, and many of them, very strongly magnetic. From the analyses above given it is therefore evident that the practice of adulterating tea widely prevails, and is of a very shame- ful character. As was the case with the Caper teas, most of the green teas now examined came from Canton, which place is the great centre and focus of the adulteration of tea ; this fact is perfectly well known to all who have anything to do with tea — merchants, brokers, wholesale and retail dealers, and who therefore have no just right to urge the plea of ignorance in extenuation. The merchant who wants genuine tea would scarcely go to Canton for it ; and if he did go there at all, this very circumstance would alone tend to prove that what he actually required was something very different from genuine tea. Besides, the British merchant's interests in China are protected, we believe, in all cases, by the presence at the several places of manu- facture and export, of carefully trained experts, on whom it would be impossible to impose ; so that when such rubbish as were many of the samples here reported upon are purchased by English houses, they know well what they are buying, not only from the samples themselves, but from the prices which they pay for such so-called tea. The statement has been frequently made from time to time that green tea often contains copper, is coloured, in fact, sometimes by that k2 132 TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. metal, which is assumed to be derived from the copper vessels used in drying the tea. This assertion we have put to the proof by testing the ashes of the foregoing teas, and with the result of not finding even a trace of copper. Another statement made, is that sulphate of iron is often added to tea by the Chinese to increase the astringency of tea, to darken the solution, and to render the beverage more stimulating. The strongly ferruginous character of some of the ashes led me to suspect that pos- sibly extraneous iron was present in some of the samples in that form . as well as in the state of magnetic oxide ; the several ashes were there- fore tested for sulphuric acid, 0*50 per cent, only being found in 100 parts of the mixed ashes of the lie-teas, this being much less than the quantity often present in genuine tea ; thus Liebig found 8*72 per cent, of sulphuric acid in the ash of the watery extract of tea. So far, then, as these analyses go, this statement also is not corro- borated. Lastly, a portion of the lie-tea of several of the foregoing samples was separated, reduced to powder, the ash and extract estimated ; the ash amounted to 24*07 per cent., thus leaving, after making the allowance of 6 per cent, for the normal ash, 82 per cent, of what we will presume to have been tea. This should furnish, taking 40 per cent, as the full extract obtained from genuine tea, 32 '8 per cent, of extract. But the actual amount obtained from the lie-tea was no less than 47*3 per cent. — that is to say, the largely adulterated lie-tea furnished an amount of extract much exceeding that obtained from genuine tea, proving plainly the presence of some foreign soluble matter. Relative to this point the author has also made some examinations. He re-examined the samples of green tea adulterated with lie-tea, the results of the analyses of which have just been referred to, and he found that in all cases the adhesive material, wherewith the tea, sand, and magnetic oxide of iron, &c., entering into the composition of the lie-tea, were incorporated into little hard masses, consisted of boiled starch in large quantity ; indeed in amount sufficient to account in great measure for the high percentage of extractive usually furnished by teas adulterated with lie-tea. The detection of the starch by means of a solution of iodine was, of course, very readily effected. The eighteen samples of green tea already noticed were also exa- mined for foreign leaves, which were found to be present in five of the samples ; but the leaf-dust entering into the composition of the ^lie-tea' was not examined, and it is in this that the presence of broken-up leaves, not tea, might be looked for. Other kinds of tea which are also very liable to adulteration are Scented Orange Pekoe and sometimes tea-siftings. The results of the analysis of on« sample of Orange Pekoe were as follows : — Magnetic, faced with plumbago, or black lead, and containing 7*98 per cent, of lie-tea. Ash of the whole tea, 10*48 per cent., containing 0*29 per TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 133 cent, of iron and 4*26 per cent, of sand. Ash of lie-tea, 28-18 per cent. This tea, therefore, was adulterated with plumbago, lie-tea, sand, and magnetic oxide of iron. The analysis of a sample of sif tings furnished the following re- sults : — It formed a black powder, highly magnetic, clinging to and covering the magnet in long threads. Ash, 15*20 per cent., containing 3*96 per cent, of iron, and 6*24 per cent, of sand and stony particles. Extracted by means of the magnet, 8*88 per cent, of magnetic oxide of iron. This tea, then, was also much adulterated with magnetic oxide of iron and silica, the tea from which the dust was derived being no doubt similarly adulterated. However, here the author would wish to say a few words on behalf of tea-dust in general. He has examined many samples of it, and found it to be genuine in nearly all cases. This article is not Imown to the public at large, and is much used for mixing. It is sold at a very low price, and when genuine it would be a real boon to the poor, if obtainable by them. The quantities of extractive matter and of theine yielded by adulterated teas is as a rule of course less than those obtained from genuine samples ; but the data thus furnished are not sufficiently marked to afford absolute proof of adulteration. We here append a table, showing the amount of extractive matters and of theine obtained from adulterated capers and other teas. Percentage of Extractive Matter and of Theine in Adulterated Teas, Caper 26-69 0-97 28-29 1-66 „ 30-99 1-63 „ 32-39 1-14 30-67 1-29 „ 28-49 1-64 „ 31-79 0-95 „ 32-94 1-28 „ ... ... 37-94 2-26 „ 34-39 1-06 „ 32-31 1-76 „ 34-48 2-23 ^ 32-06 2-05 . „ 32-37 2-68 „ 30-06 1-94 „ 36-02 3-30 „ 31-18 0-82 38-69 1-85 38-04 1-59 Mixed Black 30-27 1-50 „ 29-39 2-13 „ „ 28-59 1-09 Mixed Green 34-48 0-92 i, „ 32-58 0-93 „ „ 35-90 1-11 Average . 30 04 1-58 134 TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. The quantities of extractive matter, as sliown in tlie above table, are certainly higher than might have been anticipated, considering the extent to which many of the teas were adulterated, the average being 32*04. This arises doubtless, partly from the fact that the Caper teas, from which most of the extracts were obtained, partake rather of the nature of green than of black tea, and partly from the starch pre- sent in the lie-tea. The following table gives the results of the analysis by the author of the teas which formed the subject of recent prosecutions in Bir- mingham, and in most of which convictions were obtained : — ! 1 o o i 1^. No. Action on magnet. Facing. 1 3 o 1 1— ( *. i t-l 6 a o 1 Attracts the Turmeric & Prussian magnet. blue . 23-8 56-34 21-83 0-51 14-68 0-79 34-40 0-92 2 Slightly mag- netic. Plumbago 13-0 26-84 10-51 0-83 4-15 0-69 29-39 2-13 3 Ditto . Turmeric, Prussian blue, and a white powder 12-0 19-50 12-95 0*74 4-66 0-lOt 32-58 0-93 4 Ditto . Plumbago 17-7 40-86 9-51 0-58 3-08 0-36t 28-59 1-09 5 Decidedly Tm-meric, Prussian magnetic. blue, and a white powder 9-3 16-03 13-96 0-56 5-91 1-01 35-90 1-11 6 7 Magnetic . Strongly magnetic Plumbago 13-4 22-11 10-77 0-51 4-32 0-48 31-07 — Plumbago 6-0 20-30 12-54 0-83 4-70 1-46 30-271 1-50 * Insoluble in aqua regia. t In these cases the lie-tea had been previously partly removed, and with it much of the magnetic iron. THE ADIJLTEKATION OP TEA AS PRACTISED IN THIS COITNTET. Many years since a very high duty was levied upon tea, and this led to its being very extensively adulterated in this country. Since, however, the reduction of the duty, which is now only sixpence in the pound, but little sophistication takes place. The practices resorted to were various, and on the whole much more objection- able and dangerous than those of the Chinese. One common proceeding was to collect exhausted tea-leaves, to mix them with a solution of gum, catechu, and sulphate of iron, and to re-dry them. The gum supplied in a measure the place of the extractive matter removed from the leaves by their previous use, and the catechu and the sulphate of iron gave the solution astringency and colour. Another practice was, to collect the leaves of different plants, to break them up, to mix them with catechu, and to gTanulate the mixture in imitation of the lie-tea of the Chinese, which has already been described. TEA AND ITS ADULTEKATIONS. 135 These masses were finally coated, either Mack or green, in imitation of black or green gunpowder teas, with a variety of pigmentary sub- stances, some of them of a highly poisonous nature. In former years many seizures were made by the Excise authorities, for the sale of teas, adulterated in this country in one or other of the ways above described. Among the leaves which have been known to be thus employed are Fig. 29. A, Leaf of Willow ; 5, ditto of Poplar. those of the sloe^ beech, box, elm, horse-chestnut, plane, bastard plane, fancy oak, loillow, poplar, hawthoim, and sycamore. The colouring matters employed and actually detected were rose pink, Dutch pink, catechu, chromate of lead, sulphate of iron, Venetian red, carbonate of copper, arsenite of coppe?', the chromates of potash, Prussian blue, indigo, carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia and silicate of mag- nesia or soapstone, also called French chalk. Carbonate of copper occurred to the extent of 35 per cent, in some tea which was seized in London by the Excise in 1843. 136 TEA AND ITS ADTJLTEEATIONS. The tea into the facing of which the chromate of potash entered was seized in Manchester in 1845. At the same time the following articles were found on the premises, evidently intended to be used in the colouring of adulterated tea : — A mixture of chromate of lead, car- bonate of lime, and arsenite of copper ; a mixture of indigo, chromate of lead and carbonate of lime ; a mixture of arsenite of copper, carbonate of magnesia and Venetian red. In 1848 other seizures of green tea occurred. In some instances Pig. 30. Cy Leaf of Plane ; D, ditto of Oak. the colouring matters employed amounted to 7, 8, and even 9 per cent, of the teas. Of course, the teas fabricated in the ways above described were not sold alone, but were used for mixing with genuine teas. Mr. George Phillips, of the Inland Revenue Office, states, in refer- ence to the employment of exhausted tea-leaves, that in 1843 it was supposed that there were eight manufactories for the purpose of re- drying exhausted tea-leaves in London alone, and several besides in various parts of the country. Persons were employed to buy up the exhausted leaves at hotels, coifee-houses and other places, at twopence- halfpenny and threepence a pound. These were taken to the manu- factories, rinsed with a solution of gum and re-dried. After this the TEA AND ITS ADULTEEATIONS. 137 dried leaves, if for black tea, were mixed with rose pink and black lead to face them, as it is termed by the trade. A case illustrating the manufacture of spurious tea in this country occurred in Liverpool, in December 1850, where a regular manu- factory was discovered, carried on by a Mr. John Stevens. Samples Kg. 31. A, Leaf of the Hawthorn ; B, ditto of the Sloe, or Wild Plum ; C, ditto of the Beech ; D, ditto of the Elder \ E, ditto of the Elm. *** The whole of the leaves, except that of the camellia, are figured on their under surfaces. The elm, plane, and oak leaves, from which the sketches were prepared, were of small size. of the article then seized were presented to us by the late Dr. Muspratt and jMp. Phillips. One of the samples consisted of a mixture of the entire dried leaves of the sycamore and horse- (jhestnut. In another specimen the leaves were so broken down 138 TEA AND ITS ADULTEBATIONS. that it was scarcely possible to identify them without the aid of the microscope. A third sample consisted of large lumps of irregular size and shape, formed of the broken leaves, including even the stalks, agglutinated by means of catechu. In another specimen these masses were broken down into smaller masses or fragments, resembling those of gunpowder tea. In this state the article was ready either for mixing with genuine black tea, or for being faced in imita- tion of gTcen gunpowder. Lastly, other samples were coloured with indigo, and then they very closely resembled the green gunpowder tea of the Chinese. In 1851 a manufactory of spurious tea was discovered at 27J Olerkenwell Close, Clerkenwell Green. Inspector Brennan deposed that he found the prisoners in an apartment busily engaged in the manu^ factm-e of spurious tea; there was a furnace before which was sus- pended an iron pan, containing sloe-leaves and exhausted tea-leaves. On searching the premises an immense quantity of used tea 9,nd bay- leaves was discovered, some of which were mixed with a solution of gum and sulphate of iron. In a bact room about 100 pounds of re- dried tea-leaves, bay-leaves and sloe-leaves* were found spread on the floor drying. THE DETECTIOl^ OF THE ADTJLTEEATIONS OP TEA. The detection of the adulterations of tea may be considered under the five following heads : — 1. Foreign leaves. 2. Exhausted tea-leaves. 3. Lie-tea. 4. Quartz, sand and magnetic oxide of iroD. 6. Colouring substances employed for painting or facing the teas. I. Detection of foreign leaves. — The leaves may occur in two states, either more or less entire or broken up into fragments, which may be found either loose in the dust of tea or else agglutinated by means of a solution of starch into masses, forming lie-tea, and which may be either uncoloured or artificially coloured black or green. For the detection of the foreign leaves a thorough acquaintance with the tea-leaf itself is necessary ; its shape and various sizes, the crenation of the edges, its venation, and, lastly, its structure as shown by the microscope, embracing particularly the size and form of the cells and stomata and the form and the distribution of the hairs. All these points are well delineated in the figures of the tea-leaf already given. A knowledge of the characters of the leaves most likely to be encountered in adulterated tea is also very desirable, and will facilitate their identification. To discover foreign leaves in a more or less entire state, the tea should be infused in boiling water for a few minutes and s TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 139 all suspicious pieces spread out, and the characters visible with the naked eye compared with those of the tea-leaf. Furthermore, portions of any suspected leaves should be examined with the microscope on both the upper and under surface. For the detection of foreign leaves when reduced to the state of dust the microscope must be resorted to, and if lie-tea is examined, the masses of which it is composed are to be disintegrated by means of hot water, and the fragments of leaf thus liberated diligently and carefully examined with that instrument. In searching for foreign leaves it will occasionally happen that other extraneous vegetable substances are met with, especially paddy hmk or the husk of rice. II. Detection of exhausted tea-leaves. — Exhausted tea-leaves are rarely used without being subjected to a special process of preparation. Of course they are re-dried, but in addition they are generally mixed with a solution of gum, to restore something of the appearance natural to them in their unused condition. But when thus re-dried and treated, it is not difficult to discover by the eye alone that they have been used before. Thus, the fold or roll of the leaves is less regular and imiform than that of unused tea, and many flat pieces of leaves occur, the surfaces being often agglutinated together. Again, the gummed leaves present an unnaturally glossy appearance. In doubtful cases, however, a chemical analysis will be required — that is to say, the percentage of extractive matter, with the proportion of tannin and especially of gum, must be determined. The weight of the ash, and particularly that portion of it soluble in water, will also afford useful data. In unused tea the proportion of extractive matter is on an average in black tea 33*85 and in green 41*20 percent. The amounts of tannin and gum will of course vary with the extrac- tive matter, but a black tea furnishing 33*25 extractive matter will be found to yield about 15*2 tannin and 5*7 gum. In adulterated teas, however, aU these constituents are of course greatly reduced, and in some cases even amount only to a very few percentages. For the composition of genuine and unused black and green teas the reader is referred to the analyses, abeady given, and we now subjoin original analyses of two teas not absolutely exhausted, but of leaves taken without selection from the teapots of two different families : — I. Used tea-leaves J from a family teapot : — Total extractive matter . . 7*20 containing Gum 4-66 Tannin trace Theine 1-06 Soluble ash of leaves . . . 1-86 Insoluble ash of leaves . . 2*91 Nitrogen of leaves . . . 3*10% = 17*85 of albuminous matter, minus the nitrogen of theine. 140 TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. H. 2 teaspoonfuls of tea, IJ "breakfast cup of infusion: — Total extractive matter Theine Tannin Gum . Soluble ash of leaves Insoluble ash of leaves Nitrogen of leaves 15*15 containing 1-20 2-65 8-39 1-88 2-42 3-36% = 19-32 of albuminous matter, minus the nitrogen of theine. But exhausted and re-dried leaves have been in former years occa- sionally found to be mixed vrith sulphate of iron. They are also some- times faced in imitation of green tea. The sulphate of iron would, of course, be present in any solution made from the leaves, and both the sulphuric acid and the iron might be estimated in the ash. For the estimation of these see pp. 85 and 111, and for the detection of the facing the reader is referred to Section V., p. 141. III. On the detection of lie-tea. — The detection of lie-tea is by no means difficult. Formerly samples were commonly to be met with consisting wholly of lie-tea made up in imitation of a variety of other teas, black and green, •especially gunpowder ; but now it is found only intermixed with other teas, especially with those above referred to. For its detection a portion of the tea should be spread out on a sheet of paper and examined with a lens, and all suspicious particles removed. The little masses of lie-tea consist of tea-dust, and some- times other substances, agglutinated together with a solution of starch ; the masses so formed usually present a very different appearance to the eye in texture, form, and weight to portions of the tea-leaf itself, and by these characters they may be readily distinguished by a person once accustomed to their appearance without any further examination. But should there be a doubt, this is at once solved by pouring upon the masses a little boiling water, when, if they consist of leaves, they will quickly unfold and expand, whereas, if of lie-tea, they vdll break down and become disintegrated, leaving a dirty residue, in which minute particles of the tea-leaf are visible. But lie-tea is usually admixed with quartz or sand, and very often with magnetic oxide of iron. If any of these substances be present, and one of the little masses be placed between the teeth, it will feel gritty ; and if the finger be pressed upon them when rendered soft by the action of hot water, the sand or other mineral matter will be at once felt. For the separation and estimation of the above three substances processes have already been given (see p. Ill), while for the detec- tion and determination of the feeing the reader is referred to Section V. The weight of the ash of lie-tea, after deducting the normal per- centage of ash of tea, namely, 6 per cent,, gives roughly the amount of the mineral adulterants contained in the lie-tea. f TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 141 IV. Detection ofqumiz, sand and magnetic oxide of iron. — A process for the estimation of the first two of these has already been given under the head of ^Analysis of the Ash/ and is the same as that for silica, as also a process for the determination of the iron. But the magnet forms a very valuable means whereby not only the presence of magnetic oxide of iron in tea may be determined, but its amount ascertained with considerable accuracy. For this purpose a weighed quantity of tea must be pulverised in a mortar, and little by little the whole of the magnetic oxide removed by a magnet. This object is thus effected. A few grains of the powder are spread on a sheet of white paper, the magnet being drawn along its under surface so long as any particles are attracted, and which should be brought to the edge of the paper. The magnetic oxide thus obtained is more or less intermixed with the dust of the leaves, which is got rid of by gentle incineration or by the action of a solution of caustic potash. A quicker, and perhaps a more complete, method of separation is to plunge the magnet into the powdered tea so long as any particles adhere to it, and then to subject them to incineration. Another and still readier method is to separate the particles of magnetic oxide of iron from the ash of the tea, it undergoing but little oxidation unless subjected to a very strong and prolonged heat. V. On the detection of the facing of tea. — As has been already stated, a variety of substances are employed in the facing of tea. Of these the principal are gi'aphite or black lead, the material with which pencils are made and fire-grates and fenders polished, Prussian blue, indigo, turmeric, and certain white mineral substances, especially China clay or Kaolin, which is a silicate of alumina ; but occasionally soap- stone or silicate of magnesia and gypsum or sulphate of lime are employed. Not unfrequently shining particles of mica may be observed on the surface of faced teas. These are usually derived from the China clay, which itself consists of disintegrated and decomposed granite. The mixture of a blue, yellow, and white pigment in different pro- portions gives rise to various shades of green, from blue green to bright and even yellow green. The detection of all the substances above referred to is by no means difficult, but the first thing to determine is whether the tea is artificially coloured or not. For this purpose several different methods may be pursued. A few of the leaves may be viewed as opaque objects under the microscope with a glass of one-inch focus, when the colouring matters entering into the composition of the facing will be detected as minute specks or particles dotting the surface of the leaves, and each reflecting its appropriate tint. Another method is to place a small quantity of the tea in a piece of muslin and to shake it well over a sheet of white paper, to collect the dust which passes through, and to examine it under the microscope in the same manner. 142 TEA AND ITS ADULTEJRATIONS. Or the dust found in most packages of tea may be taken and similarly examined. Or, lastly, a portion of tea may be washed with cold water, the washings being set aside for a time, when the pigmentary substances thus removed from the surface of the leaves will gradually subside to the bottom of the glass. By the latter proceeding, carefully carried out, an estimation of the quantity of the materials employed in the facing may be made. Having by one or the other of the above methods determined whether the samples be faced or not, the next step is to ascertain the nature of the substances used. Ferrocyanide of iron or Priossian blue, — The blue colouring matter employed by the Chinese almost always consists of Prussian blue or indigo, but generally the former. The Prussian blue may be recognised under the microscope by the angular form of the fragments, their brilliant and transparent blue colour, and by the action of a drop of liquor potassse, which quickly destroys the blue, turning the fragments of a dull reddish tint, the original colour being restored on the addi- tion of dilute sulphuric acid. The re-agents may be readily applied in very minute quantities to the smallest fragments of Prussian blue visible in the field of the microscope ; the caustic potash decomposes the ferrocyanide of iron, forming ferrocyanide of potash and oxide of iron. On the addition of the acid, sulphate of potash is formed, and the hydroferrocyanic acid again unites with the iron, the oxygen of the iron uniting with the hydrogen of the latter acid to form an atom of water. If a quantitative determination of the ferrocyanide of iron present be required, an ounce or two of the tea should be washed in water to remove the facing ; the washing should be set aside until this has subsided, it should then be collected, burnt, and the ash treated in the manner already described (p. Ill), under ^ Iron.' On the detection of indigo. — This substance is distinguished under the microscope by the granular texture and greenish-blue tint of the particles, but chiefly by the fact that the colour is not discharged by liquor potassse at ordinary temperatures. For the purpose of obtaining it in any considerable amount two or three ounces of the tea must be washed, and the same proceeding adopted for separating it as in the case of Prussian blue. If obtained free from any large admixture with tea-dust, it may be chemically identified by its fur- nishing a deep blue solution with fuming sulphuric acid, which solution, after dilution with water, is bleached by chlorine and per- manganate of potash ; or by placing the dried powder in a test-tube and subjecting it to the action of heat, when the indigo will sublime as a violet vapour, which will condense in the cool part of the tube, forming beautiful needles. But the best method of identifying indigo is based upon the fact, that it yields, on heating with caustic potash, aniline, which TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 143 may readily be detected by its striking a beautiful magenta colour with hypochoride of lime or bleaching powder. For the success of this test it is necessary that the indigo should be but little contami- nated with organic matter. A method of quantitative estimation might be founded upon its property of being destroyed and decolorised by a solution of perman- ganate of potash. For this purpose a solution of indigo and sulphuric acid of known strength should be made ; it should be determined by ex- periment how much of a solution of permanganate would be required for its discoloration. The indigo obtained from a weighed quantity of tea is then dissolved by means of sulphuric acid, and the amount of permanganate solution necessary to its complete discoloration is likewise estimated. Thus all the data would be obtained which are necessary for the calculation of the amount of indigo present in the tea. On the detection of turmeric. — The microscope is the only means of identifying turmeric. It consists of characteristic yellow cells, of a rounded form, which are filled with starch granules of a peculiar shape. The cells on the addition of an alkali turn brown, swell up, and the outlines of the large starch granules become visible (see ^ Turmeric '). On the detection of black lead. — The jet black glossy and metallic lustre imparted to substances coated with this material is so charac- teristic as to serve in most cases for its identification. Apart from the evidence afibrded by the eye alone, it may be detected in other ways. If a thin slice be removed from the surface of one of the leaves faced with this substance, and placed under the microscope, it will be seen to be thickly studded with numerous black particles. Again, if one or two teaspoonfuls of black-leaded tea be infused in boiling water, the liquid will in many cases, where the quantity of facing is considerable, acquire a blackish hue, and on evaporation the bottom of the vessel containing it will be found to exhibit the dark, shining and characteristic coating of black lead. Another method will be to pass the washings through a weighed filter, which will retain the black lead which may then be estimated. Black lead consists principally of carbon, with a variable amount of oxide of iron, usually about 5 per cent. On the detection of China clay. — The matter entering into the facing of the tea must be removed, as already pointed out, by rapidly washing with cold water, and then obtained from the washings by subsidence. The deposit must be dried, ignited, weighed, and tested first qualitatively and then quantitatively if required, which it rarely will be, for silica and alumina, its two principal constituents. In this case, as in that of silicate of magnesia or soapstone, it will be necessary to fuse the powder with carbonate of potash to effect its decomposition and the formation of a soluble silicate. On the detection of silicate of magnesia or soapstone. — The powder is collected and decomposed, as before described, and tested for silicic acid and magnesia. 144 TEA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. The detection of sulphate of lime or gijjjsum. — The leaves of tea, especially those from Assam, are sometimes dusted over with sulphate of lime, and this when no other colom-ing- substances are employed. The sulphate must he separated, as before described, and the ash treated with hydrochloric acid ; in the solution, after dilution with water, the sulphuric acid and the lime may be detected and esti- mated as follows : — One-half of the solution is heated to boiling, chloride of barium is added ; this throws down the sulphuric acid as sulphate of barium, which is collected on a filter, incinerated and weighed. To the other half, neutralised with ammonia and then acidulated with acetic acid, a solution of oxalate of ammonia is added, whereby the lime is precipitated as oxalate of lime, which may be collected and weighed directly or after its conversion into carbonate by incineration, or, better still, into sulphate of lime. Various other substances have been met with, in years past, enter- ing into the facing of teas of British fabrication. Several of these have been already referred to. Others are Dutch pinky which consists of a yellow vegetable substance in combination with chalk ; Rose pink, composed of logwood in combination with carbonate of lime or chalk ; carbonate of lime, and carbonate of 7nagnesia. It is now so rare a thing to meet with the two first-named pigments that it is unnecessary to allude to them any further, while the processes for the detection and estimation of the carbonates of lime and magnesia are too well known to need any description in this place. Moreover, processes will be found given elsewhere in this work. COFFEE AND ITS ADULTEEATIONS. 145 CHAPTER V. COFFEE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Chicory or any other foreign vegetable or any mineral substance. The beverage coffee consists of an infusion in boiling water of the roasted seeds of Coffea Arahica, which belongs to the natural order Ruibi- acece, a plant indigenous in Southern Abyssinia. Ellis gives the following description of the coffee-tree : — "This tree, when in good health and full grown, attains a height in some countries not exceeding 8 or 10 feet, but in others averaging from 15 to 20 feet. It is covered vdth a dark, smooth, shining, and evergreen foliage. It is sown in nm-series, transplanted when about six months old, in three years comes into fuU bearing, and in favourable circum- stances will continue to bear for twenty years. It delights in a dry soil and warm situation; its flowers are pale, white, fragrant, and rapidly fading. Its fruit is like that of the cherry-tree, but it grows in clusters ; within the fruit are the seeds or berries. On dry and elevated parts the berries are smaller and have a better flavour, but berries of all sizes improve in flavour or ripen by keeping." The seeds are separated by bruising with a heavy roller, washed, and dried, and, lastly, freed from their paperlike coating. The seeds, improperly called berries, of Arabian or Mocha coftee have a more agreeable taste and smell than those of any other coffee, and are distinguished by their yellow colour and comparative smallness and roundness. The next best coffee is from Martinique and Bourbon. The berries of the former are larger than the Arabian coffee, rounded on the ends, of a greenish colour, and usually retain the thin pellicle which comes oft* by the roasting. The seeds of San Domingo coffee have their two extremities pointed ; those of Java or East Indian coftee are larger, and of a paler yellow, while those of Ceylon, West Indian, and Brazilian coffee possess a bluish or greenish-grey tint. The dried fruits or berries are rarely imported. Occasionally, however, the seeds contained in their endocarp, or husks, are met with in commerce. "Within the last few years the important fact has been made known that the leaves possess to a certain extent many of the properties of the seed, and hence it has been proposed to employ them in this country, as has long been done in the Eastern Archipelago, and especially in Sumatra. L 146 COFFEE AND ITS ADTJLTEEATIONS. Mr. Ward, resident for many years in Sumatra, states that ' as a beverage the natives universally prefer the leaf to the berry, giving as a reason, that it contains more of the bitter principle and is more nutritious. In the lowlands, coffee is not planted for the berry, not being sufficiently productive, but for the leaf. The people plant it round their houses for their own use. It is an undoubted fact that every- where they prefer the leaf to the berry/ THE COMPOSITION OF COFFEE. The following substances have been ascertained to enter into the composition of the raw coiFee-seed: — Gum, sugar , fat ^ 7'esm, volatile oil or caffeone, theine, caffeic^ or caffeo-tannic acid and cellulose. The subjoined quantitative analyses are by Schrader and Pay en : — Raw Coffee. Roasted Coffee. Schrader. Schrader. Peculiar caffeic principle .... 17-58 12*60 Gummv and mucilaginous extract . . 8*64 10*42 Extractive 0-62 4-80 Fatty oil 0-52 ) «.^a Resin 0-41 J ^ ^^ Solid residue Q&-Q^ 68-75 Loss, water 10-57 1'54 PayerCs analysis of Raw Coffee. CeUulose ^ 84-00 Hygroscopic water 12-00 Fatty substances . . ... . . 10 to 13-00 Glucose, dexti-in, and undetermined acid . . 15-50 Legumin, gluten 10-00 Caffeate of potash and caffeine . . . . 8*6 to 5-00 Nitrogenous substance 3-00 Free caffeine 0-80 Concrete essential oil 0*001 Aromatic fluid, essential oil . . . . . 0-002 Mineral substances . . . . . . 6*697 It will be observed that the analysis of Payen is much more com- plete and definite than those of Schrader ; but we have considered it desirable to institute the original analyses of the raw and roasted coffee- seed given below : — Raw Coffee. Roasted Coffee. Water 8-26 0-36 Cane-sugar . . . . ' . . . 8-18 1'84 Caffeine . . . . . -- . . . I'lO 1-06 Fat . . . 11*42 8-30 Gluten 10-68 12-03 Extractive (caramel, gum, tannin, &c.> . . 14-03 26-28 Cellulose, &c ' . . 42-36 44-96 Ash 3-97 5-17 100-00 100-00 COFFEE ANB ITS ADULTERATIONS. 147 It will be seen from the above analyses that the amount of caffeine is nearly as gi-eat in the roasted as in the unroasted berry. It is pos- sible, however, that in those cases in which the roasting is carried to a high point, and the beans are much caramelized, a more appreciable reduction in the caffeine would take place. It will be further observed that the amount of fatty matte?' is likevrise greatest in the unroasted berry. This result, although contrary to that of other chemists, is yet only in consonance with what might have been reasonably expected, since part of the oil undoubtedly becomes broken up and chemically changed in the process of roasting. The difference in the amount of oil obtained by Von Bibra and other analysts is so great that he was led to the very strange conclusion that the oil was formed in some mvsterious manner in the act of roasting ; but the real explanation lies in tlie tough and horny character of the unroasted bean itself, rendering it almost impossible to reduce it to the fine powder necessary to ensiu'e the ex- traction of all the fatty matter by means of ether. ' This difficulty we have succeeded in overcoming by rasping the dried hemes with a fine file. In this way we obtained an almost impalpable powder, which, however, should be completely dried before adding the ether. According to Stenhouse, coffee beans contain about 12 per cent, of fat. Yon Bibra obtained from roasted Mocha coffee 8*8 and 9*3 per cent., and from Java coffee 8*9 to 9*2 per cent, of oil. We append a table of estimations of fatty matter in coffee mad© by ourselves :— Coflfee .... 8-42 »»•••• 8-65 Mysore coffee . . 8-24 East India coffee . 6-10 Jamaica „ . . 7-88 )> » • » 8-30 „ . 1, (unroasted) 10-47 Average . 8*29 ' The fat extracted by ether has the consistency of cocoa-butter, and exhales the peculiar aroma of coffee, which appears to be produced from the volatile oil of the raw beans by roasting ; by boiling the fat with water the aroma is driven off. The fat is a mixture of several glycerides, some of which are likewise soluble in alcohol. It appears to contain olein and palmitin, together with resin and some hydrocarbon, perhaps also other bodies. The ethereal extract likewise contains the whole of the free caffeine, and a body which colours iron salts greenish, precipitates lead salts, and reduces gold and silver salts ' (Watts). Messrs. Graham, Stenhouse, and Campbell state that raw coffee con- tains as much as from 6 to 7 per cent, of cane-sugar^ We have found over 8 per cent. This is either entirely destroyed in the roasting, or it rarely exceeds 1*12 per cent. The same authorities give the nitrogen in roasted coffee ad ranging between 2*5 and 3 per cent. Watts giveft l2 148 COFFEE AND ITS ADULTEBATIONS. the proportion of nitrogen* in roasted coffee at about 2 "75 per cent., and states that less than 2 per cent, of nitrogen in coffee is a strong presumption of adulteration with chicory or some other root. He gives the nitrogen in foreign raw chicory as 1*51 per cent., in the roasted root 1 '42 per cent., while English chicory gave in the raw state 1'86, and in the roasted state 1*74 per cent of nitrogen. The author has obtained the following percentages of nitrogen from four samples of coffee : — Coffee roasted .... 2-07 , 2-14 Jamaica coffee roasted . . . 2*19 „ „ green . . , 2*14 Average • 2'13 During the roasting of coffee the berries swell up, lose much water, and become, according to the extent to which the roasting is carried, from 15 to 25 per cent, lighter ; the beautiful and character- istic aroma is developed, the sugar is converted into caramel, carbonic oxide and nitrogen being liberated. Coffee should not be roasted at a temperature exceeding 160° 0. It will be seen that the three most important constituents entering into the composition of coffee are the volatile oil called caffeone ; the caffeic acid analogous to the tannin of tea, and caffeine, identical with theine. The caffeic acid, like tannic acid, is astringent, but differs from it in that it does not blacken a solution of iron, but renders it green, and does not precipitate a solution of gelatine. This acid, though changed somewhat by the roasting, yet retains to some extent its astringent pro- perties. Like quinic acid, caffeic acid yields quinone when the syrupy extract of coffee is mixed in a retort vrith binoxide of manganese and sulphuric acid, and the mixture subjected to distillation. The quinone passes over into the receiver in the form of yellow crystals, as well as m that of a bright yellow liquid containing quinone, with much formic acid ; quinone is distinguished by its acrid odour, resembling that of chlorine ; with ammonia its solution gives a sepia-black colour, con- verted into reddish-brown by sulphuretted hydrogen, and discharged by sulphurous acid. Caffeine exists in coffee partly in the free state, and in part combined •with the caffeo-tannic acid. It resembles in its colour, crystallisation, solubility in water, alcohol and ether, and in being precipitated from its aqueous solution by tannin, the identical principle theine. The total amount of caffeine, both free and combined, in coffee is, according to Payen, about 1-736 per cent. This amount is higher than that obtained by other chemists ; Parkes puts it down as 1*31 per cent. The average of Boutron's and Robiquet's analysis gave only 0*238 per cent, of caffeine. COFFEE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 149 Messrs. Graham and Stenhouse obtained from five difibrent samples of raw coffee the following amomits of caffeine : — Native Ceylon . 0-80 »» j> • • . 0-80 >» )j • • . 1-01 Plantation Ceylon . 0-54 ft >» • • . 0-83 Average . 0-80 We have found the following^amounts in seven determinations : — Caffeine. Coffee .... 1-46 »» .... 1-74 Mysore coffee . 1-20 Cevlon „ . . . . 1-14 Plantation,, 1-39 Jamaica „ . . . 1-06 „ green coffee I-IO Average 1-30 It thus appears that coffee contains somewhat more than half as much of this alkaloid as does tea, which furnishes an average of over 2 per cent. Prof. Johnston states that, weight for weight, tea yields about twice as much theine as coffee does to the water in which it is infused, * but as we generally use a greater weight of coffee than we do of tea in preparing our beverages, a cup of coffee of ordinary strength will probably contain as much theine as a cup of ordinary English tea. One cup of strong French coffee will contain twice as much caffeine as a cup of weak French tea.' In some coimtries the grounds of coffee are drunk in the same manner as are the broken leaves of tea, and this with the same object, to obtain all the nourishment, including the nitrogenous substances present in the berry. The two subjoined analyses serve to show the comparative composition of the roasted coffee berry and the tea-leaf : — Water. Gum and sugar . Gluten Theine Fat and volatile oil Tannic acid Woodv fibre Ash \ Tea. Coffee. Mulder. Payen. 6-0 12-0 21-0 15-5 25-0 13-0 0-5 0-75 4-0 13-0 15-0 5-0 24-0 34-0 5-5 6-75 The above analyses must not be relied upon for any other purpose 150 COFFEE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. than that of a general comparison. It will be seen that the theine is much understated in the tea. The proportion of soluble matter obtained from coffee is increased by strong roasting. According to Cadet, coffee roasted to a red-brown colour yields 12*3 per cent., chestnut-brown coffee 18-5 per cent., and dark brown 23*7 per cent, of extractive. Payen obtained 37 per cent. Lehmann found in roasted Java coffee 21*5, while Vogel found in the raw beans only 2^ per cent., but in the roasted 39 per cent. The author has obtained the following percentages of extractive matter from various samples of coffee : — Extractive Matter. Mysore coffee . East India coffee . Jamaica „ 25-13 23-17 29-34 30-64 30-38 29-43 Average 28-01 Parkes states that it ought to yield from 30 to 35 per cent, of ex- tractive. The leaves of coffee. — The dried leaves of coffee resemble in com- position to a considerable extent the berries, and hence they are employed as a substitute for coffee-seeds and for leaves. A sample of the leaves dried at rather a high temperature was examined by Stenhouse ; they were found to contain 1-2 per cent, of caffeine, and 2'1 per cent of nitrogen, and a larger proportion of caffeo-tannic acid than the beans. They yielded to water 38*8 per cent, of extractive matter. As with tea, it is important to determine in some cases the amount and composition of the ash furnished by coffee. The percentage of the ash is shown in the following table : — 3Iineral Matter. Coffee Mysore coffee East Indian „ Jamaica „ Total. 4-75 4-50 4-17 4-29 4-07 4-59 Soluble. 3-53 3-24 3-71 Ayerage 4-56 3-49 The soluble portion of the ash consists chiefly of phosphate and carbonate of potash. In the case of chicory the proportion of soluble ash is much less than in coffee ; while three-fourths of the ash are soluble in the one case^ about two-fifths are so in the other. ) COFFEE AND ITS ADULTEBATIONS. 151 The following analyses of tlie asli of coifee are by Messrs. Graham, Stenhouse, and Campbell : — Analyses of the Ash of Coffee. II i t-5 1 1 1 1 ^ p^ o ^ Potash . Soda Lime 65-10 52-72 54-10 53-20 53-72 61-52 56-80 4-10 4-58 4-11 4-61 6-16 5-87 6-68 Magnesia 8-42 8-46 8-20 8-66 8-37 8-87 8-49 Ferric oxide . 0-45 0-98 0-73 0-63 0-44 0-44 0-61 Sulphuric acid 3-62 4-48 3-49 3-82 3-10 5-26 3-09 Chlorine . 1-11 0-45 0-26 1-00 0-72 0-59 0-60 Carbonic acid . 17-47 16-93 18-13 16-34 16-54 16-98 14-92 Phosphoric acid Silica Sand 10-36 10-60 11-05 10-80 11-13 10-15 10-86 — — — — — — ' - Total . 100-63 100-20 99-97 99-06 100-18 99-68 100-04 The principal peculiarities of the ash of coffee are the absence of soda and silica, and the small quantity of chlorine, and of sesquioxide of iron, in all which respects it difters remarkably from the ash of chicory. Watts states that the silica never exceeds 0*5 per cent., and even this small quantity, which is not always present, probably arises from accidental adhesion of sand to the beans. Chicory ash, on the other hand, contains, deducting sand, from 3-81 to 10-52 per cent, of silica. THE PROPERTIES OE COEEEE. Pereira thus sums up the properties of the infusion of the roasted coffee-seeds : — ' Roasted coffee possesses powerful anti-soporific pro- perties — hence its use as a drink by those who desire nocturnal study, and as an antidote to counteract the effects of opium and other nar- cotics, and to relieve intoxication. In those unaccustomed to its use it is apt to occasion thirst and constipation. On some persons it acts as a slight purgative. It is occasionally useful in relieving headache, especially the form called nervous. It has been employed as a febrifuge in intermittent and as a stomachic in some forms of dyspepsia, and as a stimulant to the cerebro-spinal system in some nervous disorders. Flayer, Dr. Percival, and others have used it in spasmodic asthma, and Laennec says : " I have myself seen several cases in which coffee was really useful," The immoderate use of coffee is said to produce 152 COFFEE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. nervous symptoms, sucli as anxiety, tremor, disordered vision, palpita- tion, and feverishness.' Coffee is also supposed to counteract the tendency to the formation of gravel and stone. The properties and eifects of coffee are thus described by Professor Johnstone : — 'It exhilarates, arouses, and keeps awake. It counteracts the stupor occasioned by fatigue, by disease or by opium ; it allays hunger to a certain extent, gives to the weary increased strength and vigour, and imparts a feeling of comfort and repose. Its physiological effects upon the system, so far as they have been investigated, appear to be, that while it makes the brain more active, it soothes the body generally, makes the change and waste of matter slower, and the demand for food in consequence less. All these effects it owes to the conjoint action of three ingredients very similar to those contained in tea.' The volatile oil. — When roasted and ground coffee is distilled with water the volatile aromatic oil passes over, and by drinking this oil with water its eflects may be ascertained. When the oil obtained from two ounces of coffee is taken in a day, it is found to produce an agreeable excitement and gentle perspiration, to dispel the sensation of hunger and to move the bowels. ' In its exhilarating action upon the brain it affects the imagination less than the reasoning powers ' (Johnston). When the dose of oil was doubled violent perspiration came on with sleeplessness and symptoms of congestion. Lehmann, by a series of careful observations and experiments on the urine, ascertained that it exercised an effect equal to that of caffeine in retarding the waste of the tissues. The caffeic acid. — Messrs. Graham and Stenhouse state that chemists generally are disposed to refer the flavom^ and peculiar properties of coffee as a beverage more to the caffeic acid, particularly after that substance is modified in its properties by roasting, than to any other constituent. The quantity present is much less than the tannin in tea, and consequently coffee does not retard to the same extent the action of the bowels, its operation being furthermore counteracted by the volatile aromatic oil which exerts an aperient tendency. Caffeine. — It has been already stated that the caffeine is identical with theine, the action of which on the system has been before de- scribed. In Pereira's ' Materia Medica ' we meet with the following observations relative to the properties of cafteine : — ' Mulder gave a grain to a rabbit ; the animal ate but little the next day, and aborted the day after. Liebig has suggested that it probably contributes to the formation of taurine, the nitrogenised constituent of bile. According to Lehmann caffeine, in doses of from 2 to 10 grains, causes violent excitement of the vascular and nervous systems, palpitation of the heart, extraordinary frequency, irregularity, and often intermission of pulse ; oppression of the chest, pains in the head, confusion of the senses, singing in the ears, scintillations before the eyes, sleeplessness, COFFEE AND ITS ADrLTERATIOJJS. 153 and delirium. In all cases an augmentation was found in the amoimt of urea excreted.' THE ANALYSIS OF COFFEE. The analyst may have to determine either the composition of the raw or roasted seed. In either case it will be necessary that it be pre- viously reduced to a fine powder, and in the case of the roasted berry it is best that the analysis should be made while it is in its freshly- roasted state. The following determinations will in most cases be required to be made : — Water, fat, sugar, gluten, volatile oil, caffeic acid, theine, and the ash. Many of the requisite particulars and processes wiU be found described under the head of the analysis of tea, so that it will not be necessary to give them all fully in this place. Thus, the water is estimated in the usual manner by drying, the gluten by the estimation of the nitrogen by the combustion process, the volatile oil by distillation, the theine by one or the other of the processes given under the head of tea, and the mineral matter by incineration. But since the coftee berry contains so large a quantity of oily matter, it becomes necessary to filter the aqueous solution of the ex- tractive matter prior to its evaporation for the estimation of caffeine. We have thus only to describe the methods for the estimation of the fixed oil, the sugar, and the cafteic acid. Estimation of the fixed oil. — A weighed quantity of the finely- ground cofiee, say three grammes, is dried in the water-bath in a small fiask and exhausted by repeated quantities of ether until a few drops of the solution, when evaporated on a slip of glass, cease to leave any residue. The ethereal solutions are evaporated in a flask, the weight of which has been determined, after which the flask is again weighed, the difibrence giving the quantity of fat present in the coffee. Or the weight of the exhausted coffee may be taken, and the deficiency will of course represent the amount of fat. Part of the caffeine is always dis- solved by the ether, together with the fat, and may be separated by digestion with hot water. Estimation of sugar. — Owing to the fact that the copper solu- tion is reduced by the caffeic acid, the sugar after its conversion into glucose cannot be estimated in coffee in the ordinary way, but it must be converted into alcohol and estimated in this form. About 150 gTammes of the ground coffee are to be treated with separate quantities of cold or warm water. To the solution, after filtration, sufficient yeast is added to induce fermentation ; this is to be continued for 48 hours, the infusion being kept at a temperatiu-e of from 27° to 32° C. The liquid is to be distilled nearly to dryness ; the quantity, as well as the specific gravity, of the distillate being taken, and the sugar deter- mined from the quantity of alcohol thus formed. 92 parts of alcohol are equal to 180 parts of glucose. Or the caffeic acid may be precipi- 154 COFFEE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. tated by means of acetate of lead and the sugar determined in the filtrate in the usual manner after conversion into glucose by means of dilute sulphuric acid. ON THE STRTJCTrEE OP THE COFEEE-SEED. Two parts are to be discriminated in the coiFee berry; the substance of the berry, and the testa or covering by vrhich it is surrounded. The berry previous to roasting is hard and tough ; it consists of an assem- blage of cells of an angular form, which adhere so firmly together that they break up into pieces rather than separate into perfect cells. The cavities of these cells include in the form of little drops a considerable quantity of oily matter. (Fig. 32.) Fig. 32. Section of TJnroasted Coffee Berry, showing the size and form of the cells, as well as the drops of oil contained within their cavities. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 140 diameters. The testa or investing membrane is made up principally of elon- gated and adherent cells, forming a single layer, and presenting oblique markings on their surfaces. These cells rest upon a thin membrane having an indistinct fibrous structure. Between the berry and its covering some oily matter is usually present. (Fig. 33.) The removal of this membrane may be easily effected, since in the act of roasting it becomes separated from the berry, when it is known by the name of ^ coffee- flights.' In the grove or ^ raphe ' which runs along each seed, a few small double spiral vessels are usually met with. COFFEE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 155 The roasting of the seed does not alter its structure ; the tissues are indeed partially charred, but they still preserve their chief charac- teristics. The oil, however, is no longer visible in the cells in the form of minute spherules, it having become broken up and diffused by the heat employed in the process of roasting. (Figs. 34 and 35.) Fig. 33. A portion of the Investing Membrane of the Coffee Berry, showing its structure. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 140 diameters. ON THE ADULTEKATIONS OF COFFEE. Some years since there v^ere few articles of consumption more sub- ject to extensive adulteration, and this of the grossest kind, than coifee. At the time when we first directed our attention to the adulteration of coffee it was scarcely possible to procure a sample of ground coffee, no matter what the price paid for it, that was not largely adulterated. Adulteration with chicory. — The most prevalent adulteration of coffee is with chicory. In nearly all the samples examined some years since, chicory formed a large proportion of the article, while in many instances it consisted almost entirely of chicory. At the present lime coffee is still much adulterated with chicory, while the compound 156 COFFEE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. sold with the labels now prescribed by the law — ^ This is a mixture of chicory and coiFee ' — often consists of little else than chicory. Even the grinding of the coftee in the presence of the purchaser is said to be no certain guarantee of the genuineness of the artiMe, as not unfrequently the grocer adroitly conveys into the mill, from a box placed close to it, as many chicory nibs as he pleases, and which, owing to their resemblance in size and colour to coffee berries, are not readily distinguished at a short distance. Even whole roasted coffee has been adulterated with chicory, which in this case is compressed into the form of coffee- seeds. In Fig. 34. '^".^-^^^^^ A fragment of Roasted Coffee. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 140 diameters. 1850, Messrs. Duckworth, of Liverpool, took out a patent for moulding chicory into the shape of coffee-seeds. They appeared to have been induced to do so in consequence of the existence in 1850 of a Treasury Minute, which allowed the sale of chicory with coffee without any restriction. It has been strenuously urged, in extenuation of this adulteration, that the addition of chicory to coffee is a great improvement. There are undoubtedly some few persons who do consider that it does im- prove the flavour, but we believe that the taste of those who really prefer the mixture has been vitiated, and that had they the opportunity of obtaining well-prepared and unadulterated coffee, they would speedily acknowledge the infinite superiority of the genuine beverage COFFEE AND ITS ADULTEBATIONS. ui even as a matter of taste. When tlie relative properties of coiFee and chicory are taken into account, no doubt whatever can be entertained as to which is the superior article ; Chicory being destitute of the three prime constituents — the volatile oil, the caffeine, and the caffeic acid which impart to coffee its peculiar, beneficial, and highly characteristic properties. It has been affirmed that in France and in other continental countries the use of chicory is almost universal. We have found that in all the good hotels in France and Germany the coffee served up has been genuine, and that where chicory has been employed, either sepa- Fig. 35. This engraving exhibits the characters of genuine ground COPPEE. rately or mixed with coffee, it has been by poor persons and amongst the domestics, not because it was considered to be an improvement, but on the score of economy. Where money is not an object, and where the best coffee is required, chicory is but seldom had recourse to. Again, if really an improvement, as some persons consider, it would only be so when employed in certain proportions. Now, in the ground coffee sold in the shops of this country, it is met with in every proportion, it constituting "sometimes over 90 per cent, of the article. The allegation that chicory improves the flavour of coffee would not warrant its use to anything like this extent. 158 COFFEE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. It cannot, therefore, be doubted for a moment that the real cause of the extensive. employment of chicory in this country is that by its means grocers are enabled to enhance greatly their profits. But wc vrill suppose, for the sake of argument, that it is a decided improvernent ; yet this does not justify the sale cf a mixture of chicory and coffee as and under the name of coffee, coffee frequently forming but a small percentage of the article. Such a mixture, if permitted at all, should not only be labelled as a mixture, but the proportions of each ingredient . should be specified. ^ Few persons will be disposed to question the right of the pur- chaser when he enters a shop, and. asks for a particular article, to expect that he will be supplied with the article he demands, and that if he asks for coffee he will be supplied with coffee, and not with a mixture of two articles in the most uncertain proportions. Let the two substances, therefore, be sold separately and at their respective prices. This is the simple and straightforward course to pursue. At length, and after years of labour and argument, the Govern- ment was driven to acknowledge the impropriety of permitting chicory to be sold under the name of coffee, and frequently also at the price of that article, and within the last few years it has been required that the mix:ed articles should be sold labelled ' This is a mixture of chicory and coffee.' But this regulation by no means fulfils the requirements of justice, because the mixture is often palmed oft' when coffee only is asked for, and because the proportions of the ingredients are not stated. But there is one circumstance which has been already adverted to, and which should be particularly remembered in considering the question of the adulteration of coffee with chicory— namely, the differences, chemical and physiological, which exist between the two articles. Coffee and chicory contrasted, — ^Coffee is the seed of a plant which in its roasted condition contains essential oil, or caffeone, caffeine, and caffeic acid, each of these constituents possessing highly important properties upon which the value of coffee mainly depencfs. Ohicoiy IS the root of a plant ; it contains neither essential oil, tannic acid, nor an alkaloid analogous to that of coffee, it consisting chiefly, when roasted, of gum, sugar, partly burnt and reduced to caramel, and insoluble vegetable tissue. Between the two articles, therefore, there is no analogy whatever, and in proportion as the strength of coffee is reduced by admixture with chicory, so are the active properties of the beverage diminished. It is the presence of these active constituents of coffee, and which are contained in tea, and also cocoa, which has led to the almost universal employment of these articles over nearly the whole of the inhabited portions of the globe. COFFEE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 159 But coffee is subject to adulteration with a variety of other articles besides chicory. Adulteration with 7'oasted grain. — The adulteration which was formerly most frequently practised next to that with chicory was with roasted grain, principally ivheat, but rye and roasted peas and heansj ground into powder, were also not unfrequently met with. Adulteration loith roasted roo^^.— Roasted carrots j parsnips ^ and This engravifig eihlbits the several structures detected in a sample of ' Coj^fota.' Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 140 diameters. mangold wurzel, reduced to powder, were also frequently employed for the adulteration of coffee. Other articles which have been ascertained to be used for the same purpose, and most of which we have ourselves encountered, are roasted acorns, saivdust (especially mahogany sawdust), coffina (fig. 36) (an article made from roasted and ground lupin seeds) j oak hark tan, Bcchausted tan, termed Croats, and baked horses' livet\ Adulteration with baked liver. — In a work published now many years since, entitled ^ Coffee As It Is, and As It Ought to Be,' the following observations occur in reference to the use of baked horses' 160 COFFEE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. and bullocks' livers : — ^ In various parts of the metropolis, but more especially in the east, are to be found liver bakers. These men take the livers of oxen and horses, bake them, and p:rind them into a powder which they sell to the low-priced coiFee-shop keepers at from Ad. to 6d. per pound, horses' liver coffee bearing the hio^hest price.' It may be known, the writer states, ^ by allowing the coffee to stand until cold, when a thick pellicle or skin will be found upon the top ; it goes fur- ther than coffee, and is generally mixed with coffee and other vege- table imitations of coffee.' Adulteration with burnt sugar. — The adulteration of coffee in some cases so greatly alters, and reduces the colour and appearance of the ai-ticle as well as the infusion made from it, that the use of colour- ing matters is frecjuently necessitated. One of these is burnt sugar, familiarly knovm m the grocery trade and by coffee-shop keepers as ^ Black Jack.' It is sold to the coffee-shop keepers usually in canisters at Is. per pound, and it is sometimes denominated ^ The Coffee Keiiner.' It is, however, rather a colouring agent, and is em- ployed to impart colour and bitterness to beverages made from adul- terated coffee, these being the qualities which, in the eyes of superficial observers, denote strength and goodness. Sugar is sometimes added to the coffee-seed while undergoing the process of roasting, and being then burnt, is converted into a coffee- colourer. Adulteration ivith Venetian red. — Another article used to give in- creased colour to adulterated ground coffee is Venetian red, or some other analogous ferruginous earth. We have not only ourselves ob- tained repeated evidence of the use of this substance, but we shall presently, under the head of * Chicory and its Adulterations,' quote a passage from the writings of the late Dr. Pereira in reference to its employment. In the latter part of 1850 the author read a communication to the Botanical Society of London on the adulteration of coffee, that being some months before the publication of the first of his reports in the ' Lancet' on Adulteration. In this the author described for the first time the results at which he had been enabled to arrive from the exa- mination of coffee by means of the microscope, this being one of the first instances of the employment of that instrument for the detection of adulteration. These results were as follows : — First, That, of the thirty-four coffees examined, thirty-one were adulterated. Second, That chicory was present in thirty-one of the samples. Third, Roasted corn in twelve. Fourth, Beans and potato flour each in one sample. Fifth, That in sixteen cases the adulteration consisted of chicory Sixth, That in the remaining /?/)^eew samples the adulteration con- sisted of chicory and either corn, beans, or potatoes. COFFEE AND ITS ADULTEKATIONS. 161 Seventh; That in many instances the quantity of coiFee present was very small, while in others it formed not more than one fifth, a fourth, third, half, and so on of the whole article. On some of the foregoing adulterated samples the following high-sounding names had been bestowed: — Delicious Cofee, con- taining heans and chicory ; Finest Turkey Cojlee^ much chicory roasted corn and very little coffee ; Finest Java Coffee, much roasted corn and a little chicory ; Pa?^sian Coffee, principally chicory and roasted corn ; Sujjerb Coffee, principally roasted corn and chicory •, Delicious Family Coffee, three-quarters chicory, Delicious Drinking Coffee, a large quantity of chicory and much roasted corn. We are satisfied that the gross aggregate of the • adulterations detected did not amount to less than one -third of tfie entire bulk of the quantity pm-chased. On referring to the Revenue returns of that period we find that the sum derived from the duty on coffee was nearly 45,000/., an amount which we have no hesitation in saying might have been greatly increased by vigilance in the detection of the adulterations of this important article, and by punishment of the fraud, when detected. Since the date above referred to, the author has examined some hundreds of samples of ground coffee, the particulars of which will be * found recorded in his work entitled ^ Food and its Adulterations.' Until within the last two or three years, we have always found a large proportion of the samples to be adulterated ; more recently, however, the condition of the article has greatly improved. The grosser adulterations, so far as the metropolis is concerned, are now much less frequently practised. The principal adulteration now is that with chicory, which is still mixed with coffee, and sold without the prescribed label as coffee. This improved state of things is undoubtedly due to the repeated exposures made within the last few years. But is it not perfectly certain, if these exposures were to cease, that matters would soon become worse than before, and that the scandalous and nefarious practices which once prevailed in the adulteration of the article would speedily be rife again ? The adulterations by means of roasted corn, beans, coffee colourer, and Venetian red are altogether indefensible, since the only thing in common between most of these and coffee is the colom* which they yield on infusion or decoction. Many years since roasted corn, principally rye, was largely sold and employed to make a beverage which, by a fiction, was dignified with the name of coffee ; the chief argument, independent of price; urged in favour of it was its supposed nutritive properties. When it is recollected that the starch of roasted corn is in part reduced to the condition of charcoal, it will at once be perceived that its nutritive qualities cannot be very great, and that a single mouthful of whole- some bread contains more nourishment than half-a-dozen cups of a beverage made from roasted corn. Although ^ roasted corn' is now no M 162 COFFEE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. lont>'er sold openly, yet, as we have seen, tlie grocer has not failed to avail himself of it for his own benefit, and to the great disadvantage of the public. The adulteration of coffee by substances s6 cheap, and for the purpose to which they are applied so worthless, as these is a gross fraud, requiring emphatic condemnation, and when ascertained to be prac- tised, meriting exposure and punishment. Othe)' adulterations of coffee. — According to Watts, ^ a great variety of seeds were tried in France during the continuance of the continental blockade, including, amongst others, the yelloiuflag, chick-pea^ the milk vetch, the holly, Spanish broom, chestnut, lupin, sunflower, gooseherry, grape, eglantine, capsules of hoxJ ' The poorer sorts of coffee-beans are sometimes tinted by dusting them wdth coloured powders, such as Prussian blue, poivder of li?ne-tree charcoal, green earth, mixed vdth a little graphite to give them the silvery appearance of the finer sorts.' Watts also names amongst the adulterants of coffee beet-root, rushnut, earthnut^ scratchiveecL, fcrn^ and butcher'' s broom. We have never met with any one of the adulterants above enu- merated, and we are satisfied that their use in this country is but rarely, if ever, resorted to. We do not, therefore, propose to encumber this treatise with any description of the methods whereby they may be discriminated. 01^ THE detectio:n" oe the adulterations oe coeeee. The means to be resorted to for the detection of the adulterations of coffee are of three kinds — namely, the physical characters and appearances presented by adulterated samples, the microscope, and chemistry. By the first, we ascertain in some cases the general fact whether the sample is adulterated or not •, and by the others, especially by the microscope, we learn the nature of the particular adulterations practised. The first means consist in noticing whether the sample in the mass cakes or coheres, whether it floats in water or not, and the colour of the infusion. If the ground coffee cakes in the paper in which it is folded or when pressed between the fingers, there is good reason for believing that it IS -adulterated, most probably with chicory. If, when a few pinches of the suspected coffee are placed upon some water in a wine-glass, part floats and part sinks, it may be presumed that it is adulterated either with chicory, roasted corn, or some other analogous substances. The coffee does not imbibe the water, but floats on the surface, while the other substances absorb the water, and gradually subside to the bottom to a greater or less extent. Usually, however, part of the coffee subsides with the chicory, and a portion of the latter remains on the surface with the coffee ; and after the lapse of a short time, in general, both coffee and chicory fall to the bottom. COFFEE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 163 Again, if the cold water to whicli a portion of gTound coifee has been added quickly becomes deeply coloured, it is an evidence of the presence of some roasted vegetable substance or burnt sugar ; for when coffee only is added to water, it becomes scarcely coloured for some time. Again, not only does the solution become dark coloured, but if a boiling aqueous solution be made, it will be thick and mucilaginous if it be adulterated vnth any substance containing much gum and starch, but the infusion of coffee will be found thin and limpid. According to Watts, chicory has more than three times the colouring power of highly-roasted coffee, maize double that of coffee, while peas and beans have only half the colouring power. In infiisions prepared with cold water, chicory exhibits four times the colouring power of coffee. Lastly, if in a few grains of coffee, spread out on a piece of glass and moistened with a few drops of water, we are enabled to pick out, by means of a needle, minute pieces of a substance of a soft consistence, the coffee is doubtless adulterated ; for the particles of the coffee-seed are hard and resisting, and do not become soft even after prolonged immersion in water. When, therefore, any sample cakes into a mass, quickly furnishes to cold water a deep-coloured solution, or is found to contain, when moistened with water, soft particles like those of bread-crumb, there can be no question as to the existence of adulteration. The characters of genuine ground coffee are, therefore, the reverse of the above. By these general means, and without having recourse to science, the observer is often enabled to state whether any sample of coffee is adulterated or not ; but in order to determine the character of the adulteration practised, we must employ either the microscope or chemistry. In the case of coffee, by far the most important informa- tion is furnished by the microscope; indeed, chemistry affords no certain means for the identification of the majority of the vegetable substances employed in the adulteration of coffee, and did it do so, it would hardly be required, since these may be so readily detected by the microscope. Messrs. Graham, Stenhouse, and Campbell have instituted some special chemical inquiries on the mode of detecting vegetable sub- stances mixed with coffee: these wiU be found referred to at some length under the ai-ticle ^ Chicory.' The result of these investigations is, that it is ea^y enough to ascer- tain by means of chemistry the general fact of adulteration, but that it is not possible by the same means to determine the nature of the adulteration practised, even that v^ith chicory. One method of discriminating whether a coffee be genuine or adulterated is by means of the specific gravity of the infusions^ the specific gravity of an infusion of coffee being much less than that obtained from the roots and cereals employed in the adulteration of m2 164 COFFEE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. coffee. But tlie infusions obtained from the leguminous seeds have a specific gravity veiy closely approaching that of coffee itself. If one part of the substance be boiled with ten parts of water, and the specific gravity of the filtered solution be taken, the following figures represent the difierent specific gravities : — Acorns .... 1007-3 Peas .... 1007-3 Beans .... 1008-4 Coffee (average) . 1008-7 Parsnips 1014-3 Carrots ^1017-1 Maize .... 1021-5 Sye .... 1021-6 Beet-root 1022-1 Chicory (average) 1024-8 Mangold-wurzel . 1023-5 Bread raspings . 1026-3 A further means of distinguishing between pure coffee and that adulterated with chicory and many other roots is by the quantity of suga?' contained in them both before and after torrefaction. The amount of sugar is, of course, much greater in these roots, and is determined in the infusions by fermentation with yeast and the estimation of the alcohol in the distillate. The sugar in raw coffee varies from 7'52 to 8*2 per cent. ; that of roasted coffee from 0*0 to 1*14 per cent. The following percentages of sugar in chicory and other sweet roots have been found : — Foreign chicory Guernsey „ English' „ Yorkshire „ Mangold-wurzel Can'ots (ordinary) Turnips . Beete-oot (red) . Parsnips . The above figures are sufficient to show that the sweet roots may as a class be thus readily distinguished from coffee, but for the deter- mination of the particular kind of root present recourse must be had to the microscope. In the leguminous seeds, cereals, and some other seeds, the propor- tion of sugar is much less, and hence this method of discrimination fails in these cases. The most distinctive peculiarity of the composition of the ash of coffee is the small quantity of silica contained in it : ^ the presence,' state Messrs. Graham and Stenhouse, * of 1 per cent, or upwards of silica in the ash of coffee is a proof of adulteration ; that the adul- terating substances which increase the proportion of silica most con- Raw. Roasted 23-76 11-98 30-49 16-96 35-23 17-98 32-06 9-86 23-68 9-96 31-98 11-63 30-48 9-65 24-06 17-24 21-70 6-98 COFFEE AND ITS ADULTEKATIONS. 165 siderably are oats and barley, then chicory and dandelion, which are followed by rye and wheat ; but turnips and carrots would produce a small and less decisive eifect.' We presume that Messrs. Graham and Stenhouse, in the preceding paragraph, refer only to the silica entering into the composition of the several vegetable substances named, and not to that accidentally pre- Fig. 37. Shows the structures in a sample of Coffee adulterated with Chicory. a a, cofliee ; h &, chicory. sent, which in the case of chicory and other roots often amounts to several percentages. The general fact of adulteration may, therefore, be determined in a variety of ways ; as, by the colour of the infusion, by its specific gravity, by the quantity of sugai- contained in it, and, lastly, by the composition of the ash. We will now again shortly enumerate the articles which have been detected entering into the adulteration of ground coffee. They are roots of different kinds, particularly chicory, mangold-wurzel, carrot and parsnip, various farinaceous substances in the roasted and powdered state, as wheat and rye flour, beans, and acorns ; besides these are woody fibre or sawdust, burnt sugar, and Venetian red or reddle. 166 COFFEE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. We will now proceed to give tlie methods employed for the detec- tion of the principal of the above adulterations. On the detection of chicory. — Some years since, an outcry having arisen in consequence of the substitution to an enormous extent of chicory for coffee, and the Government being called upon to interfere, the question as to whether the presence of chicory in ground coffee Fig. 38. This figure exhibits the cens of which the root of Mangold-wuezel is chiefly- formed ; it will be observed that they are several times larger than those of chicory root. was discoverable or not by means of science was referred by the Chancellor of the Exchequer of the time to a commission of chemists. These chemists reported, that ^ neither by chemistry nor by any other means was the admixture of chicory with coffee to be detected.* This report was publicly quoted by Sir Charles Wood in the House of Commons, and on the strength of it the Government refused to interfere in the prevention of the adulteration of coffee. Now, just before that time the author had shown, in the most conclusive manner, :* 1 COFFEE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 167 that nothing is more easy and certain than the detection of chicory in coliee by means of the microscope. The structure of coffee has already been fully described ; that of chicory will shortly be considered ; it may be stated now, however, that it dillers in every respect from coffee, in the rounded form and easy separability of its component cells, and in the presence of dotted ducts, and vasa lacticentia. The differences will be sufficiently obvious on an examination of the accompanying figm-es. Detection of mangold-wurzel. — This root differs from chicory in Shows the structures met with in Coffee adulterated with Mangold-wurzel. a a, fragments of the coffee berry ; b b, cells of chicory ; c c, ditto of mangold-wurzel. the very much larger size of the cells, and in the absence of milk vessels or vasa lacticentia (figs. 38 and 39). Detection of carrot and parsnij?. — The tuber of carrots differs from chicory chiefly in the absence of milk vessels ; that of parsnip in the absence of the same vessels, and in the presence in the cells of regularly formed starch corpuscles of small size. On the detection of ivheat-Jlour, Src — It is generally stated that the presence of roasted corn or any other substance containing a large proportion of starch, may be detected by the blue colom- produced on 168 COFFEE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. tlie addition of a solution of iodine to the cold decoction. We have not found this to be correct in all cases, for on adding iodine to decoc- tions of five different coffees ascertained to he adulterated with roasted corn, the liquids did not become blue, but almost black, with a tinge of brown or olive. This appears to arise from the obscuration of the blue colour developed by the iodine, by the rich brown colouring matter of the chicory — a proportion of which almost always accom- panies the adulteration with corn. This test, however, is still very useful in some cases, although it does not often give rise to a colour sample of Coffee adulterated tcith both Chicory avd roasted Wheat. a a, coffee : b b, chicory ; c c, wheat flour. which can be called blue. It should be known, also, that solution of iodine, added to a cold decoction of chicory root, deepens the colour very greatly : the increase of colour is never, however, so considerable as when flour is present. It is to be further observed that no exact idea can be formed in this way of the quantity of starch contained in the adulterated coffee, because part, being charred, gives no reaction with iodine. Supposing, however, that the presence of starch in coffee could be invariably detected by the iodine test, yet neither that test, nor indeed COFFEE AND ITS ADULTEEATIONS. 169 all tlie resources of chemistr^^, can furnish us with precise information as to the kind of starch employed. For this we must seek the aid afforded by the microscope. The microscopical structure of wheat and certain other flours will be found described under the heads Flour and Bread. They are dis- tino-uished chiefly by the characters of the starch corpuscles. It may b^ stated, generally, that those of wheat consist of rounded and flat- tened discs of various sizes. The appearances which they present are very distinct from the cells of either cofl'ee or chicory, as will be seen by the annexed engraving (tig. 40). Fig. 41. Co_fee adulterated with both Chicory and roasted Bkan?. a a, coffee ; b &, chicory ; c c, roasted bean flour. On the detection of hean-Jtour. — The substance of the seed of the bean is made up of cells, each of which contains several starch cor- juscles. The characters of these granules are very distinctive ; they are for the most part either oval or reniform, with a central cavity of p.n elongated form, and from the margin of which short rays or pro- cesses may be seen radiating. So long is this cavity, in some of the granules of medium size, that they appear to be completely bisected ; occasionally a few strongly marked concentric rings are visible. Some cf these characters are exhibited in fig. 41. 170 COFFEE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. On the detection of roasted and ground acorn. — The presence of this substance is distinguished by the form and size of the starch corpuscles, which constitute so large a part of the acorn (fig. 42). Ofi the detection of sawdust. — The detection of sawdust, especially mahogany sawdust, is extremely easy ; the presence of woody libre of some kind or other is sure to be discovered when the suspected samples come — as they always ought — to be examined with the microscope. The presence of sawdust having been thus ascertained, a few grains of Fig. 42. Sample of Co fee adulterated with ground Acorn. c c, acorn. a a, coffee ; b b, chicory ; the coffee should be spread out on a slip of glass, and moistened with water, when the fragments of woody fibre may generally be picked out by means of a needle ; they should then be subjected to a more careful microscopical scrutiny. The woody fibre of plants, like the cellulose, starch corpuscles, and vessels, frequently possesses distinctive characters, visible under the microscope, by which the plant or tree furnishing it may be identified. In the case of mahogany sawdust the identification is easy enough ; the compactness of the little masses of fibre, the strong cross markings, and the colour are sufficiently characteristic. COFFEE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 171 It should be remem'bered that chicory, especially the older roots, contains a small proportion of woody fibre, so that care must be exer- cised not to confound this fibre with extraneous woody fibre or sawdust introduced for the purpose of adulteration. If the quantity of fibre present be very small, and it agree with that of chicory in its struc- ture as seen under the microscope, there can be little doubt but that the fibre belongs to the root of chicory. On the detection of caramel or bwnt sugar. — When the ^ater added to any sample of ground cofiee becomes deeply and quickly coloured, and when on examination with the microscope it is ascertained that no foreign vegetable is present, there will be good reason for supposing that it contains burnt sugar. Ag-ain, when shining black particles are perceptible in the coffee, and these slowly dissolve in water, giving rise to a dark-coloured solution, it undoubtedly contains the substance in question. Some- times, when the particles are too small to be discerned by the naked eye, they may be seen under the microscope, and their solution in water watched. Again, the presence of burnt sugar may be detected by adopting the following process : — From a weighed quantity of dried cofiee an infusion in cold water is to be prepared ; this must be evaporated in a water-bath, dried, and tasted. If the extract be dark-coloured, brittle, and possess the bitter taste of burnt sugar, no doubt remains as to the presence of that substance. We are unacquainted with any process by which the quantity of burnt sugar present can be accurately determined, seeing that the extract furnished by pm-e coffee varies very gTeatly, and that of adul- terated coffee to a still more considerable extent ; while also the com- position of the burnt sugar is so much changed, that its exact amount cannot be determined in the same manner as grape sugar, but this method gives, at least approximately, the quantity of burnt sugar present. On the detecticm of Venetian red. — Sometimes when the Venetian red has been carelessly incorporated with the coffee, particles of it may be detected with the naked eye ; but it is not often that it can be dis- covered in this way. The process to be adopted in ordinary cases is as follows : — A portion of the suspected coffee is to be incinerated, and the colour of the ash noted ; if this be deeply colom-ed and of a rusty red or yellowish hue, then Venetian red, reddle, or some analo- gous earthy substance has been mixed with the coffee. If it be desired to ascertain the exact amount of iron present, a v/eighed quantity of the article should be incinerated, the ash boiled vnth strong hydrochloric acid, and in the solution the iron estimated ly one or the other of the methods given under '■ Tea.' On the estimation of silica. — Silica may occur in one or both of two forms — namely, as chemically bound silica, entering into the composi- tion of the vegetable substance or substances forming the article, and, T72 COFFEE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. secondly, as extraneous silica or sand. They may be thus discriminated and estimated separately ; a weighed quantity of the article, say three grammes, are incinerated in a platinum capsule, the ash is boiled with concentrated hydrochloric acid, and evaporated to dryness on the water-bath. The dried residue is moistened with hydrochloric acid and treated with boiling water ; the silica only in its two forms will remain undissolved. It is separated by filtration, incinerated, and weighed. Thus the total amount of silica is ascertained. It is then boiled for some time with a strong solution of carbonate of soda, which only dissolves the chemically bound silica, or that part which had entered into the composition of the ash. The sand remains undis- solved, is collected on a filter, washed with boiling water, incinerated, and weighed. The loss of weight gives the proportion of chemically combined silica. CHICORY AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 173 CHAPTER VI. CHICORY AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Aoy added foreign vegetable or mineral substance. Chicory, succory, or wild endive, Cychorium Intyhus^ belongs to the same natural family of plants as the dandelion, namely, Compo" sitce. It is indigenous, and may be seen grovt^ing in various parts of tlie country, by tlie road or hedge-side ; it may be recognised by the compound character of its flowers, and their bright and l3eautifur blue colour. It blossoms in the months of August and September. In its natural state the stem rises from one to three feet high, but when cultivated it shoots to the height of five or six feet. The root runs deep into the ground, and is white and fleshy, and yields a milkv juice. It is cultivated to some extent in this country as an herbage plant, its excellence in this respect having been strongly insisted upon by the late Arthur Young. In Germany, and in some parts of the Netherlands and in France, it is extensively cultivated for the sake of its root, which is used as a substitute for cofiee. The root is taken up just before the plant blossoms, and when roasted, lard or sometimes butter is added iu the proportion of 2 lbs. of lard to 1 cwt. of the kiln-dried root. "When ground and exposed to the air, chicory absorbs water readily, and becomes moist and clammy. When prepared on a large scale, the roots are partially dried and sold to the manufacturers of the article, who wash them, cut them in pieces, kiln-dry them, and grind them between fluted rollers into a powder. The powder of the roasted roots bears striking resemblance to ground coffee, and is still extensively used in Prussia, and other parts of Germany ; but as it wants the essential oil, and the rich aromatic flavour of coffee, the caffeine and the caffeo-tannic acid, it has little in common with the latter, except its colour, and has nothing to recom- mend it beyond its cheapness. Notwithstanding that chicory ^ has nothing to recommend it except its cheapness,' and that it is used exclusively to adulterate coffee, it has of late years been raised in great quantity in this country, in the counties of Surrey, Bedford, and York. Foreign chicory is considered to be greatly superior to that of English growth, and is consequently much dearer. 174 . CHICORY AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. COMPOSITION OF CHICORY. Chicory root has been subjected to examination and analysis by Dr. Letheby at the author's request, and the following is his report on the results obtained, namely, — ^ 1 st. In its recent, or raw state. * 2nd. In the kiln-dried condition. ' 8rd. In the roasted and powdered form, as it is used for the adulteration of cofiee. * The raio root furnishes a milky juice, which owes its opacity to the presence of an inert veg-etable substance named Inuline. The juice is veiy bitter, and, when filtered and heated, it shows, by its turbidity, that it contains a small quantity of albumen. ^ When macerated in cold water, it yields about 13 per cent, of solid matter or extractive, which gives to the solution a very bitter taste. By Fehling's test, it was found that the raw root contained 1*1 per cent, of grape-sugar or glucose. * The kiln^dried root possesses aU the characters of the preceding, but in a higher degree, for water extracts about 50 per cent, of solid matter ; and the solution furnished to Fehling's test as much as 10'5 per cent, of sugar. ^Neither of these specimens exhibited the least trace of starch, but by boiling in water, filtering, and cooling, they yielded a small quantity of a white powder, which has all the characters of Inuline. ' The absence of starch in the state in which the root is ordinarily used is also conclusively shown by means of the microscope ; and we find that the tissue contains abundance of cellulose, which, by the action of strong sulphuric acid, gives a product that renders iodine blue. ^ The roasted chicory root yields from 45 to 65 per cent, of soluble extractive. Its solution in water is acid, and it does not possess the peculiar bitter taste of the raw root ; but the taste of the liquid is more like that of burnt sugar. The copper test shows the presence of from 10 to 13 per cent, of sugar. * The following analyses represent the percentage composition of the root in its different conditions : — Raw Root. Kiln-dried Hygroscopic moisture . . . 77*0 1.5-0 Gummy matter (like pectine) . 7*5 20-8 Glucose, or grape sugar . . 1*1 10-5 Bitter extractive .... 4-0 19-3 Fatty matter .... 0-6 1-9 Cellulose, inuline, & woodv matter 9*0 29-5 Ash ....'. . 0-8 3-0 100-0 100-0 ^ The composition of the i-oasted root was as follows : — CHICORY AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 175 1st Specimen. 2nd Specimen. Hygroscopic moisture . 14-5 12-8 Gummy matter . 9-5 14-9 Glucose .... 12-2 10-4 Matter like burnt sugar 29-1 24-4 Fatty matter 2-0 2-2 Brown or burnt woody matter 28-4 28-5 Ash 4-3 6-8 100-0 100-0 Messrs. Graham, Stenhouse, and Campbell ^ found in four samples of chicory the following percentages of grape-sugar : — Eaw. Roasted. Foreign chicory .... 23*76 11-98 Guernsey „ " . . . . 30*49 15*96 English „ . . . . 35*23 17-98 Yorkshire „ . . . . 32-06 9*86 It is evident from these analyses, that the quantity of sugar found by Dr. Letheby in the raw root was much less than that usually present. The quantities of sugar in mangold-wurzel, carrots, turnips, parsnips, beet, and dandelion roots were found to be nearly as great as in chicory, and hence the sugar present in it does not aiFord a means by which it may be distinguished from other sweet roots when mixed with coffee (p. 164). By an examination of the analyses above given, it will be seen that the root does not contain anjrthing which can possibly be regarded as a substitute for coffee. It will be also manifest that in the process of roasting the bitter principle of the recent root is partly destroyed, and that by the toiTefaction of the saccharine and other constituents a quantity of caramel is produced which has no virtue beyond that of burnt sugar. The chief constituents of chicory, therefore, are the gunij glucose — converted into caramel by roasting — inuline, cellulose, and various mineral salts. The oil, sometimes amounting to nearly 5 per cent., is derived for the most part from the lard used in the roasting. The nitrogen in chicory is less than that found in coffee, owing to the absence of the alkaloid found in the latter. The nitrogen varies in chicory from 1*42 to 1*86 per cent. The ash of the samples analysed by Dr. Letheby had the following composition : — 1st Specimen. 2nd Specimen. Chloride of potassium . 0*22 0*45 Sulphate of potash 0-97 0*98 Phosphate of potash . 1*41 1*37 „ of magnesia 0*30 0*53 „ of lime 0*4t) 0-81 Carbonate of lime 0*10 0-26 Alumina and oxide of iron . 0-20 0-20 Sand .t . . . . 0-70 2-20 4*30 6*80 1 Chemical Report on the mode of detecting vegetable substances mixed with coffee, Dec. 1852. 176 CHICORY AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Mr. Allen gives the average ash of chicory at about 5 per cent., of which two-fifths only are soluble in water, whereas three-fourths of coffee ash are dissolved by that menstruum. The followinof represents the percentage composition of the ash of four samples of chicory, according to Messrs. Graham and Sten- house : — Darkest English Yorkshire. English. Foreign. Guerrisey. Potash . Soda Lime Magnesia Sesquioxide of iron Sulphuric acid Chlorine Carbonic acid . Phosphoric acid Silica . Sand .... 33-48 8-12 9-38 .5-27 3-81 10-29 4-93 1-78 10-66 3-81 I 9-32 24-88 15-10 9-60 7-22 3-13 10-53 4-68 2-88 11-27 2-61 8-08 29-56 2-04 5-00 3-42 5-32 6-38 3-23 2-80 7-06 12-75 23-10 32-07 3-81 5-31 3-85 3-52 6-01 4-56 3-19 6-65 10-52 20-19 100-85 99-98 100-66 99-68 Messrs. Graham and Stenhouse found the silica and sand insoluble in acids to be, in four samples of roasted chicory, as follows : — 10-69, 13*13, 30*71, and 35*85 per cent, of the ash; the quantities of this silica soluble in alkali, representino^ the chemically combined chicory, was, in the same samples, 8*08, 9*32, 20*19, and 23*10 parts. The silica insoluble in tht alkali was, of course, derived from the sand and dirt adhering to the imperfectly cleansed roots. It thus appears that the chief characteristics of the ash of chicory, as contrasted with the ash of coffee, are the presence of notable quan- tities of soda and chlorine, and the large amount of sesquioxide of iron and silica. STRUCTURE OE CHICORY ROOT. In the raw chicory root four parts or structures may be distin- guished with facility: cellSj dotted vessels^ vessels of the latex , and woody fibre, ^ When the adulterating grinder or merchant, in the secresy of his own warehouse, first reduced chicory root, parsnips, corn, beans, &c., to charred and nearly impalpable powders, the idea probably never entered his mind that enough of the distinctive structural characters CHICORY AND ITS ADULTEKATIONS. 177 of each of these substances still remained undestroyed, to enable the man of science to drag to light his guilty deeds, and to detect their presence in every parcel of adulterated coffee sent out from his premises. In the roasted and charred chicory root the same structures may be detected as are distinguishable in the raw or unroasted root. The chief part of the root is made up of little utricles or cells. These are generally of a rounded form, but sometimes they are Fragment of Roasted Chicory Root, taken from a sample of adulterated coffee, showing the cells of which it is principally constituted. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 140 diameters. occur where the pressure is the neighbom-hood of the nan-ow and elongated. The former least and the root soft; the latter in vessels (fig. 43). The dotted vessels are particularly abundant in the central and harder parts of the root, which they traverse in bundles: they are cylindrical unbranched tubes, tapering to a point at either extremity, and elegantly marked on the surface with short fibres, describing an interrupted spiral course (fig. 44). In studying the structure of chicory root, we have clearly made out the origin of the dotted vessels in narrow elongated cells, tapering to 178 CHICOET AND ITS ADULTEBATIONS. a sharp point at either end, at first smooth, but subsequently exhibiting faint oblique markings. The vessels of the latex, vasa lacticentia, are present in most plants, having a milky juice or sap-, they form branched and frequently anastomosing tubes, of smaller diameter than the dotted vessels, and with smooth membl'anous parietes (fig. 46). Fig. 44. Fragment of feoASTED Chicory Root, taken from a sample of adulterated coffee, showing the dotted or interrupted spiral vessels, which pass in bundles through the central parts of the root. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 140 diameters. These vessels afford a useful means by which chicory may be distin- guished from most other roots employed in the adulteration of coffee. The woody fibre of chicory root does not present any markings or other peculiarities of structure of a distinctive character. PROPERTIES OP CHICORY. Recent chicory root is possessed of active medicinal properties, in consequence of which it has long been included in the ^ Materia Medica.' These properties resemble closely those of the allied plant, the dan- delion, in reference to which we find, in the work of Dr. Pereira, the following observations : — * Its obvious efiects are those of a stomachic and tonic. In large doses it acts as a mild aperient. Its diuretic operation is less obvious CHICORY AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 179 and constant. In various chronic diseases, its continued use is attended with alterative and resolvent effects ; but where the digestive organs are weak, and readily disordered, taraxacum is very apt to oc- casion dyspepsia, flatulency, pain, and diarrhoea.' Fig. 46. This engraving represents the narrow and branched vessels (Vasa lacticevtid), SO abundant in Chicory Root, which convey the milky juice of that plant, and also show their relation to the ordinary utricles or ceUs, of which the substance of the root is principally made up. These remarks of course apply to the recent root. Professor John- ston, whose views appear to us more favourable than the facts warrant, thus expressed himself in regard to roasted chicory^: — * It possesses in no degree the pleasant aroma which recommends the genuine roasted coffee. ^ The active ingredients in roasted chicory are, first, the empyreu- niatic volatile oil : this is produced during the roasting : and though * * Chemistry of Common Life.' k2 180 CHICORY AND ITS ABULTEEATIONS. not so fragrant, tliis oil probably exercises upon the system some of the gently excitinir, nerve-soothing, and hunger-staying influence of the similar ingredients contained in tea and coffee ; and, second, the bitter principle. When taken unmixed, this substance is to many, while they are unaccustomed to it, not only disagTeeable, but nauseous in a high degree. It may, however, like many other bitter principles, possess, as I have said, a tonic or strengthening property. Taken in moderate quantities these ingredients of chicory are probably not in- jurious to health, but by prolonged and frequent use they produce heartburn, cramp in the stomach, loss of appetite, acidity in the mouth, constipation with intermittent diarrhoea, weakness of the limbs, tremblings, sleeplessness, a drunken cloudiness of the senses, &c. &c. At the best, therefore, chicory is a substitute for coffee, to which only those to whom the price is an object ought to have recourse.' For ourselves, we would remark that, while chicory is substituted to an enormous extent for coffee, it yet possesses none of the cha- racteristics of a true substitute. We believe that the quantity of ^ empyreumatic essential oil' present is infinitesimal, and that the ^ bitter principle ' consists chiefly of burnt sugar. Although we are not disposed to attach, therefore, much weight to these so-called active ingredients in roasted chicory, it is yet certain that it does contain constituents possessing active and medicinal properties not of a desirable character in an article of food. Thus, it is very certain that the infusion of roasted chicory is aperient. In proof of this we will cite the results of some observations of our own. Three persons partook of chicory at breakfast. The infusion was dark-coloured, thick, destitute of the agreeable and refreshing aroma so characteristic of coffee, and was of a bitter taste. Each individual experienced, for some time after drinking the infu- sion, a sensation of heaviness, a feeling of weight at the stomach, and great indisposition to exertion ; in two, headache set in ; and in the third, the bowels were relaxed. In second and third trials of the chicory, the same feelings, weight at the stomach, and want of energy, were experienced, but no headache or diarrhoea. Several other trials were subsequeutly made, with nearly similar results. But chicory, it will be said, is seldom talcen alone in this country, and when mixed with coffee these effects are not produced. T>vo persons partook, for a considerable period, twice a day, of an article denominated coffee, costing one shilling and sixpence a pound, and largely adulterated with chicoiy: during nearly the whole of this time they both suffered more or less from diarrhoea. From the result of these trials, therefore, we are warranted in con- CHICOEY AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 181 eluding- that at least some doubt is attached to the assertion of the ' wholesome' properties of chicory root as an article of diet. So well are mothers in France and Germany acquainted with the aperient properties of chicory, that they frequently give infants and young* children a strong infusion of the roasted root as an aperient, pre- ferring it to ordinary medicine on account of its less disagreeable flavour. Again, it is the opinion of an eminent oculist in Vienna, Professor Beer, that the continual use of chicory seriously aiFects the nervous system, and gives rise to blindness from amaurosis. These are serious effects of the use of chicory, and shoidd make those in authority hesitate before they foster the use of this article by giving to its sale an undue and unfair preference. The greater part of the chicor}^ used is grown in this country, and does not pay any duty; and yet it is allowed to be mixed to any extent with coffee, an article bearing a high duty. Of the ^nutritive' properties of chicory, of which Sir Charles Wood entertained so high an opinion, we need say but little, feeling assured that the reader will scarcely be disposed to question the accuracy of the assertion, that a mouthful of good wheaten bread contains more nourishment than a cup of infusion of chicory. Chicory and coffee, then, may be thus contrasted. They difter from each other in their botanical nature, in chemical composition, and in physiological action and properties. Coffee is the fruit or seed of a tree, while chicory is the succulent root of a herbaceous plant. Now it is a well-ascertained fact, that of all parts of vegetables, tlie fruit and seeds usually possess the most active properties : this is no doubt due to the circmnstance of their being freely exposed to the influence of light and air — agencies which promote chemical changes in the plant, and so eftect the elaboration of those complex organic substances on which the activity of vegetables depends. On the other hand, it must be manifest, that, as the roots are removed from the influence of these powerful agencies, they cannot be so richly endowed with active properties ; and, indeed, there are but few roots which contain either alkaloid or volatile oil — the constituents which give to coffee its peculiar virtues. The dis- tinction, therefore, between the properties of the seeds and roots of plants is very important, and it is especially so in the case before us. The infusion of the one is heavy, mawkish, and nearly destitute of aroma ; that of the other is light, fragrant, and refreshing. Coffee contains, as already shown, at least three active principles, or constituents, viz., the volatile oil, the tannin, and the alkaloid cafffeine; in chicor}^ there are no analogous constituents. Coffee exerts on the system marked and highly important physio- logical effects, of a beneficial character. There is no proof that chicory exerts any one of these effects, while it is very questionable whether the properties which it does possess are not really hurtful. 182 CHICORY AND ITS ADULTEBATIONS. ADULTERATIONS OF CHICORY. "What ! chicory adulterated ? A substance used to adulterate anotlier article, itself adulterated ? Impossible ! Improbable as the thing appears, it is nevertheless true. When it is remembered that all the vegetable substances employed in the adulteration of coifee require to be charred or roasted, and that to effect this a suitable apparatus is required, such as but few retail grocers possess, it at once becomes at least probable that these substances are prepared for them by other parties. This impression acquires increased force when it becomes known that the majority of grocers buy their chicory, not in nibs, but in poivdet', and that this is supplied to them by certain wholesale chicory houses, which charge for it, in general, a less price than for the nibs, or unground root itself, or than genuine chicory powder can be fairly sold at. The substances which are either substituted for chicory, or mixed with it, are very nmnerous ; several of these we have ourselves detected, while others have been discovered from time to time by different parties. They include all those employed in the adidteration of coffee ; indeed the greater number of substances met with in adulterated coffee are introduced into it through the chicory with which it is mixed. This conclusion is deduced not only from the examination of a con- siderable number of samples of powdered chicory, but from evidence derived from other sources. Dr. Pereira, in 1845, published in the ^ Pharmaceutical Journal ' two very useful articles on the adulteration of coffee and chicory : from the first of these— that on coffee— we extract the following remarks : — ^ But while the grocers, on the one hand, cheat their customers by adulterating coffee with chicory, the chicory dealers in turn cheat the grocers by adulterating chicory •, ' and he then goes on to describe certain adulterations of chicory, as those with Hamhro'' powder and coffee-Jlights. Another circumstance which proves not only that chicoiy is adul- terated, but also that the sellers of chicory powder are in some cases parties to the adulteration, is that the powder is sometimes sold under the market price at which genuine chicory can be procured. The substances with which chicory has been ascertained to be adulterated are, as already stated, all those articles which have been enumerated under coffee ; namely, different kinds of roasted corn, as wheats and rye, beans, acorns, carrots, mangold-iourzel, heet-root, satvdust, baked livers, burnt sugar or blackjack, Venetian red, and other analogous red earths. With regard to the use of carrots and parsnips, Mr. Gay, in evidence CHICORT AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 183 before the Parliamentary Committee of 1855, imder tlie presidency of the late IMr. Scholefield, made the following statement : — ^ I remember, one year when chicory was worth 211. per ton, manu- facturing 700 tons of carrots into chicory. They were grown by one gentleman in Surrey, and supplied to the house where I was, and also 350 tons of parsnips/ Besides the above-named articles, ^ coffee-^flights ' and ' Hamhrd' poivder ' have been used, as also, it has been alleged, exhausted tan, known as Croats, and oak-bark pozvde?*. The following engravings exhibit the microscopical characters of Pier. 46. Sample of Chicory, adulterated with roasted wheat farina. The structures marked a a are the cells and vessels of chicory root, while those marked b b are the starch corpuscles of wheat. No bodies in the least resembling these occur in genuine chicory powder. chicory adulterated with wheat flour, also with a substance resembling ground acorn (figs. 46 and 47). According to Dr. Pereira, ^ Hamhrd' poivder consists of roasted and ground peas, &c., coloured vrith Venetian red. The term coffee-Jlights is applied to the thin membranous coat (endocarp) which separates I'rom the cofFee-seed in the act of roasting.' In Dr. Pereira's article on chicory we meet with the following re- marks in reference to Venetian red : — 184 CHICORY AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. ' In a previous number we explained the nature of Venetian red. It is essentially the sesquioxide of iron, obtained by calcining- common copperas (sulphate of iron). The different colours of the product depend on the temperature to which the sesquioxide is subjected. When it has been exposed to an intense white heat its colour deepens, and it is then termed puiyle-hroiun. The lighter tint of Venetian red Fig. 47. a a, cells of chicory ; b b, fragments containing numerous starch corpuscles, re- sembling those of aco7'n; cc, separate starch granules ; rf c?, portions of a brown membrane, without apparent organisation, very commonly observed, and de- rived from the testae of the seed. is produced by adulteration. Our informant (a manufacturer) told us that Venetian red 'was ^adulterated to suit the various prices of the market.' We did not think it expedient to pry into the nature of the adulterating ingredient, but a friend suggests that it is reddle^ the substance used for marking sheep. ^ Venetian red is, we believe, the principal substance at present used for colouring chicory ; occasionally other agents have been employed. A dealer tells us that he once bought a quantity of chicory which con- tained 20 per cent, of logivood and mahogany ditst.^ CHICORY AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 185 RESULTS or THE EXAMIJs^ATION^ OP SAMPLES. E- The results of the microscopical examination, made some years since, of thirty-four samples of chicory powder, some of which were pur- chased of diiFerent grocers and others obtained from manufacturers, were, — First, lihQX fourteen samples were adulterated. Second, That in ^wVie the adulteration consisted of roasted corn. Third, That ground scorched beans were present in four of the samples. Fourth, That in one case ground acorns was detected. The results of the examination of tioenty-three other samples made at a subsequent period were, — First, That eleven or one-half of the samples were adulterated. Second, That four of the chicory pozvders ivere adulterated with roasted wheat. Third, That ground acoi'ns were p?'esent in an equal number of cases. Fourth, That tivo of the samples contained sawdust, and one mahogany sawdust. Fifth, That mangold-ioui'zel %vas detected in one of the chicories. Sixth, That in one instance roasted carrot 2vas present. Lastly, the results of the examination of thirty-eight additional samples of chicory, both as purchased from shops and as procured from manufacturers, and which examination was instituted mainly for the ])urpose of determining whether Venetian red or other analogous fer- ruginous earth was employed to colour chicory, were, — First, That out of the eighteen samples of chicory procured from manufacturers, Jive were adulterated with roasted wheat farina. Second, That several of the samples jdelded a coloured ash, derived in some cases in part from the soil in which the chicory had been gTown, and from which the roots had been but imperfectly freed. Third, That out of the sixteen samples of chicory purchased at the establishments of different grocers in the metropolis, one was adul- terated with roasted farina. Fourth, That the ashes of several of the samples were highly coloured, indicating the presence of some red ferruginous earth, as reddle or Venetian red. In two samples the incorporation was so imperfect that we were enabled to separate large particles of the Venetian red from the chicory powder. We have now shown, That chicorj^, an article used to adulterate another article, is itself largely adulterated ; That the dealers in or manufacturers of chicory are in many cases the parties who practise this adulteration. We are sony, however, to declare that in those instances in which the retail grocers do not themselves adulterate the chicory they vend, 186 CHICORY AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. we are unable to acquit them, of guilty knowledge of and participation in tlie fraud : this knowledge is displayed in the fact that the grocer frequently purchases chicory in powder at a price at which it is not possible to procure genuine chicory. The prices demanded for the several samples analysed varied from 5d. to Is. per lb. ; the ordinary charge being 8^ Sporules of tlie Fungus found in brown sugar. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 420 diameters. We will now proceed to give a description of the acarus in question, and observe, in the first place, that the whole of its development may be clearly traced out in almost every sample of brown sugar. The AcartL8 sacchan is first \dsible as a rounded body, or q^^ ; this gradually enlarges and becomes elongated and cylindrical until it is about twice as long as broad ; after a time, from the sides, and one extremity of this ovum, the legs and proboscis begin to protrude. These stages of the development of the acarus are exhibited in fig. 64. The acarus thus far formed goes on increasing in size until it b2 244 SUGAH AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. attains its full growth, when it is visible to the naked eye as a mere speck. In its perfect state, its structure is as follows :— The body is oval, or rather somewhat ovate, beinjr broader behind than before ; from its posterior part foiu* long and still' bristles proceed, two together on each side ; and some eight or ten smaller ones are arranged nearly at equal distances around the circumference of the body ; from its anterior part a proboscis of complex organisation proceeds, and from its inferior surface eight legs, jointed and furnished with spines or hairs at each articulation ; the spine which issues from the last joint but one of each leg is very long, and extends much beyond the termina- tion of the leg itself ; lastly, each leg is armed at its extremity with a formidable hook. Many of the above particulars are faithfully exhibited in the engra\'ings, fig. 55 and 56. In most samples of sugar the acari may be seen of all sizes, that is, in all the stages of their growth and in every condition ; some alive, others dead ; some entire, and others broken into fragments ; bodies hsre, legs there. We have said that the sugar-mite is very commonly present in the less pure sugars — we might have asserted that it is almost constantly so, the statement being based upon the examination of not less than omt hundred different samples of sugar. As a rule, the number of acari present in any sample of sugar may be taken as a fair indication of the purity of that sugar ; the purer the sugar, the freer it will be from the sugar-mite. Grocefi's' itch, — It is well known that grocers are subject to an affection of the sldn, denominated ^ grocers' itch,' of which one of the symptoms is extreme irritation and itching. To this disease all gTocers are not equally liable, but those more particularly who are engaged in the ' handling ' of the sugars, as the warehousemen. Now, the Acarus swccAwn actually belongs to the same genus as the Acarus scnhieij or itch-insect, than which, however, it is larger, and possessed of an organisation still more formidable. It thus becomes extremely probable that tlie disease in question does really arise from the sugar acarus — a point, however, which nothing short of microscopic observation can satisfactorily determine. ^ As an article of food ' (says Professor Cameron, who published in 1863 a most interesting pamphlet on the subject of the ^ Suprar Insect') 'sugar unquestionably demands the careful consideration of every one. ... In my capacity of public analyst for the city of Dublin, I have had occasion to examine, more or less minutely, nearly one hundred and fifty specimens of sugar, in quality varying from the purest white to the darkest brown. The greater number of these samples were perfectly genuine ; some were of rather indifferent quality, and the rest, about fifteen,, were so impure as to be quite unfit SUGAR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 245 for use ; tliey abounded in organic filth, and contained gi-eat numbers of diso-usting insects. All the samples of inferior sugar were of the kind known as raw, and in no instance did I detect in the refined article the slightest trace of any substance injurious to the health or repugnant to the feelings. With such facts as these before me, and writino- in the interest of the consumer, I advocate the exclusive use of refined sugar. I unhesitatingly assert that no one who pays any atten- tion to the purity of his food, aware of the nature of the impurities so Fig. 68. A fragment of woody fibre of the Fir, showing its structure. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 200 diameters. frequently abounding in the raw article, could, without a feeling of loathing, make use of it. . . . The use of raw sugar is rapidly on the decline, and I venture to hope that the publication of this little treatise will aid to utterly extinguish it. . . . Dr, Hassall, who was the first to notice the general occurrence of acari in the raw sugar sold in London, found them in a living state in no fewer than 69 out of 72 samples. He did not detect them in a single specimen of refined 246 SUGAR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. sugar. The results of my examination of tlie sugar sold in Dublin coincided pretty closely with Dr. Hassall's experience. In the refined sorts I found nothing but crystallizable and non-crystallizable sugar and a little saline matter ; in the rmo kinds organic and mineral filth, often in great abundance. One of the samples which I examined contained a lai-ger number of insects than I believe had previously been noticed, or at least recorded, by any other observer. In 10 grains weight I estimated no fewer than 500, most of which were so large as to be distinctly visible to the naked eye. It is no ex- aggeration to affirm that there cannot be less than 100,000 of these insects in every pound of this sugar. The assertion (as reported in the newspapers) that one poimd of raw sugar contained 100,000 active insects must no doubt have appeared incredible to some people ; but that I was not guilty of exaggerating the number was proved by the results of other observers. A committee of microscopists, composed of Drs. Aldridge, Minchin, Symes, and Booth, and Mr. Reynolds, visited the workhouse, and, in presence of the officials, examined the sugar, and satisfied themselves that my account of it was, in every respect, an acciu-ate one. Two samples of the sugar were also examined, one by Dr. John Barker, Curator of the Royal College of Surgeons, Ireland; the other by Dr. Hassall, of London, a very eminent authority upon the subject. In 15 grains weight Dr. Hassall found considerably over 100 living insects, or at the rate of 42,000 per pound ; and Dr. Barker estimated no fewer than 1,400 in 45 grains weight, or at the rate of 268,000 acan in each pound weight of sugar.' Another impurity very frequently met with in lump sugar consists of minute sawdust-like fragments, not only of deal, but also of other woods ; they often occur in great abundance, and of their presence it is not easy to give a satisfactory explanation. Possibly they are derived from the board on which the loaf sugar is broken into lumps. The impurities of raw sugar prevail to such an extent, and are of such a nature — consisting of live animalculse or acari, sporules of fungus, grit, woody fibre, ifcc. — that we feel compelled, however reluctantly, to come to the conclusion that the hroicn sw/ai'S of commerce are, in general, in a state unfit for human consumption. We strongly urge the sugar refiner to prepare cheap forms of puri- fied sugar, in powder, analogous to crushed lump ; such sugars are extensively employed in Scotland, Bristol, and elsewhere, and are meeting with a large and ready sale. BESITLTS OF THE EXAMIls^ATION OP SAMPLES. Out of seventy-two samjdes of brotvn sugar, as procured at different shops, subjected to examination, fragments of sugar-cane were present in all but one. These were usually so small that they were visible only by the aid of the microscope. SUGAR AND ITS ADULTEBATIONS. 247 Sporules and Jilaments of fundus were present in nearly all the sugars. The acari were present in sixty-nine of the samples, and in many in very considerable quantities. Grape sugar was detected in all the sugars. Four of the sugars contained proportions of starch so considerable as to lead to the inference that they were adulterated. Eleven other samples of brown sugar, as imported from the East and West Indies, furnished nearly similar results. Two only could be regarded as pure and fit for human consumption — a white, large- grained Calcutta sugar, resembling crushed lump ; and a pale straw- coloured, large-grained, highly crystalline sugar from Oassipore. Both these sugars had no doubt been made from juice purified by filtration. The results of the examination of fifteen samples of lump sugar were — That in none of the sugars were fragments of cane present. That in three of the sugars only were traces of grape sugar to be detected. That in no case were acari observed. That in none of the sugars were sporules and threads of fungi visible. It has now been shown that the majority of brown sugars, although not adulterated, -are yet, as imported into this country and as vended to the public, in an exceedingly impure condition. THE ADULTERATIONS OP CANE SUGAR. Various adulterations have been stated to be practised on sugar ; as with potato sugar, starch, gum and dexti'in, finely powdered marble, chalk or whiting, sand, bone-dust, and common salt. Sugar being soluble in water, it is obvious that, were it to be adulterated with any insoluble substances, the discovery of such adulterations would be very easy and certain, for the only thing necessary would be to dissolve a portion of the sugar and to examine the precipitates which subsided. ~We have examined several hundred samples of sugar, and the only insoluble substance, excluding accidental impurities, Avhich we have met with, has been starch, which was present in small quantities in four samples. There is, therefore, but little foundation for the tales we hear about the presence of sand in sugar. Formerly, however, when sugar was much dearer than at present, it used to be extensively adidterated with an inferior description of sugar made from potato starch by the action upon it of dilute sidphuric acid. But this adulteration has, we believe, ceased. Dr. Letheby, in his evidence given some years since before the Par- liamentary Committee of which Mr. Scholefield was the chairman, 248 SUGAR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. stated, in reply to a question put to hiin by Mr. Alderman Cubitt : ' Is tbere much potato sugar made ? ' — ' A year or two ago ago, when there were diseased potatoes, there were tons made in a week at one establishment I visited. The disease in the potatoes did not touch the starch.' ' A few years ago,' writes Dr. Pereira, 'I inspected an extensive manu- factory of sugar from potato starch at Stratford, in Essex ; the sugar obtained was sold for the adulteration of brown sugar, and the molasses produced was consumed in an oxalic acid manufactory.' There is a practice, termed the ^ Mixing ' or ^ Handling ' of sugar, which, although not an adulteration, may here be described. It con- sists in mixing together, in various proportions, sugar of different qualities and prices — as moist sugars with dry ones, very brown sugars with those of light colour — the resulting article presenting a tolerable appearance to the eye, but being rarely what it professes to be — real Jamaica or Demerara sugar. In reference to this subject some remarks from the work of Dr. ScoiFern on the manufacture of sugar may be quoted : — ' If the West Indian sugar-growers were to be furnished at once with a never-failing means of producing a lar^e-grained, and there- fore an easily cured, sugar, to the exclusion of all other sorts, their produce would have to encounter a difficulty which the consumer would scarcely imagine. Such large-grained sugars are very un- favourable to the perpetration of certain mysterious operations of legerdemain termed " handling," which grocers understand too well. They will not mix. A small-grained sugar may readily be incorpo- rated with glucose, with pieces or bastards, and other less innocent bodies, without such incorporation being discoverable to the eye. A large-grained sugar, on the other hand, is a most refractory material for these little manipulations ; its crystals, no matter how mingled with contaminating agents, never ceasing to manifest their native bril- liancy, and thus proclaiming the fraud. It is most easy, then, to understand why the grocer, as a rule, does not encourage these large- grained sugars. He cannot " handle " them, and therefore brands them with a fault. He says they are deficient in saccharine matter — that they will not sweeten.' THE DETECTION OF THE ADULTERATIONS OF SUGAR. As we have seen, sugar, on the whole, is liable to but little adul- teration, although the raw sugars of commerce contain many im- purities. The chief adulterations which have been detected are those with starch and starch sugar. Other articles alleged to have been used for its adulteration are ffum, dexti'in, chalk or xohitingy gypsum, sandj hcme-dust, and common salt. These substances, except the gum and salt, are all insoluble in water ; for their separation and identifica- tion nothing more in general would be necessary than to dissolve a I SUGAK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 249 portion of the sugar, to allow tlie precipitate to subside, and to examine it with the eye, and occasionally by chemical reagents. If the sugar be adulterated with gum we must proceed as follows : — 5 grammes of the sugar must be dissolved in boiling spirits of wine. The greater part of the giun will remain undissolved, and may be identified by its general characters ; or the gum may be precipitated from its aqueous solution by means of acetate of lead, and estimated by evaporation and drying after the removal of the lead. Dextrin, which is intermediate in its characters between giun and starch, may be quantitatively estimated in the same manner as the gum ; but it is not precipitated by acetate of lead, unless with the addition of ammonia ; dextrin is further distinguished from gum by the purplish colour to which it gives rise when treated with a solution of iodine, as also by the circumstance that under the microscope the remnants of the starch corpuscles are still visible in many cases. The presence of farinaceous substances may be thus ascertained. The precipitate obtained after the solution of the sugar in cold water should be treated with a little iodine; or, better still, it may be examined with the microscope, and the characters of the starch cor- puscles determined. The quantity of starch present may be ascertained by collecting, drying, and weighing the residue, or by its conversion into glucose by means of dilute sulphuric acid in the manner described under 'Flour.' Sta?'ch sugar is chemically identical with grape sugar ; and since, as we have shown, this description of sugar is present to some extent in all the brown sugars of commerce, it is evident that the analysis necessary to enable the chemist to state whether the sugar is adulterated with starch sugar or not must be a quantitative one, and that he is only justified in concluding that a sugar is adulterated with that substance when the proportion discovered forms a considerable percentage of the whole article. The process for the detection and estimation of this description of sugar will be found described under the head of ' The Analysis of Sugar.' We now come to notice, generally and very briefly, the methods whereby the alleged mineral adulterations of sugar may be deter- mined. Carbonate of lime or chalk will be sufficiently discriminated by its insolubility in water and its eflfervescence on the addition of acids, but the full details of the process necessary for the exact identification and estimation of this substance will be found described in the article on * Water.' Sulphate of lime or gypsum may be estimated after its solution in hydrochloric acid by precipitating the sulphiu-ic acid by means of chloride of barium and the lime by oxalate of ammonia, as elsewhere more fully described. Bone earth or phosphate of lime is, of course, insoluble in water, and 250 SUGAR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. will collect at the bottom of the vessel. If now it be separated by filtration and treated with a little nitrate of silver, it will become of a bright yellow colour, or it may be estimated after its solution in nitric acid in the manner described in the articles on ' Tea ' and ^ Water.' The method for the detection and estimation of chloride of sodium will also be found fully stated in the article on * Water.' Lastly, the sand is distinguished by its insolubility in mineral acids, and it may be readily dried and weighed. COLOURED SUGAR CONFECTIONERY. 251 CHAPTER IX. COLOURED SUGAR CONFECTIONERY. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Any foreign substances added for the sake of bulk, "whether vegetable or mineral, such as plaster of Paris, chalk, starch, &c. ; any poisonous or injurious colouiing matter, whether mineral or vegetable, such as combinations of arsenic, antimony, coppe*, lead, mercury, iron, or aniline colours contaminated with arsenic. The adulteration of articles of sugar confectionery is a subject of tlie very greatest importance in a sanitary point of view : that it must be so is evident when we consider the poisonous character of many of the substances used, and also the large consumption of tbese articles, especially by children and yoimg persons. That these articles are subject to gross and injurious adulteration has long been known, and the subject is particularly referred to even by Accmn and other early writers on adulteration. Dr. O'Shaughnessy, in the preface to a paper on coloured sugar confectionery^ published in the Lancet y in 1883, made these remarks : — ^ In the following observations it is my principal aim to lay before the public and the medical profession a calm, dispassionate 'statement of the existence of various poisons (gamboge, lead, copper, mercury, and chromate of lead) in several articles of confectionery, the prepara- tion of which, from their peculiar attractions to the younger branches of the community, has grown into a separate and most ex- tensive branch of manufacture. I am fully aware of the hazardous task that individual undertakes who ventures in this country to sig- nalise such abuses.' THE ADULTERATIONS OF SFGAE CONEECTIONERT. Of all the chief varieties of articles of sugar confectionery, we have subjected some hundreds to both microscopical and chemical examination, but we here give the results only of the analyses of 101 samples made some time back. From an examination of this series of analyses, it appears : — Of the yellows — That seven were coloured with lemon chrome, or the pale variety of CHROMATE OF LEAD. T\iQ.iJive were coloured with orange chrome, or the deep variety of CHROMATE OF LEAD. 252 COLOURED SUGAR CONFECTIONERY. That forty-seven were coloured with the bright or canary-coloured • variety of chromate of lead. That eleven of the samples were coloured with gamboge. While the colour of the majority of the above samples was con- fined to the surface, in many other cases it w^as diffused equally throughout the whole mass of the sugar used. Of the reds — That sixty-one were coloured with organic pink colouring matters, consisting in most cases of Coccus Cacti, or cochineal. That in tioelve of the samples the colouring matter was red lead, red oxide oe lead, or minium. That in six cases the colouring ingredient consisted of vermilion, CINNABAR, or BISULPHURET OF MERCURY. • Of the browns — That eight were coloured with h'oivn ferruginous earths, either Vandyke hrown^ umher, or sienna. Of the purples — That two samples were coloured with a mixture of Antioerp Hue, which consists principally of Prussian blue, and an organic red pigment, most probably cochineal. Of the blues — That 07ie was coloured with indigo. That eleven w^ere coloured with Prussian blue, or ferrocyanide of iron. That eleven w^ere coloured with Antioei-p blue, which is a modifica- tion of Prussian blue. That in fifteen samples the colouring matter consisted of German OR ARTIFICIAL ULTRAMARINE, which is a double silicate of alu- mina and soda with sulphuret of sodium. Of the greens — That five samples were coloured with the pale variety of Bruns- wick GREEN. That four were coloured with middle Brunswick green. That one was coloured with the deep variety of Brunswick green. These greens consist of a mixture, in different proportions, of the CHROMATES OF LEAD and Prussian blue. That one sample was coloured with verditer or carbonate of COPPER. That nine were coloured with Scheele's green, emerald green, or ARSENITE OF COPPER. That in four of the samples the colours used were painted on with WHITE LEAD or CARBONATE OF LEAD. This was the casB in all the cake ornaments. COLOURED SUGAR CONFECTIONERY. 253 It further appears from tlie above analyses — That thirteen of the samples were adulterated with hydrated sul- phate of lime, the quantity varying from 4*3 to 43-66 per cent. That twenty-one of the samples were adulterated with difi'erent kinds oi flour, in quantities varying from 1*66 to 25*56 per cent. In seventeen samples the farina consisted of wheat flour ; in three, Qi potato flour , and in one, of East India arrowroot. The ahove colours were variously combined in different cases ; as many as three, four, five, six, and even seven colours occurring in the same parcel of confectionery, including three and even four poisons. The following specimens are of this kind : — Sugar seeds. — The colours of one sample of sugar seeds were crimson, pale pink, liyht blue, dull f/reenish-hlue, light grass-green, orange-yelloio, and lemon-yelloiu, intermixed with white globules. The colouring ingredients employed were : for the crimson and pink, the usual non-metallic red', for the blue, Antiuerp blue; for the dull, greenish-blue, verditek, containing lead ; for the grass-green, pale Brunswick green ; and for the orange and bright yellows, the orange and yellow chromates of lead, in large quantity. Ash, light reddish- brown, 1*06 per cent. ; matter insoluble in water, chiefly ivheat flour, 9 '60 per cent. Thus no less than three active poisoTis containing lead and copper were present in this sample in considerable amount. Dog and hare. — The nose and ears of the dog, and the tongue of the hare, were coloured bright red with vermilion. The body of the dog is spotted with large patches of gamboge and burnt umber, as also was the figure of the hare which lay at its feet; while the green pigment on the base, of which there was a very large quantity, con- tained CHROMATE OF LEAD, and Consisted of the pale variety of Bruns- wick GREEN. Ash, dark reddish-brown, 2*0 per cent. Mixed sugar ornaments. — The confectionery in this parcel is made up into a variety of forms and devices, as hats, jugs, baskets, and dishes of fruit and vegetables. One of the hats is coloured yellow vnth CHROMATE OF LEAD, and has a green hatband around it coloured with ARSENITE OF COPPER ; a secoud hat is white, with a blue hatband, the pigment being Prussian blue. The baskets are coloured yellow with CHROMATE OF LEAD ; into the colouring of the pears and peaches the usual non-metallic red pigment, chromate of lead, and middle Brunswick green, enter largely ; while the carrots represented in a dish are coloured throughout with red oxide of lead, and the tops with the same green. This is one of the worst of all the samples of coloured sugar confectionery submitted to analysis, as it contains no less than four deadly poisons. Twelfth-cake ornaments. — The ornaments in this parcel consisted of a ship in full sail, a duck, a fox, and a bunch of flowers, the prin- 254 .COLOURED SUGAR CONFECTIONERY. cipal colours being green, yellow, red, and brown ; the cbief pigments employed are chromate of lead, red oxide of lead or eed lead, VERMLLiON, Sienna, and arsenite of copper : these being present in poisonous quantity. It will be observed that the list of colouring matters above enume- rated includes some substances of an injurious character, and many which are amongst the most virulent and deadly of the mineral poisons. Of those which may be considered as more or less injurious are ferro- cyanide of iron or Prvssian blue, Antioeij) hlue^ gamboge, and German or artificial ultramarine. Amongst those which are deadly and poison- ous, are — the three chrome yellows or chromates of lead ; red LEAD or red oxide OF LEAD; WHITE LEAD Or CARBONATE OF LEAD; vermilion or bisulphuret of mercury ; the three Brtjn^swick greens; verditer or carbonate of copper: and emerald green, Scheele's green, or arsenite of copper. Other articles which have been stated to be used in the colouring of sugar confectionery, and most of which we have ourselves detected, are clay, chalk, Naples yellow, sulphuret of arsenic, massicot or oxide of lead, acetate and oxychloride of copper. It may be alleged by some that these substances are employed in quantities too inconsiderable to prove injurious ; but this is certainly not so, for the quantity used, as is amply indicated in many cases by the eye alone, is often very large, and sufficient, as is proved by num- berless recorded instances, to occasion disease, and even death. It should be remembered, too, that the preparations of lead, mercury, copper, and arsenic, are what are termed cumulative — that is, they are liable to ac- cumulate in the system little by little, until at length the full effects of the poisons become manifested. Injurious consequences have been known to result from merely moistening wafers with the tongue ; now, the in- gredients used for colouring these include many that are employed in sugar confectionery: how much more injurious then must the consump- tion of sugar thus painted prove, when the pigments are actually received into the stomach ! That deadly poisons, like the above, should have been daily used for the mere sake of imparting colour to articles of such general consump- tion as sugar confectionery — articles consumed chiefly by children, who from their delicate organisation are much more susceptible than adults — is both surprising and lamentable. It is surprising, on the one hand, that the manufacturers of these articles should have been so reckless as to employ them ; and, on the other, that the authorities should have tolerated their use. Dr. Thomson furnished the Parliamentary Committee on Adultera- tion, in 1855, with the following particulars regarding the adulteration of sugar confectionery with terra alba or sulphate of lime : — ^ I procured from a great manufactory of those substances specimens at different prices. There were about ten different samples, of which I have the details here ; I will first speak of what are called mints, at 7d, a pound j they contained 3*03 per cent, of a substance which is COLOURED SUGAR CONFECTIONERY. 255 sold under tlie name of terra alba. This terra alba I found to be plaster of Paris. The second sample, at 84s. per cwt., contained 20-84 per cent, of terra alba. The third was caraways, at 6d. a pound, and contained 27*82 of terra alba. The fourth, another specimen of car- aways, at 8^. a pound, contained 19*22 per cent, of terra alba. The sixth, almonds, at 10^. a pound, contained '96 per cent, of terra alba. The seventh, another sample, at Sd. a pound, contained 7*02 per cent, of terra alba. The eighth sample, at 8c?., contained 22*76 of terra alba. Raspberries, at 9^. a pound, contained 7*76 of terra alba. Straw- berries, at 9d. a pound, contained 8*28 per cent, of terra alba.' Mr. Gay states, in the course of his evidence before the above Com- mittee : — ^ I believe many articles of confectionery are adulterated ; I think caraway comfits are very extensively adulterated, and also many of the peppermint lozenges. I believe the basis of both those and cori- ander and almond comfits are flour ; after the seeds are put into the pan, a little syrup is thrown over them, and that is dusted over with either Jlou?' or ichiting, or plaster of Paris ; a pretty strong coat is put over them in this way, and then they are finished with a stronger and better syrup. White lead used in sugar cake ornaments is itself often extensively adulterated with sulphate of baryta. Flavouring imth Essences, Further, many articles of sugar confectionery are flavoured with 'essences, 'which are often of an injurious and even dangerous character, some of them containing prussic acid, and many of them being prepared from fusel oil. The most important of these are ethers, belonging to the mon-' atomic series, as acetate of ethyl, C2H30,02H.O ; hutyrate of ethyl, 641170,021150, or essence of pine-apples; a similar compound is formed with methyl, having the like odour of the pine-apple ; acetate of amyl or essence of jargonelle pear, C^HLfifi^H^fi ; valerianate of amyl or apple oil, G^^QO,C^ll^fi. They are all prepared by distilling a mix- ture of the respective acids and alcohols with oil of vitriol. In reference to the use of these essences, much information will be found in the evidence given before the Parliamentary Committee on Adulteration of 1855, already so frequently referred to. ^I have heard,' states Professor Taylor, ^that some of the Jargonelle pear drops and the ribstone pippin drops have produced drowsiness and stupour in children. It is an imposition on the public to sell in this way a chemically flavoured substance under another name.' A very fragrant fruity essence may be produced from rotten cheese, by treatment with sulphuric acid' and bichromate of potash. Another essence extensively used for flavouring sweetmeats and confectionery is ratajia, essential oil of almonds, essence of peach kernels or hydride of benzoyl, C^HgO. It is obtained by distilling bitter 256 COLOURED SUGAR CONFECTIONERY. almond cake with water, and it contains from six to twelve per cent, of prvssic or hydrocyanic acidy OHN, but is most variable in its strength. As small a quantity as twenty drops has been known to occasion death. There is another compound of prussic acid, called ^almond flavour ;* it contains about one drachm of the essential oil to seven drachms of spirit, but its strength varies very much. Many fatal cases have re- sulted from the use of this flavouring substance. The prussic acid in these preparations is not essential to their flavour, and might with a little care be readily separated, so that, as Professor Taylor remarks in his evidence before the Parliamentary Committee on Adulteration, ^ there is no excuse for selling prussic acid in these compounds but laziness and ignorance.' For further information respecting ^ Artificial Fruit Essences,' the reader is referred to the article on ^ Jams and Preserves.' Poisonous papers used as wrappe?*s of sugar confectionery. — Lastly, the papei's in which the ornaments are wrapped are frequently coloured with various poisonous pigments — a practice which ought to be for- bidden, since children are very apt to put these papers in their mouths and suck them. In some other countries, as France, Belgium, and Switzerland, manufacturers of sugar confectionery have long been forbidden to use injurious colouring ingredients under severe penalties. Sellers of these articles in Paris are also obliged to put their names on every parcel of confectionery they sell ; they are held responsible for all accidents which may arise from their consumption, and they are even forbidden to wrap the articles in coloured papers. FoUowing the example of the Council of Health of Paris, we now furnish two lists, one of colours the use of which may be permitted, and the other, of those colours the employment of which should be strictly prohibited, on the ground that they are all more or less dan- gerous to the public health, and most of them absolutely poisonous : — List of Colours, the Use of which may he permitted. Yellows. Safiron. Turmeric. French berries. Lake of ditto, or yellow lake. Persian berries. Lake of ditto. Quercitron bark. Lake of ditto. Fustic wood. Lake of ditto. List of Colours, the Use of which should he prohibited. Yellows. Gamboge. The three chrome yellows, or chromates of lead. Massicot, or protoxide of lead. Yellow orpiment, or sulphuret of arsenicum. Elng's yellow, or sulphuret of arsenicum, with lime and sul- phur. Iodide of lead. Sulphuret of antimony, or Naples yellow. Yellow ochre. COLOtlRED SUGAR CONTECTIONEKT, 257 List of Colours , the Use of which may be pei'mitted, Beds. CocMneal. Lakes of ditto. Carmine and Brazil wood. Lakes of ditto. Pink madder lake. PuEPIiES. Madder purple. Logwood and indigo. Any of the lakes, with indigo or litmus. Bltjes. Indigo. Litmus. Greeks. Sap green (juice of Rhamnus ca- tharticus). Yellow lake, or French berries, and indigo. List of Colours, the Use of which should he prohibited. Beds. Red lead, minium, or red oxide of lead. Vermilion, or hisulphuret of mer- cury. Red orpiment, realgar, or hisul- phuret of arsenic. Iodide of mercury. Red ferruginous earths, as Vene- tian red, &c. Browns. Vandyke brown. Umber. PlTEPLES. All purples resulting from the mixture of any of the prohibited reds or blues. Bltjes. Prussian blue, or ferrocyanide of iron Indigo. Antwerp blue, a preparation of Prussian blue. Cobalt. Smalt, a glass of cobalt. Blue verditer, or sesquicarbonate of copper. Ultramarine, a double silicate of alumina and soda, with sulphu- ret of sodimn. German or artificial ultramarine, which resembles in its compo- sition natural ultramarine. Greens. The three false Brunswick greens, being mixtures of the chromates of lead and indigo. Mineral green, green verditer, or subcarbonate of copper. 258 COLOURED SUGAR CONFECTIONERY. List of Colours, the Use of which may he permitted. Greens. Any of the vegetable yellows, or lakes, with indigo, including Persian berries and indigo. Ohs. — Of the above colours one, sap green, is certainly liable to injurious adulteration, and it is stated that litmus is so likewise. List of Colours, the Use of ichich should he prohibited. Greens. Verdigris, or diacetate of copper. Emerald green, or arsenite of copper. The true Brunswick greens, or oxy chlorides ' of copper. False verditer, or subsulphate of copper and chalk. The various Bronze Powders. Gold, silver, and copper bronzes ; these consist of alloys, in differ- ent proportions, of copper and zinc. White lead, or carbonate of lead. A great variety of colours are now prepared from coal tar, nearly every tint being imitated. Against the employment of these dyes^ in- cluding the aniline dyes, there is little to be urged, provided they are pure. Unfortunately, however, they are frequently contaminated with arsenic, and hence their indiscriminate use is much to be condemned. By an examination of these lists, it will be perceived that nearly all the substances formerly employed by the manufacturers of co- loured sugar confectionery belonged to the second or prohibited list. Even the first list contains the names of two or three colours, the use of which is not wholly free from objection — as indigo, litmus, and sap green ; the two latter in consequence of their liability to adulteration. Genuine litmus, being a vegetable colour, is of course harmless ; but its use is rendered objectionable from its being frequently adulter- ated, according to M. Andral, with common arsenic and peroxide of mercury. From ultramarine, in contact with an acid, sulphuretted hydrogen is freely liberated ; and this liberation no doubt takes place readily in the stomach when any confectionery coloured by this pigment is par- taken of : hence the use of this pigment is objectionable. The danger of colouring articles of sugar confectionery arises, not merely from the wilful employment of substances of known hurtful- ness, but also from their use through ignorance and accident. The excuse of ignorance may tell somewhat in favour of manufacturers who, in some cases, may not be aware of the deadly nature of the articles which they daily use, knowing them by their common or popular names. The results recorded in these analyses are really of a very serious character, and we can well remember the time when the state of things COLOURED SUGAR CONFECTIONERY. 2o9 we have here portrayed was even worse. Of late years, however, great improvement has taken place in the colouring of articles of sugar con- fectionery, and now it is by no means common to meet with verdigris or acetate of ocpper, with the verditers or carbonates of copper, or with mineral green or arsenate of copper, all of which are virulent poisons. A few of the cases of poisoning resulting from the use of coloured sugar confectionery will be found recorded in ^ Food and its Adul- terations.' THE DETECTION OF THE ADULTERATIONS OF SUGAR CONFECTIONERY. We will now proceed to give some brief directions, which may prove of assistance to others who may desire to analyse for themselves any suspected samples of coloured confectionery. We shall, however, confine our directions chiefly to the detection of those substances which we have ourselves discovered in the different samples subjected to examination. From the large number of analyses which we have made, and the results of which we have already made known, the pigments detected will embrace certainly all the most important of those which are ordinarily employed in the coloration of confectionery. Of the colours used, some are soluble in water, and others in- soluble ; the former include nearly all the vegetable colours, and the latter most of the mineral colours. In this particular, therefore, there is a broad distinction between vegetable and mineral colouring mat- ters, which will be found very useful in guiding us in our subsequent operations. In the majority of cases there is but one colouring matter present, and this is usually confined to the surface of the various articles oi confectionery, while in other cases different colours are used in the same article. When the colour is confined to the surface, it is readily removed by washing in distilled water, from which, if mineral or in- soluble, it will usually be precipitated after standing for some time, and it may then be obtained in an almost unmixed state, and weighed. When the colour is diffiised throughout the whole of the article, the same end can be accomplished by dissolving it in water ; the sugar will be removed by the water, and the colouring matter will subside. But should the article contain starch, or any other insoluble substance, it, of course, goes down with the colouring matter. When different colours occur in the same article, they must each be separately washed and tested. In many cases a shorter method of proceeding than the above may be adopted. The confectionery, when it is supposed to be coloured with a fixed metallic salt, may be incinerated in a capsule, and the ash tested. Nearly all the pigments used may be referred to one or other of the following colours : red, yelloiv, hlue,greenj broivrij and purple] other s2 260 COLOURED SUGAR CONFECTIONERY. tints occur, wliich are formed by various combinations of the primary- colours. Vegetable, Animal, and Mineral Reds, If the red or pink colouring matter be of a vegetable nature, or in- deed if it consist of Coccus cacti or cochineal, this may be ascertained by simply immersing a small portion of the coloured comfit or lozenge in a solution of caustic potash, and another piece in acetic acid ; if it be a vegetable colour, or the animal colouring matter cochineal, it will become purplish in the alkaline, and brilliant red in the acid solution. If the colour be not thus affected, then there is reason to suppose that it is a mineral colouring matter, most probably either red lead or ver- milion. Inasmuch as many red and pink comfits, &c., are coloured with non-metallic colouring matter, it is as well to try them all in this way in the first instance, and so save ourselves the trouble of analysing each for metallic pigments. Mineral i^eds. — The red oxide of lead may be obtained either by washing or by incinerating the comfits. If we desire simply to ascertain whether the red pigment consist of lead or not, we have only to treat it with a drop or so of nitric acid, and to add subsequently a little solution of sulphuretted hydrogen ; these reagents may often be applied to the pigment upon the article of sugar confectionery, by which means we are enabled to ascertain in a minute or so whether the colouring matter consist of or contain lead or not. We may proceed in the same way to detect the lead in massicot, in the chromates of lead, either pure or when mixed with Prussian blue, as in the different Brunswick greens, only that in the case of the chromates and Brunswick greens it is best to use hydro- chloric acid as a solvent for the lead. We have stated that most of the mineral pigments may be procured in a separate state by washing out the sugar. Having in this case, by a preliminary trial, ascertained that the pigment we have to deal with consists of red lead, we have nothing more to do than to dry and weigh it in order to determine the quantity present. But in some cases, owing to the use of starch, chalk, or other adul- terating ingredient, it will not be possible to obtain the preparation of lead or other pigment in a separate state. We must then proceed as follows, to determine the amount of lead present : — The lead must be precipitated from the solution of the ash, either as a sulphuret or as sulphate of lead ; this must be collected, dried, weighed, and the lead calculated from it. There is one source of fallacy which must be guarded against. If the sugar be adulterated with sulphate of lime, the lead may escape detection proceeding in this manner, in consequence of its being con- verted into a sulphate : in this case the soluble portion of the ash having been removed, the remainder should be fused with a mixture of nitre and bisulphate of potash ; the residue, after having been well washed I COLOURED SUGAR CONFECTIONERY. 261 witli water, is to be treated witli a solution of ammoniacal tartrate of ammonia, by wbich. means the sulphate of lead is taken up, and may be precipitated by means of sulphuretted hydrogen. The hisfidphuret of mercury or vermilion, after being obtained in as pure a state as possible by washing, must be dissolved in nitro-hydro- chloric acid, and must be tested in the manner described in the article on ^ Cayenne.' It is no uncommon thing to meet with, in the same red pigment, both lead and mercury, vermilion being very subject to adul- teration with red lead. Detection of the Yellotc Colours, The yellows, like the reds, may be either vegetable or mineral ; but, contrary to what was found to be the case with the reds, the yellow colouring matters employed are for the most part mineral, consisting frequently of lemons or or anger-chromes, both these being chromates of lead, and sometimes of either Naples yellotv or massicot. Mineral yellows. — All the yellows should therefore be tested for lead in the first instance. For this purpose the surface of the comfit should be touched with hydrochloric acid, which usually destroys the colour at once if it be a salt of lead, especially a chromate ; afterwards a drop of a solution of sulphiu*etted hydrogen should be applied to the same spot as the acid, when, if lead be present, it will become more or less black according to the quantity. If the pigment contain lead, in all probability it is one of the chromates, and if not one of these, massicot, which consists of the protoxide of lead. The colour of Naples yellow is almost sufficient to distinguish it from the chromates of lead. Naples yellow, or sulphu7'et of antimony, may be thus identified : — Dissolve the pigment in hydrochloric acid, add tartaric acid diluted with water, treat with sulphuretted hydrogen, when, if antimony is present, an orange-red precipitate will subside very different from that of sulphuret of arsenic. Vegetable yelloics. — Those articles which are not found to contain lead should be subsequently tested for gamboge, which is the next •pigment most commonly employed ; and if it do not prove to be this, then a portion of the comfit should be moistened with a solution of caustic potash, when, if it become decidedly browned, the coloiu'ing matter will be vegetable, and most likely turmeric, saffron^ or yelloio lake, ^vhich is usually formed from the colouring matter of French berries thrown down by alumina or lime, but it may be made from any vege- table yellow; these vegetable yellows were formerly not so frequently employed, on account of their liability to alter and fade on exposure to the air and light. If the pigment be gamboge, it will form, with distilled water, a yellowish opaque emulsion, which will not let fall any deposit. This emulsion should be evaporated to dryness, and alcohol added to the 262 COLOURED SUGAR CONFECTIONERY. residuum ; the alcohol will take up the gamboge, and when water ia added to the solution, the gamboge will be precipitated. If to the yellow precipitate a drop or two of strong ammonia be now added, it is redissolved, producing a blood-red solution, from which it is pre- cipitated pale yellow by nitric acid. Turmeric gives nearly the same reactions, and therefore much care is requisite to discriminate between the two. Turmeric does not form so decided an emulsion with water as gamboge. The Detection of the Blue Colours. The bluss may be also either vegetable or mineral) the former include litmus and indigo ; and the latter, Prussian blue, Anttverp blue, the two verditerSy which consist of carbonate of copper, the only dif- ference between them being, that the paler verditer is diluted with lime ; cobalt ; smalt, which is a glass of cobalt powdered : and artificial ultramaHne, which is made in imitation of true ultramarine or lazulite. Vegetable blues, — The vegetable blue, litmus, is sufficiently dis- tinguished by its becoming red on the addition of weak acids. This pigment is manufactured from several species of a lichen (JRocella), and, when genuine, is innocuous. In a Report of M. Andral, ad- dressed some years since to the Prefect of Police, it is stated that some manufacturers mix common arsenic and peroxide of mercury with litmus, and M. Andral therefore considers that its use in the colouring of sweet confectionery should be prohibited. Indigo is sufficiently distinguished by its subliming in dense violet vapours when heated, by forming a blue solution with concentrated sulphuric acid, and by its remaining unchanged in alkalies. Mineral blues. — The colour of ferrocyanide of iron, or Prussian blue, is immediately discharged on the addition of the caustic alkalies, the iron being thrown down in the state of peroxide, when, if necessary, the iron may be collected and weighed ; the colour is also destroyed by incineration, the red oxide of iron only being left, which may be weighed and calculated into Prussian blue. Antiverp blue is Prussian blue, the colour of which is rendered lighter and brighter in consequence of its dilution with some colour- less material, usually chalk. The tests for Antwerp blue are there- fore the same as for Prussian blue, those for carbonate of lime or chalk being superadded. This and the preceding pigment is in general sufficiently distinguished by adding a drop or so of solution of am- monia or potash direct to them upon the sugar, these reagents at once destroying the blue colour. The vei'diters are cai'bonates of copper distinguished from other salts of copper by the escape of carbonic acid on the addition of any mineral acid ; when boiled for a long time, or heated carefully, the carbonic acid escapes, and the pigment becomes brown. The tests for i COLOURED SUGAR CONFECTIONERY. 263 copper^ and tlie method by which, it may be determined quantitatively, will be found described under the head of ^ Pickles.' The remaining blue pigments, cobalt ^ smalt, and ultramarine, are distinguished by their colour being fixed in the fire, so that the ash of sugar articles coloured with any of these substances is of a bright blue, the tint varying according to the blue used, as well as also in consequence of admixture with uncoloured substances, such as chalk, sulphate of lime, or pipeclay. These colours are somewhat expensive, especially the true ultramarine, but they are of such intensity that a little goes a great way ; there is, however, a cheap kind of ultrama- rine, sold in the shops as German or Frefnch ultramarine , the price being about sixpence per ounce, and it is this blue pigment which is chiefly employed in the colouring of sugar confectionery. It con- sists of a double silicate of alumina and soda with sulphuret of sodimn, and it may be distinguished, when free from admixture with other substances, by adding to it a little hydrochloric acid, and observing the odour of sulphuretted hydrogen evolved. This method of dis- crimination is, in the case of coloured sugar confectionery, for the most part inapplicable, since sulphuretted hydrogen is almost invariably thrown on whenever hydrochloric acid is added to the ash left on the incineration of most articles of sugar confectionery. The pigment ought therefore to be procured in a separate state, by washing, and the acid applied to it when dry. TJie Detection of the Green Colours, Vegetable greens. — Of the greens, there is but one vegetable green used — namely, sap green.. This is prepared from the green berries of the buckthorn, Wiamnus catharticvs ; but its use is to be objected to on account of its frequent adulteration with green metallic pig- ments, containing either copper or arsenic, in order to heighten its colour and render it more permanent. It is bleached by chlorine and acids. Metallic greens. — Of the metallic greefns, some are simple colours, while others are composed of a blue and a yellow mixed. The simple greens are acetate of copper or veftdigris, and arsenite of copper, emerald green or ScheeWs green. Acetate of copper is distinguished from other green salts of copper by the action of sulphuric acid -, the acetic acid is liberated, and may be detected by its odour. Ai'senite of copper is best recognised by means of the arsenic, of which it is in part composed : a portion of the colouring matter sepa- rated from the sugar by washing, when perfectly dry, is placed in a test-tube open at both ends, the heat of a spirit-lamp being applied outside the tube; this will cause the arsenic to sublime, and, con- flensing on the cool side of the tube, it forms a white substance, 264 COLOURED SUGAR CONFECTIONERY. wliich, examined witli a low power of tlie microscope, is ascertained to consist of minute octahedral crystals of arsenious acid. This test is perfectly conclusive. The compound greens ordinarily used are those commonly sold as Brunswick greens ; they are the colours usually employed in making green paint, and are of three different tints, known as pale, middle, and deep Brunswick green. They consist of a mixture, in various proportions, of usually Antwerp blue, but sometimes ultramarine, and chromate of lead. When obtained in any quantity from the confectionery, and diffused through water in a shallow dish, the two colours easily separate, and may be distinguished by the eye alone. They may usually be recognised, without the trouble of procuring them in a separate state by washing, by adding reagents direct to these pigments as they cover the sugar ornament. If ammonia or potash be added, the green colour disappears, and is replaced by a yellow ; that of the Prussian blue being destroyed by the alkali, the chromate of lead comes into view again ; if the pigment is touched with hydro- chloric acid it becomes blue, this arising from the solution of the chromate of lead by the acid. These are ready and very satisfactory tests. Other compound greens are occasionally made by mixing a yellow pigment, usually pale chrome, with one or other of the verditers. The true Brunsvsdck greens are oxychlorides of copper, but these, being very expensive, are seldom employed. The oxychlorides of coryper may be thus distinguished from the other green salts of copper. Dissolve the pigment in a little pure and dilute nitric acid, add nitrate of silver, when, if a white precipitate ensue, it consists of chloride of silver, which is soluble in ammonia. The Detection of the Brown Colours, They are distinguished by the iron contained in them. The Detection of the Purple Colours, The purple colour sometimes met with in sugar confectionery is usually composed of a mixture of Antwerp blue and some vegetable pink, as rose-pink, the lakes, or cochineal. We must therefore test for the pigments named by the methods already indicated. The Detection of Bronze Powders, Bronze powders consist of an alloy of copper and zinc : usually they are sufficiently distinguished by their metallic appearance ; in doubt- ful cases they may be dissolved by means of nitric acid, the excess of acid got rid of by evaporation, and the aqueous solution tested for copper and zinc ; the solution should be separated into two equal portions : the one tested for copper in the usual manner, from the other the copper should be removed by means of sulphuretted hydrogen, and the filtrate tested for zinc as described under ^ Yinegar.' COLOUKED SUGAR CONFECTIONERY. 265 The Detection of Chalky Plaster of Paris, and Clay. Having completed the description of tlie methods by which the nmnerous pigments employed to colour sugar confectionery may be detected, it now remains only to indicate the processes by which the other substances, not pigments, either ascertained to be used by ourselves or others in the adulteration of sugar confectionery, may be discovered. The principal of these substances are various kinds of starch, chalk, hydrated sulphate of lime, and white potters^ clay, pipe clay, or Cmmish clay. Ordinary plaster of Paris, although stated to be employed in the manufacture of confectionery intended to be eaten, can scarcely ever be so, since when this is moistened with water it quickly becomes solid, retaining its solid state after incineration ; on the other hand, hydrated sulphate of lime does not remain solid, and when exposed to a red heat it is still a powder. The processes for the qualitative and quantitative determination of this and the following salt are described in the article on ^ Tea.^ CJialk is sufficiently identified by its appearance, by its efi*ervescing on the addition of an acid, and by the lime thrown down from its solution by oxalate of ammonia. Alumina is detected by the process indicated under the head of * Bread.' The Detection of the Different Kinds of Starch. The kind of starch employed is detected by means of the microscope. A minute portion of the sugar should be placed upon a slip of glass, and a drop of water added ; if the sugar dissolve without any appear- ance of residue, the solution being quite transparent, the probability is that no starch is present, but if there be any residue, this should be placed under the microscope, when the starch, if present, will usually be recognised by the form of the granules, but should the starch be in an amorphous state in consequence of its having been boiled, then a little iodine should be added to the residue, which will at once reveal its presence. The quantity may be estimated in either of the following ways : — When starch only is mixed with the sugar, the latter may be dissolved out, and the starch collected, dried, and weighed ; after drying and weighing, incineration must be resorted to, and the amount of starch estimated from the loss of weight ; but when any other insoluble substance besides the starch is present, the starch may be converted into glucose with sulphuric acid, as described under ^ Flour.' 266 HONEY AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. CHAPTER X. HONEY AND ITS ADULTERATIONS, DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Added water and any foreign vegetable substance, including cane sugar and glucose or any mineral substance. Honey consists of the saccharine exudation from the nectaries of flowers collected by bees, and modified and elaborated by them in the crop or honey bag, which is an expansion of the oesophagus, and from which it is discharged on their return to the hive, and deposited in the various cells of the comb. It consists of Icevulose and dexti'ose^ forming inverted sugar with an excess of dextrose^ cane sugar, gum, extractive, a little ivax, some vege- table acid, and much pollen, together with certain odoriferous principles derived for the most part from the plants from which the honey is gathered. The pollen in honey is essential to the nourishment of the bees them- selves, since it is the only source of the nitrogen obtainable by them in the winter. The following are the results of the analyses recently made by us of four samples of honey : — I. II. III. . IV. Water . . . 17-48 19-56 16-88 13.63 none 0*94 1-82 5-29 82-50 79-48 81-00 - 81-04 trace trace trace trace 002 0-02 0-30 0-04 Cane sugar Glucoses . Insoluble matter Mineral matter 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 These honeys were not taken from the comb, and appear to repre- sent only the liquid and uncrystallised portion. Honey is usually divisible into two parts, one liquid and the other solid and crystalline, the latter consisting in part of cane sugar, and partly of granular masses formed of needlelike crystals of dextrose. The proportion of solid sugar is the greatest in old honey, but the quantity of cane sugar is largest in new honey, since it becomes gradually converted by keeping into inverted sugar. The honey fur- nished by a species of wasp, Polyhia apicipennis, foimd in Central America, yields cane sugar in large crystals, according to Carsten ; but HONEY AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 267 there is nothing singular in this fact, since that furnished by the honey- bee very commonly contains, as represented by the author many years since, well-deiined crystals having the form of cane sugar, and which are well shown in figures 69 and 70. The fluid portion contains, besides Isevulose, inverted sugar and some cane sugar, the colouring and the odoriferous substances of the honey. The honey which flows spontaneously out of the comb on the applica- tion of a gentle heat consists mostly of the fluid portion, and is called virgin honey, while ordinary honey is procured both by pressure and heat. The first honey collected by bees is also sometimes called virgin honey. This description of honey is considered the best, is of a pale colour, granular texture, and possesses a fragrant smell, while the common honey obtained from the older cells is darker coloured, thicker, and does not possess so agreeable a smell. By pressure in a linen bag the fluid and liquid portions may be separated from each other, a clear syrupy substance passing through the linen, and the white solid sugar remaining behind. To the various foreign substances contained in it, including especially pollen, the difterent colours, flavours, and odom-s possessed by the honey of different countries and districts are owing, and the possession of which, in some cases, causes it to be so highly prized. ^ Hence the estimation in which the honey of Mount Ida, in Crete, has been always held. Hence also the perfume of Narbonne honey, of the honey of Ohamouny, and of our own high moorland honey, when the heather is in the bloom. Sometimes these foreign substances possess narcotic or other dangerous qualities, as is the case with the Trebizond honey, which causes headache, vomiting, and even a kind of intoxi- cation, in those who eat it. This quality is derived from the flowers of a species of rhododendron. Azalea pontica, from which the honey is partly extracted. It was probably this kind of honey which poisoned the soldiers of Xenophon, as described by him in the Ketreat of the Ten Thousand.' — Johnston. The following is Xenophon's description : — ^ And there were there, in a village near Trebizond, a number of bee-hives, and as many of the soldiers as ate of the honey-comb became senseless, and were seized with vomiting and diarrhoea, and not one of them could stand erect. Those who had swallowed but little looked very like drunk men, those who ate much were like mad men, and some lay as if they were dying. And thus they lay in such numbers as on a field of battle after a defeat. And the consternation was great. Yet no one was found to have died; all recovered their senses about the same hour on the following day. And on the third or fourth day thereafter, they rose up as if they had suffered from the drinking of poison.' The solid part of honey, examined under the microscope, is seen to consist of myriads of regularly-formed crystals ; these crystals are for the most part exceedingly thin and transparent, veiy brittle, so that many of them are broken and imperfect ; but when entire they con- 268 HONEY AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. eist of six-sided prisms, apparently identical in foim witli those of cane sugar. We see no other conclusions to come to however, but that they really represent the crystals of dextrose, seeing that they occur in Fig. 69. Crystals of Honey, intermixed with the pollen granules of the flowers from which the Honey was gathered. Magnified 225 diameters. honeys from which cane sugar is absent or nearly so. These crystals are, so far as our observations go, always present in honey, and they are usually the only kind met with. Intermingled with the crystals may also be seen pollen granules of different forms, sizes, and structure ; these are in such perfect con- dition, that in many cases they may be referred to the plants from which the honey has been procured. This is a very interesting and beautiful fact in relation to honey. The bees, in collecting the honey I HONEY AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 269 from the flowers, carry away with them also some of the pollen of those flowers ; now this pollen consists of complex utricles or cells, differing in size, shape, and organisation in different orders of plants, Fig. 70. Honey collected principally from a Heath, as shown by the presence of nnmerous pollen granules of the furze and of heath ; a, a, pollen granules of furze ; 6, &, ditto of heath ; c, c, ditto of some composite flower. The other granules present we have not identified. and in different plants, so that the observer acquainted with the characters of the pollen of flowering plants will he enabled in many cases to determine whether any particular honey submitted to his examination was collected from flowers of foreign or native growth, whether from those of the field, the garden, the heath, or the moun- tain. 270 HONEY AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. It lias occurred to the author to make another highly interesting ohservation in connection with honey, showing in a very striking manner the amazing industry manifested by hees in the collection of honey. In examining the blossoms of our native heaths, now unfor- tunately many years since, and long before the first edition of * Adulterations Detected' was published, we were surprised to observe that there was scarcely one that had arrived at maturity that did not exhibit, usually on the upper surface of the corolla, one or more dark spots, occasioned by perforations. The conjecture at once occurred to us, that these perforations were made by the bees in their search for honey, and in order to facilitate its abstraction from the tubular-shaped flowers. It was not long before the correctness of this conjecture was ascertained. The bees, on alighting on the flowers, almost con- stantly inserted their probosces either through one of the apertures already made, or they pierced a fresh one. Now, of the countless myriads of blossoms in some miles of heath, there was scarcely one mature one observed by us which had not been perforated. A very good way of obtaining the pollen of honey for microscopical examination is to dissolve a teaspoonful or so of the honey in cold water contained in a conical glass, and to examine a little of the sediment which subsides in the course of a few minutes, and which in some honeys is very considerable. The water causes the forms of the gra- nules to change in some cases, and hence a better plan is to view the pollen as contained in the fluid part of the honey. Some of the earlier numbers of the ^ Annals of Natural History ' contain an article by the author, illustrated by a large number of figures, on the structure of the pollen granule ; this will be found of some as- sistance to those who may desire to identify the pollen found in honey. Another useful plan of proceeding is to collect and examine the honey of the flowers from which the bees are supposed to have collected the honey, and then to search in this for the corresponding pollen granules. THE ANALYSIS OF HONEY. No reliable analyses of honey have yet been made, so far as we are aware, if we except the four samples the results of the examination of which have already been given. The only determinations which are practically required are those of water J cane stigar, glticose, and insoluble matter , consisting chiefly of the pollen and the ash. The methods to be pursued in the determination of the cane and other sugars have been fully described in the article on ' Sugar,' and need not here be repeated. There is, of course, no difficulty in estimating the matter insoluble in water and the ash. Since the composition of the glucoses is altered at a low temperature and they soon lose water, it is safest to estimate the amount of moisture present by difference. HONEY AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 271 BEES WAX. In connection witli tlie subject of hojiey it will be of interest and utility to make a few observations on another product of the bees — namely, bees' wax. It was first demonstrated by the experiments of John Hunter and M. Huber that wax is the product of the secretion of a special organ situated on the sides of the abdomen of the bee. ^ On raising the lower segments of the abdomen these sacs may be observed, as also scales or spangles of wax arranged in pairs upon each segment. There are none, however, under the rings of the males and the queen. Each individual has only eight wax sacs or pouches, for the first and the last ring are not provided with them. H. Huber satisfied himself by precise ex- periments that bees, though fed with honey or sugar alone, produce, nevertheless, a very considerable quantity of wax, thus proving that they were not mere collectors of this substance from the vegetable kingdom.' — Ure. Wax is met with very commonly in the vegetable kingdom. It is contained in the pollen of most flowers, in the faecula of many plants, as the cabbage, and it forms a varnish on the upper surface of the leaves of many trees. It has been observed especially in the juice of the coio tree, while the berries of several species of MyriccB afford much wax. Some of the principal varieties of wax met with are the Camauha wax of Brazil, the produce of Copei'nicia cerifera ; corh wax, or ceHn ; pine wax or ceropic acid ; sugaj'-cane wax or cerosin ; myrtle wax or myiica tallow ; ocuha wax and palm wax ; Chinese wax or pela, called vegetable insect wax, because it is produced by the puncture of a species of coccus ; coiv-tree wax, Cuba wax ; Japan wax, from the root of the Rhus svxicedansa ; and, lastly, propolis or stop wax, used by bees to mend the cracks in their combs. Bees' wax in its unpurified condition is of a yellow colour and has the smell of honey, the colour and smell both being derived from the honey itself, since those cells in which honey has not been deposited are white and scentless. Wax is freed from its impurities by melting it in hot water or steam, allowing the impurities to subside, running off" the clear supernatant oily liquid into oblong troughs furnished with a series of holes at the bottom, through which the liquid runs out, falling upon wooden cylinders which revolve, being partially immersed in cold water. The ribbons thus obtained are spread out upon canvas, and then bleached by exposure to the air and sun, being frequently turned over and watered from time to time. In order to obtain wax of the greatest purity and whiteness, it is necessary that the various operations be repeated several times. In France, cream of tartar and aliun are employed in the purification of wax. 272 HONEY AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. The wax when bleached is melted, strained through silk sieves, and moulded into thin disk-like pieces, weighing from two to three ounces each. Thus purified it is white and transparent, without taste or smell. It has a specific gravity from 0*96 to 0*966 ; it softens at 30° C, becoming plastic, so that it may be moulded by the hand, but it does not liquefy until 68° 0., while at 0° 0. it is hard and brittle. On the composition of wax. — The term wax was originally applied only to the product secreted by bees ; it is now, however, made to include a number of bodies of similar character, derived from both the vegetable and animal kingdoms, and the principal of which we have already referred to. They are compounds of the higher members of the fatty acids, partly in the free state, partly combined with alcohol radicals, but they do not contain glycerine like the fats. Wax is a mixture of three different substances : myridn, insoluble in boiling alcohol and consisting of palmitate of myricin ; cerotic acid, formerly called cerin, soluble in boiling alcohol and crystallising on cooling ; and cerolein, which remains dissolved in the cold alcohoHc liquid. They are but little soluble in alcohol and sometimes quite insoluble ; soluble in ether, in oils fixed and volatile, chloroform, and sulphide of carbon ; they burn with a bright flame when heated in the air, and are with difficulty saponified by boiling with potash, but more easily by fusion with the solid alkali. Bleached wax contains, according to Lewy, 82*2 per cent, of carbon, 13*4 hydrogen, and 6*4 of oxygen. It is decomposed by dry distilla- tion, giving off water, acetic acid, propionic acid, and then a substance called wax butter, it forming on cooling a white butter-like mass ; afterwards a liquid, called wax oil, passes over, a carbonaceous residue fiinally remaining. THE ADULTERATIONS OE H01O3Y AND WAX. The more usual adulterations of honey are with various forms of starch J as those of the potato and wheat ^ and with starch and cane sugars. Other adulterations mentioned by Mitchell and Normandy are with chalky hydrated sulphate oflime^ and pipe clay. The starch is not only added for the sake of weight and bulk, but to improve the colour of very dark honey, and to correct a sharp and acidulous taste which old honey is apt to acquire. The adulterations of wax. — Wax is stated to be sometimes adul- terated with starch, as also with animal fats, as mutton suet. THE DETECTION OP THE ADULTERATIONS OE HONEY. Of the adulterations practised upon honey, some are very easy of detection, and others difficult, if not impossible. The general method of proceeding in the examination of honey, HONEY AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 273 with a view to discover whether it is adulterated or not, is as follows :— A little of the honey is to be examined under the microscope, when, if it contain unboiled starch, the granules will be visible, and may be Fig. 71. Honey adulterated with Cane Sugar. The thick irregular crystals are tho3e of cane sugar. Magnified 200 diameters. identified by the characters which they present. If none are to be saen, a small quantity of tincture of iodine is to be added, which will show whether starch is present or not in any form. The starch, as well as any insoluble and inorganic material which may be present, may also be discovered by dissolving a portion of the 274 HONEY AND ITS ADULTEEATIONS. honey in warm water, when a deposit will occur after a time. This deposit should he examined, in the first instance, hy the microscope ; and if it is not foimd to he of an organic nature, it most prohahly consists of chalk, or gyi^sum. If it effervesce, it is no douht chalk ; and if not, we must then proceed as described under ^ Water,' for the analysis of the last-named substance. For the quantitative determination of inorganic matter in honey, nothing more is requisite in ordinary cases than to collect, dry, and weigh the residue deposited from the solu- tion of a given quantity of honey in water, or to take the weight of the ash. The adulterations of honey, the discovery of which is more difficult, are those with cane and grape sugar. Cane sugar becomes charred on the addition of sulphuric acid, and it is stated that grape sugar does not ; this distinction, however, does not apply to honey, for it also becomes charred, and for the very good reason that cane sugar is present in all honey, and in new honey in considerable amount, as also organic matter, including particularly pollen. There are, however, four ways in which the presence of added cane sugar in honey may be determined, two of them being supplied by the microscope. The first is by the size, and especially by the thickness of the crystals of sugar ; their shape is essentially the same as those of honey. The crystals of added cane sugar differ from the crystals proper to honey in being much larger, thicker, and in their less regular shapes ; the angles being acted upon by the fluid part of the honey, and thus in part melted down. The second is, supposing brown sugar to have been used, by the presence of the sugar acari, discernible either on the sm'face of a solution of honey in water, or in the residue deposited from it, or by that of fragments of the sugar-cane, the dotted cells of which are par- ticularly characteristic. The third method is chemical, and consists in the conversion of the cane into grape sugar, and its quantitative estimation in that form in the usual manner.. If the quantity met with is very large indeed, we may infer that cane sugar has been added ; but we must speak on this point with some reserve, since the only quantitative estimations hitherto made of the amounts of cane sugar actually present in honey are the four by ourselves, and inserted in the previous part of this article. The fourth method for ascertaining the presence of cane sugar in honey and of estimating its amount, is, as already shown in the article on ^ Sugar,' afforded by the polariscope. The adulteration of honey which, so far as we are aware, it is scarcely possible in many cases to detect, is that by starch sugar ^ since this possesses the same chemical properties as the sugar of honey. As glucose is usually made by boiling with sulphuric acid, and as the excess of this is sometimes neutralised with chalk, the presence HONEY AND ITS ADULTEEATIONS. 275 of notable quantities of sulphate of lime affords strong evidence of adulteration with sugar of starch. Pure honey gives only a very trifling amount of ash. THE DETECTION OP THE ADULTEEATIONS OF WAX. The only two adulterations which have been described are with starch and animal fats, as mutton suet. The first will be detected by an examination with the microscope of the residue left after the ex- haustion of the wax with ether, while the presence of most foreign fats will be readily discriminated by ascertaining the melting point, in the manner fully described in the article on ^ Butter.' t2 276 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. CHAPTER XL FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Any other added farina than that indicated by the name under which it is sold ; alum or any other added mineral substance. The term flour may be applied to the meal or powder obtained by the grinding of almost any species of grain or seed, but we shall treat in the present article chiefly of those descriptions of grain and flour which are most in use in this country as articles of diet, as ivheat, rye, oats, barley^ maize, and nee. Each of these flours consists of niti^ogenous, non-nitrogenous and mineral elements or constituents ; the nitrogenous embrace chiefly glutin, or gliadin, fibrin, albumen, casein, cerealin, together with certain modifications of some of the foregoing ; the non-nitrogenous are sugar, dextrin, but chiefly starch, fat, and cellulose ; the mineral are for the most part alkaline phosphates and silicates, especially phosphate and silicate of potash. We shall treat of each of the flours above enumerated under separate headings, and first of WHEAT ELOUR. There are several distinct species of wheat : that which is chiefly cultivated in this country is the Triticum vulgare ; of this there are two varieties — T. cestivmn, or summer wheat ; and T. hybernum, or winter wheat : the former is sown in the spring, and the latter in the autumn. Of these varieties, again, there are several modifications, into the description of which it is, however, not necessary to enter on the present occasion. Wheat seeds or grains, as brought to the market, and as supplied to the miller, are deprived of their palem, or husks. The number of parts into which ground wheat is separated, and the amount of each yielded by given quantities, vary according to the characters of the wheat, and the processes adopted by different millers. In wheats which are hard the integuments separate with difficulty, FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 277 and therefore the flour produced from these usually contains a greater proportion of adherent bran than do those flours procured from wheats which are soft, and which part with their epidermic coverings more readily. According to Mr. Hard, a miller of Dartford, in Kent, the follow- ing are the products, with the quantities obtained, of one quarter, or eight bushels of ground wheat : — * Produce of One Quarter of Wheats weighing 504 lbs. Flour 392 lbs. Biscuit, or fine middlings 10 „ Toppings, or specks 8 „ Best pollard, Turkey pollard, or twenty-penny . . . 15 „ Fine pollard 18 „ Bran and coarse pollard . . '. . . . . 50 „ Loss sustained by evaporation, and waste in grinding, dressing, &c. 11 » 604 lbs.' COMPOSITION OP WHEAT rLOUR. We have already enumerated all the more important constituents which enter into the composition of the grain of wheat, and of the flour made therefrom. The grain of wheat differs from that of the other cereals principally in the peculiar physical characters possessed by its chief nitrogenous constituents, and especially gluthij or gliadin; crude gluten being a mixtm^e of this with librin, and possessing, as will be seen hereafter, in the moist state, strongly adhesive properties. These are found to be practically of great value in bread-making, causing the dough to retain more strongly the carbonic acid evolved during fer- mentation, whereby the bread is rendered porous and light ; and this is one of the chief reasons why the flour of wheat is preferred for bread- making to that of all other grains. We shall now describe in detail all the more important, and especially the nitrogenous, constituents of wheat flour. The particulars which wiU be given relative to these will apply in great part to the other cereals. Crude gluten. — Crude gluten, as shown below, consists of several substances, and hence its properties partake to some extent of the characters of its constituents.^ Although water exerts such an effect upon it in rendering it adhesive and tenacious, yet it is entirely insoluble in that menstruimi. When freed from moisture it is taste- less, more or less transparent, and shiny. It is soluble in caustic ^ According to Von Bibra it has the following composition : — 12 3 4 Fibrin . . 70-95 71-55 69-40 70-48 Glutin . . 14-40 16-00 17-57 16-9*2 Casein . . 8-80 6-53 7-30 6-33 Fat . . . 5-85 5-92 5*73 6-27 278 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. potash and other alkalies, and is precipitated from its solution by most dilute acids. It is soluble in strong acetic acid. Digested in water containing from one to two thousands of hydrochloric acid, it gradually dissolves, furnishing a liquid which is Isevorotatory, and in which the gluten comports itself with heat and reagents exactly as does albumen. Glutin. — The above remarks apply to the crude gluten, but the pure glutin, ffliadin, or vegetable gelatin, in its hydrated condition, forms a liquid of the consistence of varnish, and which is susceptible of being drawn out into silky-looldng threads. When obtained, from its alcoholic solution, treated with ether and dried in vacuo, it forms a hard, brittle, and opaque mass. When simply evaporated from its alcoholic solution, it resembles in its physical characters animal gelatin. Glutin is soluble in dilute alcohol of from 40 to 80 per cent., but only with difficulty in absolute alcohol, from which it is deposited in the form of a white powder. It is only very slightly soluble in cold, but more freely in hot water, the solution yielding precipitates with gallotannic acid, basic acetate of lead, and several other metallic salts. With ferric sulphate, mixed with ammonia, it gives an orange-coloured or brownish precipitate, in which respect likewise it resembles animal gelatin. It dissolves, giving rise to a blue colour, in hydrochloric acid ; in nitric acid it also dissolves, but is again precipitated on the addition of water. It is entirely soluble in tartaric and acetic acids, but only partially so in phosphoric acid. It is also soluble in the fixed alkalies, less so in ammonia, and the alkaline solutions afford precipitates with metallic and some other salts. With mercurous nitrate it gives rise, in the moist state, to a bright red colour ; with strong sulphm-ic acid and sugar, to a yellow colour, which after half- an-hom' changes to violet. The following is the composition of pure glutin, according to Ritthausen : — Carbon 52-49 Hydrogen .... 6*97 Nitrogen 18*02 Oxygen 21*41 Sulphur . : . . . 0*85 Ash 0*26 It would appear that the albuminous substances entering into the composition of crude glutin have really nearly the same percentage composition as the other albuminoids. Giindsberg states that glutin, or gliadin, is not a simple proximate principle, for cold water extracts from it a brown substance containing nitrogen and sulphur, while the residue, treated with boiling water, yields a solution which on cooling furnishes a substance free from sulphur, which has nearly the same composition as animal gelatin, and which Giindsberg regards as the true glutin, or vegetable gelatin. FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 279 ■ Fibrin. — This is the portion of crude gliitin of wheat and other cereals which is insoluble in alcohol. In its moist state it forma a greyish- white elastic mass, but when dry a horny substance, which recovers its former characters by maceration in cold water. It is soluble in acetic, hydrochloric, and phosphoric acids; also in the alkalies, including ammonia, and is precipitated from these solu- tions on neutralisation. Acording to Scherer, fibrin contains 15-8 per cent, of nitrogen. Later analyses correspond in the main with the foregoing, but in three analyses made by Dumas and Cahours the nitrogen varied as follows : — 15*8, 16-0, and 16-4. It undergoes gradual alteration in contact with moisture, is trans- formed during germination, giving rise in the case of wheat and other cereals to the formation of diastase. Casein, — frequently called legumin, is found abundantly in the seeds of the leguminosse, and in small amount in wheat and other cereals. When dried from its alcoholic solution it is of a greyish-white colour, and readily reducible to the state of powder. It is soluble in boiling alcohol and in cold dilute acetic acid, but it becomes insoluble under certain circumstances, as when precipitated by ammonia from its solu- tion in acetic acid, when boiled for a short time with water, or even when left in contact with it or with dilute alcohol. Albumen. — The albumen deposited by heat from vegetable solutions is usually in the crude state, and is contaminated by colouring matter and other substances. For its purification the precipitate must be washed with water, and then with boiling alcohol and ether. Its solution coagulates at from 61° to 63° 0., and at a little higher tem- perature is converted into a solid mass. If the solution is very dilute, the albumen is deposited in flocculi. Albumen thus coagidated is white, opaque, and elastic ; when dried it is of a yellow colour, brittle, and translucent. After having been dried, it absorbs water when immersed in it, and assumes its original characters, and if dried at a temperature below the point of coagulation, it likewise re-acquires its solubility to any extent in water. It is insoluble in alcohol and ether, and hence it is precipitated by strong alcohol added to its aqueous solution, the precipitate, if the alcohol is added in small quantity, being soluble in water. When alcohol is added to a somewhat dilute solution of albumen, the liquid after a while forms a gelatinous mass, which is liquefied by heat. Coagulated albumen may be made to dissolve in alcohol by the addi- tion of an alkali. Nearly aU acids precipitate albumen from its solution, especially nitric acid. Strong nitric acid with heat dissolves coagulated albumen, forming a blue or violet solution. Tribasic phos- phoric acid, acetic, tartaric, and most other organic acids, do not form precipitates in moderately concentrated solutions, but when added to highly concentrated solutions the liquid solidifies to a jelly, which becomes liquid'like gelatine when heated. In solutions of albumen to 280 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. which common salt has been added, the albumen is precipitable by- phosphoric, acetic, and other acids, or the albumen may be precipitated from the same acid solutions by means of salt, the precipitation being facilitated by the action of heat. Albumen is soluble in weak solutions of alkalies, but a strong solu- tion of potash, added in considerable quantity to a solution of albumen, forms a gelatinous mass. Alkaline carbonates prevent its coagulation by heat. It has the same atomic composition as the other albuminoids, and contains, according to the best authorities, 15'8 per cent, of nitrogen. Cerealin. — A nitrogenous substance approximating closely in its properties to diastase. It is contained in the membrane immediately- surrounding the seed, called epispermium. It has the property of con- verting starch into dextrin, sugar, and lactic acid. This power is strikingly exemplified by adding an infusion of bran to a thick decoc- tion of starch, which is quickly transformed as described above, the decoction becoming thin, limpid, and sweet, when kept at a temperature of from 40° to 60° 0. To obtain cerealin in a separate state, bran is treated with repeated quantities of dilute alcohol, it being pressed after each addition of the spirit. In this manner the whole of the sugar and dextrin are removed, the cerealin being left behind. The bran is next treated v^ith water ; this dissolves out the cerealin, and the aqueous solu- tion being evaporated at 40° C, the cerealin is obtained in a pure state, it being soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol and ether. A solution containing cerealin coagulates at 75° 0., and is precipi- tated on the addition of alcohol and by dilute acids. Alkalies prevent its action on starch. Once coagulated, it is no longer soluble in acids and alkalies, but it is still capable of slowly acting upon starch. Up to a temperature of 70° C. it retains its power of transforming starch, but not beyond that temperature, whereas diastase retains its power up to It would appear from the investigation of Mouries that bran con- tains other substances besides cerealin which possess the power of con- verting starch, for he states that bran freed from cerealin, especially the perispermium, is more active than cerealin itself, and possesses the power of decomposing starch even at 100° C. Stai'ch. — The only other constituent of flour which it will be necessary to notice is the starchy which forms nearly two-thirds of its weight. It belongs to the class of carbohydrates, which includes sugar, into which during digestion it is converted, the sugar being conveyed by absorption into the circulation, and broken up during respiration into carbonic acid and water, heat being developed during the process. The following analyses exhibit the precise percentage composition of different descriptions of wheat and wheat flour : — ' FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 281 •t^tjaqAi 00C5<^^Tt^crsa5<:o«£) 2100^: BSn^x •^BaqM qsra^ds >b 1^ 00 th t> CO 1 1^ 'fni . 00 rH 1 05 '^BBllM. ^SFIOJ CO -^Oi -^^ ih 1 ^ 'IPTK to ^ ^ CO -^ 00 r*^ t^ up utpy:^iH cbrH-^r-nbOiTHT-l •9t8l 'anbiuoo (^Oit^^Oit-^ . Oi 8ia pjBinoa CO ^ cb 1-1 ib OS 1 r-4 1-1 tH »0 •ft8I 'aabiuoo -^00000(N05iOO 9ia PJ^Qoa '"i^THCOi-il^OiTH,-! r-i r-i lO (MCOO l> OOtH . 1 ^J •uo^uaH 9ia cb»H O tH cb t^ 1 o fcJD C. CD CO CO 1 TtH "Vi^^^ ^ssepo lb Ai (fp QOlO 1 1 '^«8RAi A'pa^H CO rH O <>J O O 1-1 1 i^u •1^81 '^B^^Ai CO O CO -* ff. QO 1 qsiinai^ a:^iq7^ ■rfl tH c3o (? C5 COCO(MOiO(NCOiO CO (NCNi-lTtlOCNTftr-l do ^ ^ CO OS N Pi COCOi-ICOC5COC005 OS '^ (NtHCN-^Oi-C^t-I 00 1-1 rH CO ri^t^OOO^'*COlO 00 (Ni^OSCNiH-^C'li^ lO OS t^cocsnO'^l^cot^i:^ tH (NTH05i-HiH-:tiC» 1-99 3-61 „ 12-29 5-31 7-93 „ 18-76 „ 13-95 As it is frequently a matter of mucli importance to determine the composition of samples of wheat flour, we will now describe the various steps by which the analysis may be effected. Determination of the gluten. — A weighed quantity of flour is to be made into a paste, and well kneaded, either on a sieve or in a piece of muslin, water being poured over it until it ceases to acquire a milky colour ; the water carries away the starch, and dissolves out the albiunen, sugar,, giun, and salts, while the mass left on the filter con- sists of ' crude gluten.' Glutin. — This substance is obtained by digesting crude gluten for several hours with alcohol of 80-85 per cent. The alcohol is then boiled and the supernatant liquid decanted. The mass of gluten is again boiled several times with alcohol of 75 per cent. The united alcoholic liquids which contain the glutin, casein, and a little oil become turbid on cooling, principally from the deposition of the casein. Half the alcohol is now to be distilled off, when flocculi of casein mixed with glutin and fat become deposited. The remainder contains the glutin, which is obtained by evaporation and drying over the water-bath, whereby the casein which still remains is rendered insoluble, when finally the glutin is redissolved in alcohol or dilute acetic acid, from which it may be obtained in a state of purity by evaporation. To purify the casein^ it must be dissolved in alcohol of 50 per cent., and the hot solution filtered through calico, then left to cool, it being fre- quently agitated while the deposit is forming. Fibrin.— This is insoluble in alcohol and forms the chief part of the crude gluten ; it is left in nearly a pure state after the action of the alcohol, but it still contains small quantities of starch, husk, cel- lulose, and oil, from which it may be separated as follows : — It must be dissolved in a dilute solution of potash, precipitated by acetic acid, and after drying the fat is to be removed by means of ether. Or the fibrin after exhaustion with alcohol may be dissolved in very dilute hydro- chloric acid, from which it may be obtained as a precipitate on neutra- lisation with ammonia. The hydrochloric acid solution behaves just like that of the fibrin of muscle, showing the identity of vegetable and animal fibrin. 286 FLOUE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. For tlie other constituents of the wlieaten flour we must search in the water which has passed through the sieve. Albumen. — This substance is procured, after the subsidence of the starch, by concentrating and then boiling the water, slightly acidu- lating with acetic acid. The albumen is coagulated, and may be sepa- rated after washing with hot alcohol and ether, by filtration through a weighed filter. Casein or rnucin, — "VVe have already shown how this substance may be obtained from the crude gluten in a state of purity, but for its quan- titative estimation we must proceed as follows : — After the separation of the albimien, acetic acid is to be added to the filtrate. This throws down the casein, which may also be collected on a weighed filter. Estimation of total niti'ogen. — The total amount of nitrogen is ascertained by the combustion of from 1 to 2 grammes of the flour with soda-lime. The quantity of nitrogen obtained, multiplied by 6*33, represents the amount of nitrogenous substances. Starch, — The starch, suspended in the water, gradually subsides, when it may readily be collected on a filter, washed, dried, and weighed. Or a weighed quantity of the flour may be exhausted with water, which will remove the sugar and dextrin. The insoluble residue is converted into glucose in the usual manner by the action of dilute sulphuric acid, as will be found described in the article on ^ Sugar,' and the glucose estimated by means of the copper solution, the quantity of starch being calculated from the amotmt of the glucose found, 100 parts of glucose corresponding to 90 parts of starch. Sugar and dextrin. — In a part of the watery solution referred to in the previous paragraph, the sugar is first estimated by the copper solution. The dextrin in the other portion is converted into glucose, and likewise estimated. 100 parts of glucose are equal to 95 parts of dextrin. Oil. — A weighed quantity of the dried and bruised wheat or flour is treated two or three times with ether, until all traces of fat are re- moved. The ether is evaporated and the fat weighed. Water. — The quantity of water is estimated by drying in the water-bath in the usual manner. Mineral matters. — These are obtained by incineration, and their nature and amounts may be ascertained, should it be necessary to make a full analysis, by the adoption of the several processes which have been given elsewhere in this work, and most of which will be found described in the articles on ^ Water ' and ^ Tea.' To determine the quality of the crude gluten, a little instrument has been invented by Mr. Boland, termed an ^ aleurometer.^ Of this instrmnent the following description is given by Mr. Mitchell:— ^ It consists of a hollow copper cylinder, about six inches long, and from three-quarters of an inch to an inch in diameter. It has two principal parts j the one, about two inches long, is closed at one end, FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 287 forming- a kind of cup capable of containing about 210 grains of fresh gluten; it screws into tlie remainder of the cylinder. The cylinder being charged with gluten^ is heated to about 420° F. in an oil- bath. The gluten by this treatment swells, and according to its rise in the tube (which may be measured by a graduated stem) so is its quality. Good flours furnish a gluten which augments to four or five times its original bulk ; but l)ad flours give a gluten which does not swell, becomes viscous and nearly fluid, adhering to the sides of the tube, and giving off" occasionally a disagreeable odour, whilst that of good flour merely suggests the smell of hot bread.' The proceeding adopted by the corn-chandler and the baker for the determination of the quality of wheaten flom' is still more simple : A small quantity (a few grains is suflicient) is made into a paste with water, and its quality judged of by the tenacity of the dough, as shown by the length to which it may be drawn into a thread, or the extent to which it may be spread out in a thin sheet. STRUCTURE OP THE GRALNT OF WHEAT. Several structures enter into the formation of the seed or grain of wheat, as well as that of the other cereals. First, the seed is surrounded by membranes, called the testa; second, the surface of the seed proper is formed of angular cells, filled with glutinous and oily matter in a granular state*; while the substance of the seed is made up of cells filled with starch corpuscles. Now each of the parts enumerated difter in the several cereal grains. The testa is in part, but not entirely, removed in the process of grinding and dressing the flour, and the same is the case with the cells forming the surface of the grain. The following is the exact structure of the grain of wheat : — The testa, covering the immediate surface of the seed, consists of three layers of cells, two of which are disposed longitudinally to the axis of the seeds, and the other transversely. ' The longitudinal cells are large, and the margins distinctly beaded, especially the outer layer ; the transverse cells are also beaded, but to a less extent. The cells forming the surface of the seeds are large and angular ; those of its substance are still larger, and each encloses a considerable number of starch corpuscles, which are smaller near the outer parts of the grain than towards the centre. These several layers of cells may be described as three distinct membranes. The structiu-e of the testa and of the substance of the seed is exhibited in the engravings (fig. 72). Viewed with an object-glass magnifying 420 diameters linear, wheat starch is observed to consist of definite grains or particles ; many of these are very small, others are of considerable dimensions, while there are but few of intermediate sizes: the small grains are 288 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Fig. 72. Testa and substance of seed of Wheat. Transverse and vertical sections ; a a, outer membrane ; b b, middle ; c c, inner membrane or surface of the seed proper. Magnified 200 diameters. FLOUR AND ITS ADULTEKATIONS. 289 chiefly round, rarely oval, or muller-sliaped, and for the most part provided with a central spot or hiliim; the larger granules form rounded or flattened discs, with thin edges. Neither hilum nor con- centric rings are in general perceptible on the larger discs, although in some few a central tubercle may be seen, as well as indistinct annuli. Occasionally some of the larger granules are more or less twisted or turned up at the edges, and when seen sideways, present the appearance of a longitudinal furrow, which has been erroneously described as a hilum : this appearance is, however, deceptive ; it is Fig 73. This Gnpraving represents the structure and appearances of the starch granules of Wheat Flour, as also the characters of the cellulose. Drawn with tbe Camera Lucida, and magnified 420 diameters. really occasioned by the partial folding or curling of the grain on itself, whereby a central depression is produced, the corpuscle at the same time being viewed obliquely. We have frequently seen grains which when stationary presented a round and disc-like appearance, but which, in rolling over and presenting the edges to view, exhibited the longitudinal furrow described, an observation which clearly proves its nature. A few granules attain a very considerable size ; these are less regularly circular, and being much flattened, exhibit but little shadow; sometimes their edges are faintly marked with radiating IT 290 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. lines. Examined with the polariscope they exhibit a well-marked cross. Many of the above-described particulars, as also the characters of the cellulose, are well exhibited in fig. 73. Fig. 74. a, starch granules of raw wheat flour ; 6, ditto of the same baked, with moisture as in bread ; c, dry baked ; d, boiled, as in pudding. Magnified 400 diameters. Not only, as has been already stated more than once, can the dif- ferent starches be discriminated from each other by means of the microscope, but in many instances the agencies to which they have been exposed may be determined, as will be clearly perceived on an attentive examination of the engraving (fig. 74). FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 291 ' The differences between the raw, moist baked, and boiled starch granules of wheat and the other cereals are very marked : those of the dry baked are less marked ; they are, however, on the average Fig. 75. Testa and surface of seed of Barley. Magnified 200 diameters. much larger than the raw granules, the form less regular, that of the smaller grains especially being a good deal altered ; the shadows are less marked, and in some of the granules the concentric rings are rendered more conspicuous. To these illustrations of the variations in u2 292 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTEEATIONS. the condition of the graniiles of wheat flour a fifth might have been added representing the characters of the starch in British gu7n or dex- ti-in made from wheat starch ; in this the granules are destroyed to a great extent, but here and there granules and portions of graniiles may be discovered, often exhibiting the concentric rings and sufficient to serve for its identification, and to determine whether the gmn was made from wheat or potato flour. It is by means of British gum that the backs of postage labels are rendered adhesive, as may be shown readily by submitting a small por- tion scraped from the label to examination with the microscope. Fig. 76. This engraving represents the structure and characters of Barley Starch, together with the cellulose. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and ms^nified 140 diameters. BARLEY FLOITR. There are several distinct species of barley ; that, however, which is commonly cultivated in this country is the Hordeum distich on, or two-eared barley. As met with in commerce the seeds or grains are usually enclosed in the palecB or husks ; denuded of these, they form ^ Scotch or pot barley,^ when rounded they constitute ' pearl barley , and this again reduced to powder is called ^patent barley.' Chemical composition. — The proportion of azotised compounds in FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 293 "barley is less than in wheat flour ; it is deficient particularly in crude gluten^ so that barley paste may be nearly all washed away in water. The milky fluid obtained by washing barley paste, deposits, as well as the starch, a protein matter supposed to be insoluble casein : if this be digested with a solution of ammonia, it is dissolved, but is again thrown down on the addition of acetic acid ; the liquid which has deposited the starch and insoluble casein still holds in solution a small quantity of albumen and some soluble casein. The substance to which Proust gave the name of Hordein is stated not to be a definite compound, but to consist of starcb and cellulose, with an albuminoid. Barley flour is less nutritive tban wheat flour and somewhat laxa- tive ; its starch corpuscles are less soluble, and therefore resist more the action of the gastric juice ; the husk is slightly acrid. The following analyses of barley and its ash have been made : — Analyses of Barley, Von Bibra. In the meal. Von Bibra. In the bran. Poison. Air-dried grain. New Scotch. Starch . Fat Cellulose . Gum Sugar i Nitrogenous matter . 1 Ash ... ! Water . 59-950 2-170 6 744 3-200 12-981 15-000 42-008 2-960 19-400 6-885 1 1-904 i 14-843 12-000 52-7 2-6 11-5 4-2 13-2 2-8 12-0 Ashes of Barley. ■ k- Way and Ogston. Chevalier. Moldavian. Long-eared. Potash . 5 samples. 3 samples. Nottingham. 20-8-37-2 19-8-31-6 32-0 Soda . . . 0-5- 1-4 0-9- 4-9 1-2 Lime 1-5- 3-6 1-2- 4-2 3-4 Magnesia 2-9- 8-7 8-2-10-2 11-0 Oxide of iron . 0-1- 2-1 0-1- 1-0 0-15 Sulphuric acid trace- 2-7 3- 0-5 trace Silica 17-3-32-7 24-6-30-4 21-12 Carbonic acid . 0-5 Phosphoric acid 25-3-38-8 28-7-38-0 29-9 Chloride of sodium . 2-3-111 trace- 15 0-7 Ash in dry substance 2-3- 2-7 2-1- 2-6 2-20 294 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTEEATIONS. The Analysis of Barley. This must be conducted very much in the same manner as that of wheat flour. Structure of the Grain of Barley. The testa of the grain of barley differs considerably from that of wheat. It consists usually of four layers of cells ; they are smaller than those of wheat ; the longitudinal cells, of which there are three layers, are not beaded, but those forming the outer layer have their margins slightly waved ; those of the inner layer and of the transverse cells not being waved. The cells of the surface of the grain are not nearly so large as those of wheat, and they form three layers, in place of one as in wheat. Those of its substance also differ from the corresponding cells of wheat, being more delicate, and presenting, when emptied of starch, a fibrous appearance (fig. 75). The starch granules of barley resemble very closely in form and structure those of wheat, so that the description already given applies to some extent to the starch of barley. Barley starch consists of small and large grains, with but few of intermediate size : the former, it is to be particularly observed, are three or four times smaller than the corresponding grains of wheat starch ; and of the larger grains many are distinctly ringed, while a much greater proportion of them presents the longitudinal fiuTow, the nature of which has already been described. These characters are sufiiciently well marked to allow of the discrimination by the micro- scopist of wheat and barley flour or starch. Examined with the polariscope, they exhibit a cross not nearly so strongly marked as in rye. Considerable difference is observed between wheat and barley flour in the action upon them of boiling water and some other reagents ; thus, after prolonged boiling, in the case of barley flour, a substance remains undissolved which has been denominated ^ hordein, whereas wheat flour treated in the same manner is nearly all dissolved. By the above characters, particularly by the minuteness of the small grains, and by the structure of the testa, barley starch or meal may be readily and satisfactorily discriminated when mixed with wheat flour (figs. 75 and 76). EYE FLOITE. The grass from which rye is obtained is the Secale cereale. The seeds or grains resemble those of wheat, but are smaller. Rye flour is rich in nitrogenised products, and it contains more sugar than 'wheaten flour; its paste, when repeatedly washed in water. I FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 295 "breaks up, and becomes diiFused throughout the liquid, the "bran only- being left behind ; the milky liquid, after haying deposited the starch, and after the separation of the albumen, is to be evaporated, when the residue will consist of sugar, oil, and the so-called ' soluble gluten,^ whicb may be dissolved out by means of alcohol. Analyses of Rye. Starch . . •) Fat . . J Cellulose . (ium and sugar Nitrogenous matter . Ash ... Water . . . Fehling & Faisst. 7 samples. Dried at 100° C. Poggiale. Mean of samples. Dried at 120° C. Pillitz. Air-dried. 78-58-85-25 1-24- 2-30 10-40-15-83 1-90- 2-30 12-62-14-70 65-5 2-0 6-4 8-8 1-8 15-5 66-4 2-2 3-9 6-8 12-4 1-5 13-8 Gluten and albumen Starch Woody fibre, gum, sugar Ash " Moisture in fresh substance . Horsford and Krocker.— Dried at 212° F. Rye flour from Vienna. Rye flour from Hohenheim. 11-92 60-91 24-74 1-33 18-69 54-48 24-49 1-07 17-73 45-09 35-77 2-43 15-76 47-42 35-25 2-37 98-90 13-78 98-73 14-68 101-02 13-94 100-80 13-82 Rye Flour. i Einhof. Greif. Boussingault. Gluten . 9-48 12-8) 3-0 ]• 10-5 Albumen 3-28 Starch . 61-07 58-8 64-0 Sugar 3-28 10-4 3-0 Gum 11-09 7-2 11-0 Cellulose 6-38 — 6-0 Fat, acid, loss . 6-62 7-8 3-5 100-20 100-0 98-0 296 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Mineral Matter of Bye. Potash . FreseniusandWilL Fresenius and Will. Way and Ogston. 31-89 11-43 33-83 Soda 4-33 18-89 0-39 Lime 2-84 7-05 2-61 Magnesia 9-86 10-57 12-81 Oxide of iron . 0-80 1-90 1-04 Phosphoric acid 46-03 57-81 39-92 Chloride of sodium . trace — — Silica 1-42 0-69 9-22 Sulphuric acid . 0-17 0-61 0-18 Coal, sand 2-66 — — 100-00 - 100-00 Potash . Way and Ogston.— Unknown varieties. 33-8 16-6 9-4 Soda 0-4 19-9 16-1 Lime 2-6 11-25 15-3 Magnesia 12-8 13-0 10-1 Oxide of iron . 1-0 2-2 Sulphuric acid 0-2 0-5 2-6 Silica 9-2 3-6 14-6 Carbonic acid . — Phosphoric acid 39-9 33-5 25-1 Chloride of sodium . — 1-6 4-2 Ash in dried grain . 1-6 2-65 1-9 Rye flour is said to be somewhat laxative. The roasted grains were frequently employed in the adulteration of coffee. Structure of the Grain of Rye. The testa of rye approaches somewhat closely in structure to that of wheat, as is evident on an examination of the subjoined engraving. There are, however, certain difi'erences ; thus, the cells of the first and second coats are smaller and much more delicately beaded ; those of the third coat are also smaller and of a somewhat diflerent form (fig. 77). The starch granules of rye flour bear a general resemblance in form and size to those of wheat : there are these remarkable and satisfactory differences, however — viz., that the lesser grains are decidedly smaUer than the corresponding grains of wheat, and that many of the larofer FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 297 granules of rye starch are furnislied with a three or four-rayed hiliun. Examined with the polariscope they exhibit a very strongly marked cross (fig. 78). OAT rLOTJE. There are several distinct species of oats ; that, however, which is chiefly cultivated in this country is Avena sativa, Mg. 77. Structure of testa of Rye. Vertical and transverse views : a a, outer ; bb, middle, and c c, inner coats. Magnified 220 diameters. The oat grains or seeds are usually enclosed in their husks ; when deprived of these they form what are known as ' groats,^ and these crushed constitute * Emhden groats.^ Oat flour or meal does not form a dough or paste like wheat flour ; notwithstanding which, however, it contains a large amoimt of nitro- enised matter ; this exists principally in the form of ' Aveniuy a sub- stance analogous to soluble casein or legimiin, and obtained in the same manner, by the addition of acetic acid. 298 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. ^ Oatmeal/ Pereira remarks, ^ is an important and valuable article of food. With the exception of maize or Indian corn it is richer in oilj or fatty matter than any other of the cultivated cereal grains ; Fig. 78. This engraving represents the structure and characters of the starch granules of Eye Flour. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 420 diameters. and its proportion of protein compounds exceeds that of the finest English wheaten flour j so that both with respect to its heat and fat making, and its flesh and blood making principles, it holds a high rank.' Analyses of Oats. Fehling and Fehling and Faisst. Faisst. Poggiale. PiUitz. 6 samples 2 samples, Shelled grain, Air-dried dried at free from husk, dried at 120° C. grain. Starch Fat . . 100° C. dried at 100° C. 70-24-76-41 82-30-82-90 f61-9 1 6-1 54-1 2-7 Cellulose . , 10-00-ll'39 0-92- 1-41 3-5 7-8 Gum and sugar — — — 4-1 Nitrogenous matter . 10-69-15-59 14-12-14-16 11-2 14-1 Ash , 2-65- 3-01 2-06- 2-13 3-61 2-4 Water . . • 12-47-14-13 14-86-15-06 14-2 13-9 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTEBATIONS. 299 Scotch Oatf exclusive of husk. Starch . Sugar Gum Oil . Nitrogenous matter Epidermis Mineral matter Norton and Fromberg. Northumber- land. Ayrshire. Ayrshire. Northumber- land. 65-24 4-51 2-10 5-44 1869 1-18 2-84 100-00 64-80 2-58 2-41 6-97 19-01 2-39 1-84 64-79 2-09 2-12 6-41 20-81 2-84 0-94 65-60 0-80 2-28 7-38 19-91 2-28 175 100-00 100-00 100-00 Ash of Oats. Potash J. Norton. Way and Ogston. Potato. Hopeton, 3 samples. Hopeton, 4 samples. Potato, 4 samples. Polish. Pchsh. 31-6 20-6-210 13-6-17-8 13-1-19-7 24-3 16-3 Soda . . — __ 0-5- 3-8 0-8- 3-0 38 6-3 Lime . 5-3 6-7-10-1 2-8- 4-2 1-3- 3-8 35 8-35 Magnesia . 8-7 7-8-11-0 6-1- 7-3 6-5- 8-2 7-3 6-9 Oxide of iron 0-9 0-4- 5-1 trace- 2-1 0-3- 1-3 0-7 0-1 Sulphuric acid . — 17-4 1-1- 2-5 0-1- 1-4 1-7 4-0 Silica 0-9 1-3 38-5-51-5 89-8-50-0 41-9 43-2 Carbonic acid 0'6 CMoride of sodium and potassium . 0-85 1-6- 5-3 0-9- 2-6 0-1- 0-45 — Phosphoric acid . 49-2 88-5-46-3 18-3-26-5 18-7-29-2 14-5 16-2 Total ash in dry grain 2-22 2-14 2-5- 3-8 2-5- 3-3 3-0 3-8 Structure of the Grain of the Oat. The membranes covering the grain of oat, contrasted with those of the other cereals, present several peculiarities. The longitudinal cells forming the outer membrane are disposed in two layers ; they are large and well defined, the walls being rather thin and slightly waved ; from the upper and cuter wall of some of the cells springs a single long and pointed hair, the point being turned towards the summit of the grain ; these hairs arise from the cells over the whole surface of the grain, but they become more nimierous towards t he apex, where they form a beard or tuft, as in wheat. 300 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. The transverse cells, which may he descrihed as forming the second investinof memhrane, are disposed in a single layer ; their walls are less accurately defined, and they are not very much longer than broad. The cells forming the surface of the seed itself, and which may be described as the third covering of the grain, also consist of a single layer; they are smaller than the corresponding cells of wheat (fig. 79). Testa of Oat. a a, outer ; h 6, middle ; and c c, inner tunics. Magnified 200 diameters. The starch granules of the oat present well-marked structural cha- racteristics. They are smaller in size than those of wheat, varying but little in dimensions, are polygonal in figure, without either visible concentric rings or hila, but with central depressions and thickened edges. The great peculiarity of oat starch, however, is, that many of the grains cohere together, forming bodies of a rounded or oval figure, and presenting a reticulated siu*face, indicative of their compound structure. These bodies escape readily from the cellidose, and, when FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 301 oat flour is diffused through water, may frequently be seen floating about freely in the liquid. A second peculiarity is, that unlike the other cereal starches, the grains of oat starch, when viewed with polarised light, do not exhibit the usual crosses. The above particulars are well exhibited in the engraving, fig. 80. The walls of the cells of the cellulose are very delicate, and appear, when the cells are emptied of the starch, like threads, as represented in the engraving. Fig. 80. This engraving represents the structure and character of thestanh corpuscles of Oat Flour, as also of the cellulose. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 420 diameters. . A figure of oat starch is given in the new edition of Pereira's ' ^lateria Medica.' In this the larger grains are made fully equal in size to those of wheat starch ; whereas they are really several times smaller, as represented in our engraving. This error has probably arisen from the artist having mistaken the compoimd bodies in ques- tion for single granules. The same error pervades some of the- measurements given. 302 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. INDIAN CORN FLOTTR. Zea Mays, or Indian corn, is met with in tha state of flour, in the shops, under the name of ^ Polenta : ' it enters into the dietary of many of our public institutions and charities, and is much used in the New World. Fig. 81. This engraving represents the structure and characters of the starch granules of Indian Corn Flour, including the cellulose. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 420 diameters. The amount of azotised constituents is less in maize than wheat. When washed with water it does not leave any glutinous residue like wheat, and is said by Gorham to contain a reddish nitrogenous sub- stance to which he has given the name of Zeine. It contains, however, a large quantity of oil, which accounts for its fattening properties. The starch separated from all the other constituents of the grain forms an important article of diet, which is sold under the name 'Cornflour,^ and which resembles dietetically and chemically an arrowroot. In those unaccustomed to its use, maize is considered to excite and to keep up a tendency to diarrhoea. FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 303 Analyses of Maize. Poison. Poggiale. Payen. Air-dried. Dried at 120° C. Starch . 4 samples. Mean of samples. Dried at 100° C. 50-1-64-8 64-5 71-2 Fat . 4-4- 4-7 6-7 9-0 Cellulose . 14-9-20-4 4-0 5-9 Gum and sugar 2-3- 2-9 — 0-4 Nitrogenous matter 8-7- 8-9 9-9 12-3 Ash ... 1-6- 1-8 1-4 1-2 Water . 11-5-13-2 13-5 — Ash of Maize. Fromberg. Letellier. Potash . Soda Lime Magnesia Phosphoric acid Sulphuric acid Silica Oxide of iron . Loss 26-631 7-54 1 1-59 15-44 39-65 6-54 209 0-60 0-92 30-8 1-3 17-0 50-0 0-8 0-1 100-00 100-00 Ash of Maize. ' Way and Ogston. Porty-day. Graham, Stenhouse, and CampbeU. Unknown variety. Potash . Soda Lime Magnesia Oxide of iron . Sulphuric acid Silica . . Carbonic acid Phosphoric acid Chloride of sodium Ash in dried grain 28-4 1-7 0-6 13-6 0-5 trace 1-55 53-7 1-5 30-7 3-1 14-7 0-8 4-1 1-8 44-5 05 304 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Structure of the Grain of Indian Com. The testa of the grain of Indian corn is made up of two membranes ; the outer of these consists of some seven or eight layers of cells, all Fig. 82. A, transverse section of festa of Indian Corn. B, longitudinal view of cells of outer layer of tes^a ; C, cells of mr/ace of grain ; D, cells of its substance ; E, blastema ; P, starch granules. A 100, B C 200, D 100, E F 500 diameters. FLOUR AND ITS ADULTEEATIONS. 305 running in one direction, and about three times as long as broad ; the margins of the outermost layer are beaded, the headings being remark- able for a certain squareness of outline. The inner membrane forms the surface of the seed proper, and consists of a single layer of cells resembling those of the other cereals (fig. 82). The cells of the cellulose are very angular, like those of rice, but they differ in being subdivided by numerous septa, forming a cellu- lated network or blastema, each space enclosing a separate starch cor- puscle. The starch corpuscles of Indian <;orn bear considerable resemblance to those of the oat ; like them, they are somewhat polygonal in outline, and present well-marked central depressions, as well as occasionally a divided and radiate hilimi ; they differ, however, in their much larger size, in not forming compound bodies, and in presenting under the polariscope well-defiiied crosses. The central depression appears to be a character common to nearly all the starch granules of the cereal grasses. This depression, combined with the disc-like form of the grains, gives them a general resemblance to the blood discs of the mammalia. In those instances in which the grains, as in wheat and barley, are curved upon themselves, the depression exists of course only on one side of the disc. EICE FLOTJK. The seeds of rice, Oriza sativa^ contain a much less proportion of nitrogenised compounds than the other cereal grains, and particularly wheat, namely about 7 per cent. The quantity of fatty matter is also less. The nitrogenous substance obtained from rice, precipitable by acetic acid, ^ has a creamy consistence, an agreeable smell, and a bland taste.' Much difference of opinion has prevailed in reference to the value of rice as an article of diet, some persons placing it very high. Ana- lysis, however, clearly proves that it is the least nutritious (5f the cereal grasses ; while it usually contains 7 or 8 per cent, of gluten, wheat flour rarely furnishes less than 12 per cent. ; again, when cooked, rice swells up greatly and imbibes a very large quantity of water, boiled rice containing about 77 per cent, of moistm'e. This renders it necessary that a large bulk of cooked rice should be eaten to constitute a sufficient meal. This difference of opinion has probably arisen from the fact that rice is seldom eaten by itself, but is partaken of frequently with milk, butter, or sugar, the nutritious properties of which substances increase greatly those of the rice itself. 306 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Analyses of Rice. Starch .... Fat Cellulose .... Gum and sugar . Nitrogenous substance Ash Water .... Poison. Air-dried. Poggiale. Payen. Dried at 100° C. ! Dried at 100° C. 78-8 0-1 0-2 1-6 7-2 0-9 9-8 74-5 0-2 3-4 7-8 0-3 86-9 0-8 3-4 0-5 7-5 0-9 Ash of Rice, Muspratt. Grain. Muspratt. Husk. Zedeler. Potash .... 18-48 1-60 20-2 Soda 10-67 1-68 2-5 Magnesia 11-69 1-96 4-25 Lime 1-27 1-01 7-2 Phosphoric acid 63-36 1-86 60-2 Sulphuric acid — 0-92 — Silica 3-35 89-71 1-4 Oxide of iron 0-45 0-54 — - 99-27 99-18 95-7 Structure of the Grain of Bice. The structure of the husk of rice is by no means easy to determine ; it is best examined after it bas been immersed in glycerine for some time. The outer surface of the seed is thrown up into ridges, these being arranged both transversely and longitudinally, and describing between them square spaces ; the ridges are formed in part of silica in the form of granules ; here and there are openings, of somewhat irregular form, and which are the mouths of stomata : the substance of the husk is made up of narrow and rather short fibres ; some of these are arranged longitudinally, others transversely ; they are brittle, and their edges rough. That they really are fibres is shown by their being hollow, as is seen in transverse sections. Lastly, lying beneath the fibrous mem- brane is a thin membrane formed of angular cells, rather long-er than FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 307 broad, and tlie long axis of which is placed transversely. The above description is founded upon the admirable drawing made with the greatest care by Mr. Tuflfen West (fig. 83). The starch corpuscles of rice are small, and for the most part of an angular form^ with well-marked central depressions and raised Fig. 83. Husk of Rice, the upper figure being a transverse section. Magnified 220 diameters. edges ; they resemble closely the starch grains of the oat in their polygonal shape, but differ in being much smaller. The cells in which they are enclosed are very angular, and separate readily from each other, in which respects also rice differs from oat flour (%. 84). x2 308 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Kg. 84. This engraving represents the starch corpuscles and cells of Rice. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 420 diameters. But flour and bread are made in different countries from a variety of other grains besides those which have hitherto been described, as Millet, of which there are numerous species ; Elusine corocana, the Ragee or Raggy of India ; Buckioheat, which, however, is somewhat poor in astrogenous substances and fat, and the Gram of India ; Cicer aiieti- nunij which made into cakes is palatable and highly nutritious. COMPOSITION OP THE CHXEF CEREAL GRAINS. We will now bring this article on * Flour ' to a conclusion by giving some mean analyses of the chief cereal grains and their ashes, which will enable us readily to compare the one kind of grain with the other. f FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 309 Dextrin, Silica, Phos- Gluten Griiicose, phates of or other Fatty Cellu- Lime, Mag. 100 parte. Starch. congen- mat- lose. nesia, and matters. erous sub- stances. ters. soluble Salts of Potash and Soda. Wlieat,hard, of Ve-) nezuela . . J Wheat, hard, of Africa 58-12 22-75 9-50 2-61 4-0 3-02 64-57 19-50 7-60 2-12 3-60 2-71 Wheat, hard, of Ta-| ganrog . . j 63-30 20-00 8-0 2-25 3-60 2-85 Wheat, demi-hard, \ of Brie, France f 68-65 16-25 7-0 1-95 3-40 2-75 Wheat, White Tuzelle 75-35 11-20 6-05 1-87 3-0 2-12 Rye .... 65-65 13-15 1-2 2-15 4-10 2-60 Barley 65-43 13-96 1-0 2-76 4-75 3-10 Oats .... 60-59 14-39 9-25 5-50 7-06 3-25 Maize 67-55 12-50 4-0 8-08 5-90 1-25 Rice .... 89-15 7-05 1-0 0-80 3-0 0-90 The next table represents the mean composition of tlie ash of the chief cereal grains. It is taken from Pereira's ^ Materia Medica/ and is drawn up from the calculated means contained in Johnston's * Lec- tures on Agricutural Chemistry and Geology/ 2nd ed. 1847. Potash . Soda . Lime Magnesia Oxide of iron Phosphoric acid . Sulphuric acid Chlorine Silica . Alumina Percentage of ash . Wheat. Barley with Husk. Oats. Eye. Indian Corn. Rice. 23-72 9-05 2-81 12-03 0-67 49-81 0-24 1-17 13-64 1 8-14/ 2-62 7-46 1-48 38-96 0-10 0-04 27-10 0-21 26-18 1 6-95 9-95 0-40 43-84 10-45 0-26 2-67 0-06 22-08) 11-67J 4-93 10-35 1-36 49-55 0-98 0-43 32-48 1-44 16-22 0-30 44-87 2-77 0-18 1-44 r 18-48 (10-67 1-27 11-69 0-45 53-36 0-27 3-35 99-50 99-75 99-76 101-35 99-70 99-54 about 2-0 2-84 2-18 2-425 about 1-5 1-00 Messrs. Ogston and Way give the following as the percentages of silica in the ash of the ordinary cereal grains : 2-05 to 6-46 silica for wheat ; from 23-6 to 70-77 for barley; from 38-48 to 50-03 for oats; and 9-22 for rye. 310 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. ON THE PARASITIC DISEASES OF THE CEREAL GRAINS. The cereal grains and the flours made from them are liable to be infested and deteriorated by the presence of various parasitic produc- tions, both vegetable and animal. As flours thus diseased are some- times referred to the analyst under the impression that they are adulterated, it becomes necessary that he should be possessed of some information respecting the diseases of the cereal grains. The principal diseases of grain arising from the attacks of fungi are erffoty smut or dicst, brand, rvst, and mildeio. Fig. 85. This engraving represents the spores of Uredo cariep, magnified 420 diameterg. Drawing made from a preparation belonging to the late Dr. Pereira. ON BUNT, SMTJT BOLLS, OR PEPPER BRAND. ( Uredo canes, Dec. ; Uredo foetida, Bauer.) This fungus has hitherto been met with only in the grains of wheat : it is easily recognised by its disgusting smell. The spores or sporangia, analogous to seed vessels, are large and reticulated, as represented in FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 311 the figure. Some doubt exists whether this fungus is deleterious or not ^ Dy many it is considered to be so. Flour containing it is fre- quently used for gingerbread (fig. 85). ERGOT. {Oidium arhm'tifadens.) Ergot is particularly prone to attack rye : it does not confine its Fig. 86. This engraving represents a transverse section of Ergot of Rye. a. Terminal colourless filaments bearing the spores, which are seen on the extremities, h. The coloured threads which constitute the black or purple portion of the grain, c. The cells, with the contained spherules of oil, which form the body or colourless part of the grain, magnified 420 diameters, d, e, f, repre- sent minute portions of the same structures, more highly magnified — viz., 670 diameters. ravages to that one grass, but has been observed to attack a variety of species ; and amongst the rest, the ears of wheat. The engraving (fig. 86) represents a section of ergotised rye. 312 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. In flour contaminated with ergot the structures above delineated occur, of course, in a much broken and divided state. Numerous and well-attested instances are on record of dangerous and even fatal efiects resulting from the consumption of bread con- taining ergot. The active principle of ergot is named ergotine. It is obtained by- treating ergot with ether to remove fat and wax, afterwards exhaust- ing vdth boiling alcohol, concentrating the solution, and precipitating by cold water. It is a reddish powder, insoluble in water, ether, and dilute acids, but dissolved by alcohol, strong acetic acid, and caustic potash. Fig. 87. This engraving represents the spores of Uredo segetum, magnified 420 diameters. Drawing made from a preparation belonging to Dr. Swayne. Test for ergot. — Laneau renders the paste of the flour alkaline, adds dilute nitric acid to slight excess and then neutralizes, when a violet-red colour will appear if ergot be present, which changes to rosy red when nitric acid and violet when an alkali is added. Another test is the odour of propylamin developed on the addition of liquor potassse to the ergotised flour. FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 313 ON EXIST, RED-RAG, RED-ROBIN, RED-GUM. ( Uredo ruhigo and TIredo linearis.) These so-called species are but young states of Puccinia graminis. They form yellow, brown, oval spots or blotches upon the stem, leaf, and chaiF; the sporules of which the blotches consist are intermediate in size between those of Uredo cai-ies and U, segetum ; they are at first Fig. 1 Wheat Flour infested with Puccinia graminis, in an early stage of development. 420 diameters. round, afterwards oval, and attached by a pellucid, short, and slender stalk to the surface on which they are developed, but after a time they become free (fig. 87.) The engraving (fig. 88) represents some wheat flour largely infested with Puccinia graminis in the state formerly called Uredo ncbigo. The sample, which was ofiered for sale, was brought to Dr. Muspratt, by whom it was forwarded to the author. 314 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. ON SMUT, OR DUST BRAND. (JJredo segetum.) This fungus is comparatively rare in wheat, but very common in barley and oats ; rye does not appear to be subject to it. It has not the disagreeable smell of the preceding species, and the spores are several times smaller (fig. 87). OIT MILDEW. (Fuecinia fframinis.) The ripe spores of this fungus are dark-brown club-shaped bodies. Fig. 89. v:^s2.^-s^*^r;eev:^:;;x: PUCCINIA GRAMINIS, In all stages. Magnified 500 diameters. From specimens kindly furnished by the Rev. Prof. Henslow. having the broader end divided into two compartments filled with sporules. ^ I have observed this fungus with the rust fungi in a way FLOUR AND ITS ADULTEEATIONS. 315 tiiat strengthens my opinion that they are identical.' — Professor Henslow. In the engraving (fig. 89) this fungus is represented in all the stages and conditions of its growth. Penicillium glaucum, Fermentum cerevisice, ^c. When bread has been kept for a few days, and has become stale, certain species of fungi are apt to become developed in it. One of Fig. 90. Penicillium glaucum in its perfect state of development. these is the well-known Penicillium glaucum, which forms the green mould of cheese and other decaying organic substances : it is described and figured in a memoir by the author contained in the thirty-sixth volume of the ^ Medico-Chirurgical Transactions' (fig. 90). Other species of Penicillium according to Parkes are Penicillium citophilum and Penicillium roseum, of a greenish, brownish, or reddish yellow colour. 316 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. A second species of fungus is Fermentum cerevisicB, or the yeast fungus, also described and figured in the memoir above alluded to. Its development in bread goes in part to show that the vitality of the yeast is not altogether destroyed by the baking of the bread. ' It will be described and figured under the head of ^ Yeast.' A third fungus found in stale bread is very different from either of the others ; it is represented in the engraving, fig. 91. It is of a bright Fig. 91. Oidium orantiacum fungus, commonly found in stale Bread. yellow colour, and it often, from its abundance, causes the bread to assiune in patches the same colour. This is the Oidium omntiacum. Vihriones. These also are sometimes found in moist and damaged flour. The Bearded or Poisonous Darnel. The poisonous grass, Lolium temulentum, or damely is by no means of uncommon occurrence, and numerous accidents have from time to time occurred, in consequence of its becoming mixed either with the flour of wheat, or some other cereal farina. The efiects of darnel on man are thus described by Pereira : — ' The ill efiects of the seeds of bearded darnel on man were known to the ancient Greeks and Romans. The symptoms which they^ pro- duce are twofold : those indicating gastro-intestmal irritation, — such as FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 317 vomiting and colic ; and those which arise from disorder of the cerehro- spinal system— such as headache, giddiness, languor, ringing m the ears, confusion of sight, dilated pupU, delirium, heaviness, somnolency, trembling, convulsions, and paralysis. These seeds therefore appear to be acro-narcotic poisons. According to Seeger, one ot the most i^^fe^ structure of the grain of Lolium temulentum, or Darnel. Showing transverse and vertical sections of testa, magnified 200 diameters ; also the characters of the starch corpuscles, magnified 600 diameters. certain signs of poisoning by them is trembling of the whole body. Both Burghard and Schober (quoted by Wibmer) mention a death having resulted from their use. In Cordier's cases their ill effects were directly ascertained by experiments made upon himself; but in most other cases they were the result of accidental poisoning. In general they have arisen from the intermixture of bearded darnel seeds with otJier cereal grains. In a prison at Cologne, sixty persons 318 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. suffered from the use of a bread meal, containing a draclim and a half of Lolium temulentum in six ounces of meal. ; As the chemical tests for darnel when mixed with flour are not very satisfactory or decisive, we have submitted the seeds to micro- scopical examination, and find them to be so different from those of wheat or rye, that when admixed with these in the state of flour they may be readily detected. The starch corpuscles resemble very closely those of rice in form — that is, they are polygonal — ^but they are much smaller, and, like those of the oat, they are frequently united into compound grains of various sizes, the larger grains consisting of some fifty or sixty starch cor- puscles. The structure of the testa is very different from that of either rice, the oat, or indeed any of the other cereal grains : it is formed of three coats or membranes ; the cells of the outer coat form but a single layer, and contrary to the arrangement which exists in the oat, their long axes are disposed transversely, in which respect they resemble rice : the fibres of the husk of rice and the cells of the testa of Lolium are, however, very distinct in other respects. In the former the cells are long and narrow, forming fibres, while in the latter they are but between two and three times as long and broad. The cells of the second coat, which are ranged in two layers, follow a vertical disposition — an arrangement which is contrary to that which obtains in all the other cereal grains with the exception of rice. The cells of the third coat form but a single layer, and resemble those of the other grains described (fig. 92). Lolium is said to be best detected apart from the microscope by means of alcohol, which gives a greenish solution of a disagreeable taste, and which on evaporation leaves a resinous yellowish green extract. We have now to consider the diseases of corn produced not by the invasion of parasitic fungi, but animal productions. THE WEEVIL. The Weevil, Calandra granaria, is of frequent occurrence in grain and flour which have become damaged. The presence of the weevil in the grain is revealed by the existence of a little hole visible on the surface of the grain. If the grain be crushed it will be found to con- sist chiefly of a shell with the starch eaten away. It is of much more frequent occurrence in the grain than in the flour. ON EAR COCEXE, PTTRPLES, OR PEPPERCORN. (Vibrio tritici.) The grains affected turn green at first, and ultimately black ; they become rounded, resembling a small peppercorn; the husks are spread out and the awns twisted, by which means the infected ears FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 319 are readily obserrable amongst the standing corn. The blighted grains are filled with a moist cotton-like substance and contain no flour. This substance is composed of myriads of eel-shaped animal- cules, which, as soon as moistened with water, exhibit the most active movements (fig. 93). A most extraordinary circumstance connected with these animalcules is, that they may be so perfectly dried that on the slightest touch they break up into powder, and yet, when moistened, Fig. 93. Serous Vibrio tritici, magnified 100 diameters. Drawing made from preparation belonging to the late Dr. Pereira. they will revive, and become as active as at first. This operation may even be repeated several times before the vitality of the animalcules is finally destroyed. ON THE WHEAT MIDGE. (^Cecidomyia tritici.) This is a two-winged fiy, which may be seen in myriads in the early part of June, in the evenings from seven to nine o'clock, flying about the wheat for the purpose of depositing its eggs vrithin the blossoms; the eggs become hatched into yellow maggots or cater- pillars, and by these the mischief is occasioned ; they cause the non- 320 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. development of the ovary, so that the grain never advances beyond its condition at the time the flower first expands. All the grains in an ear are not usually aflected, hut only grains here and there. A figure of the fly and its caterpillar will be found in the ^ Transactions of the Linnaean Society.' ACARTJS PARING. This mite is never present in flour unless this has become damaged. It difters considerably in structure from the sugar mite (fig. 94). Fig. 94. AcARUS Fajiin^, or meal mite, from the ovum to the matm-e state, from wheat flour, a a, ova ; b b, young ; c, male ; d, female. Magnified 75 diameters. Another species of acarus, met with on one occasion in wheat flour, is exhibited in the engraving, fig. 95. THE ADULTERATIONS OF FLOUR. The adulterations to which flour is subject are of two kinds, and consist in the addition of either vegetable or mineral substances. The principal additions coming under the first head, which are made to flour, are with various descriptions of other kinds of flour and meal. One adulteration of flour is with bean meal. It is a common prac- tice for millers to add bean meal to flour ; and it is said that this addition FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 231 is not made so miich for the sake of profit, as to render certain de- scriptions of flour more tenacious when made into dough, bean meal effecting this object in consequence of the large quantity of glutinous matter which it contains. In the case of genuine wheat flour of good Fig. 95. AcARUS from flonr. Dra\m with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 220 diameters. quality, no such addition is required ; when the flour is damaged, beans are used in considerable quantities. Another addition sometimes made is rice fiour. Tlie purpose served by the addition of this article, unless it be exclusively for the sake of adulteration, is not apparent, since it does not make bread to bind better. It is said indeed to cause it to hold more water, and it possibly has some effect in whitening it. 322 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Again, in some cases, barley , rye^ Indian corm^ and potato flours have been added to wheat flour. According to the evidence of Mr. Emerson, the manager of * The People's Flour Mill,' at Leeds, given before the Parliamentary Com- mittee on Adulteration in 1855, wheat flour is frequently adulterated with about twenty-five per cent, of barley floury which is not much more than half the price of wheat flour. The follovring very curious evidence, in regard to the adidteration of wheat flour, was given before the Committee above referred to by Mr. Potto Brown, a miller of forty years' standing, and whose business was chiefly in London : — ' Barley is mixed with wheat in some districts to cheapen the price. In other districts wheat is mixed with barley to improve the quality, particularly in Northamptonshire. The poor people consider barley more nutritious than wheat flour. I do not know that that is the case ; I am doubtful of the point, but it is the universal opinion of the poor people.' Again : ' To give the above qualities to my flour, I add one part of bean flour to sixty parts of wheat meal ; never more than one in forty. ^ White peas improve the appearance of flour, but not the quality, and are put in to cheapen it.' Sir J. Gordon, mayor of Cork, furnished the Committee with the following evidence in regard to the use of Dari : — ^ There is an Egyptian grain called Dari, that was imported in very large quantities at one time into Cork ; that to a moral certainty was for the purpose of mixing with wheaten flour : they were able to sell that for 6/. a ton, while the other was bringing nearly three times that amount.' The Adulterations of Cones Flour. There is an article in common and daily use by bakers, denomi- nated ^Cones'* or * Cones flour.'' Dr. Paley, of Peterborough, brought the author a sample of flour for examination, seized on suspicion, and which he stated the baker called ' Cones Flour.' On subjecting this to microscopical examination, it was found that it consisted entirely of rice flour. This led to further enquiries. The author soon learned that genuine cones flour consists of the flour of a particular species of wheat called Revet. Further, that it was employed by bakers to dust the dough, as well as the boards upon which this is made into loaves, the object of its use being to prevent the dough either adhering to the boards, or the loaves to each other, in the course of baking. Having learned thus much, the author procured from bakers nume* rous samples of cones, and subjected them to examination ; and twenty- two samples of cones were thus examined with the microscope, from FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 323 wliich it appeared that five of tlie samples were genuine, and consisted of wheat flour, and that the other samples wei-e mixtm'es, sometimes mthout any wheat flour at all, of rye, rice, bean and Indian corn liour, the rice flour being- the most frequent constituent. In fact, Cones flour is rarely to he obtained genuine, hut is subject to an enormous amount of adulteration ; this usually consisting in the addi- tion of very large quantities of rice, rye, barley, bean, and Indian coim flours, and sometimes of salt and alum. Some of the samples did not contain a particle of loheat flour, of which alone they should consist. The object of these additions is obviously to cheapen the article ; and that this purpose is eflected sometimes to the extent of nearly one-half might be readily proved by quoting the several market prices of the different varieties of grain above refen'ed to. That this is really the object may be shown in another way : several f[ualities of cones flour are sold, the best being nearly twice the price of the worst, and the adulteration being usually in proportion to the price. Two questions now present themselves for consideration in connec- tion with cones flour : the first is, whether any real necessity exists for the use of even genuine, much less adulterated cones flour ; and the second is, whether this flour, especially when adulterated, as it usually is, is ever applied to any other purpose than that avowed. The first question is almost sufiiciently answered by the fact that some do not use cones flour at all, and yet do not experience any great difficulty in the manufactm-e of the bread ; there is therefore good reason for believing that price has very much to do with the general employment of cones flour, even in those cases in which it is really used to prevent the adhesion of the loaves. With regard to the second question, there can be no doubt but that cones flour is frequently employed in the adulteration of bread : this is shown in some cases by the character of certain of the adulterations to which it is subject, namely those by admixture with bean flour, alum, and salt. Now bean flour is actually of a more glutinous and adhering nature than piu-e wheat flour of good quality, and therefore its ])resence tends to unfit it for the very purpose for which it is alleged that it is designed. But some bakers have even acknowledged to the employment of cones flour for the purpose of adulteration, for which, from its compo- sition, especially when adulterated, as it constantly is, it is so well suited. Supposing, however, the cones flour to be employed for dusting the dough, and that this is a legitimate use, still this does not justify its adulteration. In the article cones flour, prepared by millers, bakers, then, are iiimished with a material avowedly wheat flour, but which, consist- iag of mixtures of different and cheaper flours, is in every way suited for y2 324 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. the adulteration of bread ; and that it is extensively used for this pur- pose cannot be doubted. The system adopted by millei*s, of supplying, under the names of cones flour and wheat flour, compounds adapted for adulteration, is surely very cunningly devised. The public know nothing of this article, the master bakers themselves are ignorant of Fig. 96. Adulterated Cones Flour, consisting of a mixture of wheat, rice., and bean flours. Magnified 225 diameters. its exact composition ; while the journeyman, in most cases, when he adds, by his master's directions, a bushel of cones to a sack of flour, has no idea that he is adulterating the bread. The case of cones flour affords another example of what the microscope is capable of effecting in connection with the subject of FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 325 adulteration. Had it not been for that instrument, it would liave been utterly impossible to have ascertained by scientific means the compo- sition of the heterogeneous mixture called cones flour. The admirable engraving (fig. 96) exhibits the characters presented by a sample of so-called cones flour, composed of wheat, rice, and bean floiu's. It is difiicult to determine which is the most excellent, the drawing of Mr. Tuflen West or the engraving of Mr. Hart. ^ Occasionally in times of famine other vegetable substances are mixed with flour and bread — chestnuts ^ acorns, &c. In 1835, during famine, fatal dysentery appeared in Konigsberg, owing to the people mixing their flour with the poUen of the male catkins of the hazelbush. In India the use of a vetch, Lathyrus sativus (Kessaree-dhoU), with barley or wheat, gives rise to a special paralysis of the legs, when it txceeds one-twelfth part of the flour. The L. eicera has the same effect.' — Farkes. Wheat jiour, especially that imported from foreign countries, is apt to be contaminated with the farina or flour of a variety of other grains, as of huckioheat (Polygonum fagopyrum) ; of millet, Pam'cum milia- ceum ; purple coiv-wheat (Melampy?'um arvense) ; Trefoil (trifblium crvense) ; Sainfoin or yelloio rattle {Rhinanthus major^. It does not appear that any of these grains possess injurious properties, although sonie of them, as the piu'ple cow-wheat, trefoil, and sainfoin impair the colour of the bread made from flour containing any notable pro- portion of these grains, causing the bread to exhibit a \dolet, violet- red, or bluish-black colour. For further information in reference to these grains the reader is referred to Parkes' ' Hygiene.' The Mineral Adulterations of Flour » Large quantities of damaged wheat floiu* are annually sold: tliis is usually more adulterated than any other flour, in a variety of ways, to render it saleable ; as by admixture with other flours, with alum, and carbonate of soda. The object of the admixture of alum and soda is to harden the partially decomposed gluten, and to correct tlie acidity resulting from decomposition. Alu7n is frequently added also to sound flour. This is done to cause the bread made from it to appear whiter than it would otherwise do. This addition, like the majority of the adulterations of flour, is j! ractised by millers. A miller who was fined for adulterating his flour vath alum had no less than 600 lbs. of that substance on his premises at the time of the discovery. A substance caUed mineral lohite, which is hydrated sulphate of lime, is occasionally added to floiu'. Several millers have been con- victed for putting this substance into flour. Convictions have also taken place for using silicate of aluminaj other names for which are China clay and Cornish clay. A variety of other substances, it has been alleged, have been and 326 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. are used for the adulteration of flour, as hone asheSj hone dust, ivhite clay and chalk, or carbonate of lime ; and it is most probable that the majority of them have been thus employed, although we are not our- selves acquainted with any recent cases of their detection in flour. To 3ome of these substances we shall again refer when noticing the adul- terations of bread. The use of another mineral substance, carbonate of magnesia, has even been specially recommended by Mr. C. Davy, on the ground that Fig. 97. Bean Flour. Magnified 420 diameters. it improves the colour of new and inferior flour, and increases the yield — neither of which results, so far as the public is concerned, are in the least desirable. The increased yield simply signifies more luater. The quantity of magnesia required varies from 20 to 40 grains to a pound of flour. THE DETECTION OF THE ADULTERATIONS OE FLOUR. The various substances employed in the adulteration of flour may be divided into organic and inorganic. Under these heads are included the various articles which have been enumerated in the previous section, ' The Adulterations of Flour.' f FLOUK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 327 Detection of the organic adulterants of flour, — Tlie only means by which the adiilteration of wheat flour with the other kinds of flour enumerated can be discovered is by the microscope. The characters of the starches of the several flours used in the adulteration of wheat flour and bread have abeady been described, with the exception of potato starch and bean flour. Bean flour is distinguished from the other flours used by the oval or reniform shape of the granules, the elongated and divided character of the hilum, and the thickness of the walls of the cells enclosing the starch corpuscles (fig. 97). Fig. 98. Wheat Flour, adulterated with hean flour. Magnified 420 diameters. Fig. ICO represents the characters of the cells of which the potato is mainly composed, while the starch corpuscles of the potato will be found described and delineated under the head of ^ Arrowroot.' The adulteration of wheat flour with barley flour is one by no means easy of discovery when we confine our observations entirely to the form of the starch corpuscles of the two kinds of grain, the difier- ences in the characters of the starch not being very considerable. The corpuscles of barley starch are smaller than those of wheat — especially the more minute granules— and this is nearly the only observable 328 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. dilFerence. The discrimination may, however, be effected in a very satisfactory manner, by means of the portions of husk present in the flour. The structm-al peculiarities of the testa and ol the cells forming the surface of the grain of wheat and barley have already been pointed out, and to the description of these reference may now be made. The adulteration of flour with Durra is also discoverable by means of the microscope. Fig. 99. Wheat Flour, adulterated with ince. Magnified 420 diameters. On the structure of *" Durra ^ Holcus Burra mtivm, Forshdl; Sorghum vulgare. — The testa of the grain or seed may be described as consisting of three membranes. The outer is composed of three or four layers of thick- walled cells, rather small, about three times longer than broad, and having the margins finely beaded, somewhat as in capsicmn. The middle coat consists of several layers of cells, with thin walls, and filled with small but angular starch corpuscles. The third timic resembles that of most of the other seeds of the gramine, and consists of a single layer of angular gluten cells, but which are unusually small. FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 329 The substance of tlie seed resembles very closely tliat of Indian corn, diftering chiefly in the larger size and greater angularity of the starch corpuscles, as well as the stellate character of the hiliun (fig. 101). The last organic adulteration, the method for the discovery of which we have to describe, is that with bone-dust. Bone-dust consists of the dust or flour of bones ; now bones possess a well-defined structure which is to some extent traceable in the flour; again, bone flour Wheat Flcur, adulterated with Indian Co7-n flour. Magnified 420 diameters. consists in large part of phosphate of lime ; this, on the application of nitrate of silver, tiu-ns yellow. If, then, on examining any sample of flour with the microscope, we discover minute bony particles, or if, on adding a small quantity of a solution of nitrate of silver to the flour, while imder the microscope, particles of a deep and rich golden yellow appear, it is certain that the flour is adulterated with bone-dust. The quantity of bone-dust used must be calculated from the quantity of phosphate of lime contained in the ash of a given quantity of the floiu*. Detection of the inorganic adulterants of fimir. — The processes for the detection and estimation of chalk or carlonate of lime, carlonate of 330 FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. magnesia, sulphate of limey and soapstone or silicate of magnesia^ China clay or silicate of alumina, have already been described in the article on ' Tea.' We have then now only to consider the methods by which car- Fig. 101. Dw-ra. A, transverse section of testa, * 200. a, outer ; 6, middle ; c, inner coat. B, longitudinal section of testa, *200. a, outer ; 6, middle ; c, inner tunic. C, * 100, svhfitance of eeed, showing the large angular cells filled -with starch, of which it is composed. D, * 600, parts of large cells, showing the pseudo-cell structure, in which the starch corpuscles are separately lodged. E E, *500, starch from testa and &om substance of grain. FLOUR AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 331 honate of soda, almn, or suliohate of ijotash and alumina, and sulphate of copper may Idg detected and estimated. The detection of carbonate of soda. — The ash of wheat, and of the other cereal grains, as will be seen from the analyses already given, is itself free from carbonates. If, therefore, the ash exhibits decided efter- vescence on the addition of an acid, it may be safely assumed that some extraneous carbonate has been added to the flour, most probably carbonate of lime, magnesia, or soda. The soluble portions of the ash should be extracted with water, and the solution evaporated ; if now a distinct effervescence is obtained on the addition of an acid, there can be no question but that a carbonate of an alkali has been added, in all probability carbonate of soda, the amount of which, however, must be estimated by the usual alkalimetrical or gravimetrical method. But if carbonate of soda has been added, the bread itself will be decidedly alkaline to test paper, and again, in those cases in which bread has been adulterated with a considerable quantity of potatoes, the ash vdll be found to effervesce from the presence of carbonates derived from the destruction of the organic acids present in the potato. The distinction between these two cases is that, where the alkali has been added to the dough, the whole mass of the bread is alkaline, which is not so where the bread has been adulterated with potatoes only. If no effervescence occm', the carbonate will be foimd in the in- soluble portion of the ash, and will consist, as already stated, of car- bonate of lime or magnesia, and here again quantitative determinations will have to be made. On the detection of alum. — The full details of the more important of the processes employed for the detection and estimation of alum will be found fully described in the article on ^ Bread.' They are essentially the same for flour ; and since alum is very frequently added not alone to bread but to flour, no examination of the latter article should be considered to be complete which does not include the search for alum. The detection of sulphate of copper. — Since this salt is but rarely found in flour, and occurs more frequently in bread, we have deemed it best to give the process for its detection also under the head of ' Bread.' A ready method of detecting the pres&nce of mineral substances in flour is given by Redtenbacher. The flour is well shaken up with chloroform ; the flour floats on the surface, and the mineral matter falls to the bottom. 332 BREAD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. CHAPTER XII. BREAD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Any foreign vegetable or mineral substance, including alum, but r.ot yeast and salt. THE MANUFACTURE OF BREAD. The word ^ Bread ' may be applied not only to the flour of wheat, "but to that of any other grain when mixed with water, and rendered light and porous by the action of carbonic acid gas and baked. Three methods are employed in rendering the dough light : by the use of yeast, of leaven, or by the employment of certain saline sub- stances from which carbonic acid gas is disengaged. In the two former cases the carbonic acid is generated at the expense of the sugar and part of the starch ; and in the latter it is simply liberated from a car- bonate by the action of an acid. Hence two kinds of bread are manufactiu^ed — that made with yeast or leaven is called fermented or leavened bread, the other, prepared without leaven, is denominated unfermented ov unleavened bread. The operation of the substances employed in the manufacture of the latter description are to a certain extent analogous to that of yeast. Leavened bread should consist only of flour, yeast, and water, with a little salt ; such is the composition of genuine home-made bread, the flavour of which is so agreeable, and so very different from that of ordinary bakers' bread. In the preparation of cheap bread, flour of inferior quality is fre- quently used, and this is often mixed up with salt, potatoes, some- times rice and other flours, and alum; these substances impart to it a taste very distinct from that of home-made bread, and occasion much of the difference observed between that description of bread and ordinary bakers' bread. The more general method of rendering bread porous is by fermen- tation, induced either by means of leaven or yeast, which, however, requires to be conducted in a very careful manner, as if not carried far enoiigh the bread will be heavy and sodden ; and if too far, acetic and lactic acids and other undesirable products are generated. The lightest and most porous bread is made with wheat flour, the * BREAD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 333 lightness arising from the peculiar tenacity of the gluten, which causes the dough to retain the carbonic acid more strongly in its interstices. When flour, in the moist state, is exposed to the air, the nitro- genous matter contained in it undergoes a peculiar decomposition whereby it acts as a ferment, a portion of the starch being converted into dextrin and glucose, and the latter, as well as the glucose origi- nally present in the flour, in its turn is changed into alcohol and carbonic acid. Now, a portion of dough thus altered is capable of inducing similar changes in a very much larger quantity of sound flour, and hence it is called leaven : ^ a little leaven leaveneth the whole lump/ One of the oldest methods of inducing fermentation in flour is by the use of leaven, but its employment is now chiefly confined to the coarser kinds of bread, as the black bread of Germany, but for the finer sorts 3^east is now generally used, or a mixture of yeast and leaven. In this country leaven is rarely, if ever, employed, but almost exclusively yeast in the form of beer yeast, or in the dried state, when it is known by the name of German yeast. The following is the ordinary method of bread-making pursued : — A certain quantity of potatoes are boiled, peeled, mashed, put into a pail or other suitable vessel, mixed with flour, salt, warm water, and some yeast, and allowed to stand in a warm place. After a time fer- mentation sets in, and the yeast begins to develope at the expense of the potatoes and flom', till the whole becomes in an active state of fermen- tation, forming what is technically known as the sponge. After the lapse of some time the sponge swells up from the genera- tion of carbonic acid, some of the gas coming to the surface and escaping in large bubbles. This goes on for some time, causing an alternate rising and falling of the sponge. When the sponge is in an active condition fresh portions of flour, salt, and water are added to it. The whole is thoroughly kneaded so as to give rise to an equal liberation of carbonic acid throughout the whole mass. The dough is now allowed to remain at rest for some hours to permit of the further progress of fermentation ; it is kneaded a second time, weighed out into loaves, which are again allowed to fer- ment until they have acquired double the original bulk of the dough, and they are then transferred to the oven to be baked. The heat to which the loaves are subjected quickly arrests fermentation, and causes ihe expulsion of some of the carbonic acid and alcohol formed. The crumb of a loaf of bread thus prepared consists mainly of water, starch — the granules of which are much increased in size — and gluten ; while in the crust the starch is converted into dextrin, and when highly baked both the starch and nitrogenous matters are decomposed, and more or less biu^ned. ^ In Paris, where bread-making has been brought to a high degree of perfection, the fermentation is produced chiefly by the gluten of the dough, yeast being used merely to facilitate the action. A lump of 334 BREAD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. dough remaining from the last batch of bread, and coniisting of 8 lbs. flour and 4 lbs. water, is left to itself for ten hours ; in this state it is called fresh leaven (levain de chef). By kneading this with another quantity of 8 lbs. of flour and 4 lbs. water the once-revived leaven (levain de premie}') is obtained. Ajfter another interval of eight hours 16 lbs. of flour and 8 lbs. of water are added, forming the twice-revived leaven (levain de second) ; and after three hours more 100 lbs. of flour and 52 lbs. of water, containing ^ to | lb. beer yeast are added, forming the finished leaven (levain de tout point). The 200 lbs. leaven thus obtained are mixed after two hours with 132 lbs. of flour and 68 lbs. of water, containing ^ lb. of yeast in suspension and 2 lbs. common salt dissolved. This quantity of dough serves for five or six bakings. For the first baking half the dough, 200 lbs., is made into loaves of the required size and form, which are exposed for awhile in shallow baskets to a temperature of 25° 0., equal to 77° F., and then trans- ferred to the oven. The bread thus obtained has a sourish taste and dark colour. The remaining half of the dough is again mixed with 132 lbs. of flour, 70 lbs. of water, ^ lb. of yeast, and the requisite quan- tity of salt ; the half of this quantity of dough is then formed into loaves, left to ferment and bake. ^ The same operations are repeated three times, one-half of the dough being each time mixed with 130 lbs. of flour, IJ lbs. of yeast, and the proper quantity of water and salt. The last stage yields the finest and whitest bread.^ — Watts's Dictionary. We will now describe very fully the structure and development of yeast. YEAST, OR THE YEAST-PL ANT. The substance known as yeast is in reality a plant, belonging to the tribe of fungi ; it consists of a multitude of minute oval or circular bodies or sporules, endowed, under certain favourable circumstances, with extraordinary powers of growth and multiplication. Three kinds of yeast are employed in the manufacture of bread, viz., brewer's yeast, German yeast, and patent yeast. Some bakers use one and some another, but the greater numlDer make use of patent yeast on account of its cheapness. The fungus is the same species in each. Brewer's yeast. — This, as is well known, is of a light-brown or fawn colour, and of a frothy consistence ; when recent, it is in constant movement, and bubbles of gas escape from it. Examined with the microscope it is seen to consist of innumerable minute bodies termed sporules, of variable size, some circular and others oval, and all intermingled with very many globules of carbonic acid gas. These sporules multiply rapidly when the yeast is in an active condition. Brewers and bakers ' distinguish yeast according to the quality ol the beer from which it is obtained. Ale yeast is the best and strongest, ^ BREAD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 335 and is used for bread-making. Porter yeast is objected to by bakers, but is used in distilleries. Small beer yeast is said to be weak but rapid in its effects, and is sometimes used in making rolls.' — Pereira, German yeast. — This, which is sometimes called ^ dried yeast/ consists of sporules only, with but little adherent moisture and no gas. It forms a paste-like substance, and is obtained from a fermented liquid by filtmtion. It is imported into this country principally from (jermany, in hempen bags, each holding half a hundredweight. When placed in casks it is apt to burst them, in consequence of the carbonic acid sometimes evolved. We believe that this yeast is perfectly wholesome, and that no foundation existed for the reports, some time since set on foot, that it possessed injurious properties. It is, however, sometimes adulter- ated with a considerable quantity of pipe clay or silicate of alumina. The vitality of yeast is destroyed by mechanical injuries, heat, cold, and chemical reagents. Dr. Pereira relates a singular circum- stance in reference to the effect of blows on yeast : — ^ A very curious fact was mentioned to me by the importer of Ger- man and Dutch yeasts in Finch Lane, Oornhill, London. It is that mechanical injury kills or destroys yeast. Foreign yeast is imported in bags, and of these great care is requisite in their removal from place to ^lace. If they be allowed to fall violently on the ground, the yeast is spoiled. A bruise or a blow given to the bag also destroys it. The men who make up the dried yeast into quarter-pound and half- pound balls for sale are obliged to handle it very dexterously or they in- jure and destroy it. In fact, falls, bruises, and rough handling, kill it, and the yeast which has thus been mechanically injured may be readily distinguished from good unaltered yeast. Its colour becomes darker, somewhat like the change which an apple or pear undergoes when it becomes rotten ; and from being crumbly or powdery it becomes soft, ijrlutinous, sticky to the fingers like flour-paste, and even stinks. I have submitted some of this injured or dead yeast to microscopical ex- amination, but have been unable to detect any difference in its appear- ance from healthy yeast. The effect of mechanical inj uries is also noticed by several writers. Thus Liebig remarks that simple pressure di- minishes the power of yeast to excite vinous fermentation.' — Pereira' s Materia Medica. Patent yeast. — This is prepared from an infusion of malt and hops. It is a thin wateiy liquid, containing innumerable sporules of the yeast-plant in suspension. The hops are added to prevent the liquid i'rom becoming sour. This mode of preparation of patent yeast is considerably varied by different bakers. Many add a portion of brewer's or German yeast to an infusion containing either flour or malt with potatoes. These substances supply the food or nourishment upon which the yeast-cells grow and multiply with much rapidity, as weU as the material for 336 BREAD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. conversion into carbonic acid. Yeast-cells in the course of a few- days make their appearance in a simple infusion of malt, and sometimes even of flour. Patent yeast, before being mixed with the flour, is often allowed to drain through a copper basin or sieve perforated with numerous holes ; by this means the chief part of the mashed potato employed in the preparation of the yeast is separated. Fig. 102. This drawing exhibits the sporules of which a sample of Patent Yeast was com- posed ; they differ from the sporules of ordinary j'east in their smaller size, oval form, and in being frequently united in twos and threes ; they appear to belong to a distinct fermentation fungus, but their development was not followed out. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 220 diameters. Discovery of the Development of the Yeast-plant, Few productions have created more interest or excited greater discussion than yeast *, its nature and the mode of its operation have been made subjects of keen enquiry and dispute. These points are now, however, to a great extent set at rest ; its fungoid character is generally admitted, and its modus operandi in panification is well imderstood. In one particular, however, the history of the yeast-plant was for a long time incomplete : this related to its development. BREAD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 337 Most observers admit that the yeast fungus, as met with in the different forms of yeast in use, is in an incomplete state of develop- ment, and many, influenced by this conviction, have made attempts to discover the plant in its perfect condition. Thus Turpin, in the ardour of scientific zeal, spent a whole night in a brewery, with a view to trace out the successive steps in the development of the yeast-plant ; and although he has stated that he made out distinctly that the cells or sporules became multiplied by budding, and that they adhered together in twos and even in rows, Fig. 103. This engraving represents * The Yeast Fungus ' in the first stage of its develop- ment, or that of sporules. As generally met with, and as used in the fer- mentation of bread, yeast consists of an immense number of similar sporules intermixed with bubbles of carbonic acid. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 220 diameters. {iccording to the time which had elapsed after the commencement of germination, yet, as we shall presently see, he failed to discover the yeast fungus in its perfect form. x4.nimated with the like desire of discovering the true development of this curious production. Dr. Pereira bestowed much time and atten- tion on its examination. 'I have myself,' that gentleman writes, • examined yeast at Messrs. Hanbury and Buxton's brewery at various 338 BREAD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. stages of fermentation of "both porter and ale, from a few hours to many days. In the more advanced stages of fermentation, I observed the globules of yeast were frequently in strings or rows, apparently forming moniliform, often branched plants. But as the cells or jointe were very readily separable, I could not satisfy myself that the adhesion was otherwise than mechanical, such as we see between blood-discs when they arrange themselves in series like money-rolls, and such as we sometimes perceive even in inorganic amorphous pre- Fig. 104. This engraving represents ' The Yeast- Plant ' in the second stage of its growth, or that of thallus ; the jointed threads are intermixed with the two kinds of reproductive bodies developed on the vertical filaments of the thallus. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 220 diameters. cipitates. My experience agrees precisely with Schlossberger, who states that he " never could perceive a budding or bursting of the yeast- cells, accompanied by a discharge of their contents," nor could I ever produce this by compression. These curious brachial and other adjust- ments of the cells of yeast to each other appeared to me the work of chance.' It is, however, proper to add that the artificial rupture of the cells has been effected by Mitscherlich, who also confirms Turpin's observation of the budding of the yeast-cells. Robin, after describing the development of the sporules by budding. BREAD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 339 'emarks : ' We know only this mode of propagation of this vegetable ; but its fructification in the air has not been seen, nor can it be seen, because it perishes from the part at which it comes in contact with the atmosphere ; so that we cannot yet say whether it ought to be classed amongst the fungi which fructify only in the air, or even amongst the algae, from which it is separated by very many particulars, and which fructify under water.' Impelled with a similar desire, we have applied ourselves diligently Fig. 105. This engraving represents a peculiar state or condition of * The Yeast Fun- gus ; ' the filaments consist chiefly of thallus, but in the course of many of them, single vesicles, of a somewhat oval form, have appeared; the cavities of these are in general but imperfectly filled with granular matter, and the filament on one side of each vesicle is almost constantly en- larged and void of contents. The vesicles appear to be formed, as in many algce, by the union of the contents of two or more cells, and the subsequent dilatation of the receiving cells. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 220 diameters. to this investigation, and, more fortunate than our predecessors, we have succeeded in tracing the yeast-plant through all the stages of its growth up to its perfect state. The development of the yeast-plant may be divided into three very distinct and natural stages. 340 BREAD AND ITS ADULTEBATIONS. First stage, or that of sporules. — In this, tlie ordinary state in which the yeast-plant is met with, it consists • entirely of sporules. These are for the most part separate, hut sometimes feehly united in twos, threes, and even in greater nmnhers ; they vary in size and form, some are several times smaller than others, and nearly all contain one or two nuclei, which are the germs of future sporules (fig. 103). Second stage, or that of thallus. — After the lapse of some days, and under favom^able circumstances, the sporules become much elongated ; a division or partition appears in each, and it now consists of two dis- tinct cells. The extension still continuing, other septa appear, until at length jointed threads, at first simple and undivided, afterwards Fig. 106. jointed, are formed, and the plant now exists in the form of root-like threads or thallm (figs. 104, 105 and 106). The yeast-plant in the state of thallus constitutes the Mycoderma cerevisicB of Demazieres. Third stage, or that of aerial fructification. — After the lapse of a further time, vertical threads spring up from the thallus ; these, when the plant has reached its complete development, become branched, each branch bearing at its extremity a row of rounded and beaded cor- puscles. BREAD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 341 These corpuscles are about the size of the original yeast sporules, but differ from those bodies in their darker colour and firmer texture. Occasionally in the rows of beaded corpuscles one cell several times larger than the rest is seen. But from observations made subsequently on the development of the sugar fungus in saccharine urine, it appears that the beaded threads do not form the last condition or stage in the development of the plant, but that true aerial tufts or heads of sporules are formed. Fig. 107. The Yeast Fungus in its perfect state of development. These heads were figured and described in a paper by ourselves, published in the 36th volimie of ^ Medico-Ohirui-gical Transactions,' p. 2Q. ^ The state and appearance of the heads vary with the develop- ment. At first they present a smooth outline, from being covered by a delicate membrane ; this afterwards bursting and becoming retracted, a rounded mass of circular sporules of a brownish colour is disclosed 342 BREAD AND ITS ADULTEBATIONS. to view. The sporules falling off, leave the dilated extremities of the threads or filaments exposed.' (Fig. 107). A fungus, somewhat closely resembling^ the yeast fungus in its perfect form, has been observed by Bennett in the expectoration of an individual attacked with pneumothorax. Such, then, is a very brief description of the development of the yeast-plant in its several stages. From a consideration of the structure of the granules of the yeast- plant, their evident fungoidal character, their rapid growth, &c., it occm-red to us that the reason why the true or aerial reproduction had never been discovered was to be found in the fact that, yeast being used always in the state of sporules, sufficient time was not allowed it, under ordinary circumstances, to attain its full development, for which purpose probably many days would be required. Acting on this impression, we placed in an eight-ounce bottle a tablespoonful of malt, poured over this about 4 ounces of warm water, and partially closing the mouth with a perforated cork, set it aside for a fortnight. At the end of that time we were rejoiced to find that our expec- tations were fully realised, and that we had indeed discovered that which so many other observers had failed to detect. This discovery was made in August, 1850. The aerial reproduction of this plant clearly shows that the German algologist, Kiitzing, is in error in regarding it as a confervoid production. Modijis operandi of yeast. — The presence of yeast in a substance containing sugar or starch which is convertible into sugar, and nitro- genised matter, induces certain chemical changes, comprehended under the term vinous or alcoholic fermentation. These changes in the making of bread consist in the conversion of the sugar of the flour into alcohol and carbonic acid gas ; the latter, in its eflbrts to escape from the dough with which it is mixed, distends it, forming vesicular spaces in its interior, and so causing it to become porous and light. Much of the alcohol is dissipated in the process of baking. A small quantity of the starch is converted, by the agency of the yeast, into sugar, which, in its turn, is changed into alcohol and car- bonic acid. If we examine attentively with the microscope the starch corpuscles contained in fermented and baked bread, we observe that they are for the most part stiU entire, although altered somewhat in form. During the baking, part of the starch is undoubtedly converted into dextrin. Some physicians are of opinion that the presence of yeast imparts injurious properties to leavened bread. This point is one of great practical importance ; but so far as we are aware, no , complete or con- clusive observations have yet been made on the subject. BEEAD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 343 It has been computed that the annual loss of alcohol in bread- making amounts to about 300,000 gallons, which, at 195. per gallon, would amount to 285,000/. The efforts hitherto made in large bakeries to save the alcohol have failed ; 20,000/. were spent in the fruitless endeavour to collect and condense the alcohol in the military bakery at Chelsea. For the production of wheaten bread of good quality it is of course necessary that the flour from which it is prepared should be sound and sweet. If the grain be much exposed to damp, or the flour made from it, if the grain from that cause have sprouted, the albuminous compounds of the flour will ifndergo decomposition, causing them, as already explained, to act as a ferment, and occasioning too great a conversion of the starch into dextrin, sugar, and other compounds, amongst which may be named acetic and lactic acids. Bread made mth flour of this description is soddened, heavy, and of a dark colour. Flours, therefore, which contain a large quantity of nitrogenous matter, as for example those made of whole meal flour, are more apt to undergo in bread-making an excessive degree of fermentation, than are the flours prepared from the more central and starchy portion of the grain. The employment of alum, — In order to prevent the excessive action of the diastase, and also in some cases to modify and to arrest the action of the nitrogenous constituents of the flour when so changed in their nature as to act as ferments, the addition of mineral substances, and especially of alum, has long been resorted to, and it is affirmed that alum renders possible the use of many damaged flours which otherwise would either have to be wasted or used for other inferior purposes. ^ The addition of alum to the dough,^ writes Dr. Odling, in the * Journal of the Society of Arts,' 1858, ' causes the loaves to be white, dry, elastic, crumbly, and unobjectionable both as to taste and appear- ance. I have found that flour which is of itself so glucogenic as to }ield bread undistinguishable from that made with infusion of malt, could, by the addition of alum, be made to furnish a white, dry, eat- able loaf.' Alum is also credited with the further properties of preventing bread from turning sour and becoming mouldy. These statements must be received, we believe, with some limitation. Certain it is that it is a very common thing to meet with sour and mouldy bread containing alimi. In so far as the alum restrains the production of excessive and undue fermentation, it may certainly have some effect in ])reventing the formation of acetic and especially lactic acid. The opinion has long been entertained that alum possessed the ])Ower of causing bread to retain more water than it would otherwise do. It seems to be questionable whether this is really the caSe or not. ])r. Odling estimated the amount of water contained in the crumb on the day of baking of 18 loaves which contained alum, and 7 loaves 344 BREAD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. free from alum, and foimd that in the former the average amount of water was 43*68, and in the latter 42*78 per cent. These experiments of Dr. Odling do not quite settle the point, as it is possible that the alum may cause the bread to retain its water for a longer time than if that substance were not present. It would be easy to determine this point by further experiments. With reference to the use of alum. Dr. Dauglish has written : — * Its effect on the system is that of a topical astringent on the surface of the alimentary canal, producing constipation and deranging the process of absorption. But its action in neutralising the efHcacy of the digestive solvents is by far the most* important and unquestionable. The very purpose for which it is used by the baker is the prevention of those early stages of solution which spoil the colour and lightness of the bread whilst it is being prepared, and which it does most effec- tually ; but it does more than needed, for whilst it prevents solution at a time that is not desirable, it also continues its effects when taken into the stomach, and the consequence is that a large portion of the gluten and other valuable constituents of the flour are never properly dissolved, but pass through the alimentary canal without affording any nourishment whatever.' The use of lime loater was strongly recommended many years since by Liebig as a substitute for alum, it likewise preventing the trans- formation of the starch into dextrin, sugar, and lactic acid ; and it has been employed in many cases for this purpose. It has the advantage of not interfering so much with the yeast fermentation, while no doubt its effects on the digestive organs would be less objectionable ; but in this way it must be remembered that a certain amount of car- bonate of lime is introduced into the bread. It is said that bread made with lime water has an agreeable taste, and that it is free from the sourness to which nearly all bread made in the ordinary way is more or less subject. Sulphate of copper, — Another substance which has been employed for the same purpose, and which exerts a very powerful effect, is sul- phate of cojyper. It is stated to have been much used in Belgium. ' An ounce of the salt being dissolved in about a quart of water, and a wineglassful of this solution mixed with the water necessary for 50 quartern or foiu*-pound loaves. This quantity is extremely small ; nevertheless, the use of so poisonous a substance as sulphate of copper cannot be too strongly condemned. Bread containing copper would be sure to act injuriously in the long run.' — Watts' s Dictimiary. 280 lbs. of flour, or one sack, should give from 90 to 105 4-lb. loaves. 6J lbs. of dough yield about 6 lbs. of bread. After being taken from the oven, bread begins to lose weight ; according to Parkes, a 4-lb. loaf loses in 24 hours 1\ oz. ; in 48 hours, 5 ozs. ; in 60, 7 ozs. ; and in 70 hours nearly 9 ozs. Loaves are generally weighed when hot, and this is considered to be their proper weight. BREAD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. * 345 UNLEAVENED OR UNFERMENTED BREAD. There are two kinds of unfermented bread ; in the one, substances are used in imitation of yeast, from which a gas, always carbonic, is disengaged, distending the dough, and rendering it vesicular and light ; in the other, flour, water, vrith perhaps the addition of salt, only are employed. The substances used in the preparation of the first description of unfermented bread are sesquicarbonate of ammonia, carbonate of soda and hydrochloric acid, or carbonate of soda and tartaric acid. Of these, by far the best is carbonate of ammonia ; this is a volatile salt, and its great advantage is, that it is entirely or almost entirely dissipated by the heat employed in the preparation of the bread ; and thus the necessary efiect is produced without risk of injurious results ensuing. In the employment of carbonate of soda and hydrochloric or mu- riatic acid, the case is, however, different ; here we have the formation of chloride of sodium, or common salt, with disengagement of carbonic acid. In those instances where a mixture of carbonate of soda and tartaric acid is used, tartrate of soda is formed, also with liberation of carbonic acid. The preparations known as Baking^ ^99 ^ ^^^ Custard poicders are combinations of carbonate of soda and tartaric acid, mixed with wheat flour, or other kind of starch, and the e^^ powders are often coloured with turmei-ic, and formerly also frequently with chr&inate of lead. Of these preparations the most objectionable would appear to be that made wdth carbonate of soda and tartaric acid, since the result- ing tartrate of soda possesses aperient properties. For our own part, we see much less objection to the employment, in the generality of cases, of a substance like yeast, which contains but little saline matter, and the vitality of which is for the most part destroyed by the heat of the oven, than in the use of acids and alkalies, for ^g'^ and baking powders. Samples of ^ baking powders ' examined by us we found composed of tartaric acid and carbonate of soda, together frequently with ground rice or wheat flour. It should be known that hydrochloric acid is frequently contami- nated to a serious extent with arsenic, and hence its use may in some cases prove injurious. It will be seen from the following published receipts for the pre- paration of unfermented bread, that the quantity of saline matter thus introduced into the system is by no means inconsiderable : — To make White or Flour Bread. Flour, dressed or household . . 3 lbs. avoirdupois. Bicari3onate of soda, in powder . 9 drachms, apothecaries' weight. Hydrochloric (muriatic) acid . 11^ fluid drachms. Water about 26 fluid ounces. 346 BREAD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Observe the large quantity of soda and acid recommended to be employed in the manufacture of a 3-lb. loaf. Br. Pereira gave the following receipt for the manufacture of imfermented bread ; the proportions of soda and acid in this are much less : — Receipt for Unfermented Bread. Flour lib. Bicarbonate of soda .... 40 grains. Cold water ^ pint. Muriatic acid 60 drops. Receipt for an Egg or Baking Powder. Carbonate of soda 66 lbs. Tartaric acid 28 lbs. Potato flour 1 cwt. Turmeric powder | lb. It will be observed that the quantity of tartaric acid in this receipt is too small to neutralise the soda. It is better adapted for pudding than bread. The second description of unfermented bread is heavy and compact, and is met with chiefly in the form of biscuits. While bread, therefore, made with yeast powders, may prove of service in some cases of dyspepsia, in others it is calculated to do harm. AERATED BREAD. In the processes for the preparation of unfermented bread hitherto described, certain substances are introduced bodily into the dough, from which, when they come into contact, the carbonic acid is liberated, chloride of sodium or tartrate of soda being formed. Sometimes, as already pointed out, sesquicarbonate of ammonia is employed, and in this case the whole, or nearly the whole, of that salt is dissipated in the process of baking. We have shown that thus a considerable amount of mineral matter is introduced into the bread, and, in order to obviate this objection, it occurred to the late Dr. Dauglish first to liberate the carbonic acid, and then introduce it into the flour by means of water highly charged with the gas. The car- bonic acid is obtained from chalk by the action of dilute sulphuric acid, is collected in a gasholder, from which it is made to pass into a vessel containing water, which thus becomes charged with the acid. The water so charged is then mixed with the flour imder pressure, the dough becoming vesicular immediately on the removal of the pressure. The advantages of the process are its certainty, its extreme cleanli- ness, its great rapidity, the saving of labour and material by the non- conversion of the sugar and a portion of the starch into carbonic acid and alcohol, the avoidance of extreme fermentation and the consequent production of acetic and lactic acids, rendering the use of the highly- BREAD AUD ITS ADULTERATIONS. 347 nutritious whole-meal flour practicable in bread-making, and, lastly, there are the sanitary advantages, night work being rendered unneces- sary. 'Notwithstanding these many advantages, and the light, white and porous nature of the loaf, and very agreeable flavour of the bread made by this process, it does not appear that its use is extending, or that the process is likely to supersede the old method of the preparation of bread by the aid of yeast. It is said that persons quickly become tired of the aerated bread. THE ANALYSIS OF BREAD. The analysis of bread is conducted exactly in the same manner and on the same principles as that of flour, the important points to be ascertained in the case of really genuine bread being the amounts of water, glucose, dextrin, starch, cellulose, gluten, and mineral matter, including chloride of sodium. The methods for the determination of all these have already been fully described, and need not be here repeated. Of course if the bread be adulterated a variety of other determina- tions will have to be made, and which we shall presently notice. But a bread may be genuine and yet of either inferior quality or damaged and unsound. It may be of inferior quality from deficiency of nitrogen, from changes in the nitrogenous constituents, and from undue fermentation. Some of these conditions would be revealed in the course of the analysis above sketched out, while the excessive fermentation would be in part ascertained by noting whether the bread exhibited an acid reaction, and, if so, estimating the amoimt of acid present, determining in some cases the amounts of the acetic and lactic aoids separately. In this case the total acidity should first be deter- irined ; the volatile acid should then be removed by distillation from another portion of the bread, when the remaining fixed acid may be determined and regarded as lactic acid. It may be damaged from the presence of one or other of the various organic productions, especially /M?i^e, which have already been described under the head of the ^ Diseases of the Cereal Grains,' and in this case ^'e must have recourse to themicroscope for the discovery of the cause of the damage. THE ADULTERATIONS OP BREAD. The adulterations of bread of course correspond very closely with those of the flour from which it is prepared, and they may be all classified under the heads of organic and mineral adulterations. We have abeady described what these adulterations are, for the most part, and we need here therefore only refer to those which have either not been mentioned before, or which have been as yet insuffi- ciently treated. Amongst the former are those with watei'j mashed 348 BREAD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. potatoes, and hoUed rice, while amongst the latter are alum and mlphate of copper. With water. — Of course, since bread is sold by weight, it is im- poi'tant to the baker that it should contain as much water as possible. We have seen that new bread contains on an average as much as 42*8 per cent, of water, of which about 10 parts are natural to the floiu*. Now bread is made to retain an increased quantity of water in several ways. One method is, after having incorporated as much water in the dough as possible, to put it into a hot oven. This causes the crust to form speedily, which prevents ^he escape of water. The same object is attained by throwing sacks over the loaves im- mediately after their removal from the oven. This prevents the dissipa- tion of some of the water which passes off so quickly from the hot loaves. A third method is by the employment of rice. This, when cooked, swells up greatly and absorbs much water. Potatoes, when used in any quantity, have probably the same effect. It was for a long time believed that aliun also caused the bread in which it is contained to hold more water, but this would appear from Dr. Odling's experiments not to be the case, at all events, in newly- baked loaves. With mashed potatoes. — It is also notorious that bakers frequently add a proportion of potatoes to bread. These, when mashed, are mixed with the yeast, which is said to feed upon the potatoes, and for which purpose only it is alleged the potatoes are used, and not for adultera- tion. When the quantity of potatoes employed is but small, this may be so ; but there is no doubt that they are sometimes added in con- siderable quantities to bread, especially when they are cheap. Now the potato in its raw state contains about 75 per cent, of water, and as commonly served up to table even a little more, so that this adulteration really causes the bread to contain more water, and so robs it of a portion of its nutritive properties. Again, the potato contains only half as much nitrogen as wheat flour. With boiled Hce. — This also is not imfrequently added to bread, and its presence likewise impairs its nutritive properties in two ways:' first, rice contains far less nitrogen than does wheat (about 7 per cent, only) ; and, second, it causes the bread to hold more water than it would do if made of wheat flour alone, and thus the quality of the bread as a life-sustaining food is still further reduced. Boiled rice contains about 77 per cent, of water. With sulphate of alumina and potash or alum. — We have already treated to some extent of the adulteration of bread with alum, but we have by no means as yet exhausted the subject. It is notorious that many bakers add either alum to their bread or a mixture of alum and salt known in the trade by the terms ^ hards ' and * stuff;' and thus in many cases the flour receives two additions of ' I BREAD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 349 alum, the baker being often unaware that he has been already antici- pated by the miller. The use of alum in bread is paTticularly injurious. It is true that it causes the bread to be whiter than it would be otherwise, indeed, whiter than it was ever intended to be by nature ; but it imparts to bread several other properties : thus it hardens the nutritious consti- tuent of the bread, the gluten, and so, on the authority of that great chemist Liebig, renders the bread more indigestible ; it enables the baker to adulterate his bread with greater quantities of rice and pota- toes than he coidd otherwise employ ; and, lastly, by the use of alum he is able to pass oif an inferior, and even a damaged flour, for one of superior quality. Is it worth while to injure the properties of the bread by using alum for the sake of obtaining an unnaturally white loaf? The public, then, in judging of the quality of bread by its colour — by its whiteness — commits a most serious mistake : there is little or no connection between colour and quality ; in fact, very generally, the whitest breads are the most adulterated. The public, therefore, should lose no time in correcting its judgment on this point. The outer part of the grain of wheat has been proved by analysis to be much richer in nourishing principles, in gluten and in oily matter especially, than the central and more floury parts of the grain. Now, in preparing the finer descriptions of flour, the utmost pains al-e taken to separate this highly nutritious exterior portion of the grain, and thus, although the flour so obtained is very fine and white — very suitable for making a white, loaf, that fallacious test of quality — it is yet not nearly so nutritious as whole-meal flour, or even the less finely dressed qualities of wheat flour. The consumer, now better instructed, is in a position to judge of how much he sacrifices for the mere sake of an arbitrary and fallacious standard of quality, namely whiteness. The difference in nourishing properties between whole- meal flour and very finely dressed flour amounts in many cases to fully one-third. Further, alum is very apt to disorder the stomach, and to occasion acidity and dyspepsia. The manner in which it does so has not been clearly ascertained. The powerful effects of alum as an astringent, when administered as a medicine, are well known ; but when added to flour or bread, it be- comes decomposed, sulphate of potash, an aperient salt, being formed. Liebig considers that part of the beneficial action of wheat flour on the system is due to the soluble phosphates which it contains in such large quantities, and he states that when alum is added to bread these are decomposed, the phosphoric acid of the phosphates uniting with the alumina of the alum, and that thus an insoluble phosphate of alumina is formed, and the beneficial action of the phosphates conse- quently lost to the system. So satisfied is Liebig that this is the case, that he has recom- 350 BREAD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. mended the employment of small quantities of lime water for tlie purpose of whitening bread made from musty or damaged flour ; and it was stated at a meeting of the British Association at Glasgow that lime water is now used by many Scotch bakers. The following is Liebig's own statement of his views : — * Many salts render the gluten again insoluble, apparently by form- ing with it a chemical combination. ^ The bakers of Belgium discovered, about twenty years ago, how to bake from damaged flour — ^by adding sulphate of copper (a poison) to the dough — a bread in appearance and external properties as fine as from the best wheat flour. This mode of improving its physical properties of course deteriorates its chemical properties. Alum has the same efiect as sulphate of copper : when added to the dough it renders the bread very light, elastic, firm, and dry ; and the London bakers, in consequence of the demand for white bread, such as the English and American flom'S, usually so good, yield, appear to have been compelled to add alum to all flour in the baking. I saw in an alum manufactory in Scotland, little mounds of finely-ground aliun, which was destined for the use of the London bakers. ^ Since phosphoric acid forms with alumina a compound hardly decomposable by alkalies or acids, this may perhaps explain the indi- gestibility of the London baker's bread, which strikes all foreigners. A small quantity of lime water added to the musty or damaged flour, has the same effect as the aliun or sulphate of copper, without being fol- lowed by the same disadvantages.' — Letters on Chemistry, Enough has now been adduced to show that it is a very dangerous thing to tamper with articles of daily food and of large consump- tion, like flour and bread, by the addition of chemical substances of any kind. It is curious to notice the arguments to which the defenders of adulteration are driven in order to find excuses for certain practices. We were some years since much astonished at one of these arguments. A learned chemical professor, at a late meeting of the British Asso- ciation in Glasgow, defended the use of alum in bread on the following ground : — He stated that Thames water was so alkaline, it turned the flour yellow^ and hence the use of an acid became necessary. Home-made bread is certainly not so white as baker's bread, the diflerence being explained by the absence of the alum ; but it is cer- tainly not the case that Thames water has the remarkable efiect of turning the flour yellow. But the real and actual facts, as regards Thames water and its effbcts on the colour of the bread, are these : — The alkalinity of Thames water is so trifling that it is scarcely per- ceptible to the most delicate test paper ; again, during the fermenta- tion of the bread a large quantity of acid is generated, infinitely more than would be sufficient to neutralise the alleged alkalinity of Thames BREAD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 351 water, and to counteract any tendency whicli it is said to possess to turn flour yellow. Again, contrast the professor's argument with the practice recom- mended by Baron Liebig. The one says Thames water is so alkaline it turns flour yellow, and the other advises the use of an alkali to whiten it. But we will suppose that the professor's views are not altogether destitute of foundation, yet they would constitute but a poor reason for the employment of alum. That substance is used in bread-making nearly all over the United Kingdom, and yet the use of Thames water is confined to the metropolis and its vicinity. We repeat, then, it is curious to notice the character of the arguments which sometimes even scientific men will condescend to use in defence of adulteration. Another argiunent by which the use of alum is defended is that the quantity employed is but small : upon this point the following evidence may be adduced : — The author of the celebrated treatise ^ Death in the Pot,' writes : — ^ The smallest quantity of alum which can be employed with effect to produce a white, light, and porous bread from an inferior kind of flour, I have my own baker's authority to state, is from three to four ounces of alum to a sack of flour weighing 240 lbs.' Dr. Markham gives eight ounces of alum as the quantity used to a sack of flour. From enquiries which we have made amongst bakers we find that the quantity of alum usually employed is half a poimd to the sack of flour weighing 240 lbs., and that the quantity used varies according to the age and condition of the flour ; thus new flour requires much more alum than old ; indeed, a white bread may be made from old flour without any addition of alum, while as much as three-quarters of a pound may be added to the sack of very new flour. New flour is that which comes into use about November and December : hence the bread made in these months usually contains a large proportion of alum. Old floiu* is that used in the two or three summer months preceding the harvest. Four ounces give about 30 grains of alum to every 4 lbs. of flour, eight ounces 60 grains, and twelve ounces 90 grains. Mr. Mitchell, the author of a treatise on the ^ Falsification of Food,' states that he detected in ten 4-lb. loaves of bread, 819^ grains of alum. With respect to condition, a fiour which is weak — that is, which does not bind readily in consequence of a deficiency of gluten — re- quires a much larger proportion of alum, and in this case from three- quarters to a pound of that salt may be added. Salt has much the same effect as alum ; that is, it makes the bread white and firm, and hence it is sometimes used in excess, to supply the place, to some extent, of alum. The average quantity of salt added by bakers to bread wherein alum is used is not less than about sixty ounces to the 240 lbs. j but the amount varies with the age of the flour. 352 BREAD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. With sulphate of copper. — This poisonous salt has been employed, as has been already noticed in this report, more than once for the same purposes as alum — namely, to harden the gluten, and to impart an un- natural whiteness to the flour. With other adulterants. — Several other articles, in addition to those just enumerated, are stated to be employed in the adulteration of bread, and there is no doubt that they have been thus used. These are hone ashes, bone dust, white clay or silicate of alumina, the carhonates of soda, magnesia, and lime, and lastly, mineral ivhite, terra alba or hydrated sulphate of lime. These several substances are chiefly intro- duced through the flour with which the bread is made. Remits of the Examinations of numerous samples of Bread for Alum. Of twenty-eight samples of bread tested for alum some time back, that substance was found in every one of the samples. Some time subsequently, a second series of samples of bread, twenty-five in number, were also tested for alum, and this salt was found in the whole of the samples. Three of the bakers whose bread was examined, and found to con- tain alum, declared that they did not add that substance to their bread ; and they placed in our hands samples of the flour of which the breads were made, when the alum was found in the flours. From this it may be inferred that the alum had been introduced into the flours by the millers. This discovery led to the examination of other flours, in several of which alum was also detected. These results are certainly far less favourable than those which would now be obtained by an examination of an equal number of samples, as of late many of the more respectable bakers have entirely abandoned the addition of alum to their bread. On the weight of bread. — In the course of our investigations re- specting the adulteration of bread, we did not fail to pay some attention to the subject of the weight of bread, a subject second in importance only to that of its adulteration. We procured a number of loaves of bread fi'om different bakers, as delivered to houses, and weighed them. The results were, that thirty-one and a half loaves, obtained from thirteen different bakers, were deficient eighty-six ounces. Scarcely a single loaf reached its proper weight. In order to check dishonesty in the weight of bread, the following simple plan is in operation in Edinburgh, and it is described by the gentleman who suggested it as having worked exceedingly weU. It is made imperative on the baker to stamp the weight upon all the loaves he sells. A provision to this effect is contained in the Police Act of Edinburgh. THE DETECTION OF THE ADULTERATIONS OF BREAD. The various substances and articles employed in the adulteration of flour and bread, may be classified into the organic and inorganic ; under BREAD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 353 the first head are inc»kided bean, rice, rye, barley, and Indian corn Jlours, potato Jlour, potatoes, and bone dust ; under the second, sulphate of alumina and potash, or alum, sulphate of copper, sulphate o^ lime ; other names for which are plaster of Pans, gypsum, terra alba or mineral white, silicate of magnesia, ivhite clay, carbonates of lime, tnagnesia, and soda, bone ashes or phosphate of lime. The Detection of the Organic Adulterations of Bread. The only means by which the adulterations of bread with the dif- ferent kinds of flour enumerated can be discovered, is by the microscope. Fig. 108. Wheat Bread, adulterated with potato. Magnified 420 diameters. The discovery is very much more easily efiected in flour than in bread, because the heat to which bread is subjected in baking alters ^^reatly the original form of the starch granules, and so renders their identification most difficult, and in some cases impossible. The characters of the starches of the several flours used in the adulteration of bread have already been described. 354 BREAD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. In those cases in wliich it is impossible to recognise the starch granules by means of the microscope, in consequence of the altera- tions which they have undergone, search should be made for portions of the husk of the several grains, as these are much less affected by the heat and moistiu'e than the starch granules themselves. It is often extremely difficult to detect the presence of even boiled and mashed potatoes in bread, and this in cases in which it is certain that they have been used, as when only a small quantity of potatoes has been added for the yeast to feed upon. This difficulty, we believe, arises from the fact that the potato cells and starch granules become entirely broken up and destroyed, as a consequence of the fer- mentation which takes place during the preparation of the patent yeast. When, however, potatoes are employed in larger quantity and are added direct to the flour, the detection of the potato cells is easily effected by the microscope. The method for the discovery of hone dust, the last of the organic adulterations, wiU be found described under the head of ' Flour.' The Detection of the Inorganic Adultei^ations of Bread. The methods for the detection and estimation of nearly the whole of the inorganic adulterations of bread will be found described in the article on ^ Flour,' and it will only therefore be necessary in this place to give the more important processes for the detection and estimation of alum and sulphate of copper. On the detection of alujn in bread. — Much has been written, and much discussion has taken place, in reference to the methods to be pursued for the detection and estimation of alum. The perusal of all that has been written on this subject would lead an ordinary observer to form the opinion that the detection and estimation of alum in bread constituted one of the most difficult operations in chemistry. This is really not so, however, and there are several processes whereby this salt may be estimated with ease and undoubted accuracy. We shall notice only those methods which are the most practical, and at the same time accurate. Alum is crystallised sulphate of alumina and potash. In general, in analysing flour or bread for this substance, it is not necessary to do more than estimate the alumina, this being a substance which is not assimilated by plants, and which, consequently, does not occur in the ash of the cereals. It is safest, however, when we desire to exclude every possibility of a mistake, to estimate the amount of sulphuric acid as well. The quantity of sulphuric acid naturally occurring in the ash of the grain is of course to be deducted.. The following is one of the best and simplest processes which can be adopted : — Incinerate in a platinum basin 76 grammes of the flour, or 100 grammes of the crmnb of the bread. The incineration, although slow, yields a perfectly white ash, free from all carbonaceous matter; but if BREAD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 355 time is an object, the bread, after being charred, may be reduced to powder and incinerated in a muffle. The ash is boiled in the platinum basin with some strong hydrochloric acid and evaporated to dryness on the water-bath, in order to render insoluble any silica which might have been in solution. The dried mass is moistened and heated with a few drops of strong hydrochloric acid ; 50 cc. of water are then added, and the solution, which contains the alumina as chloride of aluminum, is filtered. The filtrate is rendered strongly alkaline by a solution of pure potash. The potash precipitates the phosphates of lime and magnesia, while the alimiina is kept in solution. The alkaline solution is boiled, and after filtration is slightly acididated with pm-e hydrochloric acid, and then ammonia is added until the reaction of the liquid is decidedly alkaline. If any precipitate be thrown down, this consists of alumina, more or less combined with phosphoric acid, phos- phate of alumina being perfectly analogous in many of its properties ^-ith pure alimiina. The precipitate is separated by filtration, washed, incinerated, and weighed. It is then decomposed by fusion with car- bonate of soda, tha mass is dissolved in nitric acid, and in the solution the phosphoric acid is estimated as described under the head of ^ Tea.' The amount of phosphoric acid is to be subtracted from the weight of the phosphoric acid and alumina obtained, when the exact amount of alumina will be ascertained. To avoid the troublesome estimation of the phosphoric acid, we are in the habit of adding a few drops of phosphate of soda to the solution before precipitating vrith ammonia. Pure phosphate of alumina is then thrown down, which may easily be calculated for alum. 100 parts of alumina correspond to 711*8 parts of crystallised alum, and 100 parts of phosphate of alumina to 299*2 parts of alum. Another method, which is based on thoroughly scientific principles, but which is rather complicated, has been proposed by Dr. Dupre, ^ Ohem. News,' Vol. xxix., No. 757 : — ^ One hundred grammes of bread (crumb only) are carefully incinerated in a platinum dish. The ash is fused in the dish, with about three times its weight of pure carbonate of sodium, or of a mixture of the carbonates of potassium and sodiiun in equal proportion. The incineration and fusion are best performed in a muffle. The fused mass is dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and the solution is evaporated to dryness. The residue is redissolved in acid, and the silica filtered off as usual. To the filtrate ammonia is added, until a slight permanent precipitation is produced, which is then redis- solved by about six drops of strong hydrochloric acid. A slight excess of acetate of ammonium is now added, and the mixture is set aside over night. Next morning the precipitate formed is filtered off, washed, and redissolved in hydrochloric acid. The solution is boiled for a few ndnutes with a small quantity of bisulphite of sodium, and an excess of caustic soda is added, and the boiling continued for a few minutes longer. The precipitate, chiefly magnetic oxide of iron, is filtered ofl^ the filtrate is rendered feebly acid by hydrochloric acid, and acetate of aa2 356 BREAD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. ammonia added in slight excess. After standing over-night the preci* pitate, now consisting of pure phosphate of aluminum, is collected on a filter, washed, dried, ignited, and weighed. By multiplying its weight in grammes by 642, the number of grains of alum corresponding to the amount of alumina ;present in 2 lbs. of the bread is obtained.' In both these methods it is of the highest importance to employ pure reagents. The hydrochloric acid and the ammonia never contain any alumina, but the caustic potash or soda is exceedingly liable to be largely contaminated with it. Oare therefore must be taken to use only pure potash or soda ; tJie solution must be freshly prepared, and not allowed to stand for any length of time in a glass flask or bottle, from which it would be sure to dissolve alumina. It is advisable to measure the quantities of all reagents used in the course of the examination, and to make a blank experiment with the same quantities, determining if necessary the amount of alumina found in them. This, of course, is to be deducted from the alumina obtained from the flour or bread. But it is best to take the most scrupulous care to procure pu7'e chemicals. Any part of the process which can be conducted in platinum vessels ought to be executed therein ; glass and porcelain vessels should be avoided. The alMine solution must never be boiled in glass or porcelain. It has been alleged that by the evaporation of the hydrochloric acid solution chloride of aluminum was sure to be volatilised. Only the grossest ignorance of chemistry can lead to such an assertion. Chloride of aliuninium, AI2 01^, is volatile, it is true, but only when anhydrous. Evaporated in contact with water, it forms hydrochloric acid and alumina, or basic chloride of aluminum. A loss of aluminum by vola- tilisation from a watery or acid solution is absolutely impossible. Other processes have been proposed, but we consider it super-" fluous to enter into a description of them. One or other of the two methods described is sure to give correct results. With care and practice the detection of alum in bread is not diflicult, and mistakes, which recently have not unfrequently occurred, are mainly due to want of knowledge and care. We refer to the following process in order that it may be avoided : * Soak the flour or bread in water, filter the solution and treat with ammonia ; the precipitate which ensues is alumina.' Nothing can be more absurd than this. As we have seen, alum is, in bread, not con- tained as such, but as insoluble phosphate of alumina. How, then, can it be extracted by water ? A precipitate will always be obtained, but this consists of nitrogenous matter and of earthv phosphates. Another fallacious test is the logwood test. We have frequently employed this test in cases in which alum has been present without ob- taining the slightest violet coloration. The sulphuric acid may, as already mentioned, be estimated to corroborate the results obtained by the estimation of the alumina. BREAD AND ITS ADULTERATIOls^S. 357 50 grammes of bread are incinerated, the ash is treated with pure hydrochloric acid, and in the solution the sulphuric acid is precipi- tated by means of chloride of barium. The sulphate of barium is filtered off, washed, weighed, incinerated, and calculated for sulphm-ic acid. It is said that the salt used in bread-making may contain a little alumina, but we have not found this to be the case usually, and if present at all the quantity is generally extremely minute. On the detection of sulphate of coppei'. — For the detection of copper in bread the processes described under the heads of ' Bottled Fruits and Vegetables ' and ' Pickles ' should be followed. Ferrocyanide of potassium is a very delicate test for copper in bread. If the bread be moistened with a solution of that salt, it will, it is said, assume a pink tinge, more or less deep according to the quantity present. It is stated that one part of copper may thus be detected in 9,000 parts of bread. For the detection of copper in the ash, from 200 to 300 grammes of bread should be incinerated. 358 OATMEAL AND ITS ABULTEKATIONS. CHAPTER XIII. OATMEAL AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Admixture with anj'' flour or farina other than that of oats, with any foreign vegetable or mineral matter, or an undue proportion of the husk of the oat or of other grain. Oatmeal, as its name implies, consists of the farina or meal of the oat, Avena sativa. The composition and properties of this cereal grain have already been described under the article ^ Flour,' as also its minute structure, which will be found represented in figs. 79 and 80. Analyses of oats will be found at pp. 298 and 299. From the analyses given it appears that oatmeal is a highly nutritive article of diet, richer than even wheat flour in oily and nitrogenous matters. There are several varieties or qualities of oatmeal : one of these is Robinson's Patent Groats : this consists of the finest parts of the flour of the oat, all husk and the outer and harder parts of the grain being removed ; another variety is called ' round oatmeal ; ' it consists of the oats deprived of husk and ground into a very coarse powder. This description varies a good deal, the outer surface of the oats intended for the better sorts being rubbed oft* by attrition between stones. In the preparation of fine oatmeal there is a good deal of refuse matter, amounting generally to about one fourth or fifth of the entire bulk of the oats ; this is composed of a portion of husk, which contains much silex, and the outer part of the grain, containing a little starch and much oil and nitrogenous matter ; this is usually mixed up with the commoner descriptions of oatmeal, especially that supplied to workhouses. Lastly, the quality of oatmeal depends very greatly upon that of the oat from which the meal is prepared. THE ADTJLTERATIONS OF OATMEAL. It could hardly be supposed that sufficient inducement exists for the sophistication of an article like oatmeal ; it appears, however, that this supposition is not correct. OATMEAL AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. . 359 Of thirty samples of oatmeal submitted to examination some time since, sixteen, or rather more than one-half, ^vere found to he adulterated with large quantities of Barley Meal. But oatmeal frequently suffers deterioration in other ways besides by admixture with barley flour. One of these consists in adding to it the investing membranes, or hiisk, of the oat, barley, and wheat, technically termed ' rubble ' and ^ sharps,' and which are rejected in the preparation of the purer sorts of oat- meal, grits and groats, Scotch and pearl barley. A very great difference exists between the prices of oats and barley, the latter costing usually only about one-half the former. The induce- ment, therefore, to adulterate oatmeal is veiy great. The following information, furnished us some years since by a cor- respondent on whom we can rely, shows this article to be subject to systematic adulteration. He writes : — ^ Since your able analyses have taken place it has struck me that I may be able to give you a little information as to an article of food which is adulterated to a most awful extent — viz., oatmeal. I will first mention oatmeal as sent into workhouses, prisons, and charitable institutions, which are generally taken at contract prices. I enclose one for the parish of for 1848, where I find the oatmeal was taken at 14s. per cwt. by ; and by reference to my stock-book, I find the market price was 17^. Qd. per cwt. ; thus the oatmeal was reduced 8.s\ 6J., and then left an excellent profit. Well, at that time I was trying for all the contracts in London, and could not succeed, my 2)rices being generally about 4s. dearer than anyone's else ; this was a mystery to me. By accident I found out oatmeal was adulterated with barley flour, which is bought at about 7s. per cwt ; this being mixed with the oatmeal, of course reduced the price. I then, being as wise as my competitors, tried, and have served the above work- house since. ^ Now, the fault lies here. If the workhouses were to take the contracts at a percentage on market value, then they would get good oatmeal ; but they always cut doivn the price, and thus get an adulte- rated article. * You will see the prices are 14s., 16s. 6d., 16s., and 17s. ; thus if a man wants to be honest with them, they will not let him. I have again and again wished to supply at a percentage on market value ; the answer I get is, " Well, we are very loell satisfied, and have no com- plaints.'*^ ' We were ourselves at some pains to verify the statements made above, and for that purpose procured samples of oatmeal as supplied to some of our unions and charitable institutions ; these, without excep- tion, we found on examination to be largely adulterated with harley meal, as described. Other adulterations of oatmeal are, according to Professor Calvert, with rice and maize. He stated, in his evidence, already referred to elsewhere : — ' I have found oatmeal, generally speaking, in fact alwaj^s, 360 OATMEAL AND ITS ADFLTERATIONS. mixed Tvdtli rice and maize. The eftect is this — it makes less porridge ; in other words, it is a direct loss to the ratepayers, because the cook in the workhouse must use a larger proportion of this adulterated oatmeal to make a certain quantity of porridge, than if it is pure oatmeal.' The following evidence was fui*nished to the Committee on Adul- teration, in 1855, by Mr. Mackenzie, of Glasgow, the editor of ^ The Reformer's Gazette,' in regard to the adulteration of oatmeal : — ' Some few years ago, when great destitution prevailed in the West of Scotland, especially in the Highlands, a large sum of money, amounting to 50^,000/. or 60,000^., was devoted to furnishing provisions, including oatmeal, to the Highlanders. At that period information was given me that a very large quantity of that oatmeal was adul- terated in the grossest manner : a letter was sent to me, wliich I thought it my duty to publish, and the contractor who furnished the meal re- ferred to in that letter threatened me with an action of damages. The case was tried, and the contractor found guilty, and adjudged to imprisonment for three months, and to pay a line of 300^. The oat- meal was mixed with bran and thirds, the common food for horses ; ' thirds being the refuse and shell of the wheat. ' To my amazement,' continues Mr. Mackenzie, ^ the accused brought forward some of the principal millers in Glasgow to swear that it was quite a common practice (in fact, one of the " usages ") of the trade.' The adulteration of oatmeal is not merely important in a pecuniary, but is of some consequence in a sanitary point of view. The properties of oatmeal are thus described in Pereira's ^ Materia Medica : ' — ' Oatmeal is an important and valuable article of food. With the exception of maize or Indian corn, it is richer in oily and fatty matter than any of the other cultivated cereal grains, and its propor- tion of protein compounds exceeds that of the finest English wheaten flour. So that both with respect to its heat and fat making, and its flesh and blood making principles, it holds a high rank.' In the same work we meet with the following accoimt of harley meal as an article of diet : — ^ Barley is a valuable nutritive. Con- sidered in relation to wheat, it offers several peculiarities. In the first place, it contains much less protein matter ; in other words, less of the flesh and blood making principle ; though Count Rmnford considered barley meal in soup three or four times as nutritious as wheat flour. Secondly, its starch offers more resistance to the action of the gastric iuice, in consequence of its more difficult solubility in water. Thirdly, its husk is slightly acrid, and therefore this shoidd be removed from barley intended for dietetical piu*poses, as in Scotch and pearl barley. Fourthlj^, barley meal is more laxative than wheat meal.' Contrasting the two, it appears that oatmeal possesses considerable dietetic advantages o\er barley meal. It may be in the recollection of some of our readers that at the inquest held by the late Mr. Wakley on the bodies of some of the poor OATMEAL AND ITS ADULTEliATIONS. 361 children who fell victims in the pest-house at Tooting, the fact trans- pired that the oatmeal, which formed so considerable a part of their food, was extensively adulterated with barley meal. THE DETECTION OE THE ADTTLTEKATIGNS OE OATMEAL. The principal adulterations of oatmeal, as already noticed, are those with the refuse matter of oats, of harley, and even wheat, termed ^ rubble ' and ^ sharps,' and with hai'ley meal and rice and maize flours ; these adulterations may be detected without, in most cases, any con- siderable difiiculty. On the detection of ^rubble J — An admixture of rubble may be suspected when the sample presents a branny appearance, in conse- quence of the presence of numerous particles of husk or bran, as well as of the outer yellow portion of the grain. In order, however, to ensiure certainty it is necessary to resort to chemistry and the micro- scope. A portion of the article may be analysed quantitatively for silicic acid ; the ash of about 10 grammes must be boiled with dilute hydrochloric acid, and evaporated to dryness; the residue is again taken up with hydrochloric acid. This will dissolve all but the silica, which must be washed, ignited, and weighed. Of course the percentage of silica in rubble is very much higher than it' is in the whole grain. In those cases in which the rubble of barley meal has been used the starch granules of that cereal may be readily detected by means of the microscope, as also portions of the investing membranes, the structures of which, so different from those of oat, are described at p. 294, and ligm*ed at p. 291. In like manner, the microscope furnishes the means of discovering the presence of tvheat 7'ubble or sharps in oatmeal. The starch granules of wheat and barley so nearly resemble each other, that when mixed together it is impossible to distinguish the one from the other ; the investing membranes of the grain of wheat, described and figured at pp. 287 and 288, are, however, so different from those of barley, that they afford a certain means of discrimination. On the detection of barley meal. — The microscope affords the only means by which this adulteration can be discovered. The starch granules of oat and barley have already been described and figures c»f them given ; the differences are. so great, that a momentary glance Tvith the microscope is all that is necessary to enable the observer to distinguish genuine oatmeal from that adulterated with barley meal or ^vheat flour. The starch granules of the oat are small, angular, and frequently aggregated into compoimd bodies of a rounded form, while those of barley are much larger, round, and flat. But the main dis- tinction is furnished by the differences in the .structure of the investing laembranes comprising the husk. It is very possible, however, to mistake the starch granules of wheat f 362 OATMEAL AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. for tliose of barley ; "but wheat flour is rarely used in the adulteration of oatmeal ; this error may be avoided by a careful examination of the portions of testae met with, the structure of which in wheat, barley, and oat is so very different, as will appear from an examination of the descriptions and figures given under the article * Flour.' Fig. 109. Oatmeal adulterated with barley meal. Magnified 225 diameters. On the detection of rice and maize, — These adidterations may be promptlv discovered by means of the microscope. (See fig. 84, p. 308, and fig. 81, p. 302.) AREOWEOOT AND ITS ADULTEEATIONS. 363 CHAPTER XIV. ARROWROOT AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. DEFIXITION OF ADULTERATION. Any other starch or farina than that indicated by the name under which it is sold, or any added vegetable or mineral substance. Arrowroot should be dis- tinguished rather by the name of the plant from which it is derived than by that of the locality in which it is grown. Mixtures of more than one kind of arrowroot to be sold as mixtures. The term ' arrowroot ' was originally applied to the rhizome or root of Maranta at'undinaceaj in consequence of its supposed efficacy in counteracting the effects of wounds inflicted by poisoned arrows. Of late years the signification of the term has been much extended, and it is now employed to designate almost every fecula which bears any resemblance to true or Maranta arrowroot, no matter how dissimilar the plants may be from which it is obtained. Attending this enlarged use of the word arrowroot are certain dis- advantages. Many persons consider that all arrowroots constitute one and the same article, varying only in quality, and according to the place from which they are procured ; while but few persons are aware that there are several distinct kinds of arrowroot, the produce of dif- ferent plants, great uncertainty and confusion being thus created. To increase this confusion, the word ^ genuine ' is often prefixed to the term ' arrowroot,' and as there are several kinds of arrowroot, so must there be several genuine arrowroots. These vary in value from a few pence to two or three shillings the pound — from, in fact, the value of genuine Maranta arrowroot to that of genuine potato arrowroot. With these particulars the public at large are but ill acquainted. The difficulty and confusion are still further enhanced by applying to the arrowroot, as is generally done, the name of the place from which it is obtained ; thus we have genuine West Indian, Jamaica, Demerara, Bermuda, St. Vincent, East Indian, Brazilian, African, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Portland, British, and a variety of other arrowroots. Some persons suppose that each of these names repre- sents a different kind of arrowroot •, others imagine that they all in- dicate one and the same production ; while the fact is, that in some cases, as in that of East India arrowroot, one name may be indiscri- minately applied to two distinct kinds of arrowroot; and in others, six 364 AEROWROOT AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. or eiglit names all signify but a single kind or species, as is the case with West India arrowroot. This great variety of names is objection- able, not merely because it tends to confuse the public, but because it offers to the fraudulent great facilities for adulteration and imposition, of which, as we shall see hereafter, they have not failed to avail them- selves. The remedy for this state of things is simple ; each really distinct arrowroot, that is, every arrowroot which is the product of a distinct plant, should be designated by the name of the species from which it IS derived, as Maranta, Curcuma, Tacca, Manihot, Arum, Potato Arrowroot, «S:c. The employment of these terms should not be optional, but com- ^mlsory, for the better protection of the public against fraud in this article of food. The propriety of this suggestion will become still more evident as we proceed. We shall now describe each kind of arrowroot separately, obser\dng of them all, that when pure they are non-nitrogenised substances, and therefore adapted to the formation of the fat of the body, and to the maintenance of respiration and temperature. MARANTA AEROWROOT. Maranta arrowroot is obtained from the rhizomes of Maranta arun- dinacea, one of the family of the MarantacecB. A rhizome is an undergTOund jointed stem placed horizontally in the earth, giving oif from its upper surface branches, and from the lower radicles or roots; the starch or fecula is contained in the joints of the rhizome, being deposited in innumerable minute cells. The following account of its preparation is given by Dr. Pereira in his ^ Materia Medica ' : — ' The starch, or fecula, is extracted from the roots (tubers), when these are about ten or twelve months old. The process is entirely a mechanical one, and is performed either by hand or by machine. ' In Jamaica it is procm^ed as follows : — The tubers are dug up, well washed in water, and then beaten in large, deep, wooden mortars to a pulp. This is thrown into a large tub of clean water. The whole is then well stirred, and the fibrous part wrung out by the hands and thrown away. The milky liquor being passed through a hair sieve, or coarse cloth, is suffered to settle, and the clear water is drained off. At the bottom of the vessel is a white mass, which is again mixed with clean water, and drained ; lastly, the mass is dried on sheets in the sun, and is pure starch. ' In Bermuda the roots are first deprived of their paper-like scales, and then rasped by a kind of wheel rasp, and the fecula well washed through sieves and carefully dried. ' Upon the Hopewell estate, in the island of St. Vincent, the care- fully skinned tuber.s are washed, then ground in a mill, and the pulp ARBOWROOT AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 365 washed in tinned copper cylindrical washing-macliines. Tlie fecula is subsequently dried in drying houses. In or(\er to obtain the fecula free from impurity pure water must be used, and great care and attention paid in every step of the process. The skinning or peelino- of the tubers must be performed with great nicety, as the cuticle con- tains a resinous matter, which imparts colour and a disagreeable flavour to the starch. German silver palettes are used for skimming the deposited fecula, and shovels of the same metal for packing the dried fecula. Th drying is effected in pans covered by white gauze, to exclude dust and insects.' Fig. 110. starch granules of Maranta arrowroot, called commonly West India arrowroot. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 240 diameters. The root furnishes, according to Benzon, about 26 per cent, of starch. Pure and unadulterated Maranta arrowroot should be of a dull and opaque white colour, crepitating or crackling when pressed between the fingers, and treated with about twice its weight of concentrated hydrochloric acid it should yield an o^mque paste. The above characters and appearances may all, however, be assumed by certain of the other arrowroots ; the microscope, therefore, affords 366 ARROWROOT AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. the only ready and certain means of distinguishing this arro^vroot from all other species, and these again from each other. Characters of the starch corpuscles. — Examined with that instru- ment the granules or particles of Maranta arrowroot are found to be usually more or less oblong and ovate, but sometimes they are mussel- shaped or even almost triangular ; they vary considerably in size, but each of the larger gTanules is marked by a number of delicate concen- tric lines ; at the broad or large extremity of each a distinct spot is visible, ordinarily considered to be a cavity, and^ denominated the ' hilum ; ' this spot is sometimes circular, but most frequently it is seen as a short, sharp line, running transversely across the granule ; it fur- nishes a most distinctive feature by which ^laranta arrowroot may be at all times very readily identified (fig. 110), When boiling water is added to Maranta or any other arrowroot, its physical condition undergoes a great and surprising alteration, the nature of which may be clearly traced by means of the microscope. A tablespoonful of arrowroot, on which a pint of boiling water is poured, immediately loses its whiteness and opacity, becomes transparent, and the entire of the water is as it were converted into a thick and jelly- like substance. If a little of this be diffused through cold water, and examined with the microscope, it will be seen that the starch granules are altered amazingly : they have increased to twenty or thirty times their original volume ; they are more or less rounded ; the concentric lines and the hilum are obliterated ; the membrane of each granule is ruptured, and a granular matter has escaped from its interior. The appellations which have been bestowed upon Maranta arrow- root are very numerous ; their use ought to be wholly discontinued, for the reasons already assigned : thus it is sometimes called West India arrowroot, Jamaica, Demerara, Bermuda, Berbice, St. Vincent arrowroot, &c. The impropriety of denominating it West India arrowroot is shown by the circumstance that the Maranta plant is cultivated in the East as well as in the West Indies. CANNA, OR TOUS LES MOTS ARROWROOT. Canna eduUs, the plant from the tubers of which the starch known as Tons les Mots is obtained, belongs to the natural order Mai-antacece, which includes Maranta arundinacea^ or West India arrowroot. The starch is obtained much in the same manner as that of the other arrowroots ; that is, the tubers are rasped, and the fecula separated from the pulp by washing, straining, decantation of the supernatant liquor, and desiccation of the deposited starch. It is imported from St. Kitts. The jelly yielded by it is said to be more tenacious, but less clear and translucent, than that of other arrowroots. Owing to their large size, the starch granules exhibit a glistening or AREOWEOOT AND ITS ADULTEEATIONS. 367 satiny appearance ; they differ from other dietetic starches not only in their much greater dimensions, but in certain other particulars. Characters of the starch corpuscles.^— The granules or corpuscles are nearly all very large, flat, broad, but ovate ; sometimes, like those of East India arrowroot, pointed at the narrow end. The hilum is situated in the narrow extremity of the granule, and the rings are exceedingly fine, regular, and crowded (fig. 111). The only starch with which they are at all likely to be confounded is that of the potato ; the granules are, however, larger, of a different shape, being flat, and the striae are much more regular and numerous. Fig. 111. Canna, or Tons les Mois arrowroot. Magnified 225 diameters. ^^iewed by polarised light the crosses are more regular than in potato starch. CURCUMA ARROWROOT. Curcuma arrowroot is obtained from the tubers of Qurcmna angus- tifolia, one of the family of the Zingiber acem. The mode of its preparation does not differ materially from that practised in obtaining the fecula from the tubers of Maranta arun- clinaceaj and which has already been described. 368 AEROWROOT AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Two qualities of Ourcuma arrowroot are imported into this country from the East Indies, principally from Calcutta, a white and a brown variety. The white is the best ; the powder, when pressed between the fingers, feels less firm, and does not crepitate to the same extent as Maranta arrowroot ; the two species can, however, be distinguished from each other only with certainty by means of the microscope. Characte7'S of the starch corpuscles. — Examined with that instru- ment, the granules appear elongated, and are irregularly ovate ; being flat, they present but little lateral shading ; the lines which mark the Pig. 112. Curcuma arrowroot, commonly denominated East India arrowroot. Drawn with the Camera Liicida, and magnified 240 diameters. surface are tolerably distinct, but they describe segments of circles only, and the hilum, which is usually very indistinct and sometimes invisible, is placed at the narrow extremity of each granule. In size the par- ticles vary considerably, but many of them much exceed the largest contained in Maranta arrowroot (fig. 112). Ourcuma arrowroot, therefore, is distinguished from Maranta arrowroot by the size and form of the granules, the position of the hilum, and the incomplete rings seen on the surfaces of the granules. ARROWROOT AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 369 Curciima arrowroot is commonly called East India arrowroot, the same name being sometimes applied to Maranta arrowroot cultivated in the East, and sent to this comitry ; we have thus two distinct species of arrowroot, of different qualities and value, confounded together under one name. TACCA ABROWROOT. Tacca arrowroot is obtained from the tubers of Tacca oceanicaj a native of the South Sea Islands, after the chief of which, Tahiti or Otaheite, it is usually designated. Fig. 113. Tacca arrowroot, called usually Tahiti or Otaheite arrowroot. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 220 diameters. According to Ellis,^ it grows on the high sandy banks near the sea, or on the sides of the lower moimtains. In Pereira's ^ Elements of Materia Medica ' the following account is given of the preparation of the fecula : — ^ At Tahiti this is procured by washing the tubers, scraping off their outer skin, and then reducing them to a pulp by friction on a kind of rasp, made by winding coarse 1 * Polynesian Researches.' BB 370 ARROWROOT AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. twine (formed of the cocoa-nut fibre) regularly round a "board. ^ The pulp is washed with sea water through a sieve, made of the fibrous web which protects the young frond of the cocoa-nut palm. The strained liquor is received in a wooden trough, in which the fecula is deposited ; and the supernatant liquor being poured ofi', the sediment is formed into balls, which are dried in the sun for twelve or twenty-four hours, then broken and reduced to powder, which is spread out in the sun to dry.' ^ • Tacca arrowroot is a white, starch-like powder, ha\ing a slightly musty odour. Characters of the starch cm-pttscles. — The granules resemble some- what those of sago meal, but are very much smaller ; when viewed sideways, they are muller-shaped, with truncate or dihedral bases, and when seen endways they appear circular, and occasionally angular or polyhedral. The rings are few and indistinct, and the hilum cir- cular, sometimes fissured in a stellate manner (fig. 113). Tacca arrowroot was sold in London for some years, in packages, as ' arrowroot prepared by the native converts of the missionary stations in the South Sea Islands.' It is sometimes spoken of as * Williams's arrowroot,' after the missionary of that name. The slightly musty odour which it usually possesses shows that it is not in general prepared with quite the same amount of care as is bestowed on Maranta arrowroot. MANIHOT AEROWEOOT. The flour or farina of Manihot utilissimaj the plant which yields ' tapioca,' is sometimes imported into this country under the name of ' Brazilian arrowroot.' To the application of the word arrowroot to the fecula of this plant there exists no objection, since it resembles closely the other arrowroots in its properties. Manihot utilissima, the Cassava or tapioca plant, and the manner in which the fecula is first obtained, and subsequently converted into the substance called tapioca, will be found described in the report upon ' Tapioca.' Characters of the starch cor2mscle8. — Manihot arrowroot, like the other kinds abeady described, may be distinguished by the size, form, and other characters of its constituent granules, which resemble some- what closely those of Tacca arrowroot, but are considerably smaller, with a larger proportion of granules, which exhibit a circular outline, as seen in the field of the microscope : the hilum is usually fissured (fig. 119). 1 Ellis states that the rind of the root is scraped off by a cowrie shell, and the root then grated on a piece of coral. ARROWROOT AND ITS ADULTElUTIONS. 371 POTATO ARROWROOT. Potato flour, or arrowroot, sometimes called British or Eiiglish arrowroot, is prepared by rasping and grinding the well-cleansed tubers of Solanum tuberosum into a pulp. This is repeatedly washed, and the water strained through a sieve, which contains the cellular tissue, and allows the starch to pass through. After a time the starch is deposited at the bottom of the vessel, is again well washed, and finally dried. Fig. 114. Potato arrowroot, commonly called British arrowroot. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 220 diameters. Potato starch forms a white and somewhat glistening powder, which crackles like genuine Maranta arrowroot when pressed between the fingers. Characters of the starch corpuscles. — The granules vary greatly in size and shape : some are very small and circular, others large, ovate, or oyster-shaped. The larger granules exhibit numerous very distinct concentric rings, and the hilimi, which is small, but well defined, is situated in the narrow extremity of each granule : not unfrequently gianules may be observed of an oval form, divided by a fine line into two portions or segments, each of which is provided with a hilum. BB 2 372 ARROWROOT AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. We liave noticed the same compound granule in some of the other arrowroots, particularly the Tacca species. The granules of potato arrowroot differ from those of the previously described starches in their larger size, in their form, and in the number and distinctness of the concentric rings which each granule presents to view (fig. 114). No means exist by which potato arrowroot may be distinguished so satisfactorily as by the microscope ; yet it is proper to state, it has been observed that this substance is acted upon by certain reagents in a manner difierent from Maranta arrowroot. Mixed with twice its weight of concentrated hydrochloric acid, Maranta arrowroot yields an opaque paste ; whereas that formed with potato arrowroot is trans- parent and jelly-like. When boiled with water and sulphuric acid the latter evolves a peculiar and somewhat disagreeable odour, which is not the case with the former when treated in the same manner. Lastly, alcohol extracts from potato flour an acrid oil, not contained in the fecula of the Maranta plant. Potato arrowroot is the cheapest of all the starches regarded as arrowroots, the retail price varying from 4d. to 6d. per pound. Al- though a cheap and useful article of diet, it is of course inferior to Maranta arrowroot, the inferiority being in part due to the want of sufficient care and nicety in its preparation. MAIZE ARROWROOT. A very excellent arrowroot is largely prepared from Zea maisj and sold under the name of corn fiour (fig. 81). RICE ARROWROOT. Another description of arrowroot which has recently come much into use is prepared from rice, Oriza sativa, and sold under the name of rice flour. It is largely manufactured by Messrs. J. and J. Colman (fig. 84). ARUM ARROWROOT. Arum arrowroot is procured from the tubers of Arum maculatumj the common ^ cuckoo pint/ * wake robin,' and ^ lords and ladies : ' it is prepared chiefly in Portland island ; hence it is generally called ^ Portland arrowroot.' The mode of its preparation is very similar to that adopted with the other arrowroots ; the tubers are pounded in a mortar, the pulp repeatedly washed, and the water subsequently strained. As the tubers are very acrid, great care is required in the washing and strain- ing, so that the acridity may be completely removed. Characters of starch corpuscles. — The starch granules of Arum arrow- root are very small, and, except in size, they resemble very closely ARROWROOT AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 373 those of Tacca arrowroot ; but this diiFerence is sufficiently constant and considerable to ensure the readv identification of the two kinds (%• 115)- Strictly speaking, the word arrowroot may be applied to every pure starch, that is, every article consisting only of starch the produce of one plant. Now pure starch may be obtained from nearly any grain or plants containing starch in considerable amount, as from wheat ^ rye, &c. ; hence we may have arrowroot procured from each of the grains named as well as a variety of others. Fig. 115. Arum arrowroot, commonly called ' Portland a^ro^vToot.' Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 240 diameters. THE ADULTERATIONS OF ARROWROOT. The adulterations to which arrowroot is subject consist, first, in the mixing together of arrowroots of different kinds and of different commercial value ; and, second, in the admixture with genuine arrow- root of other starches not usually recognised as arrowroot, and of low price ; occasionally starches not arrowroots are substituted for arrowroot. The adulterations of arrowroot are usually practised at home. From 374 AREOWROOT AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. evidence kindly furnished lis by Mr. Day, of Old Cavendish Street, it appears, however, that not unfrequently it is mixed with inferior starches, as those of potato and sago, in the West Indies. ResiUts of the examination of samples. — Of Jlfty samples of arrow- root subjected to microscopical examination, no less than twenty-two were adulterated. In sixteen samples the adulteration consisted in the addition of a single article, much cheaper in price, and very inferior in quality, to genuine arrowroot, this, in ten instances, being potato Jiour ; in five, saffo meal ; and in one case tapioca starch. In Jive samples it consisted in the employment of two different articles, 2yotatoJlour and sago meal. In two instances three different starches were employed in the adul- teration — viz., potato Jlou7', sago mealy and tapioca starch or fecula. Ten of the arrowroots contained scarcely a particle of genuine Maranta or West Indian arroioroot, for which they were sold. One consisted almost entirely of sago meal-^ two of 2^otato flour and sago meal) tico oi potato flour, sago mealy and tapioca starch) one of tapioca starch ; and four were composed entirely of potato arrowroot or starch. THE DETECTION OF THE ADULTERATIONS OF ARROWROOT. The adulterations practised upon arrowroot are aU of them readily discoverable by means of the microscope. The structure and characters of potato starch have already been described and figured at p. 371 ; those of sago are so at p. 376, and of tapioca at p. 379. The granules of sago starch are of considerable size, either ovate or more usually somewhat muUer-shaped, rounded at one extremity, the other being truncated or else terminating in a dihedral summit ; the hilum is placed in the larger and rounded part of the granule, is usually surrounded by a distinct ring, and is circular, cracking frequently in a radiate manner (fig. 116). The strong inducement which exists to substitute potato starch and sago meal for the better descriptions of arrowroot will be evident when it is known that these starches may be purchased wholesale at something like 2d. per lb., while as much as 2s. 6f the stems of several kinds of palm, as tlie following : — Sac/iis rumphii, S. farinif&i^a, S. raphia, S. laems, and S. genuina. These palms grow in the islands of the Indian Archipelago, Madagascar, and New Guinea. Sago is also obtained from Cyeas circinalis and Cycas revoluta, which gTOw in China and Japan. It is thus prepared : — The pith is stirred up with water on sieves. The starch is thus washed out, and, subsiding from the water, is collected, partially dried, granulated by being passed through sieves, and finally dried either in the air, or in ovens at a temperature of 60° C, whereby the starch granules become altered in form, and the grains are rendered somewhat translucent. The specific gravity of sago varies from 0*670 to 0*776. Sago is prepared in the forms of rate sago meal, sago Jlour, and several kinds of granulated sagoy as ivhite, red, brozvn red, hroivn, and pearl sago. Rate sago, meal is procured in the Moluccas as follows : — When sufficiently mature the tree is cut down near the root, divided into pieces six or seven feet long, ea^^h of which is split down the middle ; the pith is then extracted, and, with an instrimient of bamboo or hard wood, is reduced to powder like sawdust ; it is mixed with water, and the mixture strained through a sieve which retains the cellular tissue of the pith. The strained liquor contains the farina, which, after being deposited, is washed once or twice, and is then tit for use. Sago Jlour is prepared from sago meal by repeated sifting and washing ; it is also usually bleached by means of chloride of lime. In the countries in which sago palms are produced the pith is eaten, and in some cases, as with the inhabitants of the Moluccas, it consti- tutes their staff of life. Charactet^s of the starch corpuscles. — The farina or starch of sago, examined with the microscope, is seen to consist of granules of con- siderable size and elongated form, being usually rounded at one^ end which is the larger, and, owing to the mutual pressure of the particles, 376 SAGO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. truncate at the otlier extremity ; the hilum, when perfect, is circular ; but it is often cracked, when it appears as a slit, cross, or star. Surrounding the hilum, a few indistinct rings may usually be perceived in some of the granules. Examined with the polariscope, the par- ticles usually exhibit a black cross, the hilum being the centre (fig. 116). THE ADULTEEATIONS OF SAGO. The principal adulteration of sago flour and of granulated sago is with potato starch. Frequently a factitious sago prepared from potato starch is substituted for true sago. Fig. 116. Sago Starch, Magnified 225 diameters. Pereira has the following remarks in relation to factitious sago : — ' This is prepared in both Germany and in France, at Gentilly near Paris, with potato starch. It occurs both white and coloured. I have two kinds of white factitious sago, one small grained, the grains of which are scarcely so large as white mustard seeds ; the other large grained, the gTains of which are intermediate in size be- SAGO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 377 tweeu white mustard seeds and coriander seeds. The first I met with in English commerce ; for the other I am indebted to Professor Gaibourt. ^ I have also two kinds of coloiu'ed factitious sago, both large grained; one red/ the other brownish/^ and somewhat resembling brownish pearl sago.' Pereira also states that he received from Prof. Guibourt samples of ' Sagou des Maldives de Planche, donne par lui,' and * Sagou de la Nouvelle Guinee^ donne par lui,' and that he found them to be facti- tious sages prepared from potato starch. The grains of the New Guinea sago were bright red on one side and whitish on the other. Results of the examination of samples. — Of thii^ty samples of granu- Fig. 117. Starch granules of Sago, altered by heat, as in making granulated sago. Magnified 225 diameters. lated sago submitted to examination, j^i;e were found to be factitious ^ and to consist oi potato Jlaar. ^ * This is perhaps the kind mentioned by Planche, as being falsified sago cole ured with cochineal.' ' ' This is perhaps the brown sort of German sago made from potato starch, and said by Dierbach to be coloured with burnt sugar.' 378 SAGO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. THE DETECTION OP THE ADTTLTERATIONS OF SAGO. The microscope can alone detect the adulterations of sago flour and granulated sago, and especially can distinguish factitious from genuine sago. The characters of sago starch have already been described and figured, as also have those of potato, at p. 371 ; in granulated sago, whether true or false, the granules are of coiu-se much altered (fig. 117) ; those of potato are swollen, irregular in shape, sometimes ruptured, and the striae effaced, &c. (fig. 118). Fig. 118. Factitious sago, composed of potato flour. Magnified 225 diameters. TAPIOCA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 379 OHAPTEK XVI . TAPIOCA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Any other starch or farina than that of Tapioca, or any added vegetable or mineral substances. The articles known as Cassava meal and bread, Cassava, Tapioca, or Brazilian arrowroot and Tapioca, are obtained from diiFerent species Fig. 119. starch grannies of Manihot utilissima, or Tapioca, Magnified 225 diameters. of the genus Manihot, one of the Euphot-biacece. One of these is M. utilissima^ the bitter Cassava, a native of the Brazils, where, as well as in other parts of South America, it is cultivated. 380 TAPIOCA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. The starch is associated in the large tuberous root with a poisonous milky juice containing hydrocyanic acid and a bitter acrid principle. Another species is Manihot Aipi, or sweet Cassava, the juice of the root of which is not poisonous. A thii-d species is M. Janiiiha^ the root of which is also devoid of poisonous properties. Cassava meal is prepared as well from the bitter or poisonous species as the sweet and innocuous: the root is grated, and the pulpy mass subjected to pressure in bags under water to get rid of the juice ; the residue is spread out on iron plates in layers of one or two inches in Fig. 120. Starch granules of Tapioca, altered by the heat employed in its preparation. Magnified 225 diameters. thickness, and is dried into cakes, when, "after being pounded, it con- stitutes Cassava mealy and of this the bread is made. The expressed juice deposits after a time the farina or starch, which- in this state is called tapioca meal, and this, after being dried upon hot plates, constitutes gi^anular tapioca. Characters of the starch corpuscles, — Examined under the micro- scope, the granules are seen to be of small size, for the most part single, but sometimes and in the plant itself always united into compound grains, each composed of two, three, or four granules. Hence, like TAPIOCA AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 381 those of sago, they are usually muller-shaped, although when seen endways they appear circular ; the hiluni is distinct. No diiFerences have been observed in the characters of the starch of bitter and sweet Cassava. Maniliot arrowroot is usually imported into this country from Rio de Janeiro. The farina or starch deposited from the milky fluid, after being carefully washed and dried without the employment of heat, constitutes Manihot or Brazilian arrowroot. In the manufacture of tapioca, the meal while moist is heated and then dried on hot plates ; this treat- ment, of course, causes the starch granules to swell, and many of them to burst ; they at the same time adhere together in small iiTegular masses. THE ADTTLTERATIOI^S OP TAPIOCA. Manihot arrowroot or starch is occasionally adulterated by admix- ture with other starches, as those of sago and potato. Results of the examination of samples. — Of tioenty-three samples of tapioca examined, two were ascertained to consist of sago, and one of potato starch. Manihot starch is more frequently used as an adulterant, especially of Maranta arrowroot, than it is itself adulterated. THE DETECTION OP THE ADULTEKATIONS OF TAPIOCA. The only means of detecting the adulterations of Manihot arrow- root, and of tapioca, is furnished by the microscope ; with that instru- ment their detection is rendered easy and certain. The characters of sago starch are described and figured at p. 376, and those of potato starch at p. 371. 382 PROPRIETARY ALIMENTARY PREPARATIONS. OHAPTEE XVII. PROPRIETARY ALIMENTARY PREPARATIONS. The articles referred to under the above head being proprietar}^, and there being no recognised receipts or formularies for their com- position, thev do not properly come under the head of articles of con- sumption lial)le to adulteration. Nevertheless, the public will doubt- less be glad to be made acquainted with the composition of the chief of these articles, especially those which are described as being possessed of almost miraculous powers of curing disease, and which are sold under certain high-sounding names, and some of them at exorbitant prices. Until the microscope was applied by ourselves to the discri- mination of diiferent vegetable substances, it was not possible to have determined, by any known means, the composition of many of the pre- parations about to be noticed. The following examinations were made some years since, and it is probable that some of the preparations named are no more to be met with: — Ervalenta. Sold at 2s. 9e?. per lb. A sample of this article, examined, consisted of a mixture of the French or German lentil, with a substance resembling maize, or Indian corn 7neal. It has been stated that the farina of a grass called ^ Dari/ ^ Diura,' &c., has been discovered in either Ervalenta or Revalenta. We have succeeded in procuring a sample of this article, and find it to resemble very closely maize in structure. ^ Dari ' is occasionally imported into this country, and sold at about twenty-four shillings per quarter, that is, at the rate of rather more than one halfpenny per pound. We received from Dr. Pereira, some time previous to his decease, the following information respecting ^ Durra.' ' Dan I suspect means DwTa, also spelt Doura, Dora, &c. It is a corn used by the Arabs, and is cultivated in the south of Europe. It is the HolcuB Durra sativm of Fcirskal, the Sorghum mdgare of some other writers. * Its meal is said to resemble that of Indian com. Now, it deserves notice, that a German microscopist recently stated that he found the meal of Indian corn in ervalenta, or revalenta, I forget which. Did he mistake it for the Sorghum ? ' PROPRIETARY ALIMENTARY PREPARATIONS. 383 For description and figure of Durra, see p. 328, and fig. 101. Revalenta. Sold at the same rate as the Ervalenta. Three samples of this article were examined: one consisted of a mix- ture of the red or Arabian lentil and barley flour •, the second, of the same ingredients mixed with sugar j and the third sample consisted of the Arabian lentil and barley flour, with the addition of saline matter, chiefl}^ salt ; it also possessed a peculiar taste, as though flavoured with celery seed. Butler ^ M}CvllocKs Prepared Lentil Poivder, Is. Qd. per lb., was found to consist entirely of the French or German lentil. Aj^abian Revalenta, Is. per lb., was ascertained to consist of lentil povjder, probably of the yellow and red lentil mixed. Patent Flour of Lentils, Is. per lb. Two samples of this article were examined : one consisted of the red lentil and ^oheat flour, and the other of the same species of leyitil and barley flour. Lentils belong to the natural family of plants, Leguminosce, which includes the several kinds of beans and peas ; they resemble, to a very great extent, in colour, structure, taste, and properties, the common pea ; so great, indeed, is the similarity in organisation, that it is difli- cult to discriminate between them, even by the aid of the microscope. Lentils, peas, beans, &c., all contain a considerable amount of nitro- genised matter, in the form of Legumin. The composition of peas, beans, and lentils is exhibited in the folio winof tables : — Watpr Starch, dextrin, and sugar . Legumin .... Fatty matter Cellulose .... ^Mineral matter Poggiale. Air-dried and sheUed green Peas. Poggiale. Air-dried common white field Beans 12-7 57-7 21-7 1-9 3-2 2-8 19-3 45-4 22-8 2-7 6-2 S'6 100-0 100-0 Lentil. (Fresenius.) Water 14-0 Starch 35*5 Gum 7-0 Sugar 1-5 Legumin 26-0 Fat 2-5 Cellulose, Pectin, &c 12-0 Mineral matter 2-5 100-0 384 PROPRIETARY* ALIMENTARY PREPARATIONS. When taken as an article of diet, lentils, peas, and beans are found by most to be somewhat difficult of digestion, to occasion distension and flatulency, and to be slightly aperient. These properties and effects are so similar in the case oi each, that it is almost impossible to draw any decided line of demarcation between them. The admixtm^e of barley and other flours with lentil powder is not to be regarded in the light of an adulteration, since the cost of barley flour exceeds that of the lentil. The object of this mixture is chiefly to diminish the strong flavour of the lentils, which is so disagreeable to many. Fig. 121. Sample of Ervalenta, as it appears under the microscope. a a, starch corpuscles of the French lentil ; b b, fragments of the husk ; ccj starch granules and masses of the substance resembling IndlSlN corn meal. Extremes meet : lentils, being somewhat cheaper than peas, are supplied to many of our workhouses, to be used in the preparation of soup, &c. Thus they are not only consumed by paupers, but by the rich, the chief difference being that the latter frequently pay 2«. 9d, per pound for them. As the cost of most of the prepared lentil powders, sold as Erva- lenta, Revalenta, &c. forms a very serious obstacle to their use, sup- PROPRIETARY ALIMENTARY PREPARATIONS. 385 posing that in any respect it is desirable that they should be more generally consumed, we have framed the two following receipts, whereby a considerable saving of expense may be effected : — I 1st Receipt. Red or Arabian lentil flour ... 2 lbs. Barley flour 1 lb. Salt 3 oz. Mix into a uniform powder. Sample of Revalenta Arabica. a a, starch granules of the Arabian lentil, some loose, others lying in the cells of the cellulose ; b b, starch granules of barley flour. The red lentil may be obtained of almost every corn-chandler, at about 4:d. per quart : the cost of a pound of ou?' Ervalenta would be about 2d. per pound ; and it is perfectly clear, from the analyses wliich we have given above, that whatever may be the advantages possessed by the much-vaunted Ervalentas, Revalentas, &c., om- article m list contain them all. 2nd Receipt. Pea flour 2 lbs. Indian corn flour .... lib. Salt ....... 3 oz. Mix as before. CC 386 PROPRIETARY ALIMENTARY PREPARATIONS. Being satisfied tliat lentils and peas do not difter in their pro- parties to any great extent, we have devised the ahove receipt to meet those cases in which any difiiculty may he met with in procuring the red lentil, which, however, is now very commonly kept by corn chandlers. The characters of lentil flour, and the composition of Ervalenta, Kevalenta, and of Leath's Alimentary Farina, are exhibited in the engravings (figs. 122 and 123). From the several preparations of lentil flour noticed, we will pass on to describe certain other FARINACEOTTS rOODS. Ga7'diner''s Alimentary Prqmration consisted of very finely ground rice. Fig. 123. Leatb's Alimentary Farina, or Homceopathic Farinaceous Food. ^ a a, starch granules of Wheat ; h b, starch corpuscles of Potato ; c c, ditto of Indian corn meal ; d d, ditto of Tapioca. LeatJi's Alimentary Farina, or Homceopathic Farinaceous Food, con- sisted principally of wheat flour, slightly baked, sweetened with sugar, together with potato starch, Indian corn meal, and tapioca. Semolina consists in some cases of the gluten of wheat mixed with PROPRIETARY ALIMENTARY PREPARATIONS. 387 a proportion of wheat flour ; in others, of certain descriptions of wheat flciur only, rich in gkiten. Bullock's Semolci consisted of the gluten of icheat with a proportion of luheat starch. Prince A7'thur''s Farinaceous Food was composed entirely of haked ivheat Jlour. The Prince of Wales's Food was composed entirely of potato Jlour. Hards' Farinaceous Flour, of wheat Jlour, haked. Maidrnans Nutntious FaHna consisted entirely of potato Jlour artificially coloiu'ed of a pink or rosy tint, the colouring matter being probably rose pink. Braden's Foi'inaceous Food consisted of wheat Jlour, haked. Paster's Soojie was composed of ivheat Jlour, sweetened with sugar. Paster's Comjjounded Farina possessed a similar cotnposition. Jones s Patent Flour consisted of wheat Jlour, tartaric acid, and carhonate of soda. Plumhe's Trn2oroved Farinaceous Food was composed of hean or jyea Jlour, with a little Tacca ari^oioroot, some 2^f>t(fto Jlour, and a very little Mar ant a aiToiuroot. Lastly, Palmer's Vitarohorant consisted of a mixture, sweetened with sugar, of the red or Arabian lentil and wheat Jlour. The public are now in a position to judge of the degree of relation which exists between the high-sounding titles bestowed on many of the preparations noticed in this report, their actual composition, and thei properties, so loudly vaunted, alleged to be possessed by them ; thty will also be able to judge somewhat of the extent to which the poc^ket is made to suffer through these health-restoring, life-pro- longing, easily digestible articles and compounds. THE DETECTIOI?^ OE THE COMPOSITIOI^ OF PROPRIETAEY ALIMENTARY PREPARATIONS. In the majority of cases the only means by which the composition of these articles is to be determined is afforded by the microscope. By this instrument the starches of the several flours and arrowroots of which they are composed can all be identitied. The characters of nearly all these have already been described and figured. c c 2 388 MILK AND ITS ADULTEEATIONS. CHAPTER XVIII. MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS, DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. In Milk. — Any foreign animal, vegetable, or mineral substance, or added ■water ; or the removal of any portion of the fatty matter or cream. In Cream. — Casein beyond 8 per cent., water over 55 per cent., or any foreign substance whatever ; it should not yield a less proportion than 35 per cent, of fatty matter. Milk is an opaque, white, yellowish white, or bluish white, bland and slightly sweet liquid, having in general an alkaline reaction and a somewhat variable specific gravity. Wherv allowed to stand at rest for some time a stratum of a more or less yellow colour collects on the surface, the portion below becoming of a bluish-white colour and of a higher specific gravity. This stratum contains the greater part of the fat of the milk, together with a little casein, sugar, and water, and it constitutes the cream of milk. After a time, varying with the temperature, milk acquires an acid reaction from the decomposition of a portion of the milk sugar or lactose, lactic acid being formed ; this acid causes the precipitation of the casein, which carries down with it nearly the whole of the fat still remaining in suspension. By boiling the milk the conversion of the sugar and the precipitation of the casein are retarded ; but milk is quickly coagulated by rennet, sometimes without the produc- tion of an acid. COMPOSITION OF MILK. Milk consists of water holding in solution casein, albumen, and according to Millon, a third albuminous substance termed lacto-proteiUf in smaller amount than the albmnen, lactose or milk sugar, various salts, including especially phosphate of liine, and in suspension innimier- able fat globules, which add to its whiteness and opacity. Examined with the microscope, myriads of these fat globules, of a beautifully rounded form, and reflecting the light strongly, become visible, as well as sometimes muxms glgbules and epithelium cells. In decomposed or diseased milk infusoria or fungi are sometimes found, especially in blue milk, the colour of which is ascribed by Fuchs ^ MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 389 to tlie presence of a vibrio, which he has denominated Vibrio cyano- gen eus, but Bailleul ascribes it to a bjssus. Skim-milk, butter-milk, cream, butter, curds-and-whey, cream- cheese, and ordinary cheese, are mere modifications of milk, differing only from each other either in the abstraction of one or more of its constituents, or else in the variations of their proportions. Skim-milk. — The lirst of these (skim-milk) difters from ordinary milk in containing a less quantity of fatty matter, a portion of this having been removed as cream *, it still, however, contains nearly all th€' cheese, the sugar of milk, some butter, and the salts of milk ; it is therefore scarcely less nutritious than new milk, but, in consequence of the diminished amount of fatty matter, is less adapted to the develop- ment of fat, and to the maintenance of respiration and the temperature of the body. In some .cases where fatty matter is found to disagree, and where, in consequence, milk in its usual state cannot be taken without inconvenience, skim-milk may be substituted with advantage. Butter-milk. — This is the liquid which remains after the operation of churning, and it approaches skim-milk in its composition, but con- tains even a smaller quantity of fat ; as an article of diet for poor persons, it has the recommendation of cheapness. Potatoes and butter-milk, as is well known, taken together, form a very considerable portion of the diet of the peasantry of Ireland : the butter-milk constitutes an essential part of such a diet, it supplying the nitrogenised matter necessary for the growth of the body, and of which the potatoes themselves are comparatively deficient. Cream. — In contradistinction to these, cream consists almost en- tirely of the fat, with a variable quantity of the water, sugar, and casein of milk. Butter differs but little from cream, but the fatty matter is altered in its condition. The fat globules, in place of being free, are united together so as to form a semi-solid substance. It contains much less water than cream, but retains some casein, with a very small quantity of lactose. Curds-and-tvhey. — Curds-and-whey are made up of all the elements of milk, but the form in which they exist is altered ; the casein is thrown down by rennet, or by the addition of an acid, as acetic acid, and, in its descent, it carries with it the greater part of the butter, the two together forming the curd ; while the whey, or serum, consists almost entirely of water, the sugar, and the salts. Cream-cheese, — Cream-cheese consists of the moist curd (that is, of the cheese and butter), the greater part of the serum, or whey, being removed by slight pressure. Ordinary cheese. — Ordinar}" cheese contains little or much butter, according as it is made from skim or from whole milk ; the casein is precipitated by rennet in the usual manner, and subjected to gi'eat pressure in moulds. Annatto is frequently added to heighten its colour, and the cheese is kept until it becomes more or less ripe. 390 MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. The relative proportions of the different constituents of cow's milk, especially the fatty matter, are subject to very great variation : the age of the cow, the time after calving, food, temperature, weather, and the time and frequency of milking, all occasion considerable differences. The constituents of cow's milk in the normal state, according to MM. 0. Henrie and Chevalier, are as follow : — Casein 4*48 Butter 3-13 Sufijar of milk 4*77 Salt?, various 0*60 Water 87-02 100-00 Total solids 12.98 The following is the mean of ten analyses of pure milk by Professor Poggiale : — Water 862-8 Butter 43-8 Sugar of milk 52-7 Casein 38-0 Salts 2-7 1000-0 Total solids 13-72 Taking all the reliable analyses of cows' and human milk we have met with^ we find their average composition to be as stated below : — Cow. Human. Water 86-83 88-35 Sugar 4-n3 4-37 Casein 4-14 3-15 Fat . 3-93 3-87 Mineral matter. 0-67 0-26 Total solids ia-17 11-65 Casein^ which is the chief nitrogenised constituent of milk, is said to exist in two forms, as soluble and insoluble casein, but it is very questionable whether there is any essential difference between the two kinds, and it appears to be highly probable that the former owes its solubility to the presence of the alkaline phosphates. Casein in solution is not precipitated by heat, but is coagulated by alcohol, which at the same time dissolves a portion of it, and a still larger quantity if the alcohol be boiled. The precipitate produced by absolute alcohol is completely insoluble in water. Casein is precipitated by all acids, except the carbonic, it being redissolved in an excess of acid. Mineral acids precipitate casein from its acetic acid solution. MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 391 The spontaneous coagulation of milk is due, as already noticed, to the decomposition of the milk sugar and the formation of lactic acid. Tlie acid neutralises the alkali by which the casein was dissolved, thus reducing it to the insoluble condition. Casein contains the same amount of nitrogen, namely, 15*8 per cent., as do the other albuminoids. It contains about 1 per cent, of sulphur, and is said to be intimately combined with phosphate of lime. Coagulated casein is readily soluble in the caustic alkalies ; when boiled with a solution of potash, sulphide of potassium is formed. Fused with potash, ammonia is first evolved and then hydrogen, with the formation of tyrosin, leucin, valerate, butyrate and oxalate of potash, also with a salt the acid of which is volatile and possesses an excrementitious odour. Casein neutralises the alkali of weak solutions. It dissolves in a solution of phosphate of soda, also neutralising it. It is likewise soluble in solutions of the alkaline carbonates, chloride of sodium and chloride of ammonium. These solutions are not coagulated by heat, but become gradually covered with a film which is insoluble in dilute acids and alkalies, the film which forms on milk when it is boiled, having, it is said, the same origin and properties. Solutions of casein are precipitated by earthy and metallic salts. Insoluble compounds are obtained by boiling casein with the carbonates of lime and barium. It was formerly believed that the coagulation of milk by rennet was due to the animal matter contained in it acting as a ferment, and thus bringing about the conversion of the milk sugar into lactic acid, milk thus coagulated always exhibiting an acid reaction. It has since been shown, however, that milk may be coagidated by rennet, when its solution is rendered alkaline, the milk still remaining alkaline after the coagulation. Moist casein soon undergoes putrefaction, yielding sulphide and carbonate of ammonia, which dissolve a portion of the undecomposed casein. It also furnishes butyric and valeric acids, an oily body having a highly disagreeable odour, and, according to Bopp, a crystalline body possessing a powerful smell. When casein undergoes putrefaction vdthout access of air, it yields acetic, butyric, valeric and capric acids, as also ammonia. According to the analyses of Olemm, Haidlen, Vernois, and Bec- querel, the casein of human milk varies from 2-7 to 3-924, while, according to Boussingault, Playfair, Vernois, and Becquerel, that of the cow varies from 3*0 to 5*52 per cent. When milk is introduced into the stomach the casein is coagulated by the acids of the gastric juice before it is digested. Milk contains, besides casein, a second nitrogenous substance, namely, albumen, and, according to Millon, even a third, lacto-jyrotein. li the milk, after the removal of the casein by as small a quantity of acetic acid as will answer the purpose, be boiled, the albumen will be 392 MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. thrown down and maybe separated by filtrntion. Heinsiiis found I'd per cent, of albumen in cow's milk, after the precipitation of the casein by acetic acid and boiling. It was formerly believed that the scum which forms when milk is boiled was composed of albumen, but from observations since made, this scum would appear to consist, as already noticed, of casein in a modified form. Milk sugar ^ lactin, or lactose^ 0^2 HgjOu, belongs to the group of fermentable sugars. It crystallises in hemihedral, trimetric crystals ; it is less sweet and not as readily fermentable as cane sugar. It dissolves in from 5 to 6 parts of cold water and in 2|- parts at the boiling tempera- ture. A solution, saturated at 10° C, has a specific gravity of 1*055 and contains 14'55 per cent, of crystallised milk sugar, which contains in this state 1 molecule of water, which it retains up to 130° 0. The aqueous solution is dextrorotatory, turning the plane of polari- sation, according to Berthelot at 59'3 and to Biot at 60*28 degi-ees. Lactose is insoluble in alcohol and ether, but soluble in aqueous solutions of acetic acid. It forms compounds with potash, soda and ammonia, the alkaline earths, and with oxide of lead. When heated to 160° C. it turns brown, and at 175°C.it is converted into lacto-caramel with loss of water. By prolonged boiling with water, or quicker with dilute sulphuric acid, it is converted into galactose, CgHjoOg, which stands in the same relation to lactose as does inverted sugar to saccharose or cane sugar. The strong mineral acids and alkalies decompose it, especially when their action is aided by heat. It is easily decomposed by oxidising agents, it reduces silver from its solutions, and throws down from an alkaline copper solution the suboxide of copper. Distilled with sulphuric acid or peroxide of manganese it yields formic acid, and with nitric acid, mucic, saccharic, tartaric, racemic and oxalic acids. Milk sugar is less susceptible of fermentation than glucose or saccharose, it not passing into the alcoholic fermentation until some time after it has been brought into contact with yeast. When cheese or gluten is employed as a ferment, the sugar is in part converted into lactic acid, alcohol being at the same time formed. The sugar, of all the constituents of milk, is least liable to vary in quantity. Preparation of milk sugar. — The curd and fat are precipitated from milk by means of dilute sulphuric acid or by rennet. The serum or whey is filtered and evaporated until crystals are produced. For their purification the crystals are redissolved in water, the solu- tion filtered through animal charcoal and evaporated till crystals are again obtained, when, in order to procure them in the highest state of purity, they should be precipitated from their aqueous solution by . MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 393 means of alcohol. Milk sugar is prepared, particularly in Switzerland, on a large scale, from the whey left in the manufacture of cheese. The fat of milk consists of solid and liquid fats, the former being palmitin and stearin ^ and the latter olein, hutyrin^ and other gl3^cerides of volatile acids. They are the gtyceryl ethers of the corresponding fatty acids, and yield, when saponified with caustic potash, glycerine and salts of the following acids : stearic j ^^a/wieVec, oleic, ca2)?'^ic, capri/lic, caproicj and hutync acid, and, according to Chevi'eul, myristic acid. Butter fat becomes rancid on exposure to the air. It dissolves in 28*9 parts of boiling alcohol of specific gravity 0*822. According to my experiments, to be more fully noticed in the next article, on the adulteration of butter, butter fat has a mean fusing point of .33-7° 0. The average percentage amount of fat in the milli of the cow is 3 '98, according to the experiments of Simon, Chevalier, and Henrie, Boiissingault, Poggiale, and Becquerel, whereas, according to Simon, Clemm, Chevalier and Henrie, Vernois and Becquerel, the average of the fat in human milk is considerably less, namely, 3-38. Mineral matter. — According to Yernois and Becquerel, the ash of cow's milk varies from 0*55 to 0*85 per cent., the quantity of soluble salts being generally about the same as the insoluble. According to ^\^3ber, the ash of cow's milk has the following percentage compo- sition : — Potash 23-46 8oda 6-96 Lime 17-87 Magnesia 2-20 Phosphoric acid ..... 28-40 Chloride of sodium .... 4-74 Chloride of potassium .... 14*18 97-31 The carbonic and sulphuric acids are not estimated, and would make up the deficiency. Vernois and Becquerel give the following as the percentage com- position of the ash of human milk : — Carbonate of lime .... 6*9 Phosphate of lime . Chloride of sodium . ISulphate of sodium Other salts 70-6 9-8 7-4 5-3 1000 It thus appears that phosphate of lime is the chief constituent of the ash, but the soluble portion also contains chloride of potassium and alkcUne phosphates, and the insoluble part some phosphate of magnesia and a little oxide of iron. 394 MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. It will thus be seen from the analyses given that milk contains all the elements necessary to the growth and sustenance of the human body. This view. is not only established by the composition of milk, but by the fact that persons are frequently sustained upon a diet of milk for an indefinite period. Milk is, in fact, the best type known of a perfect food. Total solids of milk. — The analyses of Messrs. Henrie and Chevalier give the solids as 12*98 per cent., and without fat 9*85. The ten analyses of Poggiale furnish a mean of 13-72, and of solids, not fat, 9*34 per cent. Wanklyn gives the total solids of milk, of average quality, in 100 cc. at 12*81 gi'ammes, and of exceptionally rich milk of stall-fed cows at 1447, and the total solids, not fat, 9*65 and 10*35 respectively, and he takes the amount of solids, not fat, in normal counti-y miflf, namely 9*3, as a standard whereby the quality of other milk is to be judged. Collecting together a large number of reliable analyses of milk, we find that they furnish an average of 13*32 of total solids, and 944 of solids without the fat, but this latter average is doubtless much too low for milk of good quality. These data will be found to be of use hereafter in the determination of the question of the adulteration of milk. According to Wanklyn, the total solids of milk have not been known to fall below 11*8 grammes in 100 cc. From the observation of Messrs. Mtiller and Eisenstuck, it appears that the milk yielded by a herd of cows remained constant in composi- tion throughout the year. A daily analysis was made of the milk of fifteen well-fed cows, and it was found that the solids only foiu- times during the j^ear fell below 12 percentages, the highest percentage being 14*08, and the average 12*8 percentages. ' The milk of cows varies much according to the locality; that of cows in the neighbourhood of Paris contains from 3*6 to 3*7 per cent, of fat ; of Tyrolean, Swiss and Dutch cows between 7*0 and 9*8 per cent. The composition of cow's milk in the first, third, foiu-th, fifth, and sixth month is pretty much the same, varying between 12*27 and 14*20 per cent, of solid matter. In the first month it contains 13*29 per cent, residue, 4*80 per cent, casein, 4*25 per cent, butter, and 3*57 per cent, lactin, and 0*66 per cent, salts. In the second month, 17*32 per cent, solid residue, 5*81 per cent, casein, 7*06 per cent, butter, 3*87 per cent, lactin, and 0*57 per cent, salts. In the eighth month 24*73 per cent, residue, 11*50 per cent, casein, 4*41 per cent, butter, 7*67 per cent, lactin, and 1*16 per cent, salts.' — Vernois and Becquerel, in ' Watts's Dictionary.' The milk of a consumptive cow was found to contain 24*97 per cent, of solid residue, 10*13 per cent, casein and insoluble salts, 10*73 per cent, butter, 4*09 per cent, lactin and soluble salts. Wanklyn, in a sample of strippings, which is the last milk extracted from the udder of the cow at the end of the milking, found the specific gravity to be 1025, with a percentage of solids of 18*74. The quantity of solids found in milk varies very much with its MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 39^ source. Thus human milk contains from 11 to 13 per cent, of solids ; mares milk about 16-2 percent.; asss milk between 9*16 and 9'5i3 ; goafs milk, of which, hircin or kircic acid is said to be a constituent, between 13*2 and 14-5; that of the eioe about 14*38 per cent.; of the soio between 11*83 and 14*51 ; of the bitch from 22*48 to 27*46. THE COMPOSITION OF CKEAM. When milk is allowed to remain at rest for some hours, a consider- able proportion of the fatty matter rises to the surface, forming a layer of greater or less thickness, according to the richness of the milk, and which constitutes cream. But this layer has no certain composition ; the amount of fatty matter contained in it being subject to very considerable variations. In fact, cream consists of ordinary milk with its water, casein, and sugar, together with a large proportion of the fatty matter of milk. The following analyses will serve to render apparent its variable com- petition : — \\^ater . Analyses of Cream. Hassall. 62-12 61*50 63*24 49*10 43-04 45-82 Fat . 30-64 32-22 31*42 42*82 44*76 44-33 Casein 5-83 5*14 2*70 6*20 7*40 6-38 Sugar of milk . 1-27 0-74 2*36 2*46 4*45 2-92 Ash. 0*14 0-40 0-28 0*42 0-35 0-60 The first three creams were purchased of milkmen, while the other three were obtained direct from the dairy, and of their genuineness and quality no doubt could be entertained. The diiference in the amount of fat in the two cases is, as will be seen, \qyj considerable, and it appears to us, that since, as in the case of milk, a standard for comparison is necessary, it would not be pressing too hard upon the vendors to insist that cream should not con- tain less than 35 per cent, of fatty matter. Two samples of creamometer cream after 24 hours' standing fur- nished the following amounts of fat, namely 2o'0 and 28*6 per cent. The above results are important as proving that the degrees shown by the creamometer do not indicate fixed but vei-y variable quantities of fatty matter. Thus in some cases a milk which shows only 5 degrees of cream may really be as rich as another which furnishes 7 or 8 deg rees. This is certainly a strong fact in favour of making in all cases an absolute estimation of the fat of milk. PEESEKVED AND CONDENSED JOLK. There are several methods by which milk may be preserved for some time. Thus if a bottle be filled with it^ the milk boiled, and 396 MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. the bottle then corked and sealed, it will keep for some days *, but if it be heated under pressure to 121° C. the milk will be preserved, it is said, for years, although the butter may separate. Sulphu7'ous acid or sulphite of soda, carbonate of soda or sugar, all aid in the preservation of milk. Milk to which sugar and a little carbonate of soda has been added will keep for several days. Condensed milk consists simpl}" of milk deprived of a very consider- able portion of its water, and to which cane sugar is added as a pre- servative material. The following analyses give the composition of some of the principal kinds of preserved milk in use in this country. Of the wholesomeness and utility of these preparations no doubt can be entertained. In some cases the water is almost entirely removed ; the residue, when mixed with white sugar, may then be reduced to the state of powder, which then constitutes what is known as milk pozvder : Analyses of Condensed Milk. Hassall. Milk Powder. HassaU. Water . Casein . Milk sugar . Cane sugar . Fat Mineral matter Phosphoric acid 24-30 18-52 16-50 27-11 10-80 2-12 0-649 27-00 17-20 12-00 29-59 11-30 2-24 0-67 26-50 16-30 17-54 27-06 9-50 2-39 1 0-708 j 24-94 15-36 15-36 32-14 9-50 2-43 3-10 26-74 17-20 39-17 10-94 2-64 100-00 100-00 100-00 99-73 99-79 We find that in this country the average yield of one gallon of milk is about 3*2 lbs. of sugared milk ; that is, it takes considerably less than three pints of milk to make 1 lb. of the sweetened condensed article. We find further that the quantity of sugar added is usually about 19 ozs. to the gallon of milk, or about 6 ozs. to 1 lb. of the sugared milk. KOUMISS. The sugar of milk, like other fermentable sugars, yields under the action of a ferment, as yeast, alcohol, and carbonic acid. The same change takes place when the ferment is added to the milk itself, as has been long known and practised, the resultins: liquid having received the name of koumiss. This beverage has been prepared from time immemorial by the Tartars by the fermentation of mares' milk, and a somewhat similar preparation is made in Orkney and Shetland. Sometimes the ferment is added to the entire milk, but usually a portion of the cream is abstracted and skim milk used. In other cases not only is the cream abstracted, but an additional quantity of milk sugar is added. The fatty matter is removed because it rises in the MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 397 bottle, presenting a somewhat unsightly appearance, and because the beverage containing it is too rich for some persons ; but the casein also is precipitated, together with the butter still remaining in the milk, and being thus rendered lighter than the serum, it likewise floats on the surface. At the same time that a portion of the milk sugar is converted into alcohol and carbonic acid, another portion is split up into lactic acid, one molecule of the sugar furnishing, with the addition of one molecule of water, four molecules of the acid ; thus C^^lI^X>ii "^ ^2^ = ^^3^6^3' The following are some analyses of koumiss recently made by Analyses of K "oumiss, manufactured hy Messrs. Chapman Sj- Cc Lactic acid . Carbonic acid Alcohol . Fatty matter . Sugar of milk Casein • Mineral matter Total solids . Glycerine A No. 1, 4 days old, acidulous. A No. 2, 30 days old, highly sparkling. A No. 3, 30 days old, highly sparkling. B No. 1, 4 days old, acidulous. D No. 1, 6 days old, verysweet efferves- cing. D No. 2, 17 days old, highly sparkling. 0-416 0-361 0-378 0-611 6-328 3-545 0-370 11-270 0-684 0-819 0-857 0-524 5-051 3-392 0-342 9-993 1-152 1-228 1-284 0-508 3-018 3-429 0-392 8-499 0-542 0-389 0-402 0-492 8-948 1-264 0-654 11-900 0-373 0-468 0-490 0-190 2-338 4-406 0-680 17-714 9-722 0-614 0-754 0-789 0-163 1-447 4-370 0-672 16-846 9-580 This article has been much recommended of late years in the treatment of consumption, the presence of the lactic acid being con- sidered to aid gTeatly the digestion of the casein. THE ANALYSIS OF MILK. . For most practical purposes, in order to ascertain whether a milk is genuine and of good quality, it is sufficient to take the specific gravity of the milk by the hydrometer or galactometer, and to estimate the quantity of cream by the lactometer, or as some call it, the creamo- meter. It is, of course, not sufficient to take either the one or the other only, but the results of both proceedings must be compared. Thus, a milk containing an excess of butter or cream will show a lighter specific gravity, and a sample with a deficiency of cream will have a higher gravity than normal milk, the gravity of which may be said to range from 1027'5 to 1034*5. But milks are occasionally met with which are either lighter or heavier, and which, therefore, exceed the abc've limits. The specific gravitv of skim milk ranges usually from 10c;4-6 to 1038-6, and of the serum of milk from 1029-9 to 1031-9. 398 MILK AND ITS ADULTEEATIONS. Another metliod of judgiuo: of tlie quality of milk is bv estimatino: the total solids furnished by its evaporation, and the solids left after the removal of the fat by means of ether in the manner hereafter described. Milk of good qualit}^ should furnish, according to Henrie and Chevalier, 12-98 per cent, of total solids, and 9-85 per cent, of solids after the removal of the fat. But supposing we desire to institute a quantitative analysis of the several constitutents of milk, the following plan may be adopted. Liquids taken for analysis are usually measured and not weighed, but it miLst be understood that 100 cc. of milk do not correspond to 100 grammes of milk, but to a larger quantity according to the specific gravity of the milk. Thus 100 cc. of milk having a specific gravity of 1029 would really weigh 102 '9 grammes. 10 cc. of the well shaken and mixed milk are evaporated in a weighed platinum dish upon the water-bath to drs^ness ; the residue is then weighed and re-weighed after an interval of further dicing, in order to render it sure that all water has been removed. The weight when constant is noted, and indicates the percentage of total solids when multiplied by ten. The dried residue is then treated, as will be presently described, with ether for the removal of the fat, which may be estimated from the ethereal solution ; or still more simply, by re-drying the residue remaining, w^eighing it, and estimating the loss, which of course represents the butter. In the solids, minus the fat, we may next esti- mate the suffar and the casein, but for the ash a fresh portion of the original milk, say 5 cc, should be evaporated and incinerated. We will now give more in detail the several processes to be fol- lowed for the estimation of the chief constituents of milk. Estimation of total solids. — A measured quantity of milk, say 10 cc, is evaporated to dr3rness on the water-bath in a weighed platinum basin. The residue is repeatedly weighed until the weight becomes constant. We do not find any difficulty in effecting the complete desiccation of the solids of milk, or in the subsequent extraction of the fat, points which have been much dwelt upon by some analysts, and we have therefore not found it necessary to make use of a w^eighed quantity of sand or hydrated sulphate of lime, which were formerly much employed. JEstimation of fat, — The residue thus obtained is treated repeatedly with small quantities of ether, until the whole of the fat has been removed, the ether being easily separated from the residue by decanta- tion, no filtering being required. The butter can then be estimated either from the ethereal solution, or, as explained above, by re- drying the residue and noting the loss of weight sustained. The ethereal solution is best slowly evaporated at a low temperature in a small flask. Estimation of the sugar. — After the removal of the butter, weak alcohol is poured upon the residue and digested with it. This takes MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 399 up the sugar, with a little saline matter, soluble in alcohol. By evapo- rating this solution and weighing the dry residue, the quantity of sugar is determined ; or, as before, the residue itself may be dried "and weighed, and the sugar estimated by the loss. If we wish to estimate the small quantity of inorganic saline matter, which has been taken up with the sugar, it may be done by burning the latter in the air and weighing the residue. Or the sugar may be estimated directly from the whey by the copper solution, the details of the employment of which will be found given in the article on ' Sugar.' But the whey should be diluted with 4 or 5 ^ olumes of water, so that the amount of sugar may be reduced to not more than 1 per cent. According to Xeubauer, lOO parts of milk sugar reduce 433-1, and according to Malhaim, 415-8 parts of oxide of copper. But a more exact method is to convert the lactose into galac- ■ tose, which reduces precisely the same amount of copper to the state of suboxide as do the glucoses — namely, 692*6 parts. A very close approximation to the quantity of sugar present in milk may be ^obtained by simply evaporating the whey to dryness, weighing the residue, and deducting the weight of the ash left on its incineration. Estimation of casein. — ^ After the removal of the butter and sugar, as already described, the solids still remaining consist of casein with the greater portion of the mineral matter. This residue should now be dried, weighed, incinerated, and the weight of the ash subtracted. Th<3 difference will represent the casein. Or other methods may be pursued. The casein may be precipitated with acetic acid, it carrying down with it nearly the whole of the butter. Wash repeatedly with weak alcohol, dry, dissolve out the fat with ether, re-dry, and weigh. The casein thus obtained contains a small quantity of mineral matter, which is to be estimated by incinera- tion and deducted. Or, lastly, the casein may be calculated from the amount of nitrogen, determined by the usual combustion process, the particulars of which have already been given under the head of ^ Tea and its Adulteration,' but a deduction will have to be made for the albumen contained in the millv. Estimation of albumen. — This is estimated in the serum of the m\Y\i left after the precipitation in the cold of the curd by dilute acetic acid. The acid should be nearly neutralised and the seriun boiled, when the albumen will be precipitated, and may be collected and dried on a weighed filter. THE SPECIFIC GEAVITY OF GENnis^E MILK. As the composition of milk varies, so of course does its specific gra^ ity, but it may be said to range from 1027 to 1034. The great variation in the specific gravity of the milk is mainly occasioned by 400 MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. corresponding diiferences in the quantity of butter present ; this being so much lighter than water, the greater its amount of course the less the gravity of the milk. There are no precise or sufficient data at present existing to show to what extent the casein and the sugar of milk vary under like circum- stances, and how far they affect the gravity of the milk ; that is to say, there have been no sufficient nimiber of separate determinations of those constituents of milk on which to base the limits of their variation. No doubt they do not vary to anything like the same extent as the fat, and some chemists maintain that the solids of milk, apart from the fat, I'epresent veiy nearly a fixed quantity, having but a very small range of difference. The following tables will serve to show some of the variations to which the gravity of milk is liable : — Tables showing the variations in the Specific Gravity of Genuine Milk, and the relation of this to the percentages of Cream. TABLE L Spec. Grav. Cream by at 15*5° C. creamometer. 1034-5 9-0 1029-7 7-5 1030-4 11-0 1031-3 9-0 1032-1 ll'O 1027-5 20-5 1031-2 21-0 1028-8 12-0 ' 1030-3 15-3 1032-3 18-3 1029-9 13-2 1030-6 13-8 Average 1030-7 13-5 TABLE II. Milk. Cows. Spec. Grav. Cream 1 1031 2° 2 1029 2^ 3 1019 26 4 1008 80 5 1030 2^ 6 1027 7 1026 13 8 1029 8 9 1030 7 10 1024 10 11 1027 10 12 1023 25 13 1024 32 14 1025 . 10 MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 401 The preceding Table II. includes samples of both morning and after- noon milk, as well as some of the first and last milk obtained at the same milking ; they are not, therefore, to be taken as average samples of milk. Moreover the gravities of the samples of Table II. were taken by means of the ordinary hydrometer, and are probably some- what lower than they should be. From an examination of Table II., it appears that a milk may be of high specific gravity, and yet yield but little cream (see 1) ; or it may be of low specific gravity, and yet afford a very large quantity of cream (see 4). It will be observed that not one of the samples in the table shows a low specific gTavity with deficiency of cream. The specific gravity of skim milk is of course greater and much more uniform than that of the whole inilk, containing also only an insignificant amount of fat ; the range of its gravity is less, usually between 1034-6 the lowest and 1038"6 the highest. In considering the question of the adulteration of milk with water, as will hereafter appear, this small range of variation will be found to be a point of great importance. The following table shows the specific gravities of skim milk, the fat and the total solids contained in it, the gravities having been taken by means of the specific gravity bottle. Spec. Grav. of Skim MUk at 15-5°C. Fat in Skim Milk. Total Solids of Skim Milk. 1038-6 0- 11-26 1034-6 0-14 10-16 1036-9 0-24 11-04 1036-2 0-10 10*28 1037-4 0-08 10-72 1035-8 0-20 10-36 1036-0 006 — 1037-1 0-11 — 1036-3 0-10 — 1038-4 0-10 11-56 1036-9 0-06 11-05 1037-0 0-04 10-58 1035-4 0-28 11-10 1035-3 0-12 9-90 1035-4 0-08 9-88 Average 1086-35 0-11 10-57 The specific gravity of the serum of milk is due mainly to the sugar contained in it ; and as this constituent is said to be the least variable, so is the specific gravity of the seriun the least subject to variation — a circumstance of considerable importance, as will be shown presently. D D 402 MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Tables showily the Density of Seruniy and its relation to the Specific Gravity of Milk, TABLE III. Cows. Spec. Grav. of Milk. Spec. Grav. of Serum 1 . . 1028-9 . 1031-8 2 . . 1030-3 . 1031-4 3 . . . 1032-3 . 1030-2 4 . 1029-9 . 1031-9 5 . . . 1030-6 . 1029-9 TABLE IV. Cows. Milk. Serum. Cows. Milk. Serum. Spec. Grav. Spec. Grav. Spec. Grav. Spec. Grav. 1 1029 1028 22 1022 1027 2 1026 1028 23 1030 1027 3 1029 1025 24 1031 1028 4 1031 1027 25 1028 1028 5 1030 1027 26 1030 1028 6 1008 1025 27 1031 1028 7 1019 1027 28 1028 1027 8 1026 1026 29 1028 1027 9 1030 1027 30 1027 1028 10 1028 1028 31 1028 1027 11 1027 1027 32 1030 1028 12 1026 1027 33 1029 1028 13 1027 1025 34 1026 1027 14 1029 1027 35 1024 1026 15 1030 1027 36 1027 1026 16 1030 1027 37 1026 1028 17 1023 1028 38 1028 1028 18 1023 1028 39 1026 1027 19 1025 1027 40 1026 1026 20 1024 1027 41 1030 1026 21 1024 1028 42 1023 1028 Table IV. includes many samples of milk of an exceptional cha- racter. The gravities, it should be noted, given in this table were ascertained by means of an ordinary hydrometer. While the specific gravity of milk extends over a wide range, varying from 1008 to 1034, that of the serum, on the contrary, is subject to only a slight variation, the limits of this in Table III. lying between 1029-9 and 1031-9, and in Table IV. between 1025 and 1028. We have here, then, one more fixed datimi from which to deter- mine the adulteration of milk with water, a point of the greatest importance. The specific gravity of skim milk, although not so fixed as that of I MILK AND ITS ADULTEEATIONS. 403 the serum, is yet inucli more so than that of whole milk : its average weight is estimated by Pereira at 1034*8, but we find it to range between 1034-6 and 1038-6, the average being 1036-3. (See table, p. 401.) VAEIATIONS IN^ THE COMPOSITION OF MILK. It has been stated that the composition of milk is subject to very great variation according to several modifying circumstances. The chief of these are — the age of the cow, its condition, the time and fre- quency of milking, the natiu'e of the food, housing of the cows, and temperature. We shall bestow a few remarks on each of these causes of variation. Influence of age on milk. — With respect to age, a young cow with her first calf gives less milk than with her second, third, or fourth calf, she being considered to be in her best condition, in most cases, when from four to seven years old. The period during which cows give milk after calving is usually five or six months, but very frequently the time is much prolonged beyond this ; we have been informed of an instance of a cow continuing to give milk for three years and a half after calving. Influence of condition on milk. — The first milk yielded by the cow after cahing is yeUow, thick, and stringy : it is called colostimm, and by milkmen and others, ^ beastings.' This state of the milk lasts from about three weeks to a month, but is very bad for the first ten days, during which time the milk is not fit for use. From the end of the first to the termination of the third or fourth month the milk is in its best condition. The cow carries her calf for forty weeks, or ten lunar months. It is the common practice to milk the cow regularly for the first seven, eight, or nine months of this period, a practice which, at first sight, appears to be highly objectionable, but which is really not so much so as might be supposed; and it is rendered absolutely necessary by the fact that cows could not otherwise be profitably kept; never- theless, it is very important that the milking should not be continued too long, for the sake of the cow, the calf, and the milk itself: in general it should cease at the end of the seventh month ; many cow- keepers, however, continue to milk up to a very short period of calving. Another very objectionable practice is to permit the cow again to become in calf within two or three months after having calved ; the object of doing so is to derive as much profit as practicable from the animal, without regard to the effect on its constitution, the quality of the milk, or the growth of the calf. It is impossible to conceive that a cow can continue to yield large quantities of good milk daily, and afi'ord, at the same time, sufficient nourishment for carrying on effec- tively the process of gestation. Influence of food on milk. — The natural food of the cow is evi- DD 2 404 MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. dently that derived from pastures, viz. grass, the milk obtained from eows fed upon this being of excellent quality and sufficiently rich for all pm'poses. The next most natural food is dried grass or hay, which is given largely to cows in winter, the milk being nearly the same in quality as from grass. Beet-root, carrots, mangold-wurzel and oilcake being very nutri- tious, are also usually given to cows in the winter time with advantage. With regard to the effect of beet-root and can-ots on milk, we obtain the following information by MM. 0. Henrie and Chevalier. Casein (clieesy matter) Butter Sugar of milk . Salts, various . Water Normal Milk. Fed on Beet. Fed on Carrots. 4-48 3-13 4-77 0-60 87-02 3-75 2-75 6-95 0-68 86-87 4-20 3-08 6-30 0-75 86-67 100-00 100-00 100-00 It will be observed that, according to the above tables, the effect of feeding cows on carrots is to occasion a slight diminution in the amount of casein and butter, but an increase in the quantit}^ of sugar, while feeding them on beet-root, reduces still more the quantity of casein and butter, but very largely increases the sugar — effects which, from the richness of carrot and beet in sugar, might have been anti- cipated. As is well known, a very considerable number of the cows which supply London with milk are kept in various confined and unhealthy places in the metropolis ; such cows are seldom turned out to grass ; the system of feeding adopted being altogether artificial and unnatural, brewers' grains and distillers' wash forming much of their food ; these stimulate the animals unnaturally, and under the stimulus large quantities of milk of inferior quality are secreted, the cow quickly becoming worn out and diseased in consequence. In reference to the effects of grains on cows, Mr. Harley makes the following remarks : — * Brewers' and distillers' grains, and distillers' wash make the cattle grain-sick, as it is termed, and prove injurious to the stomach of the animal. It has been ascertained that if cows are fed upon these grains, &c., their constitutions become quickly destroyed.' Influence of temperature on milk. — In hot countries and dry seasons the quantity of milk yielded is said to be less, but the quality is richer ; it is also stated that cold favours the production of sugar and cheese, whilst hot weather augments the amount of butter. MILK AND ITS ADULTEKATIONS. 405 It would be extremely desirable to ascertain precisely the extent to which the quality of milk is influenced by weather. Influence of the time and frequency of milking. — With regard to the quality of milk as affected by the time and frequency of milking, morning milk is said to be better than that obtained in the afternoon ; and the milk of cows when milked but once a day is richer than either. It is the common belief that the last portion of the milk obtained at any milking is richer than the first. Many years since we took pains to ascertain whether there is any foundation for such an opinion, and find it to be really the case to a remarkable extent, as will appear from the following table. Table showing the Difference in the Quality of the First and Last Milk obtained at each Milking, Cows. 1 2 First Milk. Afternoon. Milk. Spec. Grav. Cream. 1027 .... 9° 1026 13 1027 8 1029 7 1030 11 1030 8 1029 H 1031 2 61i Last MUk. 1023 .... 26 1023 22 1025 10 1024 15 1024 32 1022 25 1026 n 1030 5 141i From an examination of these tables it appears that the last milks are of much lower specific gravity than the first ; and hence, had the specific-gravity test alone been relied on, they would have been pronounced to be inferior in richness to the first ; a conclusion the reverse of that which is correct. Thus, while the cream of the whole eight samples of the first milks amounted to 61^ percentages, that of the last amounted to 141J ; that is, they contained more than double the quantity of cream. This fact is not without practical importance. It is a common practice for invalids and others to procure their glass of milk direct from the cow : we thus perceive that in this way 406 MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. they seldom o"btain the proper proportion of butter, a circumstance which may "be of advantage in some cases, and of disadvantage in others. In London it is now common for cows to be driven through the streets, and to be milked in the presence of the purchasers : although in this way the buyer succeeds in procuring it genuine, he does not always obtain the best milk. The great difference in the amount of cream contained in the first and last milk taken from the cow at one milking, appears to be satis- factorily explained on the supposition that the fatty matter of the milk obeys the same laws of gravity in the udder of the cow that it does when set aside in an open vessel. The following tables show the variations in the specific gravity of milk, and the percentages of cream in morning and afternoon milk. Table showing the Specific Gravity of Pure Milk, and the Percentages of Cream. Morning Milk. Cows. Milk. Richmond. Spec. Gravity. Cream. 1 . . . 1030 . 6^ 2 . . . 1031 , 7 3 . . . 1028 • 4^ 4 . . . 1030 . 9 6 . . . 1031 . 10 6 . . . 1028 . n London. 7 . . . 1030 . 12 8 . 1023 5 9 . . . 1029 7 10 . . . 1028 • 9 Average nearly 1029 Total . 77i Average about . 7i Afternoon Milk. Cows. Milk. Eichmond. Spec Gravity. Cream 1 . . . 1028 . . 7i 2 . . . 1027 . 10 3 . . . 1027 6 4 . . . 1028 , , 9 5 . . . 1028 . . Hi 6 . . . 1027 . 7i London. 7 . . . 1028 i . 22 8 . . . 1026 , 6 9 . . . 1026 6 10 . . . 1026 . 11 Average about 1027 Total . 96i Average more than . 9i MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 407 The Eichmond cows irom whicli the first six morning and afternoon milks were obtained, were fed partly on grass and partly on grains. The samples were taken from the milk-pail containing the whole of the milk obtained from each cow, and whilst still warm. From the preceding tables (p. 406) it appears : — That the specific gravity of genuine milk, in its ordinary con- dition, varies between 1026 and 1031 ; and that the average specific gravity of the morning milk is about 1029, and the afternoon 1027; but the results of more recent observations gave a variation of from 1029 to 1034 for genuine milk. (See table, p. 400.) THE HOUSING OP COWS. In a very useful little pamphlet, published some years since by Mr. H. Rugg, surgeon, on London milk, we meet with many particu- lars relating to the improper mode pui'sued in feeding and housing cows kept in various parts of the metropolis. '■ Any place, any hovel,' writes Mr. Rugg, ' cow-keepers seem to consider will do for a cow — narrow lanes, confined corners, &c. — and yet they wonder how it is that they lose so many from disease. Can any one with a grain of common sense at all wonder that cows should be afflicted with disease when they are huddled together in a space that does not allow them sufficient breathing-room, with their heads placed close up to the wall, and without a sufficient current of air or ventilation ? The carbonic acid expired from their lungs is, before it can rise, the greater part inhaled again, unmixed with a suf- ficiency of pure air, so necessar^^ for the ' oxidation of the blood, and consequent vitality of the body.' Other observations on the same subject will be found recorded in the ' Harleian Dairy System,' p. 14 ; ^ Alton's Dairy Husbandry,' p. 70, and in a pamphlet on ^ The Sanitaiy Condition of the Parish of St. James's, Westminster,' by the Hon. F. Byng. The necessity for an abundance of pure air is shown by the follow- ing calculation : — Dr. Thomson states that one cow, consuming 6 lbs. of carbon in its daily food, for respiratory purposes would require 956^ cubic feet of atmospheric air. THE CHAKACTERISTICS OP GOOD MILK. Good milk is a white homogeneous fluid, of sweet and bland taste, not becoming viscid on the addition of anmionia. It should furnish a mean of total solids of about 13*17 per cent, and at the least 9-44 of solids not fat, and should yield an average of about llh per- centages, by the lactometer, of cream. The specific gravity of genuine whole milk is liable to vary, ordi- narily, however, within the limits of 1029 and 1034, the amount of 408 MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. cream varying in a corresponding ratio ; tlie gravity of the skim milk ranging from 1084-6 to 1038-6. Examined with the microscope, milk is found to contain myriads of beautifully formed globules of fatty matter of various size, and reflect- ing the light strongly, and which globules are entirely and readily soluble in caustic potash ; in fact, good milk under the microscope presents the appearance shown in fig. 124. °^ J^*^ ^^n'c^ °^V This and the four following figures are all drawn to a scale of about 630 diameters. These globules do not consist entirely of fat, but are coated with an envelope formed of some albuminous substance, as shown in the follow- ing paragraph : — ^ Henle first proved the existence of an external envelope ; he added acetic acid to the milk, and found that the shapes of the globules were thereby distorted. Mitscherlich found that the globules were not dis- solved when milk was shaken up with ether, which would have been the case if they were a simple emulsion of fat ; if, however, caustic potash or carbonate of potavssium, which dissolves the envelope, was previously added, the fat was then dissolved by ether. Lehmann also MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 409 remarked that the surface of the globules in milk merely treated with ether appeared less transparent, turbid, and wrinkled, as if it had been coagulated. The ether took up the fat on the addition of phosphate of sodium. Moleschott acted on the coagulum obtained by adding alcohol to milk with acetic acid, and extracted the fat with ether ; there remained many unbroken fat envelopes in the form of little vesicles, which he was able to fill with an ethereal solution of chlorophyll : they contained no fat. From this he not only proved the existence of Fig. 125. Poor Milk. the fat envelopes, but concluded also that they are organised.' — Long, in Watts's Dictionary. If the milk exhibit any want of complete homogeneousness or is of imperfect liquidity ; if it be viscid, or become so on the addition of ammonia ; if, examined with the microscope, blood, pus, or colo- strum corpuscles are present, the milk is not healthy milk of good quality ; lastly, if the fat globules are comparatively few and of small size, the milk is poor. ^ Professor Mosler has directed attention to the poisonous effects of •^ blue milk," that is to say, milk covered with a layer of blue substance, 410 MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. which is in fact a fungus, either Oidium lactis or penicillimnj which seems to have the power, in certain conditions, of causing the appear- ance in the milk of an aniline substance. The existence of this form of fundus was noted by Fuchs as long ago as 1861. Milk of this kind gives rise to gastric irritation (first noted by Steinhof ) ; and in four cases, noted by Mosler, it produced severe febrile gasti'itis. ^ Milk which is not blue, but which contains large quantities of oidium, appears, fi*om Hessling's observations, to produce many dys- peptic symptoms, and even cholera-like attacks, as well as possibly to Fig. 126. Cream. ^c?^*^ give rise to some aphthous affections of the mouth in children.' — Parkes' Hygiene. Cream consists for the most of the fat globules, some of which are of very considerable size (fig. 126). The curd of milk, as already explained, is composed of both the cheese and the fat globules. Its appearance under the microscope is represented in fig. 127 ; the casein or cheese is distinguished by its granular texture. Colostrum. — The first milk yielded by the cow after calving, called colostrurrij is characterised, as before noticed, by the presence of nume- MILK AXD ITS ADULTERATIONS. 411 rous corpuscles of large size and granular appearance. Cow's milk in the state of colostrum is represented in fig. 128. The colostrum corpuscles are destroyed by potash or by acetic acid. Iodine turns them of a yellow colour, and hence it is inferred that they contain a large amount of an albuminous substance. The Apparatus employed to Determine the Farity and Quality of Milk. Independent of a quantitative chemical analysis, the purity and quality of milk are often judged of by its specific gravity and the quantity of fatty matter or cream which the milk furnishes. Fig. 127. Curd of Milk. The specific gravity of milk is best determined by the ordinary specific gravity bottle ; but it is more frequently ascertained by means of the common hydrometer, or by the galactometer, of which several varieties have been devised. The best of the galactometers is the instrument invented by M. Dinocourt, named the Centesimal Galactometer (fig. 130). Piu'e milk not deprived of its cream has a less specific density than 412 MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. skim milk, caused by the lightness of the cream. If the cream be either in part or wholly removed from^ milk, the residual milk will weigh heavier than that which contains it's normal proportion of cream. Skim milk, therefore, tried. by the galactometer scale, for pure milk only, would give a higher specific gravity than ordinarily belongs to piu*e milk, and hence the error might be committed of supposing it to be pure, an error which can be corrected by means of the creamometer, whereby the percentage of cream is estimated ; should this percentage fall short of that which is proper to pure milk, the sample of milk is one the value of which shoidd be determined by the scale for pure skim milk. Again, if to such skim milk we add a certain percentage of water, we restore to it its proper specific gravity, and therefore this milk would show, with the centesimal galactometer, the density proper to pure milk, and hence this fraud would escape detection. In order to meet cases of this kind, which are of frequent occurrence— -namely, the complete or partial removal of the cream, it is necessary also to employ the creamometer, and ascertain by it whether the sample under examination contains the proper proportion of cream or not ; indeed. MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 413 ' it is not possible to come to any certain or safe conclusions without employing the two instruments, the lactometer or hydrometer, for Fig. 130. Mg. 129. CoMMOis Hydrometer. {Reduced one-half.) The Centesimal Galactometer. {On a reduced scale.) 70. Range of pure milk. 414 MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. taking the specific gravity of the whole milk, and the creamometer, to measure the cream. Where the specific gravity of a milk is very low. and this not pro- duced by a large excess of cream, it is due to the admixture of water, the quantity of which may be determined with considerable accuracy from the milk, or, better still, from the skim milk or whey, by the common hydrometer. The reason why the centesimal galactometer has been provided with two scales, one for pure and the other for skim milk, is, of course, on account of the very difterent densities possessed by each. The great advantage of the centesimal galactometer consists in its centesimal graduation, whereby calculation is so much facilitated. It is proper, in using either the specific gravity bottl^ or the ordi- nary hydrometer, to take the specific gravity of milk always at the same temperature, namely 60° r = 16*5° C. This precaution is espe- cially necessary with the centesimal galactometer, in which, from the delicacy of the graduation, a comparatively slight alteration of tempera- ture occasions a difference of several degrees. When it is desired to make use of the scale for skim milk, one portion of the milk is to be set aside for about twenty hours in a creamometer ; another in a pan for the same length of time ; the percentage of cream in the creamometer is to be noted, and the density of the milk in the pan, after being skimmed, taken in the ordinary manner with the centesimal galactometer, or, still better, with the specific gravity bottle. Of all the constituents of milk, the sugar is the least subject to variation, and as the density of the serum of milk is principally due to the sugar, its specific gravity of course is also but little liable to alteration. This statement is founded upon the results of numerous observations. It therefore long since occurred to us that the utility of the galactometer might be greatly enhanced by the addition of a centesimal scale for the serum of milk. The advantage of this scale would be that — starting from a fixed point, the normal specific gravity of the serum — it would show, with considerable nicety, the extent of the more usual adulteration of milk — namely, that with water ; for in proportion as water is added, so does the weight of the serum diminish, and this in such a marked manner that the quantity of water added may readily be determined in percentages. Numerous observa- tions are first required, in order to fix accurately the normal specific gravity of the serum of the milk of the cow. Method of determining the cream. — The amount of cream is deter- mined by means of an instrument invented by the late Sir Joseph Banks, termed a creamometer. This consists of a tube, usually eleven inches long and half an inch in diameter ; the upper inch or two inches of this are graduated in tenths of an inch — that is, in himdredths of the whole. The tube is filled with milk, and set aside for twenty hours ; "the cream ascends to the siu-face, and its amount is determined by MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 415 " the thickness of the stratum formed, and which is ascertained by noting the number of degrees or tenths through which it extends. As the quantity of cream not unfrequently exceeds twenty, and has even been known to reach eighty per cent., the tubes should' in all cases be graduated for nearly their whole length. Fig. 131. Creamometer and Stand. (On a reduced scale.) 15 2D =1 ? ^=^ 6 — E -10--^ 15 20- P The dotted lines indicate the percentages of cream on fonr samples of milk from different cows after standing twelve hours. The construction of the creamometer is shown in the accompanying woodcut, representing a rack, holding four of these instruments (fig. 131). Cream forms more quickly in warm than cold weather ; and in making comparative observations on a number of samples, it is proper that they should be set aside in creamometers at the same time and for 416 MILK AND ITS ADULTEBATIONS. tlie same period ; the degi*ees should not be read off until the full period of twenty houi'S has elapsed. The thickness of the stratum of cream formed on genuine milk is, like the specific gi-avity, subject to considerable variation : in two extreme cases we have met with, one of the samples showed but tico degrees of cream, and the other eighty. According to Dr. Normandy, the thickness of the stratum of cream on piu'e milk is generally from 8 to 8^ percentages ; M. Dinocourt finds the percentages to range between 9 and 14, while, according to our numerous observations, the avet'oge is 11^ percentages; but it is important to remember that the cream which collects on the creamometer has not in all cases an identical composition, but that the amount of fat contained in it is subject, as has already been shown, to ver^^ considerable variation. It must not be forgotten that London milk, as delivered to houses, consists in general of the milli of different cows mixed together ; and therefore, in order to determine what ought to be the depth of cream formed on good milk, we should take the average amount obtained from such mixed milks. We have said that the quantity of cream varies much in different samples of genuine milk ; and not only is this the case, but it should also be known that the amount of cream yielded by any sample of milk is no certain criterion by which to judge of its quality, as some milks are rich in cream and yet may be watered and so be deficient in casein and sugar. It has been stated that the addition of a small quantity of warm water to milk increases the amount of cream ; the belief in the accuracy of this statement is general, and it is commonly acted upon by milk- men ; nevertheless, the assertion is entirely erroneous — the addition of water to milk does not increase the quantity of cream ; it merely faci- litates and hastens, in a most remarkable manner, its formation and separation, as is shown by what follows : — Six creamometers were filled, one with pure milk, the remainder with the same milk diluted respectively with ten, twenty, thirty, forty, and fifty per cent, of water. Twenty minutes after the addition of the water, the creamometer showed, in the milk containing fifty per cent, of water, six degrees of cream ; in that with forty per cent., five degrees ; with thirty per cent., four degrees ; with twenty per cent., three degrees ; with ten per cent., one degree •, and in the pure milk, half a degree only. At the end of forty minutes, the cream stood thus : six and a half degrees on the milk containing fifty per cent, of water ; six on that with forty per cent. ; five and a half on that with thirty per cent. ; five on that with twenty per cent. ; four and a half on that with ten per cent. ; and four on the pure milk. At the end of twelve hours, the milk with fifty per cent, of water showed five degrees of cream •, that with forty per cent., five degrees and three-quarters ; that with thirty per cent., six and a half degrees ; MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 417 that witli twenty per cent., seven degrees and a quarter ; that with ten per cent., eight degrees ; and the pure milk, nine degrees of cream. It thus appears that the addition of a large quantity of water to milk occasions an almost immediate formation of cream ; of this fact, in some cases, it would be an advantage to dairymen to avail them- selves, but it does not augment the amount. Some persons form their judgment of the quality of milk simply by its density, regarding all samples which do not indicate a certain specific gravity as of inferior quality. We have already seen that this method is very fallacious, and that by it some milks, rich in cream, would be pro- nounced of inferior quality, in consequence of their low density ; while others, deficient in that constituent, would be declared of superior quality on account of their high density. Others rely upon the indications aiForded by the creamometer, which also has its fallacies, but which are not so great when the instrument is used with the necessary precautions, as those relating to the specific gravity of milk. The creamometer has regard to only one component of milk, namely, the fatty matter. The following facts vrill show how misleading is the creamometer in some cases. We have met with several samples of genuine milk, which gave only three or four percentages of cream, but which yet possessed a specific gravity of 1030 •, judged by the creamometer test alone, such milks would be pronounced by all to be verj^ poor, and by some even to be adulterated. Now this conclusion would be to a very great extent erroneous ; for such milks, although certainty deficient in butter, have the full proportion of the remaining constituents, namely, the cheese and the sugar. A^ain, we constantly meet with samples of \m\k giving six, eight, or more percentages of cream, and which nevertheless, as shown by the specitic gra\dty of the skim milk, are unquestionably adulterated with large quantities of water. The observer who relied upon the indications of the creamometer would have regarded these last samples as of average quality. The enquirer, therefore, should not rely solely upon either the specific gravity or the creamometer tests, but in all cases employ both, the one acting as a corrective of the fallacies of the other, or he may determine the amount of solids not fat, basing upon it his calculation for water. For all practical purposes, the above methods of examination are sufficient. Should it be desired to institute a quantitative analysis, we may then adopt the processes already given under the head of the analysis of milk. Donne's lactoscope. — Some years since an instrument, teimed a lacto- scope, was invented by M. Donne, of Paris, for determining the richness of milk by estimating the relative opacity of thin stratums of milk, and which opacity is mainly dependent upon the number of fat globules therein contained. An instrument similar in principle but differing considerably in its details, the light of a candle being employed instead of daylight, has 418 MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. been devised "by Vogel. Both instruments are no doubt capable of fur- nishing approximate results as regards the amounts of fatty matter present, but their use, ha\'ing so many other ready and certain means of ascertaining the fact of the adulteration of milk at our command, need not be here recommended. THE ADTJLTERATIONS OP MILK. There are few articles of food more liable to adulteration, and this of the grossest description, than milk. The most prevalent and impor- tant adulteration is that with water. Now some few persons who have not reflected closely upon the matter, may be disposed to make light of the adulteration of milk with water, and to speak in rather facetious terms of the cow with the iron tail ; but it is surely no light matter to rob an important article of daily consumption, like milk, of a large portion of its nutritious constituents. But the adulteration w^ith water is not the only adulteration to which milk is liable ; the large addition of water frequently made to it so alters its appearance as to cause it to assume the skj^-blue colour so familiar to us in our schoolboy days, and so reduces its flavour, that it becomes necessary to have recourse to other adulterating ingredients, namely, treacle or sugar ^ to sweeten it ; salt^ to bring out the flavour ; and annattOy about which we shall have much to say hereafter, to colour it. Further, there is no question but that chalky starch, and even cerebral matter, have been and ai^e occasionally, though rarely, employed in the adulteration of milk, although it has not happened to ourselves to meet with these substances. Starch and cerebral matter have been met with at different times by more than one observer. The late Professor Queckett used formerly to exhibit drawings made by himself, from samples of adulterated milk, showing the presence of both starch and cerebral matter. With regard to the use of chalk, a manufacturer of preserved milk recently informed us that it sometimes happened to him to find car- bonate of lime or chalk at the bottom of the dishes or pans on the evaporation of large quantities of London milk. There is also good reason for believing that turmeric as well as annatto are sometimes used to colour milk and cream. Mr. Gay states that milk is sometimes adulterated with decoction of boiled white carrots. Further, it has been stated that gum, dextrin, and emulsion of hemp seed have been employed ; the use of the latter article is but little probable. A practice frequently resorted to, although it is not ordinarily re- garded as an adulteration, should here be mentioned ; a part or even the entire of the cream is removed, and the ski7nmed milk, mixed with some fresh milk, subsequently sold as whole milk. MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 419 Owing to the storage of milk in vessels of lead, copper and zincy it is often contaminated with those metals, especially with the last • named. An ingenious writer, whos3 name we do not at the present moment remember, has considered the subject of the supply of London with milk statistically, and he has arrived at the conclusion that the number of cow^s supplying London is not more than sufficient to provide each person with about a tablespoonful of milk per day. If this statement is correct, some idea may be formed of the extent to which water is made to do duty for milk. Results of the Excijnination of Samples of Milk. The results of the examination of twenty-six samples of London milk, made some time since, were — That tioelve icere genuine, but of these two showed a deficiency of cream. That fourteen were adultei-ated, the adulteration consisting prin- cipally in the addition of luater, the percentages of which ranged from 10 to 50 per cent., or one-half water. The specific gravities of the milks varied from 1015 to 1030, of the serums from 10l6 to 1028, the cream furnished ranged from 2 to 29 percentages, the average being nearly 10 percentages. The results of the analysis of fifteen samples of milk purchased in the metropolis, in 1871, were : — Name. Specific gravity. Gravity of Serum. Case- in. Fat or butter Cream. Milk sugar. Ash. Water Total added, solids. Standard sample 1030 _ 4-48 3-13 8-5 4-77 0-60 none 12-98 1 Aylesbury Dairy ) Compy. (lim.) . j 1032 1029-5 4-14 3-50 10-0 4-95 0-74 - 13-36 2 Express Country ) Dairy Compy. J 1030 1028 3-41 3-10 8-5 5-20 0-69 - 12-40 3 Sainsbury . 1032 1030 4-25 3-04 6-0 5-41 0-75 — 13-45 4 Milk store . 1029 — 3-34 2-10 4-5 2-35 0-56 33 8-35 5 „ . . 1028 — 4-20 2-30 5-0 2-.90 0-80 25 10-20 6 1029 — 1-60 3-30 11-0 3-69 0-43 30 9-02 7 1028-5 — 4-30 3-50 10-0 2-45 0-65 21 10-90 8 ,',' ! 1028 1027-1 3-93 2-76 7-5 3-49 0-72 13 10-90 9 „ . , 1226 — 3-50 2-00 4-0 3-90 0-50 16 9-90 10 1225 — 3-20 2-00 Curdled 2-80 0-60 30 8-60 11 » . . 1025 1022 2-06 2-11 4-50 4-09 0-60 28 8-86 12 ' . . 1023-2 1020-8 2-12 2-33 6-25 3-99 0-56 29 9-00 13 . . 1022 1020-1 3-19 2-00 4-5 2-74 0-57 31 8-50 14 „ . . 1019-4 — 3-00 2-00 4-0 2-50 0-40 37 7-90 15 Shop in Clapham 1012-6 1011-6 1-15 1-05 2-50 2-26 0-30 61 4-76 Samples 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, and 14 were likewise tested for cane sugar, Nos. 9 and 10 were free from it, while in 4, 5, 6, 7, and 14, the quan- EE 2 420 MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. titles found were respectively 1*35, 0*70, 1*68, 1*35, 0*85. These results show that the adulteration of London milk with sugar or treacle is not uncommonly practised. THE ADULTERATIONS OP CREAM. As was the case with milk, so with cream. One of its principal adulterations is with water, or rather we should say with skim-milk. Of course this adulteration is very easily practised, the milkman having nothing further to do than to remove, together with the cream itself, a portion of the underlying skim-milk. Another adulteration is with casein. Supposing the milk to have turned somewhat sour, a portion of the curd from the fat contained in it would readily rise to the surface and be skimmed off with the cream, or the curd itself may be purposely introduced. Other adulterations which are stated to be practised are with sugar, gurtiy gum tragacanth, starch, soda, and carbonate of magnesia, but of these adulterations we do not ourselves possess any independent know- ledge. THE DETECTION -OE THE ADULTERATIONS OF MILK. The articles employed in the adulteration of milk and cream, the methods for the discovery of which we have now to describe, are water, sugar, including treacle ; salt, annatto, tuj'meiic, gum tragacanth, starch, cerebral matter, chalk, soda, and carbonate of magnesia. Certain alleged adulterations of milk, either not likely to be prac- tised, or but rarely resorted to, it is not necessary to notice. There are two general methods by which the fact of the adulteration of milk may be determined ; the one indirect, as by a quantitative ana- lysis of the milk for its more important constituents, and by the de- ficiency of one or more of which the existence of adulteration may be inferred ; the other direct, as by detection, either through chemistry or the microscope, of the adulterating substance or substances. In some cases these two methods may be combined. The methods by which the normal constituents of milk may be de- termined quantitatively have already been described. On the detection of water. — Milk being much heavier than water, when that liquid is added to it the specific gravity of the mixed article is less than that of genuine milk, and the diminution, within certain limits, is proportionate to the quantity of water added. In the knowledge of these facts, we are furnished with methods whereby the adulteration of milk with water may be determined quanti- tatively. This may be done by taking the specific gravity of either the entire milk, skimmed milk, or serum. MILK AND ITS ADULTEBATIONS. 421 But since the specific gravity of even genuine milk is subject to wide ranges, owing mainly to the variable quantities of fatty matter present, it is in all cases better to take the specific gravity of either the ski7n milk or the set^um. A table has already been given (p. 401) of the specific gravity of skim milk, which was found to range from 1034"6 to 1038*6, the aver- age being 1036-3. In the following table the specific gravity of skim milk is given, containing exactly 9*4 per cent, of solids not fat, this being the amount below which genuine milk of even the poorest quality rarely if ever falls ; and also the gravities of the same milk adulterated with various proportions of water. Tables showing the Adulteration of Milk with Water , based upon the Gravity of the Skim Milk. TABLE I. Per cent, of Water. Specific Gravity. Difference. Total Solids. 1030-48 9-40 5 1028-84 1-64 8-93 10 1027-36 1-48 8-46 15 1025-72 1-64 7-99 20 1024-12 1-50 7-52 25 1022-56 1-56 7-05 30 1021-04 1-52 6-58 35 1019-52 1-52 6-11 40 101804 1-48 5-64 45 1016-40 1-64 5-17 50 1014-48 1-92 4-70 55 1013-08 1-60 4-23 60 1011-68 1-40* S-76 5% of water =0-47 solids not fat= 0-0235 gram, if 5 cc. be taken. 5% of water =1-524 specific gravity =0*038 gram, if 25 cc. be taken. The original skim milk had a specific gravity of 1038-2, and yielded 11*46 per cent of solids not fat, and in order to bring it to the standard of 9-4 it had to be diluted with distilled water in the ratio of 812 to 188, this being equivalent to an adulteration of no less than 18-8 per cent, of water. If the original skim milk had been taken for the detenuination of the specific gravity of the mixtures of milk and water, the following figures would have been obtained : — 422 MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. TABLE ir. Per cent, of Water. Specific Gravity.. Total SoHds. 1038-20 11-46 6 1036-29 10-89 10 1034-38 10-31 15 1032-47 9-74 . 20 1030-56 9-17 25 1028-65 8-59 30 1026-74 8-02 35 1024-83 7-45 40 1022-92 6-88 45 1021-01 6-30 50 1019-10 5-73 55 1017-19 5-16 60 1015-28 4-59 It will thus be seen that the specific grayity 1030-48 and the solids of 9*4 are as a rule far too low, and that skim milks of really good quality and such as are fiu-nished by good and healthy cows are almost invariably of higher gravity and yield a much larger per- centage of solid matter : so that the gravity of 1030-48 and the solids of 9*4 are far too favourable to the vendors of milk, since they allow, in some cases, of its adulteration with over 20 per cent, of water, which, adopting the standards above referred to, would not be noticed. It is only a cow in its poorest condition which furnishes milk of such a low quality, and the adoption of the standard of 9 "4 per cent, of solids not fat would act as a premium upon adulteration, and would lead eventually to the serious impoverishment of the milk as sold to the public throughout the country. A higher standard ought, therefore, to be adopted, and not one based upon an exceptionally impoverished milk. The milk as ordinarily sold is a mixture of the milks of several cows, and such milk never yields so small a proportion of solids not fat as 9-4. We would recommend, therefore, that a standard of 10*4 be adopted, which would afford the public greater protection, but would still allow of the addition of considerable quan- tities of water to really rich milks. Results equally accurate may be obtained by taking the specific gravity of the sei-um of milk. The casein and butter are easily re- moved by the addition of a few drops of acetic acid, a quantity indeed so small as scarcely to afiect the gravity of the serum, or, still more unobjectionably, by placing in the milk a small strip of the inner mem- brane of the stomach of the calf or pig. In relying upon the specific gravity test and even upon the total solids in determining whether water has been added or not, the chief fallacy to which the observer is subject is that occasioned by the MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 423 addition of saccharine matter, which would cause the gravity to be higher and the amount of solids greater. But in the case of whole milk there are other sources of fallacy to which reference to some extent has abeady been made, and against which it is necessary to guard. Thus a milk may possess the proper specific gi'a\dty, and yet be de- ficient of cream, which may have been abstracted ; again, it may be several degrees lighter than ordinary, and yet may be perfectly genuine, this arising from the presence of an unusual quantity of fatty matter. In order to guard against these fallacies, therefore, it is akvays ne- cessary not only to take the xc eight of the skim milk, hut also to measure the quantity of creain or fat, or to weigh the fat. The instruments by which the weight of milk is taken and the cream measured have already been described. These instrimients are many of them incorrect, and it would be a great protection to the public if they were all stamped in the same way as weights are, as a guarantee of their accuracy. Another method by which the quantity of water may be indirectly estimated is by determining quantitatively, in the manner already described, the amount of solids not fat present. Taking 9*4 as the amount of total solids not fat, below which in genuine milk of the poorest quality they never fall, the following table gives the proportion between the amount of added water and the solids not fat in a special case : — Solids not fat. Added water. 9-40 None. 8-46 10% 7-52 20 6-58 30 6-64 40 4-70 50 3-76 60 2-82 70 1-88 ...... 80 0-94 90 The formula for the above calculations is 9*4 : 100 = a (amount of solids not fat) \ x (amount of genuine milk in the sample). If treacle be purposely added in the right quantities, then indeed it would be veiy difiicult to establish the fact of the adulteration of milk with water ; and if cane sugar were employed, the object could only be accomplished by the transformation of the sugar into glucose, and its estimation by the copper test in that form. The polariscope, as also the solubility of laevulose in alcohol, would in some cases afford valuable information. When any considerable addition of water has been made to milk, or when milk is either poor in quality or has been deprived of a portion of its cream, these facts are conclusively established by the concurrent use of the old and very simple instruments, the hydro- 424 MILK AND ITS ADFLTERATIONS. meter and creamometer, the use of whicli it lias been too much the fashion of late to decry. By means of these instrimients, the former applied to the skim milk, results accumte enough for all practical purposes may be rapidly obtained, and with the expenditure of ex- ceedingly little time and trouble, whereas the quantitative estimation of the fat and total solids is comparatively tedious and difficult, and involves the possibility of error in the drying of the milk and the several weighings required. Horsletfs method. — Mr. Horsley judges mainly of the quality of milk by the amoimt of fat therein contained, and he has devised a very simple and ingenious method of determining the same. He takes 250 grains of milk, equal to about an ordinary tablespoonful, pours it into a glass tube, similar in size and form to a creamometer, but with the addition of two lines, one being the measure of the 250 grains of milk, and the other that of the 250 grains of ether subse- quently added. To the milk an equal bulk of methylated ether of specific gravity 0'730 is added, and the mixture is briskly shaken for four or five minutes, whereby the oil globules are broken up and dis- solved by the ether. A similar quantity of methylated spirit of about 0'838 specific gravity is next added, and the mixture again shaken for at least five minutes. The solvent power of the ether for the fat is thus destroyed, the fat collects on the surface as pure butter, and its amount is estimated by measm'ement, one line of Mr. Horsley's instrument being equal to 4'1 5 grains of butter. Milk of good quality, he considers, should yield 10 per cent, of cream, a quantity which would usually contain about 3'32 per cent, of butter fat. If by this proceeding Mr. Horsley ipund the fat reach the above quantity, he would as a rule be satisfied and would pronounce the milk to be genuine and of good quality ; but this conclusion, like those which he condemns, based upon the results obtained by the use of hydrometers and creamometers, would sometimes prove to be fallacious, since it is a very frequent thing to meet with milks yielding 10 per cent, of cream which have yet been adulterated with large quantities of water, nay, which may consist of nearly one-half water. At the same time that the fat is separated and collects on the sur- face, the casein is precipitated, the sugar and salts of the milk being held in solution in the mixture of ether and alcohol. The casein in a state of comparative purity may be readily separated by filtration, and its amount estimated after drying. The sugar and salts may likewise be estimated by the evaporation of the mixed ether and alcohol. But then it may be said that the ordinary chemical method of drying a portion of the milk, extracting first with ether and then with dilute alcohol, and lastly incinerating, is not more troublesome or difficult, and gives results of extreme acciu'acy. Mr. Horsley directs that the milk should be shaken well for about ten minutes. This seems simple enough, but anybody who adopts this proceeding will find that his arms will ache considerably at the end of 1 MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 425 that time, and it must be remembered that the whole success of the method depends upon the completeness of the agitation. We find that while this method gives tolerably accurate results for ordinary milks, it is not well suited for the examination of creams, it indicating a far less amount of fat than is ordinarily present. On the detection of sugar. — The sugar used is usually brown sugar or treacle ; the presence of these may be determined as follows : — The casein and butter are to be precipitated by means of acetic acid, and the serum evaporated, a very gentle heat only being used, and the colour of the residue particularly noticed; if it is darker than ordi- nar}^ the presence of sugar may be suspected. The residue may then be dissolved in distilled water. In one portion the sugar of milk is estimated in the usual manner by means of the copper test ; the second is boiled with a little dilute sulphuric acid, as described under the head of ^ Sugar,' in order to convert the cane and milk into grape sugar. This is then in its turn estimated by the copper test, the difference between the two estimations indicating the amount of cane sugar present. But it must be remembered that milk sugar reduces a much larger proportion of the copper test than glucose and galactose, the proportion being as 134 is to 100. 100 parts of grape sugar correspond to 95 parts of cane sugar and to 134 parts of milk sugar. If treacle be used, there will be found a large excess of both grape and cane sugar. On the detection of starch. — For the detection of starch in milk and cream, the microscope furnishes the readiest and most certain means. A little of the milk, spread out in a very thin stratum, should be examined under the microscope, the examination being aided by the use of tincture of iodine. Of course we must not expect to find unaltered starch corpuscles in milk, the starch being added in the form of a decoction. For the quantitative determination of the starch, which wdll not often be required, we may proceed as follows : — 20 cc. of the milk must first be evaporated to dryness on a water- bath. The milk sugar must then be removed by digestion with weak alcohol ; the residue dried, and from it the fat must next be separated by means of ether, and the remainder is to be boiled for several hours with a few drops of sulphuric acid in order to convert the starch into grape sugar, in the manner already described for the conversion of cane sugar into glucose. 90 parts of starch yield 100 parts of grape sugar. On the detection of gum arabic. — The serum of milk obtained by precipitation of the curd with a little acetic acid is to be treated with a solution of acetate of lead ; the precipitate is collected on a filter, washed, suspended in water, and the lead removed by means of sul- phuretted hydrogen. The sulphide of lead is separated by filtration, the filtrate evaporated, and the residue, after drying and weighing, gives the quantity of gum. On the detection of gum tragacanth. — Gum tragacanth is really a 426 MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. mixture of gum and starch, and each, of these substances would have to be separately estimated by the methods already described. For the detection of the tragacanth we are recommended to boil the milk, and leave it at rest for some hours, when a gelatinous trans- lucent deposit will be formed, which, being washed with a small quantity of water and tested with a few drops of solution of iodine, produces a blue colour, because gum tragacanth contains starch. The starch of gimi tragacanth is plentiful and is in the form of starch corpuscles ; these are rather small, but vary much in size ; many are irregular, some are rounded, others are somewhat polygonal, while a few are muller-shaped ; in the more perfect grains a rounded hilum is dis- tinctly visible. On the detection of cei^ehral matter. — The presence of cerebral matter in milk may be determined with certainty by means of the microscope, portions of the nerve tubules being readily discovered with that instrument, as shown in the engraving (tig. 132). Fig. 132. Milk Adulterated with Sheep's Bi^ains. On the detection of chalk. — If the milk be diluted with water and set aside for some hours, part of the chalk, if present, will have sub- sided as a precipitate, when it may be sufficiently identified by its MILK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 427 appearance and its effervescence with, acids. Or a portion of the milk may be evaporated to dryness, the residue incinerated, and the chalk estimated from it in the manner pointed out in the articles on ' Tea ' and ' Water.' On the detection of carbonate of magnesia. — This has been said to occur only in cream ; it would be detected by the insolubility of the ash in water, its effervescence on the addition of an acid, and lastly by the crystalline precipitate which is thrown down from its solution in hydrochloric acid on the addition of a solution containing ammonia, chloride of ammonium, and phosphate of soda. On the detection of salt. — The saline taste of the ash will show the presence of salt if that substance has been employed. This must be determined from the ash by the process described under * Water.' On the detection of lead, copper and zinc. — Since milk is not un- frequently contaminated with these metals, the analyst may be called upon to determine whether they are present, and especially zinc, or not. The methods for the detection and estimation of the two former of these metals will be foimd given under the heads of ^ Water ' and ' Bread.' The presence of zinc may be detected in the solution of the ash of the milk in hydrochloric acid by rendering it alkaline with caustic potash, filtering, and adding a few drops of a solution of sulphuretted hydrogen to the filtrate. A white precipitate, consisting of sulphide of zinc, mil prove the presence of that metal, and from the weight of the precipitate its amount may be determined. See ^ Vinegar.' On the detection of annatto. — The presence of annatto is rendered probable when the milk, evaporated down to a small quantity, presents a reddish or orange-red colour ; if this colour is materially altered on the addition of an alkali or an acid to the milk, being rendered pur- plish by the one and of a brighter red by the other, its presence is certain. Lastly, by means of alcohol, the colouring matter may be dissolved out of the soft residue of the evaporated milk, and the effects of the reagents mentioned tried upon the alcoholic extract. On the detection of turmeric. — If turmeric has been used in sub- stance to colour milk, it would be possible to detect the turmeric cells. However, it is best to proceed by the method indicated for the discovery of annatto. The chief difference is that the turmeric is rendered deep brown by alkalies. It is of course rarely, if ever, necessary to examine milk for more than two or three of the articles above enumerated. In general it is sufficient to determine whether water, the ordinary adulteration of milk, has been added or not. THE DETECTIOlyr OP THE ADXJLTERATIONS OE CREAM. Sufficient has already been said under the heads of the anah-sis of milk and the detection of its adulterations to enable the analyst to detect and estimate all the known adulterations of cream. 428 BUTTER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. CHAPTEK XIX. BUTTER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Anj" foreign substance, as the fat of beef, mutton, or pork ; flour, starch, or any mineral matter other than salt, which should not exceed 4 per cent, in fresh, and 8 per cent, in salt butter ; curd, which should not exceed 4 per cent. ; and water, which should not be more than 12 per cent. As the method of making butter may not be known to many of the readers of this report, we will proceed, before entering upon the con- sideration of its adulterations, to give a very brief outline of the manner in which butter is usually prepared. Butter is made for the most part from cream ; the cream is collected from time to time, and placed in a covered jar, until sufficient has been obtained, when, having become sour by keeping, it is submitted to the process of chm^ning. Butter is also prepared in small quantities from sweet cream, and this kind is esteemed a great delicacy. Very excellent butter is like- wise sometimes made from fidl or entire milk ; the disadvantages of this method are — the large quantity of fluid to be acted on by the churn, which renders it necessary that steam or some other powerful mechanical means should be had recourse to, and the length of time which elapses before the butter forms. As soon as the butter has formed, it is removed from the churn, and well washed in w^ater, it being kneaded at the same time until as much as possible of the adherent and incorporated whey is removed ; this is known by the water ceasing to become turbid and milky. If intended for salt butter, the salt should be added as soon as possible after churning and washing, as, left for any length of time, the butter is apt to become rancid. Great attention should be paid to the quality of the salt used ; the best descriptions are rock salt and that prepared from salt springs. Sea salt, generally, is not so good, on account of the presence of sulphate of magnesia, which renders it somewhat bitter, as well as of chloride of calcium, which has a strong affinity for water, even attracting it from the atmosphere. It would be out of place in this report to enter into the practical minutiae of butter-making, such as tbe temperature at whicb the cream BUTTER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 429 or milk should be cliurned, the best kinds of cburn, tbe metbods of churning, &c., all points of the greatest importance for the agricultu- ralist and the dairyman. COMPOSITION OF BUTTEK. Butter consists of the glyceiides of certain /a^^i/ acids, principally of stearic y palmitic, and oleic acids, with smaller quantities of butyric, capric, caproic, and caprylic acids ; these latter are all distinguished from the former acids by their volatility. According to the analysis of Bromeis, they amount to only 2 per cent., they being embraced by that chemist in the term ' butyroleic acid.' But Messrs. Angell and Hehner have proved, as will be shoT^oi hereafter, that these volatile acids are present in much larger quantities, amounting on an average to 9'3 per cent. The true melting point of butter, taken in the manner described hereafter, we found to range from 32*8 to 34*9, the mean of all the observations made being 33*7° 0. The oily or buttery part exists in milk in the form of innumerable very distinct globules, of various sizes. The effect produced by churning is to break down these globules, which then run together, and thus form butter. The operation of the chm-n is therefore chiefly, if not entirely, mechanical. THE ANALYSIS OF BUTTER. The analysis of butter is very nearly the same as that of milk, since it contains for the most part the like constituents, although in very different proportions. It is, therefore, not necessary to enter into any lengthy details on the subject. The water is to be estimated by the loss on evaporation, the fat by extraction with ether ; the curd and salt are left on the removal of the fat ; the quantity of the former may be estimated by incineration, and the mineral matter remaining may be calculated as salt, of which it usually almost entirely consists. Butter, when fresh, is of a yellowish colour, having a peculiar and characteristic sweet odour, but when exposed for a long time to the air it loses gradually its colour, becomes white, and acquires a tallowy odour, which was at one time considered to be characteristic of beef, mutton, and other analogous fats ; and samples of perfectly genuine butter, when thus changed in colour and odour, have unquestionably in many cases been declared to be adulterated. In fact, by many analysts the tallowy smell was considered to afford a conclusive proof of the adulteration of any butter with some foreign animal fat. THE OCCURRENCE OF CRYSTALS IN BUTTER. It is very generally believed that the occurrence of needle-like crystals, often arranged in the form of spherules or stellsD, is a cer- 430 BUTTER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. tain proof of the adulteration of "butter and of the presence of lard or some other foreign animal fat. This belief, however, is entirely erroneous ; and although no crystals are found in freshly-made butter, yet they appear in it if kept for any length of time, and they are especially abimdant in all butters which have been fused and allowed again to solidify. On the surface of all such butters a shiny scum or pellicle may be seen, composed in large part of such crystals, which are likewise to be found abundantly diffused throughout the whole mass of the butter. Again, they are frequently met with in great numbers in cream. They polarise light. Messrs. Angell and Hehner make the following remarks in reference to crystals in butter : — If a small quantity of a fat containing cr^^stals be placed upon a slide, a drop of castor or olive oil be added, and the whole then pressed out by means of a thin ^lass cover, the depolarisation of light is much en- hanced. A revoMng black cross, not unlike that of starch grains, is seen in great perfection. These crosses are most clearly defined in the crystals obtained from butter. Dr. Campbell Brown, in his essay on the ^ Adulteration of Butter,' remarks : — ' A microscopic examination with polarised light is the most reliable means of distinguishing pure butter from that which contains an admixture of less easily digestible and palatable fats.' But this statement, as we have seen, is erroneous. THE ADFLTERATIONS OF BUTTER. Adulteration with wat&r. — One of the most frequent practices had recourse to in the case of butter is to incorporate with it large quan- tities of icater ; the incorporation is effected in the following manner : the butter is brought to the melting point, water and mli are then stirred in until the mixture becomes cold. In reference to the adulteration of butter with water and salt. Pro- fessor Calvert, in his evidence before the Parliamentary Committee on Adulteration in 1855, made these remarks : — ^ The quantity of water and salt that such an article as butter ought to contain is 2|- per cent, of salt, and 10 per cent, of water. In the butter supplied to these Unions the quantity of salt varied from 2 up to 14 per cent., and the water from 10 to 15 per cent.' A butter factor wrote to us some time since, stating that 50 per cent, of water may be incorporated with butter in this way ; but when you buy, say half a pound of butter, a considerable part of the water of adulteration escapes, and if you put it in paper more will be lost. Adulteration with starch, — Another adulteration to which butter is occasionally subject, especially the inferior kind known as Bosh, con- sists in the addition of starch, usually potato jlour. This adulteration is practised only at particular times, and is dependent upon the whole- sale price of butter. Adulteration with curd. — Again, butter has been known to be adul- I BUTTER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 431 • terated sometimes with curd. This adulteration is particularly men- tioned by Sir John Gordon, mayor of Cork, in his evidence before the Parliamentary (Committee above referred to. Adulteration with animal fat. — Lastly, animal fats are not un- frequently employed, as the fat of beef, mutton, veal, lard, &c. Beef fat is sometimes prepared on a large scale and made up in imitation of butter, being known and sold under the name of ^Butterine.' This article is mainly the olein of the fat, with only a small propor- tion of the stearin. When freshly prepared it is sweet and palatable, and being sold at a much lower price than butter itself, it is in some cases a useful substitute ; but it is to be feared that such a preparation would be used in some cases for the adidteration of butter. Results of the Examination of Samples. The examination of forty-eight different butters, both salt and fresh, made some years since, and published in the Report of the Analytical Sanitary Commission of the * Lancet ' on the adulteration of butter, furnished the following results : — All the salt butters examined contained variable and usually very large quantities of water^ the amount ranging, with one exception, from 8-48 to 28*60 per cent. The /res/i hutters likewise contained variable and often considerable quantities of icater^ but in most cases very much less than the salt butters, the quantities ranging from 4* 18 to 15-43 per cent. The quantity of salt contained in the salt hutters varied from 1*53 to 8*24 per cent., shov^ing that no fixed rule is acted upon in salting butter. In th.Q fresh huttei^s the salt varied from 0*30 to 2*91 percent. The percentages of butter fat contained in the samples ranged from 67*72 to 96*93 ; that is, some of the samples contained 20, 30, and in one case even nearly 35 per cent, of water and salt. Now the presence of water in butter, in excess and when purposely introduced, assuredly constitutes an adulteration as much as does the addition of starch or animal fats. To many of the samples of salt butter examined, a quantity of salt over and above the amount necessary to ensm'e the preservation of the butter had no doubt been purposely added to increase the weight and bulk ; in fact, for the sake of adidteration. It is equally certain that much of the water met with in many of the samples had been added for the same purpose. The quantity of water present in some inferior descriptions of butter, as especially Bosh and the worst kinds of ^ Hollands,' is really siu^prising, amounting in some cases to more than a third of the article. The samples of which the analyses are given in the following table were recently analysed for the purpose of determining the percentage composition of butters as ordinarily met with, and very many of which 432 BUTTER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. it was known beforehand, from the sources from which they were obtained, wig;re perfectly genuine. It must not, therefore, be conckided that these analyses represent the condition of the butters sold in London ahd'bt^er populous cities. With three exceptions they were all fresh buttefs, which are much less liable to adulteration than salt 'bjitters :—-" Table of Analyses of Butter. Hassall. Water . Fresh Isle of Wight Butters. 16-80* 11-68 13-62* 13-68* 16-92* 11-39 Fat . . . 77-64 84-97 83-97 82-30 80-07 85-29 Curd . 1-89 1-18 1-54 2-42 0-52 1-75 Salt 3-67 2-17 0-87 1-60 2-49 1-57 Water . Fat . . . Curd . Salt Angell and Hehner. Isle of Wight. Isle of Wight. Isle of Wight. Sussex. Jersey. Nor- mandy. 9-709 84-740 3-462 2-085 10-063 86-466 2-799 0-672 12-984* 83-871 2-721 0-424 11-168 83-683 3-143 2-006 6-463 • 89-480 2-459 1-598 9-305* 84-643 5-137 2-915 Water Fat . Curd . . Salt . AngeU and Hehner. Isle of Wight. Isle of Wight. Guild- ford. Win- chester. chaster ^°^^<^^- London. 9-193 84-680 2-917 3-210 7-683 88-449 1-908 1-960 8-580 85-480 2-789 3-151 6-370 90-197 1-611 1-822 8-615 87-223 2-054 2-108 23-981* 42-358* 67-580 47-119 6-880 7-834 1-559 2-689 Water Fat . Curd. Salt Salt Butters. Hassall. Angell and Hehner. Jersey. Ventnor. 6-50 85-38 2-84 6-28 10-445* 78-491 2-536 8-328 3-831*1 86-280 3-289 6-600 *i This butter had nearly the normal fusing point of genuine butter, but it furnished 92-87 per ceut. of fatty ^cids, equivalent to 67 per cent, of foreiga fat. BUTTER AND ITS ADULTER ATIONS. 433 Butterine.*^ « • 1 Water ■ Fat 92-776^ _ -.^v.rr Nitrogenous matter . . . 0-535 | XJKIV l-,r?>i - Salt 0-831 V A^ If tlie reader will now refer to the definition of the adiiltera "butter given which forms the first paragraph of this article, he will be enabled to determine for himself which of the samples were adulterated and in what manner. For greater convenience, however, we have distinguished all the adulterated butters by an asterisk. Two samples of butter from Portsmouth, recently submitted to us for analysis, and which were the subject of a successful prosecution, were found to have the following melting points, 37*7° and 37*5° 0. These fusing points were sufficient to establish the fact of the adulteration of these butters with a considerable proportion of foreign fatty matter, but the second butter was also tested by Angell and Hehner's method, and was found to yield 89 '9 per cent, of fatty acids, equivalent to 38 per cent, of adulteration. There is a practice rather extensively adopted of making a so-called fresh from salt butter ; although this is not an adulteration, it is yet a deception. The process by which the transformation is effected is rather ingenious and somewhat amusing. Salt butter of very inferior quality is repeatedly washed with water in order to free it from the salt. This being accomplished, the next process is to wash it frequently with milk, and then to add a small quantity of sugar. Perceiving, then, to what an extent salt butter is adulterated, with both water and excess of salt, we very much doubt whether any saving is effected by the use of this description of butter ; although nominally cheaper, it is questionable whether it be not really dearer in the end. THE DETECTION OF THE ADULTERATIONS OP BUTTER. The chief adulterations of butter are with water, starch, excess of salt, and animal fats. On the estimation of ivater. — After being churned, butter is kneaded in water in order to get rid of the whey with which* it is incorporated ; the adoption of this process accounts for the presence of a small quan- tity of water in butter only. There are two methods by which the quantity of water in butter The reason of its having the same melting point as butter arises from the fact that the foreign fat consisted chiefly of olein. *i This butter had a melting point of 29-5° C, and furnished nearly 95-5 per cent, of fatty acids, proving that it consisted almost entirely of foreign fat, princi- pally olein,' as shown by the fusing point. E P 434 BUTTER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. may "be determined ; one simple and popular, the other more scientific and exact. First method. — A fair sample of the butter should he taken from the centre of the piece or lump, as near the surface part of the water might have escaped. It is to be melted, and a bottle filled with it. This is to be placed, for half an hour or so, near the fire ; the water and salt will become separated from the butter, and sink on account of their greater weight or specific gravity. Owing to the water being mixed with a little whey, it usually presents a white and milky appear- ance, very distinct from that of the butter itself, which tioats upon it, and which is more or less yellow ; the quantity of water is then roughly estimated by noticing the height it reaches up the bottle. In some cases it will be found that the water constitutes a foui-th and even a third of the article. Second method. — 3 or 4 grammes of the butter, taken from near the centre of the piece, must be placed in a small glass or porcelain dish or capsule, over a water-bath, until they cease to lose weight ; the butter and the capsule must then be weighed, and the weight of the capsule deducted ; the deficiency on the original quantity taken repre- sents the amount of water contained in the butter. It is possible that in some cases the question might arise as to whether the fluid separated on melting butter, consists of water or whey, or of both mixed ; this point may be determined approximately by taking the specific gravity, or, more precisely, by estimating the amoimt of sugar of milk present in the liquid. This is effected by the pro- cesses described in the articles on ' Sugar ' and ^ Milk.' One thousand parts of whey usually contain about fifty parts of sugar of milk. On the detection and estimation of starch. — Starch in butter may be readily detected and its amount estimated. For its detection, nothing more "is necessary than to examine a minute portion of the butter spread out in the thinnest possible layer, and covered with a plate of thin glass, with a half or quarter-inch object glass, tincture of iodine being in some cases employed at the same time. The starch will be recognised either by the form of the granules or by the action of iodine. To estimate its quantity, the following proceeding may be adopted : — A weighed quantity of butter is taken, dried, and the fat removed by means of ether, and the starch in the residue is converted into glucose in the manner described under the head of ^ Sugar.' On the estimation of salt. — A weighed portion of the butter must be incinerated, and the salt determined by an estimation of the chlorine by means of nitrate of silver. In general the whole of the ash of salt butter may be counted as salt. Estimation of the curd. — A weighed quantity of the butter is dried on the water-bath and the fat removed by means of ether, the residue consisting, for. the most part, of casein and salt. It is incinerated, when the loss of weight will represent the amount of casein. If starch be present at the same time, it will remain with and be BUTTER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 435 calculated as casein. It should therefore be estimated by conversion into o'lucose in another portion of the butter, and the amount sub- tracted from the amount of combustible substances found in the first experiment. THE DETECTION AJ^B ESTIMATIOI^ OP POREIGI?^ PATS. Nearly the whole of the following matter, having reference to the separation of the stearin and palmitin from the olein and the deter- mination of the fusing points of fats, was first published in * Food, Water, and iVir,' for November 1874. The difiicuities attending the detection of animal fats in butter are very great, and have hitherto been deemed by many to be insuperable ; indeed, this latter opinion has been distinctly and recently advanced by Professor Voelcker and Mr. Wanklyn in their evidence before the Parliamentary Committee on Adulteration, which has so lately had the subject of the adulteration of food under investigation. Thus Professor Voelcker, in reply to the question, ' Is it very difiicult to distinguish between butter fat and other sorts of fat ? ' remarked, ^ I do not know of any very decided test whereby you can distinguish the olein and other simple fatty substances of butter from other fats, therefore I am somewhat astonished that analytical chemists can give so positive a statement with regard to the adulteration of butter fats.' While Mr. Wanldyn, in reply to the question, ^ How is it that prosecutions of butter have failed under this Act, do you imagine ? ' said, ' They have failed because there is no method for ascertaining the presence of foreign fat in butter ; ' and when asked if he had heard the evidence given by Dr. Hassall, he said he had, and when the chairman remarked, he (Dr. Hassall) says that there is no difficulty, Mr. Wanklyn replied, ^ I believe that he is labouring under a mistake; ' and again, when the chairman observed, ^ Then you think that Dr. Voelcker is right and Dr. Hassall is wrong ? ' he said, ^ I have no doubt whatever upon this subject.' And lastly, in answer to further questions, Mr. Wanklyn again emphatically stated that ^ there are no trustworthy chemical tests for foreign fats in butter.' When the chair- man observed, * You have no doubt about it ? ' he answered, ^ I have no doubt whatever about it, and I would undertake to prepare for Dr. Hassall samples of foreign fats that he would mistake for butter, or to give him a set of samples of butter and other fats, and he would certainly not distinguish them.' The evidence which the author gave on this subject followed that of Professor Voelcker, and preceded that of Mr. Wanklyn, and was as follows : — ' A statement was made by Dr. Voelcker in his evidence given before this Committee a few days since, that there were no tests whereby the admixture of other fats with the fat of butter could be detected and determined ; to that statement I demur. I may say more FF 2 436 BUTTER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. than tliat, there are tests whereby the adulteration of butter with animal and vegetable fats may be accurately determined, and I beg now to hand in a short statement of a method of analysis of butter, not my own method, but that of an assistant and pupil of mine, Mr. Otto Hehner, and Mr. A. Angell.' When it is remembered that the various animal and vegetable fats, such as beef and mutton fat, resemble butter in being composed mainly of stearin, palmitin, and olein in variable proportions, it cannot be wondered at that the difficulty of determining the presence in butter of these and other analogous fats has been deemed to be almost insu- perable. Putting aside for the moment the fact of the presence in butter of the volatile fatty acids, the only diiference which remains between butter and most other animal and vegetable fats consists in the proportions, which vary in the case of each fat, of the glycerides of the several fixed fatty acids before-named. Now it might be thought by some, at first sight, to be an easy matter to determine the relative proportions contained in difierent fats of stearin, palmitin, and olein, and in this way to arrive at a satis- factory conclusion as to the presence of foreign fats in butter, but in reality the task is one of extreme difficulty, in fact, one which we have found to be, in the attempts which we have hitherto made, insur- mountable. Sepai'ation of stearin and palmitin from olein. — We first attempted to separate the stearin and palmitin of butter from the olein by deposition from an ethereal solution. One gramme of butter, dissolved in 6 grammes of hot ether, fur- nished no deposit when cooled in water to 18*3° 0. Mutton caul fat and ether in the same proportions gave a con- siderable deposit. One part of mutton caul fat required 15 parts of hot absolute alcohol for complete solution. A mixture of equal parts of ether and alcohol, used in the propor- tion of 1 to 6, yielded a deposit with both butter and mutton caul fat. One gi'amme of a mixture of 2 parts of butter and 1 part of stearin, dissolved in 6 parts of ether, furnished 0*31 gi'amme of deposit, equal to nearly the original amount of stearin used. One gramme of mutton caul fat, dissolved int he mixture of alcohol and ether, deposited 0*47 gramme of stearin. One gramme of the following fats, dissolved in 3 grammes of ether, furnished the subjoined results ; — Butter None. Ox kidney fat XXOIlf. 0-174 stearin Ox „ 49-25 » »> 51-95 49-30 n If 46-55 If The amount of the first deposit obtained was found to vary with the length of time during which the butter was allowed to remain in the refrigerator, the deposit, as a rule, being greater the longer the period. Another series of experiments was made with a view to determine the proportion of olein present in butter and other fats, and in these alcohol was used as the solvent, in the proportion of 40 grammes of fat to 1,000 cc. of absolute alcohol, the mixture being cooled down, as usual, for about twelve hours in the refrigerator. Butter 1 . 32-10 per cent, olein. „ 2 . . 32-62 „ „ 3 . 36-69 „ » 4 . 34-87 „ „ „ 5 . 38-82 „ „ „ 6 . 33-59 „ „ „ 7 . 36-94 „ Mutton caul fat 25-83 Lamb caul fat 26-15 „ Beef kidney 30-08 „ 438 BUTTER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. The specific gravity of the olein, at 15-5° C, thus obtained from the butters was, in three cases, 0*9148, 0*9126, and 0*9134, whilst the specific gravity of olein from olive oil was 0*9114. The specific gravity of the stearin simultaneously obtained from the butters was 0-9213, 0*9153, and 0*9384. The specific gravity of pure stearin was 0'9268, and that of pure palmitin 0*9117. The specific gravities of the three butters themselves were 0*9256, 0*9236, and 0*9210. Several other experiments were made in which the quantity of alcohol was increased from 1,000 cc. to 1,500 cc, the latter quantity being used on the supposition that the stearin deposited would carry down less of the olein, it being found, on taking the fusing point of the deposits, that they contained a large admixture of olein. These experiments gave the following numbers : — 1. 40*08 per cent, olein . Specific gravity, 0*9219 2. 44-34 „ „ . „ 0-9191 3. 37-85 „ „ . „ 0-9208 Specific gravity of the stearin deposited was 0*9392, 0*9332, and 0*9296 respectively. The specific gravity of three other samples of butter was as follows : —0*9342, 0*9202, 0*9328, while the amount of oleine obtained and its gravity were as given below : — 4. 34-93 per cent, olein . Specific gravity, 0-9176 5. 40-34 „ „ . „ 0-9209 6. 43-77 „ „ . „ 0-9199 Specific onravity of the stearin deposited was 0*9225, 0*9277, and 0-9310. The oleins obtained from the solutions of butters in 1,500 cc. of alcohol were afterwards redissolved in a smaller quantity of alcohol, and the solution again placed for twelve hours in the refrigerator, with the result of obtaining further deposits of stearin, and of course diminished amounts of olein. Thus 100 parts of the olein firs obtained were reduced by the second operation to 97*2 and 84*4 respectively. The olein of mutton caul and of dripping was reduced from 100 parts to 58*9 and 43*6 respectively. The results of the preceding experiments may be thus summed up : — That it is most difficult, if not impossible, to separate completely the stearin and the palmitin from the olein by the methods adopted ; these methods being, for the most part, more definite, the author believes, than any which have been hitherto resorted to. At the same time they serve to show that the proportion of olein in butter is much greater than in most animal fats, these latter containing an excess of stearin and palmitin. Thus, in reality, it is in many cases quite possible by these methods to determine beyond all doubt the fact of the adulteration of butter by the fats in question. BUTTER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 439 Again, the observations above recorded are sufficient to sbow that the specific gravity of the different fats does not furnish sufficient data on which to determine the admixture of butter with other animal fats. Not only is it all but impossible to completely separate the stearin and pahnitin from the olein, but that portion of the two former glycerides which deposits from the solution is invariably admixed with large quantities of olein, so that the weight of these obtained cannot be taken as representing pure stearin or palmitin ; this being proved by taking the melting points of the deposits. On the other hand, the olein retained with equal obstinacy a portion of the more solid fats. Had it been possible by these methods to have estimated accurately the exact quantities of stearin, palmitin, and olein contained in the different fats, we should, no doubt, have arrived at the desired results, and should have been able to have determined the extent of the ad- mixture of most animal fats with butter. DETERMINATION OE THE FUSING POINTS. Failing to arrive at conclusions sufficiently definite by the methods above referred to, we next directed our attention to the fusing point of butter and other fats, from which it appeared to us that valuable data, of a much more reliable character than those usually given, might, by stricter methods of investigation, be arrived at. It has been stated that butter and foreign fats consist mainly of pahnitin, stearin, and olein in variable proportions. Now these have different melting points, the dif- ference between that of stearin and palmitin as compared with olein being very considerable. Thus the melting point of stearin is about 63^ 0., of palmitin nearly the same, while olein is liquid at ordinary temperatures and solidifies only at a temperature much below the freez- ing point. Knowing, therefore, the melting point of any given fat and of its prime constituents, it would appear to be possible to arrive ap- proximately at the percentage composition of that fat and even of a mixture of fats. But we have not been contented to rely upon a rule of this kind, which would be vitiated to some extent by the presence of the volatile acids in butter, and we have therefore experimented specially with the actual fats mixed together in certain known propor- tions. The manner in which the melting point of butter and the other fats has hitherto been usually determined has been very inexact, and the method pursued has been such as to render it impossible that the observations of any two observers could correspond. The method adopted by Messrs. Angell and Hehner, with a view to the more accurate determination of the fusing points of fats was as follows: They used a bulb having a weight of 3*4 grammes and a volume of 1 cc, placed this on the surface of the fat contained in a test-tube, and observed the point at which the weight became immersed in it as Pig. 133. i BUTTER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 441 it slowly melted, tlie tube being suspended in a vessel of water, the temperature of wbich was gradually raised, and in which the thermo- meter was placed. This method has no doubt the merit of furnishing results which are strictly comparative, and which would even yield in the hands of other observers corresponding results. We have adopted a somewhat diiFerent method. In place of using a weight we have employed a float, having a weight of 0*18 gramme, and a volume of about 0*5 cc. This is placed in the bottom of the test-tube, a little melted fat is poured upon it, which is allowed to become solid in order to fix the float, the tube being afterwards filled up with the fat, the melting point of which is to be observed. Lastly, the bulb of the thermometer was immersed in the fat in the tube, in place of in the water siu'rounding it. The latter difference in the mode of pro- cediu-e is one of considerable importance, as the water naturally has a higher temperature than the fat itself, which derives its heat from the water, a difference which amounts to several degrees. But in the coiu-se of the many observations made, it became evident that there were still disturbing causes at work, which led to variations in the results obtained, which were at first surprising and difficult to explain. The principal of these disturbing causes we found to consist in the extent to which the fats had been solidified prior to being melted, the rapidity with which the temperature of the water in which the tubes were immersed was raised, the weight of the bulb, the size of the tubes, the height of the column of fat, and the irregular manner in which the fats melted if the diameter of the tubes exceeded by more than a trifle that of the bulbs placed in them. If the tubes were large, the fats would melt in one part, chiefly near the outside, and be solid at another, so that the ascent of the bulb was in some cases unnaturally retarded thereby. To meet these sources of error, the fats were always solidified by immersion for an hour in water at a temperature of 13'3° 0. The diameter of the tubes used was one-third of an inch, and the height four inches. These properly suspended, as shown in the diagram, were immersed in a large beaker of water. This itself was placed on an open water-bath, not a sand-bath, the temperature of the water being very gradually raised, and the thermo- meters used being of a limited scale and distinctly graduated in tenths of a degree centigrade (fig. 133). In the observations the results of which we are now about to record, not merely was the fusing point of the fats taken as indicated .by the rising of the bulb, but the point at which the fats became clear was also noted ; this will also be found recorded, and it will be seen that there is a difference in most cases of about one degree between the two, the point of clearance being about one degree higher. 442 BUTTER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Points of Fusion and of Clearance of Butter. Point of Point of Fusion. Clearance. 1 . . . 34-0 35-7 2 . . . 3 . . . 4 . . . 34-2 33-4 32-8 35-6 35-3 35-1 6 . . . 33-6 35-2 6 . . . 33-8 36-3 7 . . . 34-3 35-4 Mean . 83-7 .... 35-6 Points of Fusion and of Clearance of other Fats. Point of Point of Fusion. Clearance Beef kidney . . 46*5 .... 47-5 Beef caul . . 45-7 46-7 Mutton kidney . 48-6 49-5 Mutton caul . . 46-0 47-0 Veal kidney . . 38-7 39-4 Veal caul . . 4M 42-2 Lamb kidney . . 48*4 49-5 „ . . 61-6 52-9 Lamb caul . . 48*6 48-7 „ „ . . 46-2 47-5 Pig kidney . . 47-7 60-0 Pig caul . . 47*4 49-8 T -, f Home- . 48-7 ^^^^ jrended . 42-6 46-7 ■ 45-4 Lard (Irish) . . 44-6 47-9 Beef dripping . . 43-5 45-8 „ „ (sirloin) 45'5 46-7 Mutton dripping (loin) 48*2 60-1 (leg) 42-3 43-3 Pig dripping . 43-5 44-7 Points of Fusion and of Clearance of Mixtures. The fusing point of the butter used for the mixtures in this and the following series of experiments was 34"3°. I. — Beef Kidney Series. Percentage of Point of Point of Foreign Fat. Fusion. Clearance. 10 . . . 35-9 . . . 37-1 20 37-8 40-0 30 39-8 41-7 40 41-4 43-0 50 42-7 44-1 60 440 46-0 70 45-0 46-2 80 45-6 47-0 90 46-1 47-4 100 46-5 47-5 BUTTER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 443 II. — Mutton Kidney Series. Percentage of Point of Point of Foreign Fat. Fusion. Clearance. 10 . . . 37-8 . . . 41-0 20 40-1 42-1 30 41-9 43-3 40 43-1 44-2 50 44-8 45-8 60 45-8 47-0 70 47-0 48-2 80 47-5 48-7 90 48-1 49-2 100 48-6 49-5 Ill.—Fi^ Kidney Series. Percentage of Point of Point of Foreign Fat. Fusion. Clearance. 10 . . . 3G-4 . . . 37-5 20 38-2 39-3 SO 40-2 41-3 40 • 42-1 43-5 50 43-6 44-9 60 44-5 46-5 70 45-2 47-5 80 46-1 48-4 90 470 49-2 100 47-7 50-0 IV. — Lamb Kidney Series. Percentage of Point of Point of Foreign Fat. Fusion. Clearance. 10 37-3 . . . 38-6 20 39-0 • 40-3 30 40-9 42-1 40 42-5 44-0 50 44-2 45-6 60 45-6 46-6 70 46-3 47-5 80 47-0 48-2 90 . 47-7 49-0 100 48-4 49-5 V. — First Mutton Dripping Series. Percentage of Point of Point of Foreign Fat. Fusion. Clearance. 10 36-8 . . . 38-7 20 38-6 40-5 30 40-5 43-0 40 42-2 44-5 50 43-6 45-9 60 45-0 47-2 70 46-0 48-2 80 46-7 49-0 90 . 47-5 49-7 100 48-2 50-1 444 BUTTER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. VI. — Second Mutton Dripping Series. Percentage oi I Point of Point of Foreign Fat. Fusion. Clearance. 10 35-3 . . . 35-7 20 36-3 37-4 SO 37-0 38-0 40 37-9 39-2 60 38-7 40-1 60 39-4 41-0 70 40-1 41-9 80 40-9 42-5 90 41-5 43-1 100 42-3 43-3 VII.— Po rk Dripping Series. Percentage of Point of Point of Foreign Fat, Fusion, Clearance. 10 36-0 . . . 36-0 20 35-9 36-8 30 37-3 . 38-0 40 38-0 39-1 60 39-0 401 60 39-9 41-0 70 40-7 42-0 80 41-6 42-7 90 42-5 43-8 100 43-5 44-7 T lll.—Mixtui •es of Stearin and Olein. ercentage of Point of Point of Stearine. Fusion. Clearance. Appearance. 10 . . . 47-5 50-2 Half liquid. 20 62-1 64-1 Buttery. 30 55-0 56*5 Lardaceous. 40 56-5 57'3 Consistence of beef fat 50 67-5 68-3 Ditto of mutton fat. 60 68-4 69-1 Very hard. 70 59-0 59-7 ditto 80 59-7 60-4 ditto 90 60-4 61-3 ditto 100 61-5 ( 52-6 ditto From an examination of the preceding series of experiments it appears : — 1st. Tliat tlie true melting point of butter ranges from 32 -8 to 34*9 ; the mean of all the observations made being 33*7. The point of clearance of butter and, as will be seen, of the other fats also experimented upon, is always somewhat higher than the point of fusion, there being usually about 1°0. diiference. 2nd. That the melting points of beef kidney fat, mutton kidney, lamb kidney and pig kidney fat, varied from 38*7 to 61-6, the mean being 46-90. BUTTER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 445 3rd. That the fusing points of beef caul fat, mutton caul, veal caul, lamb caul and pig caul fat, ranged from 41*1 to 48'o, the mean being 45-8. 4tli. That the fusing point of lard varied from 42*6 to 44*6, the mean being 43*6. 5tli. That the melting point of beef dripping, mutton dripping, and pig dripping varied from 42*3 to 48*2, the mean being 44*6 ; showing, on the whole, a much lower melting point than the fats themselves from which the drippings were derived. It will thus be seen that there is a very wide difference between the melting points of butter and the whole of the fats above enu- merated, so great indeed as to afford, with the more precise methods of procedure already described, a means of detecting the presence of any admixtiu'e of those fats with very great ease and absolute cer- tainty. Not only can the fact of the adulteration of butter with these and many other fats be thus determined, but the extent of admixture or adulteration may be approximately arrived at. Both these positions, and especially the former, are abimdantly established by the observa- tions above given. The series of observations taken with mixtures of pure stearin and olein possess a different and special interest. It might have been pre- sumed that they would have shown the relative proportions of the two glycerides in mixtures of different fusing points. In place of their doing so, however, the results arrived at, as will be seen above, are of a sm'prising and unexpected character. Thus, a mixture of olein with only 10 per cent, of stearin had a fusing point equal to that of pure beef or mutton fat. Now it is quite certain that these fats contain a very much larger proportion of stearin and palmitin than 10 per cent. The explanation of these anomalous results is probably to be found in the want of incorporation and real union between the olein and the stearin, so that the melting .point of the stearin contained in the mixture approximates more or less closely to that of pure stearin. Still, it will be noticed that the melting point increases with the pro- portion of stearin present, not uniformly, but in a remarkably diminishing scale. The same want of uniformity in the ratio of increase of the melting point is also apparent on an examination of the other series of experiments with mixtures of different fats. The results of these investigations appear to us practically to settle the question of the adulteration of butter with animal fats. Of coiu'se, it is quite possible to conceive of mixtm^es, specially prepared with a view to deceive, having the same fusing point as butter, but the further question to be asked is : Are such mixtures to be found and sold as butter ? We have not to deal with chemical curiosities, but simply with those articles which are met with and sold under the name of and as butter. We have, therefore, two methods, both of them reliable, and hence 446 BUTTER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. very valuable, for the detection of the adulteration of butter with animal fats, namely, the method of Messrs. Angell and Hehner, based upon the amount in butter and other fats of the fixed fatty acids, and that to the description of which this article is devoted, founded upon the different melting points of butter and all the fats ordinarily em- ployed in its sophistication. We will now proceed to describe the method of Messrs. Angell and Hehner, above referred to. Messrs. Angell and Hehner first attempted to estimate directly the amoimt of the volatile acids contained in butter. They saponified a weighed quantity (usually 3 grammes) in a porcelain basin with caustic potash, frequently stirring with a glass rod. The clear butter soap was transferred to a flask or retort, and decomposed by means of dilute sulphuric acid. This mixture, which contained sulphate of potash, glycerin, and the volatile acids in solution, and the insoluble fatty acids, as stearic, palmitic, and oleic acids, floating on the top, was distilled, and the acidity of the distillate estimated by means of a soda solution of known strengtli. They found from 4*79 to 7*48 per cent, of the volatile acids in the distillate. The practical difliculties of this method, as the violent bumping of the boiling liquid and the impossibility to obtain a distillate perfectly free from acid, led Messrs Angell and Hehner to adopt a somewhat different and more indirect method of the estimation of the volatile acids. ^ The volatile acids are, as we have mentioned, soluble in water, whilst palmitic, stearic, and oleic acids are insoluble. All animal fats, except butter, are mixtures of the glycerides of the three latter acids. Their equiva- lents being very high and nearly equal, the theory predicted that they would yielfi, on saponification and decomposition of the soap with dilute acid, nearly equal amounts of insoluble acids. Thus, pure pal- mitin would yield 95*28 per cent, of palmitic acid ; pure stearin, 95-73 per cent, of stearic acid ; and lastly, olein 95*70 per cent, of oleic acid. All animal fats, being mixtures of these three glycerides, should, therefore, yield a percentage of fatty acids ranging from 95*28 per cent, to 95*73 per cent., or say, on an average, about 95*5 per cent. To prove this theory by experiment, 3 gi'ammes of mutton fat were saponified in a porcelain basin with a concentrated solution of potash. The saponification was very easy and quick, the liquid boiling quietly. Stirring with a glass rod assists very greatly. The water as it evaporates should be replaced by distilled water, so as to keep the liquid at about from 150 to 200 cc. A perfectly clear soap was obtained, which was decomposed with dilute hydrochloric acid. The fatty acids were fused in the liquid and collected on a previously dried and weighed filter. Before pouring the fatty acids on to the filter, the paper must be well moistened, or some of the fatty acids may pass through it. They were washed with boiling water, dried at 100 C, and weighed. Obtained 95*63 per cent., which figure agrees with the theory. I BUTTER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 447 ^Butter, which contains hesides paknitic, stearic, and oleic, also A^olatile or soluble acids, should consequently give a lower amount of insoluble acids, these being diminished in the ratio to the quantity of the soluble acids. A weighed quantity of butter fat was saponiiied, exactly as was the mutton fat just mentioned. Obtained 86*07 per cent, of insoluble acids, or 9*5 per cent, less than any other fat could have given.' Messrs. Angell and Hehner made nimierous estimations of the amoimt of insoluble fatty acids in butter and other fats, and found the former to yield from 85'40 to 86'20 per cent., whilst the latter gave invariably a quantity approaching very closely the theoretical amoimt — namely, 95*5 per cent. ^ The average of the results is 8o'85 per cent, of fixed acids. The difference between the quantity of fatty acids found in butter and that found in other fats is therefore on an average 9*65 per cent. Mixtures will yield quantities lying between 85*85 and 95*5 per cent. An adulteration of 100 per cent., i.e. the substitution of any foreign fat for butter, would give a difference of 9*65 per cent. *, an adulteration of 10 per cent., therefore, would give a difference of 0*965 per cent. Each tenth of a percentage of fatty acids above the average figm-e would consequently be equal to 1*036 per cent, of adulteration ; but it would be unjustifiable to declare a sample of butter to be adulterated because the fatty acids lie three or four tenths of a percentage above the average figure.' Messrs. Angell and Hehner have proved the accuracy of their method by mixing butter and foreign fats in known proportions, and estimating the amount of fixed fatty acids. The mixtiu-es yielded invariably quantities closely approximating to the calculated amounts. Mr. Turner, public analyst of Portsmouth, has suggested the em- ployment of alcohol with a view to hasten the saponification of the fat *, this it effects by rendering it soluble and so facilitating and quickening the action of the alkali upon it, the saponification being thereby effected in a few minutes. About 30 or 40 cc. of spirits of wine are added to the butter in a small glazed porcelain dish, and heated over the water-bath to near the boiling point. About 5 grammes of solid caustic potash are then added, and from time to time a few drops of water to facilitate its solution, the liquid being stirred all the time. In this manner the butter becomes rapidly saponified. The clear, yellowish solution is then freedfrom all alcohol over the water-bath, and the soap decomposed as already described. Care should be taken to remove all the alcohol, as a small quantity of the fatty acids might be held dissolved shoidd any alcohol remain, and so lead to an erroneous result. 448 CHEESE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. CHAPTER XX. CHEESE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS, DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Any foreign substance, animal, vegetable, or mineral, excepting salt iand annatto. Cheese consists chiefly of tlie curd of milk, ripened by keeping, with more or less of the butter and a variable quantity of water. THE MAIfTJEACTFRE OF CHEESE. The curd is usually precipitated from milk by means of a solution of rennet, which is prepared from the dried stomach of the calf and sometimes the pig. It may be precipitated by means of acids, but these are rarely if ever employed in this country in the making of cheese ; also by several other substances, as pure curd, old cheese, the natural fluids of the stomach, the first extract of malt and sour leaven. Professor Johnston particularly recommends trials to be made of the pure pre- pared curd. ^ If,' he remarks, ' we are able to rescue the manufacture of rennet out of the mysterious and empirical hands of the skilled dairy- maid, and by the use of a simple, abundant, easily prepared, and pure rennet, can command at once a ready coagulation of the milk, and a curd naturally sweet, or of a flavour which we had foreseen and com- mended, we should have made a considerable step towards the per- fection of the art of cheese-making.' Pure curd may be prepared in the following manner: — 'Heat a quantity of milk which has stood for five or six hours ; let it cool, and separate the cream completely. Add now to the milk a little vinegar, and heat it gently. The whole will coagulate, and the cm-d will separate. Pour off" the whey, and wash the curd well by knead- ing it with repeated portions of water. When pressed and dried, the casein will be sufticiently pure for ordinary purposes. It may be made still more pure by dissolving it in a weak solution of carbonate of soda, allowing the solution to stand for twelve hours in a shallow vessel, separating any cream that may rise to the surface, again throw- ing down the curd by vinegar, washing it frequently, and occasionally I CHEESE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 449 ' boiling it with pure water. By repeating the process three or four times it may be obtained almost entirely free from the fatty and saline matters of the milk.' — ' Transactions of the Highland Agricultural Society.' The following is the modus operandi oi rennet : it promotes the con- version of the sugar of milk into lactic acid, which, acting like other acids, occasions the precipitation of the curd, although, as already mentioned in the article on ' Milk,' rennet seems to possess the property of precipitating casein independent of the formation of any acid. It has been objected to rennet that by it a readily fermentable and decomposable substance is introduced into the cheese, frequently causing it to pass into a state of decomposition. It has been also objected that the stomachs from which it is pre- pared are often in a dirty and more or less decayed condition, and that the strength of the rennet made is very uncertain. In order to obviate these latter objections the preparation of a solu- tion of rennet, of standard and ascertained strength, has been sug- gested ; salt, saltpetre, and other additions being made to ensure its preservation. Such a solution would appear to possess several advan- tages. The proportions of casein and butter in cheese vary with the kind of milk from which the cheese is made ; thus skim milk cheese is much poorer in butter than that made from cream or whole milk. Cheshire cheese is of course made from whole milk ; Stilton from cream ; while cream cheese consists of the fresh curd of whole milk. The salting of cheese may be eiFected in several ways ; the salt may be added direct to the fresh curd, and this is the method usually prac- tised in Scotland ; or the newly made cheese may be immersed in a solution of brine ; or the surface may be rubbed with dry salt — these methods are practised in Cheshire ; or, lastly, the salt may be added to the milk previous to the precipitation of the curd. By this method the curd is very equally salted, but the quantity of salt required is very large, the greater part of it being retained in the whey. The curd, before being compressed, is cut into small pieces so as to allow the whey to drain oif ; it is then placed, after being salted, in the moulds, a heavy weight being put upon it, but in some cases it is subjected to the progressive action of a scr^w press. It is kept for some time in a cool place until it has undergone a kind of fermentation, whereby it acquires the peculiar flavour and the properties of cheese. The changes which take place during the ripening process have not yet, we believe, been satisfactorily determined ; but some interesting . particulars will be found recorded in Pelouze and Fremy's ^ Traite de Chimie ' — their accuracy may in some particulars be doubted, and assuredly they need confirmation. It appears, however, certain that leucirij hutyricy cap^oicy caprylic, capric, lactic^ and valei'ianic acids, together with ammonia, are generated, the acids combining with the 460 CHEESE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. alkali to form salts. It is stated that as much as 21 per cent, of these ammonia salts have been found. The ammonia is doubtless deriyed from the decomposition of a portion of the casein. THE COMPOSITION OF CHEESE. The following analyses exhibit the percentage composition of most of the principal kinds of cheese met with in the market. The first series is recently made by the author, the second is by Payen : — First Series. Water . Fat Casein . Ash . . American. Gloucester- shire. Dutch. Cheddar. Stilton. Cream Cheese. 30-13 32-88 33-81 3-18 32-52 29-94 31-70 5-84 32-78 27-57 32-81 6-84 30-10 36-54 30-15 3-21 31-37 36-58 27-66 4-39 30-34 67-32 2-02 0-32 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 Second Series. Water . Fat Casein . Ash . Chester. Brie. Neuf- chatel. Mar- seilles. Eoque- fort. Holland. Gruy^re. Parme- san. 30-39 25-41 35-58 4-78 63-99 24-83 15-29 5-63 61-87 18-74 14-58 4-25 40-07 28-73 23-87 6-93 26-53 32-31 32-45 4-45 41-41 26-06 26-24 6-25 82-05 28-40 34-56 4-79 30-31 21-68 35-07 7-09 96-16 99-74 99-44 98-60 95-74 98-96 99-80 94-16 It thus appears that the composition of cheese is very variable, the variation affecting the whole of its constituents. Of course these dif- ferences are explained to a large extent by corresponding differences in the kind and mode of preparation of the cheese, but for cheeses of the same name and character greater uniformity will be found to exist. Thus, for the purpose of determining whether a cheese be pure or not it must first be classified, and it must then be determined whether it is a cream, whole milk, or skim-milk cheese, and whether it is a hard cheese, or soft, like cream cheese. These natural differences in the composition of cheese render it somewhat diflScult to deal with the question of its adulteration. Johnston has analysed the ash of two samples of cheese: 1, of hand cheese 5 and 2, of Swiss cheese. CHEESE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 451 Hand cheese. Swiss cheese. Potash 4-85 . . . 2-46 Soda . 7-33 3-67 Lime . 2-55 17-82 Magnesia . None. 0-81 Ferric oxide. 0-11 0-17 Carbonic acid 0-03 0-08 Phosphoric acid . . 13-68 20-45 Chloride of sodium . 72-47 . 55-37 101-02 100-83 It will be seen tliat the principal portion of the ash of cheese is made up of chloride ,of sodium, but it also contains notable quantities of phosphoric acid in combination with lime, potash, and soda, espe- cially the former. ANALYSIS or CHEESE. In making an analysis of cheese it is usually only necessary to determine the water j fat, casein, ash, and salt ; in some cases, however, it may be desirable to ascertain the amount of sugar and ainmonia present. Estimation of wate7\ — 2 or 3 grammes of cheese should be cut into very fine slices, and dried on the water-bath in a platinum dish until they cease to lose weight. Estimation of fat. — Next the fat may be estimated in the dried cheese, which should be first transferred to a small flask, by exhaustion with boiling ether. The quantity of fat may be ascertained either by the evaporation of the ethereal solution, or by noting the loss of weight . of the dried cheese. It is necessary that the cheese should be thoroughly dry, or the ether will not act upon it. If in any case the cheese be not dry, it should be first moistened with a few drops of strong alcohol, after which the ether will dissolve the fat without difficulty. Estimation of casein. — This is estimated with sufficient accuracy by igniting the residue insoluble in ether, and deducting from it the weight of the ash. Another method would be by determining the amount of nitrogen by the ordinary combustion process. Esti7nation of sugar. — The only cheese which contains any appreci- able quantity of sugar is cream and other soft cheeses, and this may be extracted from the residue after the removal of the fat by means of ether, by treating first with strong alcohol and then with boiling water. Estimation of ash. — This may be obtained either by incinerating a quantity of the cheese itself, or in the manner above referred to. If it be desired to estimate the amount of salt in the ash, the usual estima- tion of chlorine by means of a solution of nitrate of silver is to be made. gq2 452 CHEESE AND ITS ADULTEBATIONS. Estimation of ammonia. — About 60 grammes of cheese are thoroughly exhausted by means of repeated additions of boiling water. After filtration the solution, which contains, besides the sugar and chloride of sodium, the ammonia salts of the volatile acids, is trans- ferred to a retort, and rendered alkaline by means of caustic potash. It is then distilled, and in the distillate the alkalinity is estimated by a standard solution of either hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. The volatile acids may be obtained, together with hydrochloric acid, by boiling a portion of the watery solution obtained, as above described, with dilute sulphuric acid. THE ADTILTERATIONS OF CHEESE. Colouring with annatto. — We have referred in the article on annatto to the practice of colouring cheese with annatto — a practice which we have shown to be useless, to entail some unnecessary expense, and, in consequence of the adulteration of annatto with injurious substances, to be attended in some cases with risk to health. Other colom'ing matters are, however, sometimes employed for the same purpose as annatto; Ti2im.Q\j^ mangold Jloivei'S, saffron, and the juice of red carrots ; but most of the paler-coloured and all the high- coloured cheeses derive the whole of their colour from annatto. Stilton and Cheddar cheese are never coloured in any way. It maybe objected to the whole of these substances that their em- ployment serves no useful purpose. Flavouring with hei'hs. — Various articles are likewise added to cheese to flavour it, and to impart a green or diversified colour. * In some dairies, the leaves of sage, parsley, and other herhs, are infused into cheese to give it a green colour. In other dairies part of the curd, when ready for the press, is exposed in a sieve to the air, in order that it may become oxygenated, and may render the cheese into which it is mixed with newly prepared curd, of a diversified colour, and of a disposition to run speedily into putridity. In a fe w dairies rapid putridity is induced by an intermiztiire of beaten pota- toes. In Ross-shire, cheeses are for several days buried within sea- mark, in order that they may acquire a blue colour and a peculiar taste ; and in France, a considerable quantity of cheese receives an offensive smell, resembling that of a pigstye, from the intermixture of fenugreek. — Rural Cyclopcedia. Adulteration with potatoes. — Cheese is made from potatoes in Thuringia and Saxony, in this manner : — ^ After having collected a quantity of potatoes of good quality, giving the preference to a large white kind, they are boiled in a cauldron, and after becoming cool, they are peeled and reduced to a pulp, either by means of a grater or mortar. To five pounds of this pulp, which ought to be as equal as possible, is added one pound of sour milk, and the necessary quantity of salt. The whole is kneaded together, and the mixture covered up CHEESE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. ' 453 and allowed to lie for three or four days according to the season. At the end of this time it is kneaded anew, and the cheeses are placed in little baskets, when the superfluous moisture escapes. They are then allowed to dry in the shade, and placed in layers in large vessels, where they must remain for fifteen days. The older these cheeses are, the more their quality improves. Three kinds of them are made. The first, which is the most common, is made according to the proportions just given ; the second, with four parts of potatoes and two parts of curdled milk ; the third, with two parts of potatoes and four parts of cow or ewe milk. These cheeses have this advantage over other kinds, that they do not engender worms, and keep fresh for a number of years, provided they are placed in a dry situation and in well-closed vessels.' — Qua)'- t&rly J(mrnal of Agnculture. Adulteration with bean meal. — Cheeses are likewise made, in some cases, with bean meal, which contains a much larger proportion of nitrogen than the potato, and hence such cheeses will be much more nutritious than those made with potatoes. Adulteration icith Venetian red and reddle. — Venetian red and reddle are often employed to coat or colour the outer surface of many cheeses, especially Dutch cheese. This practice is objectionable in itself, but is particularly so in consequence of the Venetian red some- times containing lead. Sulphate of copper and arsenic. — The outer surface or rind of the cheese is sometimes washed over with a solution of these in order to protect the cheese from the attacks of the cheese mite and other para- sitic productions. This practice is also very objectionable, since many persons not unfrequently eat the rind of the cheese. Results of the Examination of Samples, Tiventy sajnples of cheese were subjected to analysis with the follow- ing results : — All were artificially coloured, in most cases with annatto. In none was lead present. Several ivere coloured on the outside with Venetian red or reddle ground up into a paste with grease. In none of the cheeses loas any substance, either organic or mineral, present, added for the purpose of increasing the bulk and weight of the cheese. These results are so far satisfactory, especially as respects lead. It must not be concluded, however, from the results of these twenty examinations, that lead derived from the adulterated annatto employed: to colour the cheese is never present. If it occur only in one sample out of a hundred, much mischief would result in some cases. That it does sometimes occur in both annatto and cheese is proved by the evidence of Accum and Mitchell. Accum, at page 276 of his ^ Treatise,' affirms that several instances had come under his knowledge in which Gloucester cheese had been 454 CHEESE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. contaminated with red lead, and had produced serious consequences on being taken into the stomach. In some of these cases it was ascertained that the annatto which had been used to colour the cheese was itself coloured or adulterated with both vermilion and red lead. Mitchell writes : ' I have only met with cheese that contained lead on one occasion, althouoh it may be comparatively common.' The practice of coating- cheese with Venetian red and reddle is even more objectionable than the use of adulterated annatto, since, should this contain lead in any case, and since some persons are thoughtless enough to eat the rind, the quantity of that metal consumed would be more considerable. Although cheese escapes for the most part the hands of the adul- terator, it does not escape the attacks of fungi, animalcules, and insects ; to these it is particularly prone, in consequence of its being so very rich in nitrogen. The gTeen and blue colours of mouldy cheese are due to the develop- ment of a fungus, Aspergillus glaucus, and the red colour or mould to another fungus, Sporendomhna casei. This mouldiness may be produced in comparatively new cheese by inoculation. This is sometimes eiFected by inserting into the new cheese rolls of mouldy cheese, extracted by the scoop, into holes previously made by the same scoop. It is said that large pins are often thrust into cheeses, and allowed to remain in them for a considerable time in order to produce the mouldiness. This is a very objectionable proceeding, as in this case the colour is due partly to the formation of a salt of copper, and partly in some cases to the development of the fungus, which takes place in consequence of the admission of air into the interior of the cheese. At a still further period of decay cheese is attacked by the well known cheese mite or acarus, Acarus siro of Linnaeus, now called ^c«/-w8 do?nesticus, and which is so small that it is scarcely perceptible with- out the aid of the microscope ; the dry and powdery parts of cheese consist almost entirely of these acari and their ova in differ e7it stages of growth (fig. 134). ' We often wonder how the cheese mite is at hand to attack a cheese wherever deposited ; but when we learn from Leewenhoek that one lived eleven weeks gummed on its back to the point of a needle without food, our wonder is diminished,' remark Kirby and Spence. Both these cheese maggots and mites, when numerous, destroy cheese rapidly, by crumbling it into small pieces, and by emitting a liquid substance, which causes the decayed parts to spread speedily. They may easily be killed, however, by exposure to strong heat, or by plunging the cheese in some liquid, such as whiskey, capable of destroying the larvae without communicating any disagreeable flavour. Besides the casualties from fermentation, cheese, when yet quite fresh, is subject to the attack of the cheese-fly {Piophila casei). The CHEESE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 455 fly is ready to deposit its egg in tlie deepest crack it can find, by means of an extensile abdominal tube. The specific distinguishing characters of this insect, as drawn up by !Mr. Dimcan, are as follow: — ^ About two lines in length, the whole body of a greenish-black colour, smooth and shining j front of the head reddish-yellow, paler yellow on the under Fig. 134. Dust of old Cheese, magnified about 40 diameters, composed entirely of Acarus Siro or Cheese Mite, in all conditions of development team the ova upwards. side. Thighs ochre-yellow at the base and apex ; tibia deep ochre, the first and last pair black at the apex ; anterior tarsi black, the others ochrey, with the two last joints and the claws black ; wings clear and iridescent, slightly tinged with rust colour at the base, halteres ochrey.' — Kirby and Spence's Introductian to Entomology, 456 CHEESE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. The cheese maggots produced from this fly are as large as the fly, and commonly called jumpers. ^ When this maggot prepares to leap, it first erects itself on its anus, and then Lending itself into a circle, by bringing its head to its tail, it pushes forth its unguiform man- dibles, and fixes them in two cavities in its anal tubercles. All being thus prepared, it next contracts its body into an oblong, so that the two halves are parallel to each other. This done, it lets go its hold with so violent a jerk, that the sound produced by its mandibles can be easily heard, and the leap takes place. Swammerdam saw one, Fig. 135. J B Anterior and posterior views of Cheese Mite. Magnified 40 diameters. whose length did not exceed the fourth part of an inch, jump in this manner out of a box six inches deep, which is as if a man six feet high should raise himself in the air by jimiping 144 feet; he had seen others leap a great deal higher.^ — Book of the Farm. THE DETECTION OF THE ADULTERATIONS OF CHEESE. The presence of annatto is sufficiently indicated by the colour, very obvious in most cheese, particularly when this is compared with an uncoloured cheese, such as Stilton. The detection of potato. — Since the cells of potato contain a large I CHEESE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 457 quantity of starch, its presence, as well as that of any other starchy substance, will be at once ascertained by adding to a minute portion of the cheese a drop or so of a solution of iodine. The cells of potato are characterised by their large size and rounded form (fig. 108). They would be best seen after the extraction of the fat by means of ether. Of course potatoes would only be employed in the adulteration of cheese after they had been cooked and mashed. The quantity of potato present must be estimated fi'om the amount of starch, obtained as glucose in the usual manner by boiling with dilute sulphuric acid j 100 parts of potato contain about 23 parts of starch. The detection of heart meal. — For the detection and estimation of this we must proceed exactly as in the case of the mashed potato. The characters of the starch corpuscles and cellulose, as revealed by the microscope, and which have already been described, will serve suffi- ciently for its identification. The detection of animal fats. — It is quite within the limits of pro- bability that in some cases animal fat may be employed in the manufacture and adulteration of cheese. Such an adulteration admits of detection in the following manner : — About 100 grammes of the cheese should be heated in the water-bath, when the fat will separate and may easily be poured off. This should be placed in a test-tube, and its fusing point taken in the manner already fully described in the article on ^ Butter,' the fusing point proving whether there has been any admixture of animal fat or not. On the detection of Venetian red. — When the cheese is artificially coated or coloured, the coating should be separately examined for iron and lead. The general method of proceeding is as follows : — About four or ^YQ gTammes of the rind of the cheese should be incinerated in a porcelain basin, and the ash tested for lead and iron as directed else- where in this work. The detection of sulphate of copper and arsenic. — A portion of the rind of the cheese should be incinerated, the ash treated with nitric acid, and the solution rendered alkaline by ammonia, when the charac- teristic blue colour of ammonio-cuprie sulphate will appear ; or if the quantity of copper be very small, the ammoniacal solution should be acidulated with acetic acid and tested with a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium, which will produce a reddish-brown coloration or pre- cipitate oi fefiTocyanide of copper. The detection of the ai-senic is a more complicated and difficult operation. Upon the rind of the cheese pure strong hydrochloric acid is poured, and the mixture heated in the water-bath. Chlorate of potash is then to be added in small quantities at a time. The chlorine thus evolved destroys most of the organic matter, with the exception of the fat. ^ As soon as the liquid becomes clear it is allowed to cool, and is then filtered, whereby the fat is separated. The solution is 458 CHEESE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. heated on the water bath until all smell of chlorine has disappeared. A current of pure sulphuretted hydrogen is now passed through the liquid for at least twelve hours, it being heated to about 70° 0. at the same time. The arsenic, if any be present, is thereby precipitated in the form of sulphide of arsenic, mixed with a large quantity of sulphur and organic matter. The precipitate is collected on a filter, washed with water containing some sulphm'etted hydrogen in solution, and dried. The filter with the precipitate is then drenched first with pure strong nitric acid and then with sulphuric acid, and heated on the sand-bath in a small porcelain basin until fumes of sulphuric acid begin to escape. The mass is then allowed to cool, and the arsenic extracted with water acidulated with pure hydrochloric acid. Sulphuretted hy- drogen is again passed through the liquid, whereby the arsenic, together with any heavy metal which may be present, is thrown down in the form of sidphides, this time in a state of purity. If the precipitate be of a pure yellow colour and soluble in a solution of carbonate of ammonia, there cannot be any doubt of the presence of arsenic ; but if it be black, as would be the case if copper be present, it must be washed with water containing sulphuretted hydrogen and then ex- tracted with yellow sulphide of ammonium. The arsenic passes into solution, whilst the sulphide of copper remains undissolved. The liquid is filtered and the filtrate is acidulated with hydrochloric acid, whereby the sulphide of arsenic is again rendered insoluble. The precipitate of sulphide of arsenic is collected on a filter, dissolved in ammonia, and the solution again precipitated with hydrochloric acid. Thus the sulphide of arsenic is obtained in a pure state. For its further identification it may be mixed with dry cyanide of potassium and carbonate of soda, and heated in a slow current of car- bonic acid, when pure arsenic will sublime. If the metallic arsenic thus obtained be heated with access of air by breaking off" the closed end of the tube, arsenious acid will be formed, which sublimes and crystallises in the cool part of the tube in the form of well-defined octahedral crystals, plainly visible with a lens or a low power of the microscope. LARD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 459 CHAPTER XXI. LARD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Any foreign substance, whether animal, vegetable, or mineral ; as dripping, farina or flour, alum, &c., excepting water and salt, which should not exceed two per cent, respectively. Lard is the fat of tlie pig freed from the tissues in which the fatty matter is contained. The process by which this is separated from the vesicular, fibrous, and vascular tissues in which it is either enclosed, or by which it is surrounded, is termed lard rending. Tlie pieces of fat to be converted into lard are sometimes salted a little, the better to ensure their preservation, and are stored in barrels. The fat which immediately surrounds the kidneys yields the best and purest lard : this is owing to its being in a freer state, that is, it is less highly organised. The process is as follows : — The pieces of fat are scored or sliced into lesser portions of an inch or so in diameter ; they are placed, either with or without the addition of a little water, in cauldrons, which are usually of iron. The mode of applying heat to the flare varies in different cases. When lard is made on a small scale the flame is often applied directly to the containing vessel; sometimes the flare is melted in a water-bath, but usually the heating medium is steam, which is contained in the interval between the inner and outer vessel or pan ; occasionally a jet of steam is thrown directly upon the flare contained in the copper. The oily part of the fat melts out and floats on the surface, the animal matter and tissues either forming a scvmi, which is skimmed from time to time, or sinking as a deposit. As the oil has no affinity for either water or salt, it does not take up any of the water which may be present with it in the copper, while the salt used to preserve the fat is partly held in solution and partly falls as a sediment. The oil, whilst still warm and fluid, is turned out of the copper through a tap, and is received either into bladders or casks termed kegs, and hence the division ol lard into bladder lard and keg lard. It is usually the best description of lard only which is stored in bladders, keg lard being for the most part of inferior quality. Good and pm'e lard should be entirely free from either taste or smell ; it should be firm and white, and when melted be almost as clear and transparent as water ; subjected to a tempera- 460 LAKD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. ture of about 100° C, it should liquefy without ebullition, thus show- ing the absence of water, and should not throw down a particle of deposit. Inferior or adulterated lards possess characters and properties almost the reverse of these. The melting point of lard, as determined by the author with considerable care, ranges from 42*6 to 44-6, the mean of several observations being 43-6° 0. According to Braconnet its composition is as follows : — Stearin and margarin, 38 ; olein, 62. Our supplies of lard are derived principally from Ireland, part also comes from America and Hamburg, while London and our chief pro- vincial cities possess lard manufactories. THE ADULTERATIONS OF LARD. We have long been aware that lard, like nearly every other article of consumption, is liable to adulteration : indeed, the fact tlmt it is so is very generally known to dealers, as also the nature of the principal adulterations practised. The chief adulterations of lard resemble those of butter, and consist in the incorporation with it of loater and starch. Sometimes the water only or the starch only is had recourse to ; in others both these adul- terations are practised on the same lard. We have ourselves met with many samples of lard adulterated with potato flour ', but one of the earliest to draw attention to the subject was Mr. George Whipple, in a communication which he brought belbre the Pharmaceutical Society, and which was noticed in its Journal for January 1853 ; in this he states that he had detected large quantities of some farinaceous substance in lard. ^ This adulteration,' writes Mr. Whipple, ^ was discovered in the different varieties of lard — from the finest bladder to the common firkin lard. In an examination of the contents of two firkins, weighing 105 J lbs., a quantity of farinaceous substance, amounting to 22\ lbs., was separated. The contents of another firkin, weighing 43| lbs., yielded 12f lbs. of a similar substance.' In the next number of the same journal, Mr. Calvert, of Man- chester, published some further observations on the adulteration of American lard. He writes : — ^ During the numerous analyses I made some three years since of various articles of food employed in public establishments, I analysed several samples of American lard, and therefore may add to the fact already mentioned by Mr. George Whipple in your last number, that I found them to contain, in addi- tion to starch, from 10 to 12 per cent.* of water, and from 2 to 3 per cent, of alum, and about 1 per cent, of quicklime. ' A few months ago I was able to ascertain that the operation is conducted in the following manner : — ^ The fatty matters, such as they arrive from America, are melted with a little water in false-bottomed copper pans, through which cir- culates a current of steam. The dirt and other heterogeneous matters I LARD AND ITS ADFLTEBATIONS. 461 fall to tlie bottom of tlie pans, and the clear grease is allowed to run into a wooden vessel, when it is stirred in contact with cold water ; it is then put under revolving wheels with a thick paste made of potato starch, mixed with a little potash alimi and quicklime, which appears to facilitate the taking up of the water and starch by the fatty matter. ' The cause of the American lard appearing so white is, no doubt, the division of the fatty matter through the interposition of the starch, water, and alumina. ^ The quantity of alum should be such that a small excess should remain to prevent the starch from becoming mildewed ; and I believe that the manufacturer also adds it for the purpose of communicating to the lard the property of facilitating the raising and increasing the whiteness of the confectioners' paste, in which it is largely employed.' It should be understood that American lard, as brought to this country, is not in general adulterated. The adulteration usually takes place subsequent to its arrival, and is the work of some of our own manufacturers. The reason why American lard is so frequently selected for adulteration is, that it is of inferior quality and value, and so soft as to be almost fluid, some process of consolidation being indispensable before it can be employed as lard. From information received from a respectable lard-render, it ap- pears that the addition of a small quantity of mutton suet to lard is very common. It is used more particularly in warm weather, and with soft lards, especially American lard, which difl^ers from ordinary lard, in that it consists of the entire fat of the pig melted down, and not, as is the case with the best English lard, of the fat only which surrounds the kidneys. Mutton suet, being a hard and firm fat, im- parts to soft lards, even when added in very small quantities, the con- sistence and solidity requisite. It appears, therefore, that water, starch, alum, and caustic lime have all been ascertained to be employed in the adulteration of lard. To these substances we may add the following : — Carbonate of soda, carbonate of potash, and salt. The whole of the above adulterations may be readily discovered. Results of the Examination of Samples, The results of the examination of upwards of 100 samples of lard were as follow : — 1. That lard is not unfrequently extensively adulterated , the ingre- dients employed being ivater and potato Jl&ur^ as well as certain saline substances, as salt^ potash alum, carbonates of potash and of soda^ and caustic lime, these being intended either to cause the lard to hold water, or to improve its consistence and colour. 2. That the description of lard most liable to adulteration is keg lard, and of this, particularly that which is manufactured in Eng- land J Irish keg lard being but rarely adulterated. 462 LARD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 3. That of upwards of one hundred samples of lard submitted to examination, and procured chiefly from retail dealers, seven were found to be adulterated with potato starch. The adulteration of lard prevails not only in certain localities, but also chiefly at certain times — that is, whenever a sufficient supply of inferior lard, suitable for mixing, can be procured ; for it is said not to answer to adulterate a lard of ^ood quality, which commands a high price, and which is spoiled by being tampered with. It will be readily perceiv.ed that the qualities of a lard thus adulte- rated must be seriously impaired for almost every purpose for which it is employed : thus, of course, it would not be nearly so economical for culinary purposes. The use of such lard in machinery might, in some cases, produce serious consequences by impeding its action. Ijastly, the activity of all the ointments of the Pharmacopoeia, made with such a lard, would be much injured, especially the simple and compound iodine ointment^^, which, if starch were present, would, to the astonishment of the dispenser, turn blue, or almost black, in the act of incorporation. The Detection of the Adulterations of Lard, The first thing to be done in order to ascertain whether a lard be genuine or adulterated, is to melt it at about a temperature of 100° 0. If it fuse without ebullition or without the occurrence of a deposit, we may safely conclude that the sample is genuine ; but if ebullition take place, or a sediment is thrown down, the lard is unquestionably adulterated. Detection of water. — The adulteration of water, and the quantity present, may be thus determined: — A known weight of lard, say 2 grammes, is to be exposed to heat until the lard ceases to lose weight j the loss indicates the quantity of water. Detection of starch. — The presence of starch may be discovered by thoroughly mixing a drop of a tincture of iodine with a few grains of the lard, placed upon a slip of glass ; the lard will change colour, and become deep blue, or almost black. If now a little of this be viewed under the microscope, the starch corpuscles will themselves be seen coloured by the iodine. To determine the kind of starch contained in any sample, we must use the microscope. A minute piece of the lard should be placed on a glass slide, previously thoroughly warmed ; the moment the lard is melted it must be viewed by the object glass, when the starch cor- puscles will be distinguished standing out as clearly as though they were in water. Another way in which the starch corpuscles may be well seen by the microscope, is to spread out by gentle pressure, between two pieces of glass, a very thin stratum of the lard, or the fatty matter may be first removed by means of ether and the residue examined. i LARD AND ITS ADULTEEATIONS. 463 For the estimation of the quantity of starch present, the lard should be melted, and, while still warm, successive quantities of ether should be poured upon it until all the fat is removed. The residue should then be dried in the water-bath, weighed, incinerated, and the weight of the ash, if any, subtracted. Determination of the saline matter. — For the determination of the saline matter, 10 grammes of the lard should be incinerated, the ash Fig. 136. Lard, adulterated with Potato starch. Magnified 240 diameters. weighed and tested in the usual manner by the processes for the esti- mation of chlorine and sulphuric acid given under ^Tea,' and of lime given in the same article. The alumina may be easily estimated by dissolving the ash in hydrochloric acid and precipitating with ammonia, which will throw down pure alumina, which is separated by filtration, washed, incinerated, and weighed, as described in the article on 'Bread.' The carbonates of soda or potash are detected by the alkaline reaction, and the effervescence of the ash with acids. They may be estimated by extraction of the ash with water, and taking the alka- linity by means of a standard solution of sulphuric acid. 464 ISINGLASS AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. CHAPTER XXII. ISINGLASS AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Admixture with gelatin, or substitution thereof for isinglass. Isinglass is the air bag, or swimming bladder, sometimes called the sound, of various fish, chiefly of the sturgeon tribe, and belonging to the prenus Aciperiser. This bag is a membrane filled with air^ situated near the spine, above the centre of gravity. In most fish it communicates with the oesophagus, or stomach, by a duct, which is known as the ductus pneumatimis \ in othei^, the duct is imperforate; occasionally there are two sacs, one anterior to the other, and communicating by a short tube. The air bag is made up of an external or peritoneal covering ; a middle, fibrous, and in some cases muscular coat ; and an internal, highly vascular membrane. The following are the principal species of fish from which Russian isinglass is derived : — Acipenser Huso or the Beluga ^ A. Gouldenstadtii or the OsseteVy A. Ruthenus or the Sterlet, A. Stellatus or the Sewruga, Silurus Glanis, and Sipi'inus Carpio. In addition to the above, isinglass is obtained in different parts of the world from several other kinds of fish. In New York, from the Lahrus Squeteague, of Mitchell. In New England it is procured from the intestines of Morrhua vulgaris, or the common cod, this form being denominated ribbon isinglass. In the Brazils, it is obtained from a large fish, probably a species of Silurus ; and in Iceland, from the Cod and Lota Moloa or Ling. Eor an account of the fisheries and the mode of preparation or drying of the swimming bladder, the reader is referred to the author's work, ' Food and its Adulterations.' The principal kinds of isinglass are leaf, short staple, long staple, and book isinglass. Samovey short staple and book isinglasses are usually of inferior quality. In addition to the isinglass imported from Russia, a vast quantity is annually received from the Brazils, and the East and West Indies. It is, however, greatly inferior to the descriptions we have noticed. f I ISINGLASS AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 465 3 Indeed, Brazilian isinglass is only fit for fining purposes, and for such it is almost wholly bought up by the proprietors of large brewing establishments, who consume nearly the entire quantity imported. Manufacture of Isinglass. On the arrival of the isinglass in this country, the best kinds are submitted to a course of preparation before they are ready for con- sumption. The Beluga leaf is closely examined, and all discoloured parts cut away ; the cuttings, and other pieces not deemed good enough for the hest^ are placed aside as seconds or thirds. These, in some cases, are used for fining the better descriptions of ales, but more generally for wines, liqueurs, &c. It is also rolled and cut into shreds for domestic purposes, where colour is not an immediate object. Purse isinglass is mostly sold to the brewers, who consume a vast quantity in the fining of their several beverages. Long and short staple isinglass is extensively demanded by cider- makers, confectioners, and others, to whom it is sold in the same state as imported into this country. Leaf isinglass taken from the Beluga, after having been picked from all impure or discoloured pieces, constitutes the very best article, either for dietetic use, or for the higher class of clarifying purposes. This description of isinglass has to undergo a process of manufacture before it is ready for use. What are termed perfect specimen leaves are nearly round, the bladder having been opened longitudinally, about two feet in circmnference, and weigh from eight to sixteen ounces, according to the thickness of the sound. It is not uncom- mon, however, to meet with heavier samples, some having been known to reach four pounds. A steam-engine of some eight or ten horse-power is generally used under the present method of preparing isinglass, the adjunct machi- nery consistinfr of a series of powerful rollers, aiTanged in pairs in a manner resembling those used for expressing the juice from the sugar- cane. The rollers when in motion are fed with leaf isinglass as fast as possible, which, in passing betw^een the two rollers, becomes amalga- mated and spread out, and is expelled from the opposite side of the rollers in one continuous sheet. The isinglass thus rolled is called ^ ribbon,' but it is not yet ready for the process of cutting. The sheet or ^ ribbon ' is probably a sixth, eighth, or tenth part of an inch in thickness, and as it is necessary to reduce it until it is as thin as writing paper, it is passed through rollers more closely set, until, as the thickness diminishes, the desired result is obtained ; the width of the 'ribbon,' of course, increasing. It is to be remarked that in rolling, the ribbon, being confined to the width of the rollers, generally about two feet, increases only length- 4i56 ISINGLASS AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. wise, and, when completed, can be folded or rolled up in tlie same manner as a length of common linen. After a brief delay, for the purpose of drying, the next and last process of cuttins; is effected. By the introduction of modern machi- nery, this part di the preparation of isinglass is performed with sur- prising celerity, and the material is cut into very fine shreds. The cutting machine is a cylinder with some five or six keen- edged blades fixed in a tangential direction to the cylinder. The same engine which serves to roll out the isinglass, as already described, suffices to turn this little machine at the rate of some 800 or 1,000 re- volutions per minute ; taking a low estimate, we will suppose it turns 800 times. On examining the cylinder we find five or six blades set in it, and as each of these knives severs a shred from the width of the ^ ribbon,' while the cutting process is going on, it follows that fom' or five thousand shreds are cut in the short space of one minute. Such is the plain and simple method of preparing cut isinglass. There are, however, many consumers who still prefer the old- fashioned style of hand-cut isinglass. In this case, the thin leaf is pulled to pieces with the fingers or divided into strips with scissors, a work mostly performed by women. The shreds of isinglass, softened in cold water and examined under the microscope, are seen to possess a fibrous structure, a few vessels, granular cells, and nuclei being scattered here and there ; it is, in fact, an organised substance (fig. 137). THE ADIJLTEEATIOKS OE ISINGLASS. The principal adulteration of isinglass is with gelatin, an article in every respect inferior to isinglass. Usually shreds of gelatin are mixed with those of isinglass. Occa- sionally the gelatin is incorporated with the isinglass while it is in Most frequently, however, gelatin is substituted for isinglass. The best isinglass, of course, is Russian ; this is often deteriorated by admixture with a very inferior article, termed Brazilian isinglass ; in other cases, this is substituted for the better and more valuable description of isinglass. Results of the Exainination of Sani2iles. Of twenty-eight samples of isinglass subjected to examination, ten, or more than one-third, of the samples consisted entirely of gelatin. THE detection OF THE ADULTERATIONS OF ISINGLASS. Between isinglass and gelatin several well-marked distinctions exist ; some of these are sufficiently simple to enable the ordinary observer himself to distinguish the one article from the other. ISINGLASS AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 467 All that is necessary to efiect the discrimination is to spread a few of the filaments out on a slip of glass, to moisten them with water, and after the lapse of a few minutes to note well the appearances pre- sented by them. Isinglass and gelatin dififer, especially in the following characters ; — The shreds of isinc/lctss, when immersed in cold water, become white, opaque, soft, and swollen. The swelling is equal in all directions, so that, when viewed with Fig. 137. Sections of shreds of Gelatin and Isinglass. Upper figure, Gelatin ; lower, Isinglass. Magnified 75 diameters. a low power of the microscope, the shreds appear more or less quad- rangular. In boiling water they dissolve nearly without residue. The smell of the dissolved isinglass, when hot, is somewhat fishy, but not unpleasant. The moistened shreds, or the solution, exhibit to test paper a neutral, or faintly alkaline, and rarely a slightly acid reaction. HH 2 468 ISINGLASS AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Under the microscope tlie filaments exhibit a well-marked fibrous structure. In acetic acid they swell up, and become soft and jelly-like, the greater part of the structure being lost. Lastly, ' The ash which results from the incineration of good Rus- sian isinglass is of a deep red colour ; it contains but a small portion of carbonate of lime, and never amounts to more than nine per cent, of the isinglass used.' ^ The shreds of gelatin, on the contrary, when placed in cold water, swell up, acquire increased transparency, and become translucent and glass-like. The form which the shreds take in swelling is peculiar : they do not, like those of isinglass, swell equally and remain quadrilateral, but become expanded, flat, and ribbon-like, the broad surfaces correspond- ing to the incised margins. The dry shreds on the uncut surfaces frequently present a peculiar, shining lustre, not unlike that of tinsel. In boiling water they do not entirely dissolve, but in most cases a copious deposit falls to the bottom of the glass. The smell of the hot infusion is like that of glue, and therefore dis- agreeable. The moistened filaments, or the solution of gelatin, usually exhibit a strong acid reaction : this in some cases is due to the substances used in bleaching it. They show no structure under the microscope, but only the marks of the instrument employed in cutting them. Immersion in dilute acetic acid hardens gelatin. Lastly, the ash is different from that of isinglass in amount, colour, and composition. ^ 100 gTains of gelatin give from 2*3 to 2'% grains of ash, which is white, contains much carbonate of lime, with some chlorides and sulphates.' — Lethehy, It is therefore very easy to distinguish between isinglass and gela- tin, even when the shreds of the two articles are mixed together in the same parcel. The discrimination is, however, much more difficult when they are both incorporated in the same shreds or strips ; nevertheless, by means of the microscope, this adulteration, first described by Dr. Redwood, may frequently be discovered. If, on examination with that instrument, the shreds, after immersion in cold water for a few minutes, exhibit a thick border of a clear and structureless substance, there is no doubt but that the shreds are coated with gelatin. Some of the better kinds of Brazilian isinglass are manufactured in the same way as Russian, and sold at a cheaper rate. No doubt, in some instances, this is mixed with or sold as the best, and it has been 1 * Pharmaceutical Journal,' vol. x. p. 127. r ISINGLASS AND ITS ADULTEEATIONS. 469 ascertained that acids and other chemicals have been used to improve its colom* ; but the test of good isinglass is in the jelly made therefrom. The jelly made from Russian isinglass dissolves readily, furnishes scarcely any sediment, and is remarkably firm, pure, and translucent. On the other hand, Brazilian isinglass makes a far inferior jelly, vrith these remarkable differences : that whilst Russian isinglass is firm and free from deposit, Brazilian isinglass leaves a deposit of insoluble matter amounting to 20 or 30 per cent., is less readily dissolved, and the jelly is opalescent and milky. On making hlanc-mange with the purest Russian isinglass, milk is needed to impart the snow-white colour of that jelly ; but in the case of Brazilian isinglass hot water alone will render it nearly of that colour. It is almost needless to add that the hlanc-mange is much in- ferior in quality, and the large percentage of insoluble matter renders the jelly proportionately weak. The quality of any isinglass may easily be tested by dissolving a small portion in a glass vessel, vdth about a tablespoonful of boiling water. The best Russian isinglass will instantly dissolve, and scarcely a particle of sediment remain ; the soluble matter in this article being, according to the best authorities, ninety-eight grains in every hundred. The same test applied to Brazilian isinglass will extract the gelatin, but the shreds, from their fibrous character, do not entirely dissolve ; they turn white and retain their form, unless disturbed, in which case they break up, and form a deposit at the bottom of the vessel. If Russian isinglass be adulterated with Brazilian, the admixture may easily be detected by the insoluble shreds, or white deposit, which is sure to appear in proportion to the amount of Brazilian isinglass that may be introduced. The smell of the latter also is strong, far from pleasant, and forms a great contrast with the faint, inofiensive, seaweed-like odour of Russian isinglass. 470 GELATIN AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. CHAPTER XXIII. GELATIN AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Any addition of salt or sugar. PREPARATION?- OP GELATIN. We have been at some pains to procure the following information respecting the manufacture of gelatin. Ordinary gelatins are made from those pieces of skins which are cut off by the tanner as unfit for making leather, in consequence of thickness. The best description is prepared from the skins of calves' heads ; these are separated from the whole skins after they have passed through the process of liming, to remove the hair from them. The skins are next well washed to get rid of the lime, and all the pieces of flesh and fat are carefully cut out ; some manufactiu-ers soak them for a short time in a dilute solution of muriatic acid, to remove any remaining* portion of lime ; but this practice is both injurious and unprofitable. The acid forms with the lime chloride of calcium, which, if it is not carefully removed by washing, is boiled up with the skins, and, being soluble, remains in the gelatin ; a portion of the skins is also dissolved by the acid, and is thrown away in the water employed in washing them, which thus occasions a loss in weight. In some cases the skins are boiled whole, in others they are cut into small pieces, or even reduced to a pulp by a machine especially con- structed for the purpose. If the skins are cut into fine pieces instead of being put into the boiler whole, the gelatin will be better, that is, it wiU be of a lighter colour ; and the process is more economical, as one-half the time will be saved in the boiling, and much less heat and fuel required. As the gelatin is darkened by prolonged boiling, the reduction of the skins to a pulp is a point of very great importance in the manufacture of gelatin — so much so, that Mr. Swinburne has obtained a patent for this method of preparation. The skins are boiled with water, in the proportion of about one gallon of water to seven pounds of skin ; a small quantity of common salt is added to preserv-e the gelatin. After it has boiled for about twelve hours, it is strained and clarified with white of eggs, and then run upon glass plates ; as soon as it is solid, it is cut into slices and aELATIN AND ITS ADULTEEATIONS. 471 laid upon nets to dry, in a room heated to a temperature of about 80°. If the room is not heated, the surface of the gelatin becomes covered with small air-bubbles ; when the gelatin is dry it is cut by a machine in the same manner as isinglass. The size of the glass plates varies according to the fancy of the manufacturer. The ordinary size is fifteen by eighteen inches, but in some cases they are three feet square ; the plates or slices of gelatin are generally about fifteen inches long by three wide. Though the skin of the head of the calf only is used for making gelatin, the whole of the skins both of the calf and ox are perfectly adapted for the purpose, but are not used, as they are much more valuable for conversion into leather. In some cases, especially in warm weather, the skins used are some- what decomposed, but this is not generally the case. This condition, although removed to some extent by repeated washings, cannot be entirely remedied ; hence gelatin made from such damaged skins will always retain a smell and taste more or less disagreeable. French gelatin is usually much whiter than English ; this is owing principally to the calves being Irilled in France much younger than in this coimtry. Gelatin is likewise prepared from the bones of the ox and the sheep. It is obtained by boiling bones in water under pressure. It is more readily procured by employing bones which have been pre- viously digested in hydrochloric acid to extract the phosphate of lime. ^ In this way a nutritious soup is prepared in Paris for the hospitals and other pauper habitations. Gelatin has been extracted from ante- diluvian bones. A soup was prepared from the bones of the great mastodon by a prefet of one of the departments of France.' — Pereira. In the ^ London Journal of Arts and Sciences,' a publication which contains the specification of new patented inventions, we find the following description of a patent gTanted to George Philbrick Swin- burne, of Pimlico : — ^ The patentee commences his specification by stating that hereto- fore, in manufacturing gelatin, it has been usual (with one exception) to act on large pieces of hides or skins, and to employ acids and alkalies, together with mechanical and other processes, which occupy considerable time, and are likewise costly ; and in the excepted case above referred to it has been the practice to reduce the pieces of hide into the state of pulp in a paper-machine, and then to employ blood to purify the product obtained. ' This invention consists in the following more simple mode of manufacturing gelatin: — The patentee takes hides or skins, or parts thereof, as fresh and as sweet as possible, and free from hair, and he reduces the whole into shavings or thin slices or films, by any suitable instrument ; he soaks the shavings or films for about five or six hours in cold water, and then changes the same ; he repeats such chanoing of the water two or three times each dav, until no smell or taste is to 472 GELATIN AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. "be detected, either in the water or in the shavings, and then he removes the shavings from the water. If this product is intended for soup, it is dried on nets, and is then ready for use. If gelatin is to be ex- tracted, the shavings, after the above soaking, are put into a suitable vessel, with a quantity of water, sufficient to cover them when pressed down, and they are subjected to a heat not exceeding boiling water. When dissolved the gelatin is to be strained through linen or other fabric, subjected to slight pressm'e with the hands or otherwise, or the solution may be permitted to run oiF from the vessel without strain- ing, by which means much of the gelatin will be separated from the fibrous matters. The product of gelatin thus obtained is run in thin films on to a smooth surface of slate, or other suitable material, to set ; it is then removed on to nets to dry, and when dry it is cut up with an isinglass cutter or other suitable apparatus. The residue, dried or not, may be used for thickening soup, and other culinary pm'poses. ' ^ Another manufacture of gelatinous substances is produced by the follo^ving process, from cod sounds, or other fishy matters capable of yielding gelatin : — These matters are reduced to shavings or thin films, soaked in water, subjected to the action of heat, and the gelatin strained or run off as above described. The patentee obtained a first, second, and third product of gelatin, which he forms into sheets, and when dry cuts up the same with an isinglass cutter. This manufacture of gelatin will be found highly useful as a cheap substitute for isinglass for clarifying liquids.' Inferior gelatin is used in large quantities by paper-makers, straw hat and silk manufacturers ; but these parties generally purchase the skins, and prepare the gelatin themselves. Unlike isinglass the shreds of gelatin, as already noticed, examined with the microscope, are seen to be composed of a transparent and perfectly homogeneous substance (see fig. 137). Glue is quite a distinct manufacture from gelatin, and is seldom carried on by the same parties. It is made from bones, refuse pieces of skins, and hoofs. Dry gelatin, when quite pure, is colourless, transparent, elastic and yet brittle, tasteless and odourless, heavier than water, and insoluble in alcohol or ether. When immersed in cold water it swells up and absorbs about 40 per cent, of that liquid. It is soluble in hot water and is precipitated from its concentrated aqueous solution by alcohol. By prolonged boiling it loses its power of gelatinising, and the solu- tion on evaporation leaves a residue which attracts moisture from the air. It contains a small quantity of sulphur, and yields, as the average of all the reliable analyses made, 17*9 per cent, of nitrogen. It is precipitated by tannic acid, but not by salts of lead, alum, or by sulphate of iron. Its aqueous solution is very prone to putrefaction ; it becomes acid, and afterwards gives off' ammonia freely. This property of first be- coming acid is said to be peculiar to gelatin. 1 GELATIN AND ITS ADULTEBATIONS. 473 Gelatin is dissolved by concentrated sulphuric acid in tlie cold. The solution, when diluted with water and boiled, yields leucin and ylycocin or sugar of gelatin. By boiling a solution of gelatin with dilute sulphuric acid for several days, Gerhard obtained sulphate of ammonia and a considerable quantity of saccharine matter convertible into alcohol and carbonic acid by fermentation. It is oxidised by boiling nitric acid, oxalic acid and other com- pounds being formed. Gelatin dissolves phosphate of lime, forming with it, in some instances, chemical combinations. The precipitate of gelatin with gallo-tannic acid is insoluble in water, alcohol, and ether ; and when dried contains about 74-6 per cent, of gelatin, but the composition of the precipitate does not appear to be very constant. Gelatin, according to Liebig, possesses the property of inducing saccharification. THE ADTTLTEEATIOII^S OF GELATIIS'. The addition of a small quantity of salt, with the view of ensuring the preservation of the gelatin, is, of course, allowable ; but salt is frequently added in large quantities; it then causes the gelatin to absorb moisture from the atmosphere, whereby its weight is much increased. In some cases, gelatin is adulterated with sugar^ either brown or white, not to any considerable extent, except with some of the inferior qualities, such as are so largely used by the manufacturers of canister meats. The jellies in bottles, and those sold by confectioners as isinglass and calves' feet jelly, consist principally of gelatin variously flavoured. Jellies made from calves' feet are much less firm, and dissolve quicker than those made from gelatin, if kept in a warm room. THE DETECTION OE THE ADITLTEEATIONS OE GELATIN. The adulteration of gelatin with salt may be thus detected: — 10 grammes of the gelatin must be incinerated and the ash tested for salt — the quantity of which present may be determined, if necessary, by the process given under ^ Butter.' Por the detection of the sugar the following process may be fol- lowed : — Dissolve the gelatin in water ; precipitate with tannic acid ; filter, remove excess of tannic acid by the addition of a solution of acetate of lead, filter again, and free the filtrate from lead by means of sulphuretted hydrogen. Convert the cane sugar into glucose by boil- ing with dilute sulphuric acid, and estimate the sugar with the copper solution. Another, method is the following : — Soften the gelatin by macera- tion in cold water, boil in alcohol ; this will take up the sugar and leave the gelatin. 474 UNWHOLESOME AND DISEASED MEAT. CHAPTER XXIV. UNWHOLESOME AND DISEASED MEAT. Closely connected with the subject of the adulteration of food is the condition as to soundness and wholesomeness of the various articles consumed as food, and with this subject it is necessary that the analyst should be acquainted, as he will often be called on for his opinion and advice. We have already referred to the case of damaged flour, but in the present article we propose to treat somewhat at length of unwholesome and diseased Tneat. It will assist the understanding of what foUows if we give the analysis and composition of fresh meat, as also of its ash. Composition of Fresh Meat. (Moleschott ; mean of many analyses.) Water 73-4 Soluble albumen and haematin .... 2*25 Insoluble albuminous substances, as fibrin . 15-2 Gelatinous substances 3*3 ■Fat 2-87 l^.xtractive matters 1-38 Kreatin 0068 Ash 1-6 Composition of the Ash of Meat. (Parkes' * Hygiene,' p. 167.) Total ash, per cent of undried substances .... Chloride of sodium Chloride of potassium . Potash Soda Lime Magnesia .... Oxide of iron or phosphate . Phosphoric acid Sulphuric acid Chlorine .... Silica Fresh Beef. Salt Beef. Fresh Pork. Ham or Salt Pork. 1-6 0-310 0-154 0-540 0-026 0-051 0-023 0-011 0-435 0036 0-014 1-5 0-691 0-398 0-012 • 0-030 0-017 0-346 0-010 0-004 Ml 0-012 0-420 0-045 0-083 0-004 0-494 0-054 6-6 6-7 0-173 0-360 0-027 0-035 0-006 0-312 ' 0-013 f I UNWHOLESOME AND DISEASED MEAT. 475 • It will be observed that the above analyses take no notice of tbe carbonic acid which occurs in the ash of meat, and which is said to amount to 8 or 9 per cent. This is supposed to be derived from the destruction of the lactic acid during incineration. It is stated that an ox should weigh not less than 600 Ibs.^ but it is sometimes as much as double this. A cow may weigh consider- ably less than the above. An ox yields about 60 per cent, of meat, exclusive of head, feet, lungs, and intestines, but a pig as much as 80 per cent, of available food. A sheep weighs from 60 to 90 lbs. Taking the whole animal, 20 per cent, should be allowed for the bones. It is not easy to determine the age of an animal when living, and it is still more difficult to do so when dead. The indications of the age are mainly furnished by the teeth and horns, but the details are too technical to be described in this place. They will be found, how- ever, in Parkes' ^ Hygiene.' GENERAIi CHARACTEES AND EXAMIN^ATIOI^ OE MEAT. The muscles of sound flesh should be firm, elastic, pale for the young animal and darker coloured for the old one, and when cut across a little reddish juice should flow out after some time. The flesh should not be of a deep purple tint, as this is a sign that the animal has not been slaughtered, but has died without being bled. There should be no unpleasantness of odour and no smell of physic, for diseased meat has a sickly corpse-like smell. There should be no marbling of the flesh or softening or puru- lent fluid in the intermuscular cellular tissue. ^Bad meat is wet, flabby, and sodden, with the fat looking like jelly or wet parchment.' — Lethehy. The fat should be firm and without being marked with hsemor- rhagic spots. Meat as it becomes putrescent begins to emit an un- pleasant odour, the fibres become paler or even turn greenish. Parkes says it is a good plan to push a clean knife into the flesh up to the hilt. In good meat the resistance is uniform, while in putrefying meat some parts are softer than others. The smell of the knife is also a good test. Cysticerd and trichince should be searched for. In temperate climates, twenty-four hours after killing, the marrow of the hind legs is of a light rosy red colour and moderately firm. If it is soft, brownish, or exhibits black points, the animal has been sick or putrefaction has commenced. The lungs and liver should both be examined with a view to dis- cover in the one case Strongylus JUaiia, and in the other Distoma hepaticum ; also for the detection of organic changes, such as the pre- sence of small abscesses. Another means of judging of the quality of meat is to observe the effects of cooking, to ascertain how much it loses in roasting and boil-, ing, and whether the meat becomes hard or not. 476 UNWHOLESOME AND DISEASED MEAT. Again, the microscope is capable of affording valuable information as to the quality and condition of meat ; whether the muscles are sound, over-fat, or changed by decomposition or disease. In the cattle plague they are said to be in a degenerative condition. Further it is by means of the microscope that the presence of the various parasites which infect the flesh of animals is discovered. Care must be taken not to confound the capsules of trichinae with Rainey's capsuleSj called psorospermia. These are almost transparent bodies, oval, spindle-shaped, sometimes pointed at one end and rounded at the other, or they are kidney-shaped. The investing membrane of these capsules exhibits delicate mark- ings, caused by a linear arrangement of minute hair-like fibres. ' They sometimes are pointed, and their appearance under a high power, 1,000 diameters, is as if the investment consisted of very delicate, transparent, conical hairs, terminating in pointed processes. The contents of these cysts consist of granular matter, the granules or particles of which when ' mature are oval, and which adhere together so as to form indistinct divisions of the entire mass. The length varies from -^^ to ^ of an inch. They are usually narrow ; they lie within the sarcolemma and appear often not to irritate the muscle.' — Parkes. No injurious effects have been produced on men by these bodies, notwithstanding the frequency of their occurrence in the flesh of domestic animals, nor indeed have they ever been found in the muscles of men ; but in the pig they have been productive of illness, particu- larly paralysis of the hind legs and a nodular eruption. In sheep they sometunes affect the muscles of the gullet, producing swellings, often as large as a nut, and containing a milky purulent-looking fluid, which contains myriads of these capsi3.es. Sheep thus affected often die suddenly. Bodies also termed psorosper^nia — of an oval or rounded form — according to Parkes, * at tirst with granular contents and then with aggregations of granules into three or foiu- rounded bodies, on which something like a nucleolus is seen,' have been met with in the liver and other parts of the rabbit, in the dog, and in the liver of man. They are quite distinct from Rainey's corpuscles. POISONOtJS BUT KOT DISEASED MEAT. It is well knovni that the flesh of animals not diseased may pro- duce injurious and even poisonous symptoms. This must arise in some cases from the presence in the animals themselves of some poisonous substance. These effects follow especially the consumption of certain descrip- tions of fish. Pappenheim gives a list of no less than forty fishes which sometimes exert poisonous effects. Among these are Clupea i^arengo minor ^ or lifMe herring : Zeus gallus or silver Jishy the pilchard^ the yelloio-hilled spi-at : Aplodactylus punctatus or ' bladder Jish, and I UNWHOLESOME AND DISEASED MEAT. 477 Cor acinus fuscus majors or p-e^/ snapper. So venomous are some of these fish that, when eaten by other fish, the flesh of these in their turn also becomes poisonous. It is related that the yellow-billed sprat is so poisonous, that persons who have partaken of it have been known to expire with the fish in their mouths. The effects produced by eating the bladder fish are almost as great. Maletta venenosa is only poisonous at a particular time, and it is believed that it owes its poisonous properties to a green monad upon which it then feeds. Oysters and mussels, even when undecomposed and in good con- dition, have also been known to produce similar symptoms. Among mammalia the flesh of the pig, not apparently diseased, has given rise to diarrhoea and other choleraic symptoms. Ill and indeed poisonous eflects have been known to result some- times from brine which has been used several times. These probably depend upon the production of some animal poison, the nature of which has not hitherto been determined. But meat is sometimes rendered poisonous by the food upon which the animals have fed previous to their being killed. Thus the flesh of hares which have fed upon the Rhododendron chrysanthemum is poisonous ; that of birds is sometimes rendered so by feeding upon the buds of Calmia latifolia ; while it is related that a whole family at Toulouse were poisoned by partaking of snails which had eaten the leaves of Coriaria myrtifolia. Again, milk is often rendered poisonous by the herbage upon which the cows have fed. PUTRID MEAT. There does not appear to be any reason to believe that as a rule meat, including flesh and fish of all kinds, more or less decomposed, is productive of injurious consequences. Nearly all game is somewhat decomposed when partaken of, and yet hurtful effects rarely ensue. There is no doubt that the cooking contributes greatly to this im- munity. Still in some cases the consumption of meat altered by decom- position does give rise to vomiting, diarrhoea, and to symptoms resem- bling typhus. The consumption of partially decomposed sausages and pork pies has been followed by symptoms of poisoning accompanied by severe intestinal disorder, and with nervous depression and collapse, ending frequently in death. M. Vanden Oorput attributes the effects in the case of sausages to a fungus which he terms Sar-cina hotulina. Effects somewhat similar have been known to result from the con- sumption of cheese, and even bacon, ham, salt beef, and salt fish, these articles having been usually in a decaying and mouldy condition ; and it is probable that the poisonous effects are due also in these cases to the presence of a fungus. Decomposing mollusca also sometimes produce marked symptoms of 478 UNWHOLESOME AND DISEASED MEAT. poisoning, but ordinary fish in a state of decomposition do not usually give rise to any bad effects. DISEASED MEAT. The flesh of animals killed on account of recent accidents may, as might be supposed, be eaten with impunity. The flesh of overdtnven and tortwed animals, according to Professor Gamgee, often contains a poison which produces an eczematous erup- tion of the skin of those who handle it, and the eating of such flesh is said to have been attended with injurious effects. The meat of animals which have suffered from some simple infiam- inatory disease , as pneumonia, and which have been killed, is commonly eaten, and also without injurious effects, provided the inflammation has not progressed to the stage of the formation of matter or pus. THE DISEASES OP CATTLE. Many of the particulars embraced under the above heading are taken from Parkes' ^ Practical Hygiene.' The principal diseases to which cattle are subject are epide7nic plewo-pneumonia, which has the symptoms of ordinary pleuro-pneu- monia, but is distinguished by its being epidemic. Foot and mouth disease, also termed murrain or Eczema einzootica. Cattle plague or rinderpest^ Typhus contagiosus, has for its symptoms great and early prostration, shivering, running from the eyes, nose, and mouth, abdominal pain and diarrhoea. Anthrax or maligrumt pustule, if combined with erysipelas. Ery- sipelas carhunculosum, is called black quarter, quarter ill, or black leg. Of course cattle are subject likewise to a variety of other diseases, including dropsical affectimis from diseases of the liver, kidney, or heart. Sheep are subject to the same diseases as oxen and cows, but they are liable to certain disorders peculiar to themselves. One of these is h'axy or splenic apoplexy. This is considered by Professor Gamgee to be a kind of anthrax. It is said to kill fifty per cent, of all the young sheep that die in Scotland. The animals have a staggering gait, bloodshot eyes and rapid breathing. Sheep are also liable to smallpox, Vai'iola ovina. They are also subject to a so-called phthisis, which is produced by the presence in the lungs of the ova of the Sti^ongylusjilama, The pig, in addition to other diseases already noticed, suffers from a disorder which has been called hog cholera, and which is supposed to be a rapid form of typhoid. The flesh of animals which have suffered from chronic ivasting diseases is usually pale, and is very prone to imdergo putrefaction. It UNWHOLESOME AND DISEASED MEAT. 479 frequently gives rise to siclmess and diarrhoea, the effect of partaking of the diseased meat manifesting itself, as might have been expected, first on the gastro-intestinal canal. The evidence hitherto obtained goes to show that the flesh of animals which die of epidemic pleuro-pneumonia may be eaten without injury, but Dr. Livingstone states that the use of this flesh produces car- buncle, and the virus, he afiirms, is not destroyed by boiling or roasting. ' Now it is a remarkable circumstance,' writes Dr. Letheby, ^ that ever since the importation of this disease into England from Holland in 1842, the annual number of deaths from carbuncle, phlegmon, and boils has been gradually increasing.' There is no doubt but that the consumption of the flesh of animals which have been affected with malignant pustule is attended with danger. The increase in the number of cases of malignant pustule in man has been ascribed to this cause. It has also been supposed that boils are produced by the use of meat of this kind. It is certain that the disease maybe communicated to the human subject by inoculation. On the other hand, several instances have been recorded in which no ill effects have been produced by partaking of the boiled or roasted flesh of animals so diseased, and this in cases in which it was readily propagated by inoculation. The flesh of animals affected with hlack quarter^ or Erysipelas car- bunculosus, which possibly is but a modification of malignant pustule, has also been known to give rise to fatal disease. With regard to the effects of the consumption of the flesh of sheep who have died of splenic apoplexy or hraxy, the evidence is again very contradictory, but there is no doubt that it does give rise to blood- poisoning and to death in some cases. It would appear that pigs, dogs, and fowls are less affected by it than sheep, goats, or horses. Dr. Smith states that the shepherds in the Highlands of Scotland eat by pre- ference braxy sheep and are quite healthy, but then the flesh is never cooked until it has been steeped for two months in brine, and has been suspended for some time from the kitchen roof. It is preferred to ordinary salt mutton, because of its possessing somewhat the flavour of game. Dr. Letheby writes, in reference to this question — ' Every now and then, however, when perhaps the diseased parts have not been entirely removed, or when the salting has not been sufiiciently prolonged, or the cooking has not been thoroughly effected, the most serious con- sequences result from it, insomuch that many medical practitioners who are acquainted with the habits of the Scotch shepherds in this respect, and have seen the mischief occasioned by the meat, declare that braxy mutton is a highly dangerous food for man.' The flesh of animals affected with the smallpox produces sickness and diarrhoea, with sometimes febrile symptoms. No ill effects have been traced to the use of meat which has been affected by the foot and mouth disease. 480 UNWHOLESOME AND DISEASED MEAT. The evidence with respect to the effects of the use of the flesh of animals which have died of the cattle plague is somewhat contradictory, but it is certain that it is often consumed with impunity. Renault asserts that no danger is to be apprehended from the cooked flesh of cattle, pigs, or sheep which have died of any contagious disease. No ill effects have been traced to the use of the flesh of pigs which have been affected with scarlet fever or 'pig typhus. The flesh of horses aflfected with glandet's and farcy does not ap- pear to exert any injurious effects. PARASITIC DISEASES. Measles in the pig is caused by the presence in the muscles of Cysttcerciis cellulosus. The vesicles or sacs containing the cysticerci are of about the size of a hemp seed, and hence are visible to the naked eye, their nature, when examined with a low power of the microscope, being readily ascertained. They may sometimes be distinguished in the mucous membrane under the tongue, or on the conjunctiva, or sometimes they may be discovered by examining a small piece of mus- cular tissue removed from the tongue or any other convenient part. In some cases they are so abundant as to cause the flesh when cut to emit a crackling sound. In many countries they are of extremely common occurrence, as in North-West India. Salting does not kill them, and they may be readily detected in salted meat. A temperature of 100° 0. is said to kill the cysticerci, as also smoking the flesh containing them. ^ The sac contains a little creature with a sort of tuberculated head, crowned with a coronet of hooks, and having a bladder-like tail at- tached to it. Soon after it is swallowed the enclosing sac is dissolved by the gastric juice, and the creature being liberated, passes into the intestines and there fixes itself by its little hooks, and quickly grows, joint after joint, into a tape-worm.' — Lethehy. The cysticercus occurs in the flesh of other animals besides the pig, as the ox. The cysticercus of the pig gives rise to the variety of tape- worm called Tcenia soliuin, and that of ox and cow to Tcenia medio- canellata. The ova of these, when introduced into the stomachs of animals or of the human subject, become hatched, passing like the trichinae through its walls, and so being distributed through the body, becoming ultimately encysted. Hydatid disease. — Again, the tapeworm of the dog, Tcmiia echino- coccusy becomes the hydatid in man and some other animals. This in sheep often infests the brain, producing what has been called staggers. In man the chief seat of hydatids is the liver. The gid, sturdy, or turnsiek, is caused by the development oiccenurus cerehralis in the brain. The Trichina disease. — Like the Cysticercus cellulosus j the Trichina spiralis is particularly liable to infest the flesh of the pig. The best method of examination is the following : — A thin section I UNWHOLESOME AND DISEASED MEAT. 481 of the flesh should be immersed in a solution of liquor potassse, con- taining 1 part of the alkali to 8 of water, and allowed to remain for a few minutes only until the muscle becomes clear ; if allowed to remain too long the trichinae will be destroyed. The white specks then become clearly visible, and the worm will usually be seen coiled up, and, if not visible, it may often be rendered so by the addition of a drop or two of weak hydrochloric acid. The parts said to be most infested are the diaphragm, the intercostal muscles, and those of the eye and jaw. The presence of trichinae during life may sometimes be determined by an examination of the muscles under the tongue. Pork infected with trichinae ^is generally darker than usual on account of the irritating or inflammatory action of the creature lodged in the muscles, and when the parasite is encysted the meat presents a speckled appearance, the minute white cysts containing the worms being just visible to the naked eye.' As found in the hiunan subject it is usually in the encysted state, ^ when it has passed beyond its dan- gerous condition and has become harmless. In most cases, when thus discovered, there is no record of its action, and therefore it was once thought to be an innocent visitor, but we now know that while it was free, that is, before nature had barricaded it up in the little cyst, its presence was the cause of frightful disorder, killing about 50 per cent, of its victims in terrible agony.' — Lethehy. The young worms, being hatched in the body, migrate to all the muscles, ' causing the most excruciating pain, so that the patient, fearing to move his inflamed muscles, would lie motionless on his back ; and, if he did not die in this state of the disorder, nature came to the rescue and imprisoned the creature by surrounding it with a fibrinous cyst, where it lives for years, being ready at any moment to acquire activity when it is swallowed and released from its cell.' — Lethehy. The ordinary mode of their propagation is by eating the raw or im- perfectly cooked flesh. Cooking and smoking the flesh are but imper- fectly protective. A temperature from Q&^ to 68° 0. destroys the trichinae, but cold and decomposition of the meat do not impair their vitality. The rot. — Another disease occasioned by a parasitic animal, the fluke, Distoma hepaticurn, is the rot. This infests particularly the livers of animal and men, sheep being very liable to it, especially in wet seasons. ^ The way in which the disease is produced in sheep is curious. Ova are passed from the gall-bladder of infected animals into the in- testines, and so upon the land ; finding a moist situation they are soon hatched into ciliated embryos, which swim about and become de- veloped into cylindrical sacs of minute hydatids ; these attach them- selves to some mollusc, as a small snail. In wet weather the infected snails crawl upon the grass and are eaten by the sheep, and then the hydatid speedily changes his condition and becomes a fluke. When it is found in the body of man it has, perhaps, been drunk with water or eaten with some aquatic plant, as watercress, &c.' — Lethehy, 1 1 482 UNWHOLESOME AND DISEASED MEAT. There is no evidence to show that the liver of the sheep containing Jluhes or echinococciy when consumed in this country, gives rise to the same disease, but in Iceland the disease is derived from sheep and cattle, which in their turn become infected through the taenia of the dog. The symptoms of fluke disease are dulness, a rapid wasting, diarrhoea, yellowness of the eyes, falling of the hair, and dropsical swellings. Strongylus filana. — This parasite occurs in the lungs, giving rise to a disease of those organs resembling phthisis. In times of scarcity of meat, as in war, it may be necessary to allow of the use of the meat of diseased animals, but in this case certain precautions should be observed. The animals should be bled freely, the flesh or muscles only should be used, and the meat should be thoroughly cooked. The flesh of animals affected with smallpox, cijsticerci and trichince should not on any account be used. I POTTED MEATS AND FISH AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 483 CHAPTER XXV. POTTED MEATS AND FISH AND THEIR AD ULTERA TIONS. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Meat or fish not acknowledged in the names under which the articles are sold, and any foreign vegetable or mineral substance. Potted meats and fish are adulterated, first, by admixture with sub- stances added for the sake of bulk, weight, and cheapness ; and second, with others designed to heighten their colour. Thus they are sometimes adulterated with large quantities oi flour ^ and in other cases, it is alleged, with even chalk and planter of Paris. Again, sp'ats and other cheap fish are often ground up, and after being seasoned, are sold either in the separate or mixed state for real Gorgona paste. Lastly, the majority of these pastes were formerly very commonly coloured with large quantities of Venetian red and hole Ar^nenian, EESI7LTS OF THE EXAMINATION OP SAMPLES. Twenty-eight samples of potted meats and fish were examined a few years since, and with the following results : — 1. The samples of potted tongue and ham were entirely free from adulteration. 2. Fom- out of the five samples oi potted' heef were artificially coloured by means of the red earth, hole Armenian, 3. The whole of the samples oi potted hloaters examined were highly coloured with the before-named earthy substance. 4. One of the samples of hloater paste was adulterated in addition with a large proportion of starch or flour ^ probably wheat flour boiled. 5. The entire of the samples of anchovy paste analysed were still more highly, and even vividly, coloured with very large quantities of hole Arm&tiian, 6. Two of the anchovy pastes were in addition adulterated with flour ; one with a large percentage of icheat flour. 7. Of the twenty-eight samples of potted meats and flsh subjected to analysis, no less than twenty-three were more or less impregnated with the red earthy material, hole Armenian, ii2 484 POTTED MEATS AND FISH AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. Tliis picture of the adulteration of potted meats and fish is surely "bad and disgraceful enough, but we are happy to say that since the time when the analyses above recorded were made a very great improve- ment has taken place in the preparation of these articles, and hole Ai-menian is now but seldom made use of. The difierence in the appearance presented by the uncoloured samples contrasted with those in which the bole Armenian had been added was most striking, and usually siifiicient to enable the observer to distinguish by the eye alone the samples to which this scandalous addition had been made. While in the one case the paste was of a pale pink and perfectly natural hue, in the other the colour was such as the flesh, when pounded^ of no fish or animal ever presents, it being a deep brick red. In the report on bottled anchovies we have shown that one of the principal reasons why artificial colouring matters are employed is to conceal the dirt contained in the brine in which the fish is imported. In the present instance there is not even this poor excuse ; the only purpose served by the employment of the bole Armenian being to cause the potted articles to present a striking appearance, but one which at the same time is, in our opinion, most unnatural, and but little inviting. In the case too of potted meats and fish, the colouring ingredients cannot, as in anchovies, be got rid of in a measure by washing ; for since they are incorporated with the paste, they must be entirely con- sumed with the meat or fish. That the practice of adding large (quantities of coloured earthy substances to articles of diet is dirty, injurious to health, and in some cases even dangerous to life, cannot be doubted. The chief medicinal ingredient in bole Armenian is oxide of iron ; this, although not dan- gerous, might in some instances be productive of prejudicial effects ; but it sometimes happens that other red earths are used, and these, as well as also occasionally, although rarely, bole Armenian itself, are contaminated vdth red lead. Fo7' this poisonous substance each of the above twenty-eight satnples tvere separately analysed, without hoicever, toe are happy to state, a particle of it being discovei'ed in a single instance. Mr. JRichardson, then officer of the Local Board of Health of New- ton Heath, near Manchester, gave the following evidence before the Committee on Adulteration, of 1855, in regard to the addition of horseflesh to potted meats, sausages, &c. : — ^ We have in Newton five knackers' yards, and there is only one in Manchester. The reason is, that they have so much toleration in Newton ; and it has been a source of great profit to them, because they have the means of selling the best portions of the horseflesh to mix with the potted meats. ^ I can say for a fact that the tongues of horses particularly, and the best portions, such as the hind-quarters, of horses, are generally sold to mix with collared brawn, or pigs' heads as they are called with f i POTTED MEATS AND FISH AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 485 US, and for sausages and polonies. I understand, also, from those who have been in the habit of making them, that horseflesh materially assists the making of sausages ; it is a hard fibrine, and it mixes better and keeps them hard, and they last longer in the shop-window before they are sold, because otherwise the sausages run to water and become soft and pulpy. I believe horseflesh also materially assists German sausages ; it keeps them hard.' To the above account we may add that German sausages and po- lonies were at one time frequently coloured with large quantities of Venetian red or i-eddle. DETECTIOI^ OF THE ADULTERATIOI^^S OF POTTED MEATS AND PISH. As we have seen, the chief adulterants of these articles are flour or starch, red ferruginous earths, as Venetian red and reddle, and sometimes, it is alleged, carbonate or sulphate of lime. Methods have been given elsewhere in this work for the detection and estimation of each of these substances, so that it is unnecessary to repeat them in this place. 486 ANCHOVIES, THEIR SUBSTITUTIONS AND ADULTERATIONS. CHAPTEK XXVI. ANCHOVIES, THEIR SUBSTITUTIONS AND ADULTERATIONS. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Admixture with or substitution of any other fi^h than the anchov}" ; bole armenian or any other coloured earth. We find but little, in works on the adulteration of food, in reference to the substitution of inferior kinds of fish for tbis much esteemed variety ; although, if common report is to be credited, but few articles of consumption are more subject to substitution and adulteration than the anchovy, whether in the entire state or in the forms of paste and sauce. On the present occasion we have to treat of the entire fish only. Before proceeding to give the results of the examination and analyses of various samples of anchovies, as vended in the metropolis, we insert an original figure, as also a scientific description of the fish, taken from Yarrell's excellent work on the British Fishes : — ' Gene^-ic characters. — Distinguished from the herring in having tbe head pointed ; the upper jaw the longest ; the mouth deeply divided ; the opening extending backwards behind the line of the eyes ; the gape branchial apertures very large ; the ventral fins in advance of the line of the commencement of the dorsal ; abdomen smooth ; branchiostegous rays twelve. ' I have followed Dr. Fleming, in preserving to the anchovy the old name by which it was formerly known. It was called Lycostomus, from the form of its mouth ; and Engraulis encrasicolus, because, from its bitterness, it was supposed to carry its gall in its head. For this reason, the head, as well as the entrails, are removed when the fish is pickled. ^ The anchovy is a common fish in the Mediterranean from Greece to Gibraltar, and was well known to the Greeks and Romans, by whom the liquor prepared from it, called garum, was in great estima- tion. Its eastern range is extended into the Black Sea. ^ The fishing for them is carried on during the night, and lights are used with the nets. * The anchovy is common on the coasts of Portugal, Spain, and France ; it occiu*s, I have no doubt, at the Channel Islands, and has been taken on the Hampshire coast and in the Bristol Channel. In the Appendix to Willughby's work, it is mentioned as having been S 488 ANCHOYIES, THEIR SUBSTITUTIONS AND ADULTERATIONS. taken on the coast of Wales ; Pennant obtained it near his own resi- dence, at Downing in Flintshire ; and Mr. Bicheno has very recently- obtained several on the coast of Glamorganshire. It is said to be sold frequently in Liverpool market, and is reported to be at tliis time an inhabitant of the piece of water below Blackwall, called Dagenham Eeach. ^ Its range to the north is extensive, as it is occasionally taken in the Baltic, and on the coast of Noway ; but is not included by Linnaeus in his Fauna Suecica. ^ The anchovy appears to attain a much larger size than has usually been accorded to it : from four to five inches in length is the more or- dinary size ; but Mr. Oouch says — ' I have seen it in the Cornish seas of the length of seven inches and a half; and I have met with speci- mens from autmnn, through the winter, to the middle of March. It is therefore probable that a lisheiy might be established with good prospect of success, for though the nets employed for other fish can take but few of them, the numbers found in the stomachs of the whiting, and other ravenous fishes, show that they are in considerable abundance. ^ The anchovy is immediately recognised among the species of the family to which it belongs by its sharp-pointed head, with the upper jaw considerably the longest. The length of the head, compared with the length of the body alone, is as one to three ; the depth of the body but two-thirds of the length of the head, and compared to the length of the whole fish, is as one to seven; the first ray of the dorsal fin arises half way between the point of the nose and the end of the fleshy portion of the tail ; the third ray of the dorsal fin, which is the longest, is of the same length as the base of the fin ; the pectoral fin small ; the ventral fins arise in a vertical line in advance of the commencement of the dorsal fin, which is over the space between the ventral and anal fins ; the base of the anal fin is as long as the distance from its commencement to the origin of the ventral fins ; the rays short ; the tail deeply forked. The fin rays in number are : — D, 14 ; P, 15 ; V, 7 ; A, 18 ; C, 19. The breadth of the eye is one-fifth of the length of the whole head ; the peculiarity in the comparative length of the jaws has been pre- viously noticed ; the gill covers are elongated ; the scales of the body large and deciduous ; the colour of the top of the head and back blue, with a tinge of green ; irides, gill covers, sides and belly, silvery white ; the fins delicate in structure, and greenish white ; the membranes con- necting the rays almost transparent. ^ In a series of notes on the occurrence of rare fish at Yarmouth and its vicinity, with which I have been favoured by Dawson Turner, Esq., there is mention of a specimen of the anchovy, taken on the beach, which measured six inches and a half in length ; an additional proof of the large size acquired by this fish on our shores.' i ANCHOYIES5 THEIR SUBSTITUTIONS AND ADULTERATIONS. 489 To tlie above we would add a description of tlie condition of the true anchovy when "bottled. The head and intestines are removed ; the scales and fins, with the exception of the pectorals, are allowed to remain ; the fish is of small size, silvery, and rather flat, the line of the back slightly curved, and the flesh is usually of a pini: or salmon colour, the depth varying con- siderably in diflerent samples according to age : if an anchovy be three months old, it will be pale ; if six months, rather pink ; and if twelve months, a beautiful deep pink colour. The number of the fin-rays, which may be counted in the fish in its preserved state, is greater than that given in the description we have quoted ; thus, when complete, the dorsal fin is composed of sixteen rays, the anal fin of nineteen, and the caudal of twenty-six rays. Anchovies are imported in barrels, and are preserved in brine made with rock salt ; the bottling is performed in this country, chiefly by wholesale pickle and fish-sauce makers. THE ADULTERATIONS OF ANCHOVIES. Several kinds of fish are either substituted for, or mixed with, the genuine Gorgona anchovy. The chief of these are Dutch, French, and Sicilian fish, and occa- sionally Sardines and Sprats. In addition, the brine in which the fish are preserved is almost in- variably highly coloured with large quantities of hole Armenian and Venetian red. Bole Armenian is a red ferruginous earth, often prepared artificially by mixing together Venetian red and chalk. The reason of its being added to anchovies, it is alleged, is to improve the appearance of the fish ; but the real reason is to conceal the dirt contained in the brine which surrounds the fish. In eating anchovies some persons first wash the fish, by which means they no doubt get rid of much of the red earth and dirt ; but others eat the fish just as it comes out of the brine. From an examination, made some years since, of tioenty-eight samples of anchovies, mostly in bottles, it appears. That seven of the samples consisted entirely of Dutch eish. That two consisted of a mixture of Dutch eish and Anchovies. That the brine in tioenty-three of the samples was charged with either hole Armenian or Venetian red, the quantity varying considerably in amount ; but in most cases the brine was saturated with these earthy powders to such an extent that they might be obtained and collected from the bottom of the bottles almost by tea- spoonfuls. It is not to be infeiTed that those samples in which no Dutch fish were detected consisted of the true anchovy, since we have ascertained that two other kinds of fish besides the Dutch are commonly imported 490 ANCHOVIES, THEin SUBSTITUTIONS AND ADULTERATIONS. and sold as * true anchovies/ and ^ real Gorgonas/ namely, French and Sicilian fish. Now, we have no doubt but that the majority of the above samples consisted entirely of one or other of these fish ; we hesitate, however, to pronounce a positive opinion in each case. Although it is not diffi- cult to distinguish French and Sicilian fish from the Gorgona an- cho\'y when first taken from the barrels in which they are imported, yet when contained in bottles the discrimination is often a matter of considerable difficulty, and in many cases is even scarcely possible. This arises from the squeezing and mutilation of the fish in the pro- cess of bottling, as well as from the altered appearance due to the red earthy matters with which they are commonly covered. Whether those engaged in the trade are acquainted with any practical charac- ters by which the discrimination of the fish, even when thus altered, may be effected we know not. We have, however, much reason to think that Sicilian and French fish, notwithstanding their resemblance to the true anchovy, may be distinguished by experienced persons, even when bottled. With a view to determine this point, we forwarded to a person engaged in the anchovy trade twelve of the samples referred to, each being labelled with a distinct number ; the following is his report : — 7. Dutch, inferior. 1. Gorgona. 2. French fish. 3. Ditto. 4. Gorgona, not fine. 5. Sicilian fish. 6. Gorgona. 8. Sicilian, good quality. 9. Gorgona. 10. Dutch fish. 11. Sicilian. 12. Sicilian, best quality. If this list be correct, then not one-thikd oe the twenty-eight SAMPLES EXAMIl^ED CONSISTED OE GOKGONA AnCHOVIES. The practice of imparting an unnaturally red colour to the fish and brine, by means of Venetian red and bole Armenian, is in the highest degree reprehensible. To saturate an article of food with large quan- tities of earthy colouring matter is objectionable on the score of cleanliness ; it is equally so as regards health, for this earth contains a large quantity of iron. Now, this medicine is not suited to all cases, and it may even, in some instances, be productive of mischief; at all events, when it is desirable to take iron, we should prefer that it be prescribed under the advice of a physician, and not administered in an article of food by our grocer, fishmonger, or Italian warehouse- man. Again, it occasionally happens that Venetian red contains red lead ; and although in the analyses we have made we are happy to state that ive have not detected that 2}oi8onov^ metallic oxide in a single samj^le, there is no question but that red lead is occasionally to be found in bottled anchovies. Anchovies, even when thus coarsely reddened, and put in glass bottles, are not particularly sightly objects. Both for convenience ^ ANCHOYIES5 THEIR SUBSTITUTIONS AND ADULTERATIONS. 491 and appearance it would be much better that tbey should be enclosed in open-mouthed earthen jars, which might be made of diiferent patterns, and as ornamental as desired ; by this means the necessity for colouring would be done away with, and there would be no occa- sion to use wax and resin, themselves frequently coloured with red lead, to coat the corks, and some of which substances, on the bottles being opened, usually find their way into the contents. Now that glass is so cheap, if bottles continue to be used they should, at all events, be furnished with glass stoppers in place of corks. THE DETECTION OF THE ADIJLTEEATIONS OE ANCHOVIES. The Dutch fish may be distinguished from the true anchovy by its being invariably deprived of its scales, by its large size, white flesh, general coarseness, and by the very evident scale-marks which extend over the whole surface. The fins have the same disposition as the true anchovy, and the same number of rays. The French, and especially the Dutch, feh are not only of much less value, but also greatly inferior as articles of diet to the true anchovy. The difference in their cost may be estimated by the fact that dealers find it worth their while to mix them in different pro- portions in even the same bottle. There is no difficulty in distin- guishing the Dutch fish by the characters pointed out above ; but it would be very difficult to discriminate between the larger samples of the French anchovies, when denuded of their scales, and that which in this article is denominated Dutch Jish, and hence we infer that the two may possibly be separate states and conditions of one and the same species. The Fi-ench fish is caught off the coasts of Nantes and Nice, and is imported into this country in barrels packed in brine made with rock salt. It closely resembles in its characters the true anchovy, and is pro- bably of the same genus. Like the anchovy, it is deprived of its head and intestines, but the scales, and not unfrequently the branchial rays and pectoral fins, are entire. Moreover, the fish is usually somewhat larger, thicker across the back, tapers more towards the tail, and the flesh is much whiter than the Gorgona anchovy. These differences, however, are not sufficiently marked in general to allow of this fish, when hottledy being satisfactorily distinguished from the true anchovy by an orduiary observer. Its commercial value is about one-half that of the Gorgona anchovy. The Sicilian fish resembles the Gorgona anchovy very closely, of which, by some, it is considered to be the young, it being smaller. Whether it be a state of that species or of the same genus we are not able to determine with certainty ; its value is at least oue-thii*d less than that of the Goi^ona anchovy. In none of the samples have we met with either ^rats or sardines^ 492 ANCHOYIES, THEIR SUBSTITUTIONS AND ADULTERATIONS. althougli there is no doubt that both these fish have been, and are still occasionally, sold as real Gorgona anchovies. The sprat may be readily distinguished from the anchovy by the dorsal fin, v^hich con- sists of seventeen rays, but more particularly by the position of the ventral fin, which is placed in a vertical line directly under the first dorsal fin-ray. The sardine is a shorter and thicker fish than the anchovy ; it has white flesh, and the relative position of the ventral and dorsal fins is difterent. The detection of Venetian red and hole Armenian. — The presence of these earths is sufficiently indicated by the red colour of the brine and by the colour and earthy character of the precipitate. In order to obtain them in a separate state, the fish should be repeatedly washed, the washings and the brine evaporated, the residue treated with water to dissolve out the salt, and then incinerated and weighed ; finally, the ash must be tested for iron and chalk according to the processes already given. I i ]&OTTLED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 493 CHAPTER XXVII. THE ADULTERATION OF BOTTLED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES, DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Copper or any foreign colouring matter. An attentive examination, with the eye alone, of various samples of GKEEN bottled fruits and vegetables served to raise suspicion, and to produce the impression that the method of preservation adopted by modern preservers of these articles was not quite so harmless as that originally proposed by Mr. Saddington. We felt, indeed, a strong conviction that the same means of coloration was resorted to in the case of bottled fruits and vegetables as in that of pickles. In order to determine whether this conviction was well founded or not, we insti- tuted a series of rigorous analyses. The extraordinary effect of copper, in heightening and rendering permanent the gi-een colour of fruits and vegetables, is exerted upon the green contents of the cells, the chlorophylle, and hence it is the coloured portions of vegetables and fruits, as those invested by the epidermis, which are most affected by this substance. The copper used accumulates in this membrane as a salt — as an acetate, a citrate, or a malate of copper. The presence of copper, however, in fruits and vegetables is not confined to the coloured portions ; it penetrates through the whole tissue ; and a considerable part of the metal used even remains diffused throughout the fluid in which the vegetable substance is contained ; hence it is desirable to analyse for copper not only the preserved article itself, but also the fluid in which it is immersed. Results of Analyses of Samples, Thirty-four samples of different kinds of bottled fruits and vege- tables were subjected to chemical analysis. From these analyses the following conclusions were deduced : — 494 BOTTLED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 1. That of the thirty-three samples of preserved fruits and vege- tables, seven xcerefree from contamination with copper. 2. That twefnty-seven samples were more or less impregnated with that metal. 8. That t7'aces of copper tvere discovered in three of the samples. 4. In seven of tne samples copper was present in small ammint only. 5. Eight samples contained it in considerable amount. 6. In six samples the metal loas present in vei^ considei-able amount. 7. Four of the samples contained this poisonous impregnation in very large quantities. 8. That the samples of limes contained copper, the one in small amount only, the other in amount more considerable. 9. That the gooseherines contained a considerable a7nount of copper ^ and some samples even a very large quantity. 10. That the rhubarb contained an amount of copper even more con- siderable, some samples being contaminated with it to a very large extent, 11. That the greengages contained a still greater quantity of copper, the metal being frequently present in highly dangerous amounts, 12. In olives this poisonous impregnation was in the largest amount, although its effect in heightening the colour of the fruit is less marked than in the other cases. 13. The preserved red fruits, as cm-rants, raspberries, and cherries, were not as a 7'ule contaminated with copper. The absence of copper in red fruits, and the variation of the quan- tity of that metal in green fruits according to the requirements in each case, afford clear evidence that this dangerous impregnation does not arise from the mere use of copper utensils, but that it is piu*posely introduced, the quantity being systematically adjusted in different proportions, determined by the kind of fruit to be preserved. That this conclusion is correct is also shov^n by the fact, that accord- ing to the method of preparation usually pursued, the fruit or vegetable does not come in contact with copper. The fruit or vegetable is taken directly from the baskets or sieves in which it is received from the country, and carefullv packed in bottles ; these are next filled up with a liquid, consisting of water holding a small quantity of alum in solution ; they are then loosely corked, and submitted for a certain time to the heat of a water-bath, so as to ensure the coagulation of the vegetable albimien ; they are afterwards more tightly corked, tied over with string or wire, and further secm-ed with resin and bladder, or with a metallic capsule. The presence of copper, then, in bottled fruits and vegetables can only be explained on the supposition that it is purposely introduced ; and this is really the case. As in the preservation of bottled fruits and vegetables there is no vinegar to act upon the copper of the vessels, the copper, usually the I BOTTLED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 495 sulphate^ commonly called hlue stone, is in all cases added direct to these articles. We have the authority of a manufacturer for stating that the quantity of this powerful and poisonous substance used is often fully as much as 5 grammes to one gross of bottles of the fruit ; this gives not far short of 0*04 gramme, equal to half a grain, per bottle, vrhich is a full medicinal dose. In some cases, where the quantity of copper is considerable, the metal becomes deposited on any metallic surface it may happen to come in contact with, in the com'se of a few minutes. In proof of this we will quote a paragraph from a letter written some years since by Mr. Bernays, a chemist resident in Derby, addressed to the ^ Lancet.' He writes : — ^ I had bought a bottle of preserved gooseberries from one of the most respectable grocers in this town, and had had its contents trans- ferred into a pie. It struck me that the gooseberries looked fearfully green when cooked ; and on eating one with a steel fork, its intense bitterness sent me in search of the sugar. After having sweetened and mashed the gooseberries with the same steel fork, I was about to convey some to my mouth, when I observed the prongs to be com- pletely coated with a thin film of bright metallic copper. My testi- mony can be borne out by the evidence of three others, two of whom dined at my table.' The colour of green fruits and vegetables is sometimes apparently heightened by a second device *, the bottles in which they are enclosed are made of a highly-colom'ed glass ; those in which French olives are preserved are of so intense a green as to impart to the fruit as seen throug-h the bottles a deep-gi'een colour. As a rule, the amount of copper ordinarily present in many kinds of bottled fruits and vegetables is greater for equal quantities than in pickles, which also frequently contain that metal in large and almost poisonous quantity. Add to this the fact that while pickles are used in small quantity only, a whole bottle of preserved fruit is consumed by two or three persons at one time \ hence we perceive how much more dangerous is the employment of copper in the case of fruits than in that of pickles. The present adds another instance to the many which have already been adduced, in which manufacturers, in order to heighten the colour of articles, and as they conceive, often very erroneously, to improve their appearance, have sacrificed their flavour and quality, and have risked health, and even safety. In the preservation of red fruits, no copper is used ; but here, again, red colouring matter, as decoction of logwood, or infusion of beet-root, as well as the red aniline colours, which are almost constantly con- taminated with arsenic, are not unfrequently employed, especially where the fruit is damaged or of inferior quality. 496 BOTTLED FKUITS AND VEGETABLES. THE DETECTION OF THE ADULTERATIONS OP BOTTLED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. The chief adulterations of these articles are those with salts of copper, added for the purpose of heightening their colour. In many cases the intense green or bluish-grey coloiu*, greatly increased when the fruit or vegetable is cooked, is sufficient to betray the presence of copper, especially to an accustomed eye. For the detection of copper by chemical means we must have re- course to the processes described under the head of ^ Pickles.' The copper is found, as in the case of pickles, in the preserving fluid as well as in the fruit or vegetable itself. If we desire to test the liquid, we proceed as follows : — About 100 cc. of the juice or fluid in which the fruit or vegetable is preserved are to be measured out and placed in a test-glass ; the acidity is to be slightly increased by the addition of about three drops of strong nitric acid, and a polished rod of iron placed in the fluid, and allowed to remain for about twenty-four hours. If copper is present in considerable amount, the surface of the rod, from top to bottom, becomes covered with a continuous and bright coating of that metal. If the amount of copper is less considerable, the upper half or so only of the rod receives the coating. If the quantity is very small indeed, no perceptible deposit of copper will take place. Hence we perceive that the iron rod affords a simple and most con- clusive test for copper in fruits and vegetables, when present in any - thing like considerable amount, and that it even serves to indicate, to a certain extent, the quantity of copper with which the juice of dif- ferent samples is impregnated, as shown by the rapidity with which the deposit occurs, by the thickness of the coating, and by the extent of surface covered by it. If we desire to analyse the fruit or vegetable, we must proceed as follows : — 100 grammes of each of the fruits and vegetables are to be weighed out, placed in crucibles, and incinerated until the whole of the carbon is dissipated, the colour of the ash being carefully noted. In those cases in which the fruit or vegetable is not contaminated with copper, the residual ash is observed to be either white or greyish-white, while in those instances in which copper is present it is constantly of a pink colour, the depth varying uniformly with the amount of copper present. When fruits or vegetable substances are carefully incinerated with- out being in any way disturbed, the general form of the fruit, &c., is in most cases tolerably well preserved ; and it is then perceived that the pink colour is confined principally to the sui'face of the substance incinerated. In those cases in which the amount of copper is but very small, the pink will be seen on the surface, only here and there, and will be of a BOTTLED FKUITS AND TEGETABLES. 497 pale tint. Where the quantity is larger, althouprh still but small, the colour will be more general and more decided. Where it is abundant, the whole surface of the ash will be of a bright and beautiful rosy- pink hue. Lastly, when the, quantity of copper present is very con- siderable, the residual ash will be of a deep pink colour. Olives, when incinerated, do not leave a clean white ash, so that although the colour may be very well detected in them, it is not of so bright a pink as in other fruits ; and the colour is not confined, as in most other cases, to the surface, but extends through the whole sub- stance of the fruit. When a portion of the juice is incinerated along with the fruit, as IS usually the case, the crucibles, if copper be present, become tinted with the same rosy-pink colour observed on the surface of the ash of the fruit or vegetable incinerated. In some cases, where the amount of copper is considerable, the bottoms of the crucibles become deeply and beautifully stained of a bright and iridescent pink. The pink colour of the ash is thus explained. In the course of incineration the acid with which the copper was combined is destroyed, the highly characteristic pink oxide alone remaining, and its presence being revealed by its peculiar colour. The tint having been noted, the ash is next treated with some strong nitric acid. One part of the acid unfiltered solution is trans- ferred to a test tube, and rendered strongly alkaline with ammonia. A precipitate, consisting of phosphates and other salts of the alkaline earths, is thrown down, which is allowed to settle. If copper be pre- sent the supernatant liquor will exhibit a more or less blue coloration, which is particularly perceptible when the test tube is placed over a sheet of white paper. Another part of the solution of the ash is rendered first slightly alkaline with ammonia, the solution filtered, and then acidulated with pure acetic acid. A solution of ferrocyanide of potassium is now added ; if the solution contain copper, a reddish-brown precipitate or coloration will be observed. This reaction is extremely delicate, and constitutes the best test for copper, especially when this is present in small quantities only. For the quantitative estimation of copper, the reader is referred to the article on ' Pickles.' S S 498 TINJ^ED VEGETABLES. OHAPTEK XXVIII. TINNED VE GETABLES. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. The presence of copper. Several kinds of vegetaWes are very successfully preserved from j^ear to year in hermetically-sealed tins, in the same manner and on the same principle as are meat, milk, and various other articles of food. The principal kinds of vegetables thus preserved are peas (iJetits pots), beans (haricots verts), mixed vegetables, containing usually peas and beans, called by the French Macedoines, and asparagus. Now, all these vegetables, with the exception of the asparagus, are very frequently coloured with copper in the same manner as are the bottled fruits and vegetables. In this case likewise the copper is added intentionally, consisting in the addition usually of a solution of the sulphate of copper or blue stone. The quantity added is even more considerable than in the case of the articles preserved in bottles, the colour of the tinned peas and beans being often intensely and unnaturally green. This highly objectionable practice was made known by us many years since in reports in the ^ Lancet,' and although the exposures then made have led to a diminution of the practice, especially in this country, we are yet frequently called upon to analyse vegetables in tins with the result of discovering copper in the majority of cases. Vegetables are extensively preserved in tins both in this country and abroad, where peas and beans are even cheaper than with us. The English manufacturers now less frequently add copper than they did formerly, but enormous quantities of these vegetables continue to be imported from France, notwithstanding that the use of copper in that country has been prohibited under heavy penalties, so that we believe in France it will be scarcely possible to meet with, even at restaurants and cheap dining-places, vegetables so coloured. In most cases the detection of this adulteration is easy enough. In many instances the colour itself is sufficient to reveal its presence, the vegetables containing it presenting a deep green colour in place of the olive tint characteristic of copper-free vegetables when cooked and preserved. TINNED VEGETABLES. 499 For tlie detection of the metal cliemically, both qualitatively and quantitatively, we must proceed in the manner already described under the heads of ^ Bottled Fruits and Vegetables ' and ^ Pickles/ The practice above exposed is imdoubtedly of a highly objection- able and dangerous character, and we trust that our food analysts will not fail to exert their authority with a view to its exposure and extinction. K K 2 500 PRESERVES AND JELLIES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. CHAPTER XXIX. PRESERVES AND JELLIES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Any foreign fruit or substance not acknowledged in the names under which they are sold. Copper, whether added or derived from the vessels employed in their manufacture, or any foreign colouring matter. Preseryes and jellies are very liable to adulteration, like a great many more articles of consumption, and this in ways which would hardly be suspected by the uninitiated. One kind of adulteration practised is to mix a cheaper with a more expensive fruit, stiU calling the jam by the name of the more costly constituent. Vegetable jellies are liable to the same kind of adul- teration. Another practice is to make use of the refuse materials derived from the preparation of vegetable jellies, as of the apple particularly, and to introduce it into jams and preserves, or to make with it and other refuse matters, including those from the manufacture of Brjtish wines, different kinds of jam, to which certain grand names and titles are given. In the same manner damaged fruits, including figs, are fre- quently introduced into jams. Some time back, Dr. Tidy called the atten- tion of the City Commission of Sewers to the fact that 210 boxes of bad figs, weighing 8,000 lbs. in all, had been seized at Cox's Quay, and stated that he had reason to believe that this was only a small portion of an enormous quantity which had arrived in the docks. The figs themselves, which were rotten and maggoty, were quite unsaleable, and were used in the manufacture of jam, together with bad plums and the sweepings of fruit warehouses. The seeds, with a small quantity of raspberry jam with which the concoction was mixed, gave the so- called preserve a genuine appearance, and it was largely sold among the poor imder the names of ^ Family preserve/ ^ Royal jam,' ^ Fruit preserve,' and * Household jam.' Lastly, the jams of a green colour, as those of the greengage, plum, and gooseberry, are frequently greened or coloured by means of copper. In some instances this is purposely introduced, and in others its presence is due not to any intentional admixture, but to the use, and especially the careless employment, of copper pans in the manufacture of the jams. PKESERVES AND JELLIES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 501 One of the jams very liable to adulteration is raspberry jam. This is frequently mixed with a proportion of the pulp of the goosehefrry. Strawberry jam is liable to the same adulteration. In samples of mixed raspberry and gooseberry jam we have met with large quantities of apple. Again, marmalade is sometimes found to contain the pulp of Fig. 139. Oraxge MARiiALADE, adulterated with AfpU or Turnip, a a, tissue of orange ; 6 &, cells of foreign vegetable substance. Magnified 100 diameters. either apple or turnip (fig. 139), but much more frequently stiU it con- tains a proportion of apple jelly ; indeed, at one time, we believe, there was scarcely a marmalade to be obtained from the shops free from that admixture. The makers assert that this addition is not made for the 502 PRESERVES AND JELLIES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. purpose of adulteration, but to stiffen tlie marmalade. All we can say is, that housekeepers who make their own marmalade do not find any such admixture to be requisite, and with the quality of home-made marmalade no fault can be found. We have been informed that a Omiis Root, a, epidermis ', h, transverse section of root showing the cells filled with starch, long prismatic crystals, and portions of a bundle of vessels cut across ; c, section of rootlet ; d, C7^stal ; e, starch granules. Magnified, a, 6, c, 100, d 200, e 500 diameters. species of swede of a yellow colour is much used in the adulteration of orange marmalade. Sweet oranges are also sometimes employed. The two principal vegetable jellies prepared are those made from the red and black currant. Now, red currant jelly in nearly all in- PKESERYES AND JELLIES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 503 stances contains a large admixture of jelly prepared from the goose- berry, and it is probable tbat that of the black currant is similarly comipounded. Raspheiry jelly \^ said usually to consist of currant jelly to which the flavour of the raspberry has been communicated by means of orris root (fig. 140). JR^aspherry flavouring ioi^ sugar con- fectionery is made entirely of currant jelly and orris root. But organic chemistry has in these days reached such a pitch that the odour and flavour of almost any fruit is capable of being imitated. We have recently received samples of the following artificial fruit essences manufactured by Messrs. Langdale & Co., of Hatton Garden : — Essence of apples, pears, quince, pineapple, raspberries, strawberries, cherries, peach kernels, nun, gin, cognac, Maraschino, hops, vanilla, parsley, celery, and curry powder. It was curious to observe how the names of certain articles were changed as soon as the late Adulteration Act came into operation. Thus it became rare to meet with a pot labelled red currant jelly, as this would have exposed the vendors of the mixed article to the opera- tion of that Act, and so the name was changed to red jelly. Results of Analyses of Samples. Thirty-five samples of preserves and jellies of various kinds were subjected J;o chemical examination for copper with the following results : — The raspberry jam analysed contained a very considerable quantity of copper. The four samples of gooseberry ja^n examined all contained copper. Copper, sometunes in large amount, was detected in twelve of the fourteen samples of orange marmalade analysed. The nine samples of greengage jam were all more or less im- pregnated with copper, it being present in considerable amount in five of the samples. The greengages contained in three different boxes of crystallised fruits all owed their deep green colom' to the presence of copper. The li^nes and greengages present in a little glass jar of fruit pre- served in jelly also owed their brilliant colour to a salt of copper. Copper was present in the three samples of candied citron peel subjected to analysis. Thus Copper was detected in no less than thirty-three of the thirty- five samples of different preserves analysed: three contained traces only ; in eleven the metal was present in S7nall quantity ; and in nineteen either in considerable or even very large amount. Knowing well the powerful action of vegetable juices and also of sugar upon copper, we have long entertained the belief that 504 PRESERVES AND JELLIES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. copper would be very frequently detected, on analysis, in preserves, jams, and jellies, as ordinarily prepared : we must acknowledge, how- ever, that the result of actual investigation has far exceeded our expectations, since it has proved that preserves made in copper vessels not only almost invariably contain copper, but that the metal is often present in very considerable quantities, sufficient to tint the ash of a deep pink, and to cause the solution of the ash when treated with ammonia to become of a decided and sometimes even of a deep blue colour. But the still larger quantities of copper detected in certain of the samples of greengage jam seem to show that, as was ascertained to be the case with bottled fruits and vegetables, some greening salt of copper, of the sulphate or acetate, is really intentionally introduced for the purpose of creating an artificial viridity. The disclosures now made affiDrd convincing proof how improper and even dangerous it is to make preserves, as is commonly done even by ordinary housekeepers, in copper saucepans. The vessels employed for this purpose, wherever practicable, should be lined with enamel. Although we may fairly expect to find copper in any preserved vegetable substance prepared in the ordinary manner, yet we scarcely expected to meet with that poison in those tasteful and sparkling- little boxes of bonbons which at Ohristmas-time are displayed in shop windows so attractively ; neither did we expect to find it making its way, through the citron-peel used, into our very Christmas plum- pudding. We have repeatedly shown that the adulterators of our food do not scruple to employ, when it suits their purpose, the most deadly sub- stances, undeterred by the serious consequences which but too fre- quently result from their use. Thus, it has been proved that it is no uncommon thing for them to make use of various preparations of iron, lead, copper, arsenic, mercury, &c. It is not a little remarkable that the majority of the substances are had recourse to, not on account of bulk or weight, but for the mere sake of colours, which, thus pro- cured, are frequently in a high degree glaring and imnatural, these colom-s being obtained, too, at the expense of quality and flavour. Amongst the articles which have already been treated of, and in which foreign colouring ingredients have been detected, are tea, chicory, cocoa, cayenne, mustard, pickles, bottled fruits and vegetables, tinned vegetables, potted meats, and fish. The list is, however, far from complete as yet, and on the present occasion we have added other articles. The quantity of copper contained in jams, even in those cases in which it is perfectly certain that no intentional addition of any salt of that metal has taken place, varies very greatly. The reason of this variation in the amount depends, we believe, greatly upon the care taken in the preparation of the jams. When acids, as those of fruits, are brought m contact with a clean and bright surface of copper, PEESERVES AND JELLIES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 505 no immediate or direct action takes place ; the metal must first be oxidised before the acid can combine with it, the oxygen for this purpose being derived from that contained in the air, which is being constantly introduced into the jam by the stirring which takes place diu'ing its preparation. These facts*^ show how necessary it is that the copper pans, when employed, should be kept in the brightest and cleanest state possible, and that the jam should not be allowed to remain in contact with them a moment longer than is absolutely ncessary. THE detectio:n' of the adtjlteeations of jams. For the detection of the adulterations of jams the microscope Fig. Ul. a, pip of raspberry ; b, of gooseberry ; c, of white currant; d, of black currant; e e, of strawberry ; //, of Jig. affords, as it does in so many other cases, nearly the only means whereby the admixture of one fruit with another can be discovered. But before applying that instrument to the detection of the adultera- tions of jam, it is necessary that the structure of the several fruits and vegetable substances employed and the characters presented by them should be carefully studied. 506 PRESERVES AND JELLIES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. Fig. 142. EPDDKRjns OF Apple. Fig. 143. Cblm of Parenchyma of Apple. PRESERVES AND JELLIES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 507 Fig. 144. Epidermis of Turnip. Fig. 145. Cells of Parenchyma of Turnip. Raspberries, strawberries, gooseberries, and currants are all dis- tinguishable the one from the other by means of the seeds of the fruit. The differences in the characters of these are well shown in the engraving (fig. 141). But there are other differences in the case of most of the fruits above 508 PRESERYES AND JELLIES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. named, either in tlie cuticle or the hairs with which it is clothed, or in the cells which form the pulp. The presence of apple in jams may in general be satisfactorily dis- covered by means of the microscope. It is not in all cases easy to distinguish between the rounded cells of the cooked pulp of the apple and those of the turnip, but a careful examination of the jam will generally disclose in it portions of the cuticle, pips, or of the lining membrane of the cavities in which these are enclosed (figs. 142 and 143). Again, the turnip itself presents peculiarities of structure whereby in some cases its presence may be recognised and discriminated. Thus the characters of the cuticle are very different from those of the apple, the only vegetable fruit with which it is liable to be confounded. The form of the cells composing the skin are, as will be seen from the sub- joined engraving, verj^ different, while the average size of the cells of the pulp is much smaller than that of the apple (figs. 144 and 145). It is thus quite practicable to detect most of the adulterations of jams by admixtm-e with other fruits and vegetables by means of the microscope, but we have as yet not indicated any method by which the proportions of the different fruits employed may be arrived at. This may be effected, however, by ascertaining the number of the pips of the different fruits present in mixed jams. Although the number of pips contained in the different fruits varies to a not inconsiderable extent, we are yet enabled by separating and counting them to form an approximate estimate of the composition of the jam. Thus the number of pips in the gooseberry varies from 25 to 35, being on an average 30 ; strawberry contains from 70 to 100, the average being 85 ; raspberries from 55 to 65, the average being 60 ; black currants from 35 to 45, the average being 40 j and the white and red currants from 3 to 5, average 4. By dissolving and diffiising about a tablespoonful of the jam in water the pips wiU be left behind. They are to be spread out on a white plate or a piece of glass, and they may then be easily dis- tinguished by their size and other characters, including the micro- scopical appearances. In reference to the detection of foreign or artificial red colouring matters, we have met with the following statements : — ^ With solution of carbonate of soda the artificial red colouring matter remains un- changed, while the real becomes lilac or green.' — Food Journal. According to C. Puscher, fuchsin, rosanilin or aniline red in vegetable jellies and juices may easily be discovered by immersing in the liquid a few threads of wool or silk, which is coloured pink by fuchsin, but not by the colouring matters proper to the jellies. According to H. Hager, the genuine syrup or jelly, when mixed with nitric acid containing 25 per cent, of acid, remains red, while ar- tificially coloured syrup turns yellow. The genuine syrup, mixed with an equal volume of a solution of potash or ammonia of 10 per cent., turns violet, with a tint of green, blue-green or reddish-green, while PRESERVES AND JELLIES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 509 the artificially coloured article turns, first pink, and after some time is quite decolorised. With an equal volume of soda solution, the genuine article is turned lilac or green, while the artificially coloured syrup is not, or only very little changed. Lastly, with an equal volume of a solution of neutral acetate of lead in the first case a bluish green or greyish green, and after boiling an olive green mixture is produced, while the artificial colouring matter is not essentially changed. The methods for the detection and estimation of copper have already been more than once fully described. 510 MUSTARD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS, CHAPTER XXX. MUSTARD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Any foreign substance whatever, either vegetable or mineral ; the mixtures now so frequently sold as mustard to be named and sold as mixtures. The subjoined particulars, in reference to the manufacture of mustard, as furnished by a manufacturer, are given by Pereira : — * The seeds of both black and white mustard are first crushed be- tween rollers, and then pounded in mortars. The pounded seeds are then sifted. The residue in the sieve is called dressings, or siftings ; what passes through is impure Jlour of mustard. The latter, by a second sifting, yields pure Jlour of mustard, and a second quantity of dressings. By pressui'e the dressings yield a fixed oil, which is used for mixing with rape and other oils.' THE COMPOSITION OF MUSTARD. The mustard of commerce when pure and genuine consists usually of a mixture in difierent proportions of the farina, with more or less of the husk of the seeds of brown and white mustard. Sometimes it is made wholly from the brown seed, and at others the farina of the white mustard seed is the principal constituent. Of these seeds no very complete quantitative analyses have as yet been made, although many highly important particulars have been ascertained respecting their composition ; thus, black or brown mus- tard, as it is now generally named, consists for the most part oi fixed oil, my Iconic acid, OjoHigNSoOjo, which is combined with potash, forming a myronate of potash, and which acid is converted into the volatile oil of mustard or sulphocyanide of allylj O^H^NS, p -p- [ S, through the agency of the myrosin, another constituent of brown mustard, when the two are brought into contact through the medium of water ; vegetable albumen, a bitter principle, a little gum and sugar, a peculiar green substance, cellulose, and mineral matter. White mustard differs essentially in its composition from brown ; it also contains ^xec? oil, but in lieu of myronic acid, convertible as described into the volatile oil of mustard, it contains a non-volatile, bitter, and acrid salt, termed sulphocyanide of sinapine (C,7Ho4N2S05, or O^gHggNO-, CNHS), myrosin, gum, cellulose, and mine7'al matter. Now it is on the volatile oil and the acrid and somewhat bitter salt that the pungency and acridity of mustard depend, and hence we see a strong reason why in the mustards of commerce the farina of the MUSTAED AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 511 two species should be Mended together : of the two active principles the volatile oil is by far the more important, and hence the seed of the brown mustard possesses the greatest commercial value. It should be stated that Henrie and Garot affirm that brown mustard contains the acrid principle as well as the white ; • this statement we have been able to verify, as shown specially by the action of nitric acid, caustic potash, and ferric chloride on the alcoholic extract. The acrid principle of white mustard appears to possess but little stability, and although it is stated by v. Babo to bear a temperature of 130° 0., we find that it is readily aifectedby heat, and that it is not safe to evaporate the alcoholic solution containinor it at a higher tem- perature than about 30° 0. If subjected to a much higher temperature it quickly loses its acridity, and acquires a bitter caramel-like taste. Of neither brown nor white mustard had any percentage analysis been given until those made and published by ourselves in an article on mustard and its adulterations, in ^ Food, Water, and Air,' for February 1874, and in the few cases in which the quantities of any of the constituents are stated they vary greatly, according to different ob- servers. Thus, according to Pereira, the fixed oil forms about 28 per cent, of the seeds of black mustard, while Watts puts the yield at 18 per cent, only, but white mustard seed, he says, furnishes 36 per cent. The volatile oil amounts to 0*20 per cent, according to Boutron and Robiquet ; 0*55 per cent, according to Aschoif ; and0'50per cent, according to Wittstock ; all which quantities are much below the mark, as will be seen hereafter. Now, as will be shown presently, there is little or no difierence in the amount of fixed oil furnished by the two descriptions of mustard — that obtained by me from the farina of brown mustard reaching 35*701 per cent., and that from the white mustard 35*768 per cent. Again, it is shown by the analyses given below that the volatile oil occurs in much larger quantities than those enumerated above, the amount which we have obtained from one sample being no less than 1*271 per cent. Of both brown and white mustard we append the following original percentage analyses, first published in the article referred to : — Brown Mustard Farina. Water 4*845 Fixed oil 35*701 Myronic acid 4*840 Myrosin and albumen 29*536 Acrid salt 3-588 Cellulose . 16*765 Ash 4-725 100-000 Volatile oil'. . . . . . . 1-271 Nitrogen 6*068 Sulphur 1-413 The oil extracted by ether from the brown seed is of a bright and beautiful emerald green colour, owing to the presence of the peculiar 512 MUSTARD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. green principle, described as one of its constituents. So deep and remarkable is the colour of the oil that it would be easy, by means of a graduated scale of tints, to determine with very tolerable cer- tainty the percentage of brown mustard contained in any sample of mixed mustard. White Mustard Farina. Water 5-360 Fixed oil 35-768 Acrid salt 10-983 Mvrosin and albumen .... 27-484 Cellulose 16-295 Ash 4-110 100-000 Nitrogen 6*285 Sulphur 1-224 These analyses, whether regarded from a scientific or practical point of view, are possessed of much interest. The small quantity of sugar found in mustard would, from the method of analysis pursued, be included under the bitter principle, and the gum with the cellulose. Myronic acid occurs as myronate of potash in the seed of sinapis nigra. Myronic acid is a strongly acid liquid, soluble in water and alcohol, but insoluble in ether. Myronate of potash is soluble in water and alcohol and crystallises in rhombic prisms. It has a bitter taste and neutral reaction. It undergoes a most remarkable change under the influence of the nitrogenous substance contained in mustard seed, myrosin. It decomposes into oil of mustard, or sulphocyanide of allyl, glucose, and acid sulphate of potassium, OioHi8KN^S20iq = O.H.NS + OeHiA+K:Hso,. Oil of mvMard is not ready contained in the seed, but is formed by the decomposition of the myronate of potash. It possesses the odour of mustard in so high a degree, that the smallest quantity of vapour excites tears. It blisters the skin, boils at 148° C. and has a specific gravity of 1*015 at 20°. In contact with aqueous ammonia it takes up one molecule of ammonia and forms a crystalline, non- volatile substance, thiosinnamine, O4H5NS, Nlig. Myrosin is the name of the albuminous substance contained in mustard. It has the closest resemblance to the other albuminous bodies. It is coagulated by heat and by alcohol. If coagulated it no longer effects the decomposition of the myronates. Sidphocyanide of sinapin occurs both in* white and black mustard, but in white in the largest proportion. It crystallises in white needles or glassy prisms. It is neutral, inodorous, of a bitter and burning taste. Fusing point 130° C. It is soluble in water and alcohol. These being the principal and characteristic constituents of both black and white mustard, we now proceed to describe the analysis of mustard. MUSTARD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 513 THE ANALYSIS OF MTJSTAKD. The substances with which we shall have to deal are — ivater, fixed oil, 7nyronic add, ^nyrosin or albumen, siruqnn, cellulose and mine7'al mattei'. EstAmatimi of water, fatty and mineral matters. — ^We have already so often described the processes for the estimation of these sub- stances, that we refrain from doing so again. Estimation of the myronic add. — Myronate of potash decomposes under the influence of the nitrogenous matter contained in brown mus- tard into volatile oil, glucose, and acid sulphate of potash ; the quantity of each of these products of decomposition gives therefore by simple calculation the quantity of the myronic acid. 100 parts of this acid yield 23*85 parts of volatile oil. From 40 to 50 grammes of the mustard farina are placed in a flask of about J litre capacity ; 250 cc. of tepid water are pom^ed over it, the flask closed with a cork, and the whole is well shaken. After twenty-four hours' standing, the flask is connected with a Liebig condenser, and its contents are heated to boiling. Into the receiver 30 cc. of strong ammonia are poured and the end of the condenser is dipped below the surface of the liquid. "Water and the volatile oil pass over, the latter at first floating in the shape of oily drops ou the surface of the liquid, which soon sink to the bottom, especially when the liquid is gently agitated. When the distillation is finished, which is the case when no more oil globules pass over, the receiver is closed with a cork and allowed to stand for twenty-four hours. At the end of that time all the oil is dissolved and is now contained in the liquid in the form of thiosinnamin. This solu- tion is evaporated on the water-bath in a weighed platinum basin, the residue dried and weighed. The quantity of thiosinnamin obtained, minus one molecule of ammonia, represents the amount of the vola- tile oil. Estimation of the myrosin, or albumen, and of the sulphoeyanide of sinajnn. — The total amounts of nitrogen and sulphur contained in the mustard are next ascertained. The former by combustion with soda-lime in the well-known manner, the latter by deflagration of the mustard and oxidation of its sulphur in a mixture of nitrate of soda and carbonate of potash. The fused mass is dissolved in water or dilute acid, and the sulphuric acid contained in the solution is esti- mated by means of chloride of barium. From these data the amounts of the myrosin and of the sulphoeyanide of sinapin, the acrid principle, are thus calculated ; as much sulphur and nitrogen are first deducted from the totals of these substances obtained as is contained in the quantity of myronic acid pre\dously determined. Next, the whole of the remaining sulphur and as much of the nitrogen as is required are then calculated into the acrid principle; lastly, the surplus nitrogen is calculated into myrosin, which has the same formula as vegetable albumen. But now, having got at approximately the amounts of the acrid principle and of the myrosin, a further calculation has to be L L 514 MUSTARD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. made, since myrosin contains about 1 per cent, of sulphur. This has to be' deducted from the total acrid principle, a corresponding quantity of nitrogen being in its turn calculated into myrosin. By those acquainted with algebra, it will be readily perceived that a more precise calculation may be made, but the results would not, even then, differ to any practical extent. ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OP GENUINE MUSTARD OP DIPPERENT QUALITIES. Having given the analyses of the farinas of brown and white mustard, we will now proceed to state those of certain qualities of mustard distinguished by different names, and consisting of mixtures in different proportions of black and white mustard : — Genuine Mustard. Genuine fine. Water 5-702 Water .... 5-683 Fixed oil . 86-491 Fixed oil . . 35-241 Myronic acid 2-704 Myronic acid 0-922 Myrosin and albumen . 31-686 Myrosin . 27-897 Acrid salt and bitter principle 5-714 Acrid salt and bitter principle 10-^62 Cellulose . . » . 13-373 Cellulose . . 15-542 Ash 4-330 Ash ... . 4-653 100-000 100-000 Oil of mustard 0-710 Volatile oil . 0-242 Nitrogen .... 6-341 Nitrogen 5-169 Sulphur .... 1-308 Sulphur 1-297 Genuine double superfine. Pure. Water 5-163 Water .... 5-084 Fixed oil .... 35-942 Fixed oil . . 33-979 Myronic acid 2-212 Myronic acid 0-963 Myrosin .... 27-360 Myrosin . 27-616 Acrid salt and bitter principle 9-085 Acrid salt and bitter princip le 11-258 Cellulose .... 15-574 Cellulose . 16-807 Ash 4-664 Ash ... . 4-293 100-000 100-000 Volatile oil .... 0-581 Volatile oil . 0-253 Nitrogen .... 6-047 Nitrogen 5-208 Sulphur .... 1-424 Sulphur 1-403 Genuine superfine. Household Mustarc I. Water 6-592 Water .... 6-294 Fixed oil . 34-714 Fixed oil . . . • 36-748 Myronic acid 1-971 Myronic acid 1-725 Myrosin .... 31-021 Acrid principle . 8-751 Acrid salt and bitter principle 7-098 Myrosin 27-475 Cellulose .... 15-284 Ash ... . 3-690 Ash 4-320 Cellulose 16-317 100-000 100-000 Volatile oil . 0-518 Volatile oil .... 0-453 Nitrogen .... 5-460 Nitrogen .... 5-026 Sulphur .... 1-246 Sulphur .... 1'3U MUSTAKD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 515 Now the six analyses aLove given prove two things — first, that all the samples are genuine ; this is shown hy the quantities of fixed oil, nitrogen, and sulphur ob tained ; and that they consist of mixtures of the two mustards in different proportions, the higher qualities con- taining larger proportions of the hrown mustard ; that this is so is demonstrated by the dififerent quantities of volatile oil obtained. ANALYSES OF MIXED OK ADULTERATED MUSTARDS. We shall in the next place proceed to give the analyses of some mixed or adulterated mustards of different qualities, and distinguished by various names. The analyses were conducted as in the case of the genuine mustards, the only difference being that an allowance was made for the nitroofen of the wheat flour : — Double superfine. Cellulose . . 12-841 Water .... . 4-941 Ash . 3-617 TTTYPr? nil . 27-622 3-136 X 1 AcU. yjlx ... Myronic acid 100-000 Acrid principle . 1-851 Volatile oil . . • • 0-357 My rosin . 23-155 Nifrogen . 3-85(!) Wheat flour and turmeric . 22-986 Sulphur 0-959 Cellulose . 13-055 Su^ Water . Fixed oil Ash . . . 3-354 perior. 4-973 25-172 Volatile oil . Nitrogen Sulphur 100-000 0-850 4-242 0-945 Myronic neid Acrid principle . Myrosin .... Wheat flour and turmeric . 1-200 4-313 23-244 25-820 Fine. Cellulose 11-495 Water • ■ 6-510 Ash . 3-783 TTixpfl nil 23-160 1-359 Myronie acid 100-000 Acrid principle . 5-808 Volatile oil . 0-315 Myrosin . . . . 19-501 Nitrogen 4-074 Wheat flour and turmeric . 27-204 Sulphur . 1-057 To the above analys of mixed mustard purch< 5es we will now add those of some samples ised in the loose state at some shops in Lon- don: — Suerts. Alexander. Water . . . . 8-943 Water . 8-347 Fixed oil . 23-876 Fixed oil 29-604 Myronic acid . . 1-565 Myronic acid 1-915 A crid m-iAciple . Myrosin . . . . 6-451 Acrid principle 3-150 14-484 Myrosin 13-893 Wheat flour and turmeric . 33-815 Wheat flour and turmeric . 30-514 Cellulose .- . 7-076 Cellulose 8-987 Ash . . . . 3-790 Ash . • 3-590 100-000 100-000 Volatile oil . 0-411 Volatile oil . , 0-503 Nitrogen . . . . 3-339 Nitrogen 3-164 Sulphur . . . . 0-997 Sulphur . 0-899 LL 2 516 MUSTARD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Lindsey. Goodman, Water .... . 8-870 Water 8-950 Fixed oil . . 21-536 Fixed oil . 26 896 Myronic acid 0-985 Myronic acid 1-816 Acrid principle . 6-210 Acrid principle 5-186 Myrosin 21-760 Myrosin 15-577 Wheat flour and turmeric 25-208 Wheat flour . . 30-559 Cellulose 11-688 Cellulose 7-276 Ash .... 3-743 Ash . 3-740 100-000 100-000 Volatile oil . 0-259 Volatile oil .... 0*477 Nitroiren 4-304 Nitrogen .... 3-374 Sulphur 0-938 Sulphur . . . 0-941 Gilbert. Clark. Water .... 6-280 Water 9-582 Fixed oil . 22-OHO Fixed oil . 18-314 Myronic acid 1-127 Myronic acid 0-385 Acrid principle . 4-253 Acrid principle 7-026 Myrosin 15-302 Mvrosin 20-818 Wheat flour and turmeric 38-820 Wheat flour . 32-805 Cellulose . 8-405 Cellulose 8-653 Ash ... . 3-753 Ash . 2-417 100-000 100-000 Volatile oil . 0-296 Volatile oil .... 0-101 Nitrogen . . . . 3-464 Nitrogen . . . . 3-325 Sulphur 0-817 Sulphur 0-905 From an examination of the foreo-oino- analyses it is apparent that genuine hroton mustard should contain about 36 per cent, of fixed oil, at least 1 per cent, of volatile oil of mustard, about 4 per cent, of acrid principle, and that it should furnish about 1*5 per cent, of sulphur and 5 per cent, of nitrogen ; that genuine white mustard should yield about the same amount of fixed oil, over 10 per cent, of acrid principle, and nearly the same amount of nitrogen and sulphur as the black ; that the composition of genuine mustards, which are made up in various proportions of brown and white mustard-seed, differs according to the quantities of each kind present, the relative proportions being deter- minable by analysis with considerable precision ; that in the mixed or adulterated mustards the proportions of fixed and volatile oil, of nitrogen and sulphur are all much reduced, according to the extent of the admixtures, these consisting in the mustards now reported upon in all cases of wheat flour and turmeric. Thus the fixed oil was reduced in one of the samples from 36 per cent., the normal amoimt, to about one-half, or 18 per cent. ; the volatile oil to 0*1 per cent. ; and the nitrogen to 3*32 per cent. ; while in another sample the sulphur was as low as 0-81 per cent. The amount of wheat flour and turmeric varied from 22*91 per cent, to 38*82 per cent., that is to say, from one- fourth to one-third of the article. MUSTARD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 517 It has already been pointed out that the turmeric is added to the mustard simply for the sake of its colour, and to cover and conceal the addition of the wheat flour. In favour of this addition it is be- lieved that not a single reason can be adduced, except possibly that its use allov^s of the addition of a larger quantity of brown mustard- seed than could otherwise be employed at a given price, and that thus the public gain an advantage, wheat flour being, of course, cheaper than white mustard, which again is less costly than brown mustard ; but this difference in the cost must really be very inconsiderable, and if obtained at the expense of the purity of the article, the practice should be abandoned. At all events, it is wrong and misleading to call these mixed articles by the name of mustard. By making mustard in all cases either entirely of the brown seed or of admixtures of the brown and white seed, a wide range in the qualities and prices of mustard is obtained, and the mustard in which the white seed greatly predominates can be sold, we know, at a very low price. We trust, therefore, that the time has now amved for the abandonment of the use of wheat flour and tui-meric in the manufacture of mustard, and that, if the sale of the mixtures still be allowed, the law will continue to render it compulsory that the mixed articles should be sold only as mixtures, and not under the name of mustard simply. We even regard the manufacture of several varieties and qualities of the same article, as mustard for example, a very great e\dl, and the public suffers in pocket to a large extent thereby, the lowest qualities of these mixtures being constantly sold at the price of the higher, and especially is this the case in poor neighbourhoods. This is an evil which, so far, has been but little dwelt upon, but it is nevertheless most serious, and it vitiates the trade in the articles mustard, cocoa, and vinegar. STRUCTURE OF MUSTARD SEED. Every entire seed consists of two parts, the husk and the seed proper. The husk of white mustard seed is constituted of three distinct membranes. The outer membrane is transparent, and mucilaginous ; it consists of a layer formed apparently of two different kinds of cells of large size and very peculiar structure : those of the first kind are of an hexa- gonal figure, and united by their edges so as to form a distinct mem- brane, the centre of each cell being perforated ; the cells of the second kind occupy the apertures which exist in the previously described ceUs, and they are themselves traversed by a somewhat funnel-shaped tube, which appears to terminate on the surface of the seed ; immersed in water, these cells swell up to several times their original volume, occasion the rupture of the hexagonal cells, and become themselves much wrinkled or corrugated, the extremity of the tubes in some cases being seen protruding from the proximate termination of the cells. 518 MUSTARD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. It is possible, however, tliat what are here described as two diiferent kinds of cells really form distinct parts of the same cells (fig. 146). It has been noticed that when white mustard seeds are digested in water, a thick mucilaginous liquid is obtained ; the source of the mu- "fcilage does not appear to have been pointed out ; it is certainly, how- ever, derived fi-om the cells forming the tissue above described. Fig. 146. Fragment of the outer membrane of the seed of White Mustard. Magnified 220 diameters. Tlie middle tunic consists of a single layer of very minute Cells, of an angular fonn ; it is in the cavities of these that the chief parts of the colouring matter possessed by the husk is seated. The inner membrane also consists of a single layer of angular cells, which, however, are several times larger than those constituting the middle tunic (fig. 147). I MUSTAKD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 519 The seed itself is of a bright yellow colour, and of a soft, waxy con- sistence, depending upon the quantity of oil it contains ; it consists of innumerable very minute cells, in the cavities of which the oil and other active principles are contained (fig. 148). ^ Notwithstanding the terms ^ flour ' and ^ farina ' of mustard com- monly employed, ripe mustard seed does not contain a single starch granule, as may be ascertained by means of iodine and the micro- scope. ^ Fig. 147. Fragments of the middle and inner tunics of White Mustard seed, the former covering and lying upon a part of the latter. Magnified 220 diameters. A. Portion of the middle tunic. B, A fragment of the inner tunic, showing the structure of that jnembrane. In black mustard, the outer membrane of the seed consists only of tjie large hexagonal transparent cells disposed in two or three layers, and not perforated in the centre like those of white mustard ; the other structures resemble those of white mustard (fig. 149). THE ADTJLTEEATIONS OF MUSTAKD. The ordinary adulterations of mustard are with loheat flour and turrtieric, the employment of the first-named article necessitating the 520 MUSTARD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. use of the other to restore or bring up the colour to the original standard. We have already recorded the results of many quantitative analyses of mustard, both genuine and adulterated. The results of the exami- nation of 42 samples of mustard which were purchased in the metropolis some time back pi'oved the whole of them to be adulterated and to consist of mixtures, in various proportions, of ivheat flour, turmeinc, and mustard. Other adulterations sometimes practised are those with Cayenne peppej'j ginger, Sinapis arvensis, or charlock, potato flour, ground rice, Fig. 148. 1 1/' o 'A Sample of genuine ground White Mustard. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 220 diameters. silicate of alumina or clay, plaster of Paris, and chromate of lead. The pepper is used to impart pungency to it when it has been otherwise adulterated ; the clay and most of the other mineral substances for bulk and weight ; and the chromate of lead to restore the colour when reduced by other adulterations. Mr. Warington stated, in his evidence before the Parliamentary Committee on Adulteration in 1855, that some of the samples of mustard which he examined contained from 20 to 30 per cent, of MUSTARD AND ITS ADFLTEEATIONS. 521 inorganic matter, cliiefly sulphate of lime ; the genuine mustard when burned yielding from 4J to 6^ per cent, of residue. ]Mr. (3ray, formerly a mustard and chicory manufacturer, and after- wards Superintendent of the Mustard Department in Her Majesty's Victualling Yard at Deptford, furnished the Committee above named Fig. 149. Husk of Black Mustard seed. Magnified 220 diameters. with, amongst other information, the following respecting the adultera- tion of mustard. He stated : — ^ I believe very few scruple to use wheaten flour, turmeric, and Cayenne pepper. The adulterants I used were flour, turmeric, Cayenne pepper, and (finger. ^ But farina is also used, and potato starch is used to a very great ■extent ; and now, I am sorry to say, what one of the witnesses called rerra alba, or plaster of Paris. I have had some samples in my office 522 MUSTARD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. in the mustard department since I have been in my present situation, from which I have extracted 5 ounces of gypsum in the pound ; from another sample I got 5 ounces of y-ice and wheaten flour. I have seen more than 50 per cent, of gypsum in mustard.' With regard to the adulteration of mustard with charlock, Mr. Gay remarks, * When mustard seed is worth 20a. per bushel, and charlock about 6a. or 8s. a bushel, it is worth buying.' It is also alleged that pea flour ^ radish and rape seed, Ihiseed meal, and yellow ochre have been employed in the adulteration of mustard. Fig. 150. ^#^' This engraving represents the articles detected in a sample of so-called ' double superfine Mustard' : a a, wheaten flour ; bb, cells of turmeric powder ', c, portion of husk of black mustard ; d, cells of outer tunic of white mustard seed ; e e, fragments of the seed itself. No less than four different qualities of mustard are supplied by the mustard manufacturer, under the name of ^ Seconds,' ' Fine,' ^ Super- fine,' and ' Double Superfine ; ' the chief difterence between these articles is that the lower the quality the larger the proportion of wheat flour and turmeric which they contain. The practice of making so many different qualities of mustard is open to much objection, since it gives the unscrupulous dealer the greatest scope for imposition. The poor man buys his mustard by the r ! MrSTARD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 523 ounce, and for this he usually pays Id., receiving in return seconds, fine, or superfine mustard, according to the conscience of the vendor. It can now be understood how it happens that some of the mixtures which we buy for mustard scarcely possess the flavom' of that article, and how, when used for poultices, they produce little or no efiect, a matter oftentimes of \ital consequence. Doubtless we shall be told by the mustard manufacturer that genuine mustard is a very unpalatable thing, that it is bitter to the Fig. 151. Mustard, a a ; adulterated with & b, v-Jieatflcnir ; c c, turmeric ; and d d, Cayenne. Magnified 225 diameters. taste, and not pleasant to look at ; but the answer to this is that the tirticle mustard is not always made according to one receipt, and that 1 here exist, even in England, a few manufacturers who make and sell only genuine mustard, and that the demand for genuine mustard has (jf late undergone a very great extension. In fact, ere long we believe but little else than the genuine article will be manufactm^ed and sold. THE DETECTION OF THE ADULTEEATIONS OF MUSTAKD. The detection of the organic adulterations. — The detection of the ordinary adulterations of mustard is effected very readily by means of 524 MUSTARD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. the microscope. The chamcters of loheat flour are described and figured at p. 289, and of turmeric under the head of that article. The adulterations by the other vegetable substances referred to are also discoverable with the microscope. Descriptions and figures of pod^jepper will be found under the head of ^Cayenne,' and of limeed meal under that of ' Pepper.' The presence of turmeric is also discovered by adding strong am- monia to a small quantity of the mustard, causing it to become of an Fig. 152. ^^^^ ffusk of Charlock Seed, Sinapis arvensis. Magnified 220 diameters. orange red colour if that substance is present. This is a veiy simple and efficient test. The characters of mustard, adulterated with wheat ilour, turmeric, and Cayenne, are exhibited in figs. 150 and 151. On one occasion we succeeded in detecting by the microscope tur- meric in a sample of mustard when added in the minute proportion of two ounces to fifty-six pounds of seed, or one part of turmeric to 448 parts of mustard. 'f § MUSTARD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 525 As there is good reason to believe that the seeds of charlock and rope are sometimes employed in the adulteration of mustard, we append figures and descriptions of the husks of those seeds. Sti-ucture of Sinapis arvensts, or Charlock. — The husk of this seed Fig. 153. Husk of Rape Seed. Magnified 220 diameter. resembles in colour very closely black mustard, from which, how- ever, on a careful examination, it may be discriminated by means of the microscope, notwithstanding the statement of Mr. Gay, made before the Parliamentary Committee, ^that no analytical chemist 526 MUSTARD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. could detect charlock seed mixed with mustard, even with the micro- scope.' While it agrees in colour with the husk of hlack mustard, it ap- proaches in structure nearer that of white mustard, from which, how- ever, it may be distinguished in the most satisfactory manner. The chief difference is in the cells of the outer or mucilaginous coat ; these are smaller and more delicate than those of the husk of white mustard ; Huik of seed described as East Indian Rape, but which resembles a species of Mustard. Magnified 220 diameters. they are perforated like them, however, hut in addition they each seem to be made up of numerous angular very delicate and minute cells ; these are very characteristic of the seeds of charlock (fig. 152). Structure of rape seed, — The membranes forming the husk of rape seed are so distinct that no difficulty need be experienced in distin- guishing this seed from those of any of the mustards. It is composed MUSTARD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 527 of two membranes, the outer resembling somewhat the second mem- brane of the husk of the mustards, but the cells are much larger, and in consequence their cavities do not appear black in general, but more or less light, the walls of the cells being thick and well defined ; near the umbilicus of the seed the cells usually are disposed in a linear manner. The innermost membrane does not present any peculiarity (fig. 153). In a sample of rape cake forwarded to us for examination, and sus- pected to be adulterated with mustard, we met with what appeared to be the husk of a species of mustard. It is represented in tig. 155. Fig. 155. .\ ■I !^- ''" ^ -.1 Transverse and Vertical Sections of hnsk of a species of Mustakd Sped met with in a sample of adulterated rape, and from tlie consumption of which some cattle are said to have died. It approaches in structure most nearly to the husk of "black mustard, but the cells of the first coat are perforated, and those of both the first and second coats are much larger ; in the large size of the cells of the second coat it comes somewhat near to the husk of rape seed ; but then in this we have never met with any outer coat of large colourless cells. The husk in question, therefore, belongs most pro- bably to some foreign species of mustard. Radish seed, on account of its price, is scarcely likely to be employed 528 MUSTARD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. in the adulteration of mustard ; it is not necessary, therefore, to give a description of its structure. THE DETECTION OF THE INORGANIC ADULTERATIONS. For the discovery of the inorgamc adulteratiom of mustard, recourse must be had to chemistry. The process for the detection of silicate of alumina or clay is given at p. 148 ; of gypsum or sulphate of limey at p. 144 ; and of chrome yellono or chr ornate of lead in the article on ^ Coloured Sugar Confectioner}'.' / / PEPPER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 529 CHAPTER XXXI. PEPPER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS, DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Any added vegetable or mineral substance or any extraneous mineral matter exceeding 1 per cent. The natural family Piperacece includes four plants of great utility to mankind ; two of these, Piper nigrum, or black pepper, and Piper Ion- gum, more recently named Chavica Roxhurghii, or long pepper, are chiefly employed for dietetic and culinary pm-poses ; whilst the others, Piper cubeba, now Cubeba officinalis, and Artanthe elongata, or the matico plant, are principally employed in medicine. The plant which yields Cayenne, Capsicum annuunij often improperly termed Cayenne pepper, does not belong to the family of Piperacece at all, but to that of 8olanacem, The pepper of commerce is furnished by Piper nigrum, and it is to this species, therefore, that on the present occasion we shall have to direct attention. The black pepper plant grows both in the East and West Indies, in Sumatra, Java, and other islands ; it is a shrubby, climbing plant, which attains the height of from eight to twelve feet. The berries, or peppercorns, grow on terminal flowerstalks or spadices; they are at first green, but change subsequently to red and then to black. When any of the berries on a spadix have begim to turn red, the whole are gathered, dried in the sun, and the stalks separated by the hand. In drying, the succulent part of each berry becomes contracted and wrinkled, forming a hardened wrinkled cortex ; the corrugations being much raised, and describing a kind of elevated network. The following more detailed particulars concerning the growth of the pepper plant and the gathering of the berries are extracted from M'Culloch's ^ Dictionary of Coixmierce ' : — ' It climbs to the heio-ht of twenty feet, but is said to bear best when restrained to the height of twelve feet. It begins to produce at about the third year, and is in perfection at the seventh ; continues in this state for three or four years, and declines for about as many more, until it ceases to be worth keeping. The fruit grows abundantly from all its branches, in long, small clusters of from twenty to fifty grains ; 530 PEPPER AKD ITS ADULTER ATIONS. wlien ripe it is of a briglit red colour. After being gathered, it is spread on mats in the sun, when it loses its red colour, and becomes black and shrivelled as we see it. The grains are separated from the stalks by hand-rubbing. That which has been gathered at the proper period shrivels the least ; but if plucked too soon, it will become broken and dusty in its removal from place to place. The vine produces two crops in the year, but the seasons are subject to great irregu- larities.' Those berries are the best which are not too small nor. too much corrugated ; which are heavy, and sink readily in water. The two varieties of pepper known as ^ black ' and ^ white ' pepper are both obtained from the same plant : black gTOund pepper is the entire herrj reduced to powder, while the white consists of the same berry decorticated or deprived of its outer and black husk or covering. We learn from Pereira that three kinds of black pe2}per are distin- guished by wholesale dealers. These are : — ^ Malabar pepper. — This is the most valuable ; it is bi'oionish-blach, free from stalks, and nearly free from dust.' * Penang pepper. — This is broivnish-black, larger, smoother, free from €talks, but very dusty. It is sometimes used in England to ma- nufacture white pepper.' * Sumatra pepper. — This is the cheapest sort ; it is blacky mixed with stalks, and contains much dust. Under the name of Sumatra pepper, some dealers include the Penang or brownish-black sort, and the black Sumatra sort.' Three kinds or varieties of white pepper have also been distin- guished. * Tellicherry pepper , which is of two kinds : large or fine TellicheiTy pepper is larger and whiter than any other description of white pepper, and fetches a higher price ) small or coriander-like pepper is shrivelled.' ^ Common white pepper comes from Penang by Singapore ; it is round, and not shrivelled ; its value depends on its size and whiteness.' * English bleached, or white pepper. — When the two preceding sorts are scarce, brown Penang pepper is bleached. The yellowest and largest grains are chosen for this purpose, for neither an expensive nor small sort would pay.' COMPOSITIOlir OP PEPPER. The active properties of pepper depend upon the presence of an acrid resin, a volatile oil, and a crystallisable substance called Fiperine, 'The following is the composition of black and white pepper, accord- ing to Pelletier ^ and Luca ^ ; — 1 ' Ann. de Chim. et de Phys.' xv. 344. 2 Schwartze, ' Pharm. Tabella.' PEPPER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 531 Black Pepper (Pelletier). Acrid soft resin. Volatile oil. Piperine. Extractive. Gum. Bassorin. Starch. Malic acid. Tartaric acid. Potash, lime, magnesia, and salts. Woodv tibre. White Pepper (Luca). Acrid resin .... 16-60 Volatile oil . . . . 1-61 Extractive, gum, and salts. 12*50 Starch 18-50 Albumen .... 2-60 Woody fibre . . . 29 00 Water and loss . . . 19-29 100-00 In Luca's analysis the piperine is probably included in tbe resin. The 7'esin is very acrid, soluble in alcohol and ether, but not in volatile oil. The volatile oil has the odour and taste of pepper. It boils at 167 "5° 0. and has a specific gravity of 0-864. Piperine, Oj^HigNOg, is a crystallisable substance, the crystals being monoclinic prisms with inclined bases ; it fuses at 100° 0. to a pale yellow oil, which solidifies on cooling to a yellow transparent resin. Specific gravity of fused piperine, 1*1931 at 18° 0. ; it is insoluble in cold water, and only slightly so in boiling water ; it dissolves in alcohol, from which piperine is thrown down when water is added ; ether and acetic acid also dissolve it, but the first is not so good -a solvent as alcohol. It dissolves in volatile oils but not in alkalies. The alcoholic solution of the pipeline has a very hot taste like that of pepper. With strong sulphuric acid it forms a blood-red liquid ; nitric and hydrochloric acids turn it first greenish-yellow, then orange, and afterwards red. The brown resin which is produced by the action of nitric acid on piperine, accompanied with the evolution of the odour of bitter almond oil, assmnes a brilliant blood-red colour when treated with caustic potash, and when boiled with this it yields piperidine, which may be distilled over. STKUCTTJRE OF PEPPER. Structure of the herry, — The berry of the black pepper plant pos- sesses a structure of considerable complication, and of much interest ; and since without an accurate knowledge of its minute organisation we cannot hope to be in a position to detect the numerous adultera- tions to which this article is subject, it becomes necessary to describe somewhat minutely the tissues which enter into its formation. In a section of the berry, two parts are to be distinguished — an outer and an inner: the first is black, or reddish-black; and the second more or less white, hard, and brittle, except in the centre of the seed, where it is frequently soft and pulverulent. When a thin vertical section of the outer or cortical part of the MM 2 532 PEPPER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. berry is examined, by means of the microscope, it is seen to be com- posed of several distinct parts, each of which is constituted of one or more layers of cells. Such a section is represented in fig. 156. The external part of the berry, marked a in the following figure, is constituted of cells of an elongated form, placed vertically. These cells are provided with a central cavity from which lines, probably minute canals or channels, radiate towards the circumference ; when viewed sideways, they appear rather more than twice as long as broad ; Fig. 156. .■-^i^ y**^. Section of a Pepper Berry, sliowinp tbe several layers of cells of which the cortical part is constituted, and the junction of this at/-v\ath the central por- tion, g. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 80 diameters. and when seen endways, they appear mostly oval in shape, and but little longer than broad. Cells of a somewhat similar character are described in the report on ' Sugar,' as entering into the formation of the epidermis of the sugar-cane. The cells next in order, and upon which the previously described cells rest, are small, angular, and dark coloured; they, as well as the radiate cells, are shown in fig. 157. PEPPER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS, 533 The small angular cells, just noticed, do not appear to separate readily from the cells which occur immediately beneath them, and of which they are probably mere modifications ; strictly speaking, there- fore, they ought to be considered as forming part of the layer next to be described, and we have spoken of them separately only for conve- nience of reference and description. The cells now to be described are two or three times larger than those previously noticed, and very numerous, forming about half the thickness of the cortex ; they are all more or less coloured, and the colour deepens as the cells approach the next layer. The position of this second layer is pointed out at h, fig. 156. The third layer is very Fig. 157. A portion of the coi^tex of the Pepper Berry, viewed on the surface, showing the cells which form its first and second layers. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 120 diameters. thin, and is composed of woody fibre, bundles of spiral vessels of small size, and formed of single threads (fig. 166, c). The junction of the second with the third layer is pointed out by a dark line situated about the middle of the cortex (see fig. 156, c). The fourth layer is composed of numerous large cells, and it con- stitutes the gTeater part of the remaining half of the cortex (fig. 156, d). As the cells approach the central part of the berrv^, they become much modified, two or three times smaller, and of a deep red coloiu^ (fig. 156, e) ; these cells might be described as forming a fifth and distinct layer. The numerous cells which form the fourth layer contain a very 534 PEPPER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. great abundance of oil globules, and it is in it that the essential oil of the pepper beiTy is chiefly located (fig. 158). The cells which form the fifth and last tissue which enters into the composition of the cortex of the pepper berry are divisible into two or three layers; the outer are coloured, and the inner invariably colourless ; the colourless cells present a reticulated appearance, form- ing a transparent lamina which frequently separates, as a distinct tissue (fig. 156,/). The central part of the berry or seed is constituted of cells of large size and angular shape ; they are about twice as long as broad, and Fig. 158. A portion of the fourtn lamina of the cortex of Pepper Berry, showing the oil contained in the cavities of the cells. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 120 diameters. disposed in a radiate manner ; in the outer part of the seed they are adherent, hard, and stonelike, while in the centre they are readily separable, and often form a powder resembling flour (fig. 156, y, and fig. 159). When the pepper berry is macerated in water for some hours, the cortical part apparently separates without difficulty from the seed proper; if, however, we examine the surface of this closely, we observe that it is of a reddish colour, and it becomes evident that a portion of the cortex is still adherent, this consisting of part of the fourth layer, containing much of the oil, and the fifth layer. PEPPER AND ITS ADULTEEATIONS. 535 ! It now becomes apparent that the terms in common use, ^ white pepper/ and ' decorticated pepper,' are not altogether correct, for the berry is not entirely denuded of the cortex, nor is its powder white, for if a little bit of it be diffused through water on a slip of glass, red- dish particles immediately become yisible : these are fragments of that portion of the cortex which remains firmly adherent to the seed itself. When sections of the inner part of the pepper berry are immersed in water for a short time, they assume a yellowish or canary tint, and Fig. 159. Section of the central portion of the Pepper Berry, showing the two kinds of cells of which it is composed, the colourless and coloured cells, and also its junction with the cortex. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 120 diameters. when examined with the microscope, the colour is seen to be confined to certain of the cells only, of which the sections are composed ; these cells are rather larger than the ordinary cells ; they are placed at tolerably regular distances from each other, and they reflect a deep yellow colour. In recent sections which have not been immersed in water, the cells, which afterwards become yellow, may be distinguished by a darker shading, and sometimes by a faint tint of colour. The deepening of colour is determined by the action of the salts contained 536 PEPPER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. in water on the contents of these cells, which differ chemically from those of the ordinary cells. It is probably in these coloured cells that the piperine is located. Alcohol and nitric acid deepen the tint very greatly, and on the appli- cation of concentrated sulphuric acid to dry sections of the pepper berry, they become of a reddish hue, the change of coloiu* being limited, in the first instance, to the peculiar cells in question. These results of the use of sulphuric acid are such as ensue with piperine itself. Fig. 160. Ground and unadulterated Black Pepper. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 120 diameters. The structure of the central part of the pepper berry, and the posi- tion and character of the coloured cells, are shown in fig. 159. Now, in ground black pepper, all the structures which we have described may be traced out in a broken and fragmentary condition (fig. 160), but in white pepper certain of these tissues only exist — viz., a part of the foiu^h layer of cells, which contains the oil, and the fifth cellular lamina. Before the observer is in a position to detect the adulterations of pepper, it is necessary that he should well understand the appearances a«id structure of ground pepper, both black and white. PEPPEK AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 537 I When black pepper is diffused through water, little particles of three difterent kinds, intermixed with a fine powdery substance, are visible ; some of these are black, others reddish, and the last white ; the black are fragments of the outer and the red those of the inner cortex, while the white are the pulverised seed itself. The white powder is formed of the cells of the seed, some united in twos and threes, but the majority either separated and entire or broken into pieces ; these cells contain starch granules of extreme minuteness. The en- graving (fig. 160) will serve to convey a good idea of the appearances presented under the microscope by ground and unadulterated black pepper. In the black particles but little evidence of structure is in general to be seen, and where doubt is entertained of their nature, it is neces- sary that they should first be bleached with chlorine, torn into pieces with needles, and then examined with the microscope. In genuine white pepper no black fragments ought to be seen, but numerous reddish-brown particles are always present, usually adhe- rent to the white cells which form the central part of the berry. These white cells, when separated from each other, whether entire or broken, being of angular form, very hard, and reflecting deep shadows, bear a strong resemblance to particles of sand, for which they would be very apt to be mistaken by persons unacquainted with the microscopic structure of the pepper berry. The cavities of these cells are filled with starch granules of exceed- ing minuteness, and as in groimd pepper many of the cells are broken irto pieces, some of the granules become efiused ; these are so very small that they are generally in a state of molecular movement, and they resemble spherules of oil rather than starch granules. No other starch grains exist in the berry besides those just described. So great is the quantity of starch contained in the seed or central part of the berry, that the cells when touched with a solution of iodine become deep blue ; the yellow cells being affected in the same manner, but more tardily and to a le^s extent. THE ADIJLTEEATIONS OF PEPPER. Pepper used formerly to be subject to very great and scandalous idulterations, and this although it is one of the few articles placed under the supervision of the Excise. Results of the Examination of Samples. O^ forty-three samples of black and white pepper examined in 1861, we found nea^-ly one-half to he adulterated. The substances detected were Unseed meal, mustard husk, luheat ^our, pea Jlour, sago, rice Jlour, and pepper-dust. To this list must 538 PEPPER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. now be added woody fhre, recently met with by ourselves and also by the Excise. Pepper dust, H.P.D. or P.D., consists either of the sweepings of the warehouses, or else of an article made \ip in imitation of ground pepper, and expressly used for the adulteration of that article. Mr. George Phillips, of the Excise, gave the following evidence before the Committee on Adulteration, respecting the adulteration of pepper : — ' The number of samples examined in nearly twelve years was 1,116, of which 576 were found to be adulterated. We have found ricey sago, potato starch, linseed meal, chilis, husks of red and white mustard, loheat bran smdjlour, and ground gypsum or crystallised sulphate of lirne. The stock material for adulterating pepper is the husks of red and white mustard seeds and linseed meal, warmed up with chilis.' Of 100 lbs. of an article seized in 1852 at Chelmsford as pepper, 2 lbs. only consisted of pepper, the rest being husks of mustard, chilis, and rice. Hape seed has also been found in pepper. Mr. Gay, from whose e^ddence we have before quoted, states that white pepper is sometimes adulterated with bone dust, commonly called ivory dust. He also gave the following receipt for P.D. : — ^ It is manufactm-ed from rape or linseed cake, mustard husks, and Cayenne pepper.' Many years since it was not uncommon to meet with artificial pepper- corns ; instances of their occuiTence are mentioned in Thomson's ' Annals of Chemistry,' and also by Accum, in the second edition of his celebrated work, ^ Death in the Pot.' Accum writes : — ' I have examined large packages of both black and white pepper by order of the Excise, and have found them to contain about 16 per cent, of this artificial compound. This spurious pepper is made of oil-cake, the residue of the linseed from which the oil has been pressed, common cla}^, and a portion of Cayenne pepper, formed into a mass, and granulated by being first pressed through a sieve, and then rolled in a cask.' The case of pepper used to afford a lamentable instance of the inefficiency of the Excise in checking adulteration. The presence of Mineral Matter in Pepyper, A short time ago we received for analysis a sample of pepper, which had formed the subject of a prosecution under the late Adulte- ration Act. This was found to yield an ash amounting to 10*45 per cent., which on examination with the magnet, was ascertained to contain magnetic particles of oxide of iron and to furnish no less than 3*95 per cent, of silica. The results of the analysis of this sample of pepper led us to make other analyses of pepper in order that we might be in the position to form a correct opinion as to the signifi- cance of the details above recorded. i PEPPER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 539 Various samples of pepper, including tlie wliole berries of wliite and black ground peppers, were subjected to examination, with tbe results shown in the following tables : — Description of Pepper. Total Ash. Ash, whether mag- netic or not. 1 Whole white 2 5 ' 6 7 8 Whole black 9 10 11 12 13 14 Ground white 15 16 17 18 Ground black 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 1-73 0-70 0-90 0-17 1-03 0-20 1-14 0-26 0-94 0-13 1-55 0-24 1-56 0-16 4-03 0-23 4-33 0-29 3-90 0-17 4-61 0-12 4-01 0-11 3-67 0-18 2-03 0-37 1-13 0-20 0-50 0-13 2-13 0-50 9-95 4-85 11-60 4-95 9-55 3-25 9-80 6-15 5-95 1-95 7-55 3-00 7-63 2-07 9-76 3-83 6-64 1-46 9-20 2-57 6-46 2-17 3-50 1-13 9-37 3-91 6-86 2-41 7-05 3-21 9-93 4-30 Non-magnetic. Slightly magnetic. Strongly magnetic. Slightly magnetic. Strorgly magnetic. Slightly magnetic. Decidedly magnetic. The foregoing results may be summarised as follows : — Description of Pepper. Average Ash. From To Average of Sand. From To 0-70 0-27 0-50 4-95 White whole pepper Black „ White ground pepper Black pepper . 1-26 4-26 1-45 7-92 0-90 3-67 0-50 3-50 1-73 4-61 2-13 11-50 0-27 0-18 0-30 3-13 0-13 o-ii 0-13 1-13 540 PEPPER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. The general conclusion deducible from the foregoing analyses is, that a great proportion of the black peppei*s sold in shops contain a considerable admixture of earthy matter, composed to a large extent of silica. This quantity is far in excess, as will be seen from the analyses, of anything which the whole black berries aftbrd. We have now to enquire — In what manner is the presence of this earthy matter, and of the magnetic particles, to be explained ? Is it accidental or intentional ? The results of the analysis of some of the whole black peppers tend to show that an appreciable amount of silica may be present in ground black pepper, derived from the cortex, and hence it may be inferred that if the original whole pepper be of a dusty kind, or if it be taken from the bottom of the bag or sack, it is possible to conceive that the quantities we have detected may thus be accounted for. Still, this large amount of foreign matter has no right to be present, and it would be a very easy and simple thing to free the berries before the}^ are ground from nearly the whole of this dust. The few magnetic par- ticles discovered would appear to be derived from the surrounding soil. The presence of this dirt is due simply to want of care and clean- liness in the drying of the berries, and its presence, should be strongly condemned. We would say that not more than 1 per cent, of extra- neous mineral matter should be allowed to be present in pepper, and that any quantity beyond this should be regarded as an adulteration. However dusty the pepper may be when bought by our own dealers, they might, where they are so disposed, very readily free it from nearly every particle of extraneous matter before it is ground. THE DETECTION OF THE ADULTERATIONS OE PEPPER. The whole of the adulterations of pepper mentioned, except that with the husk of pepper, are only to be detected in a certain and satis- factory manner by means of the microscope. The characters of the starch granules of wheat, rice, and potato, have already been described and figured ; those of wheat at p. 289, those of rice at p. 308, of potato flour at p. 371, and of sago at p. 376. The structm'e of 7nusta7'd smd rape seed, and of Cm/enne, will be found described and figured under the heads of ^ Mustard ' and ' Cayenne ; ' the method of detecting sulphate of lime is given at p. 144. It then only remains for us to describe the structure and appear- ances of linseed rneal and of pea flour. Structure of Linseed Meal. Linseed possesses a very beautiful structure : four coats or tunics enter into the composition of the covering of the seed, and require description. The outer coat gives the polish to the seed, and is composed of a, single layer of large and colourless cells, of an hexagonal form. PEPPER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 5^41 It is in the cells which form this tunic that the mucilage which linseed yields so ahundantly, on infusion, is contained. Fig. 161. structure of Linseed. Magnified 220 diameters. The second coat consists of a single layer of cells enclosing granular matter ; they are of a rounded form, and have thick walls. 542 PEPPER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. The third membrane is composed of narrow elongated cells, or rather fibres, some being longitudinal and others transverse ; these give it a striated and very characteristic appearance ; being firm and strong, it forms the protecting tiidic of the seed. The fourth membrane is made up of angular cells, many of which are more or less square, enclosing masses of colouring matter, probably of a resinous character, and which readily fall out of the cells, as repre- sented in the figure. The substance of the seed consists of cells, in the cavities or meshes formed by which the oil and starch granules are enclosed (fig. 161). The oil is contained principally in the outer or more superficial cells, in the form of brilliant and pearl-like minute drops or spherules. The sta?'ch granules are most abimdant in the interior of the grain ; they are angular, minute, and two or three times larger than those of the peppercorn. The whole of the structures above described may be satisfactorily detected, by a little patient investigation, in the linseed reduced to powder or meal. The parts, however, most frequently and clearly seen, are fragments of the fibrous coat, and little masses of the seed, from the edges of which, portions of the cellulose forming the transparent cells project, in a radiate and very characteristic manner. Structure of pea Jlour. — Pea flom* resembles very closely bean flour, alread}^ described and figured under the article ' Bread.' The chief difference consists in the size of the starch corpuscles, which are much smaller in pea than in bean flour. 071 the detection of pepper husks. — The presence of an undue quan- tity of pepper husks in black pepper may be suspected by the appearance of the article, its dark colour, and the quantity of husk visible to the naked eye. It is not often that such an analysis is necessary. On the detection of factitious pepper berries. — The suspected pepper should be soaked for some time in water, when, should it contain arti- ficial peppercorns, these will become disintegrated and fall to pieces. Their composition is to be ascertained partly by chemical analysis and partly by microscopical examination. Pepper is now so cheap, how- ever, that it is not likely that any instance of this adulteration will ever again be met with. The processes for the detection of sulphate of lime and bone dust have already been described elsewhere. CAYENNE AND ITS ADULTEBATIONS. 543 CHAPTER XXXII. CAYENNE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS, DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Any added vegetable or mineral substances, including those used for colouring. Cayenne Peppek consists of tlie pods or seed vessels, ground and re- duced to powder, of different species of Capsicmn, but principally of C. annuuirij C. haceatuin, and C. frutescens ; the latter species, being stronger and better flavoured, yields the best description of Cayenne pepper. The genus Capsicum belongs to the Solanacee^ or Nightshade family, which also includes the potato plant. Ca^mcum annumn is a native of America, but is cultivated in the West and East Indies, and to some extent in greenhouses in England and other European countries. It is an annual herbaceous plant, and, according to M^Culloch, ^ one of the hardiest and most productive plants foimd in tropical climates, growing luxuriantly in almost all dry soils, however indiffe- rent.' In this country it flowers in July, and ripens its pods in October ; when immature, the berries are green, and only gradually become red as they grow ripe ; they are used both in the green and red states, and in the undried and dried conditions; in the recent state they are employed for pickling ; when dried they are used in medicine ; and, reduced to powder, they constitute Cayenne pepper. The dried berries ordinarily sold as chillies are of this species ; in this condition they are more or less shrivelled, oblong, broad at the distal extremity, the calyx and stalk being usually adherent to the broad end. They vary very much in size and form ; the largest are two or three inches long, and at the base are an inch or more wide; they are distinguished, according to their size and shape, into long- podded, short-podded, and heart-shaped. The pods of this capsicum are hot and pungent, but they have no aroma. The pods of Capsicum frutescens constitute what is known as Guinea c r Bird pepper, and when ground they furnish the best description of (vayenne pepper. They are small, scarcely an inch in length, a line or two broad, and of a deep orange-red colour. Each berry encloses iLSuaUy about a dozen flattened, reniform seeds. 544 CAYENNE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. The pods are hotter and more fiery than those of C. annuum ; they are likewise to some extent ciroinatAc, The other species of Capsicum have been denominated, from the form of the fruit, Cherry chilly or Cherry pepper — Capsicum cerasiforme, and Bell pepper, or Capsicum grossum. Composition of Cayenne, The composition of capsicum berries is shown in the following analyses made in the years 1816 and 1817 : — Bucholz's analysis. (1816.) Acrid soft resin (capsicin) 4*0 Wax 7-6 Bitter aromatic extractive 8*6 Extractive with some gum 21*0 Gum 9-2 Albuminous matter 32 Woody fibre 28*0 Water 12*0 Loss 6-4 Fruit of Capsicum annuum, without seeds . lOO'O Braconnof s analysis. (1817.) Acrid oil ... .^,.19 Wax with red colouring matter .... 0*9 Brownish starchy matter 9*0 Peculiar gum 6*0 A nimalised matter 5'0 Woody fibre 67-8 Salts : citrate of potash 6*0 "J Phosphate of potash, and > 9*4 Chloride of potassium 3-4 J Fruit of Capsicum annuum .... 100*0 Of capsicin, the active principle of Cayenne, Pereira gives the following account : — ^ Obtained by digesting the alcoholic extract in ether, and evapo- rating the ethereal solution. It is a thick liquid, of a yellowish-red or reddish-brown colour, which becomes very fluid when heated, and at a higher temperature is dissipated in fumes. Half a grain of it volatilised in a large room causes all who inspire the air of the room to cough and sneeze. By exposure to air and light it solidities ; it is decolorised by chlorine ; it is slightly soluble in water and in vinegar, but very much so in alcohol, ether, oil of turpentine, and the caustic alkalies ; with baryta it forms a solid acrid combination.' CAYENNE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 545 Structure of the Ccqmcum Berry or Fruit. Eacli capsicum berry is made up of three parts — an outer skin or epidermis, parenchyma, and seeds. The epidermis consists of flattened cells, tortuous and angular in form. Viewed on the outer or upper surface, the borders of the cells are seen to be well defined ; they are often four-sided ; the walls are thick, beaded here and there, the beading of one cell corresponding to that of the contiguous cells; lastly, the lines of jimction of the cells are sometimes faintly indicated. Fig. 162. ^i^\ ^%^£i/^^^ S' » H Mfd^^ WS^iha W'^.'^Ki 1 r Jl ^o^;; ^jgtri ^hl ♦! ^ ^ ^^^^ ■fM ^M^m^i ^^m ^^P^j^^^ i mU '/ Wm^^wi^ ^m^-g ' •,''^«^< (W^firL X|<* ' Sili^c ^^ Mj'm<^y' / ^fl w^^B -■'R m ^tr/ M^^^^ ^^^Mi I^Wv^^M -B ir^^a "^- »^''l M ^m- 1^ N. ajj'^"- vj^^S.'t.'; v.«,f Qy 1 - 1 Epidermis of Capsicum, outer and inner surfaces. Magnified 200 diameters. Viewed on the inner surface the cells appear less angular, but more tortuous, the walls broader, and much more beaded (fig. 162). When fragments of the epidermis are seen immersed in water, numerous oil globules of a deep and beautiful orange-red colour are visible ; some of these are imbedded in the cavities of the cells, but the majority float freely in the surroimding water (fig. 162). In figures 163 and 164 the general appearance presented by the epidermis on a more superficial examination is exhibited, the minute details being omitted. The parenchyma f which unites the seeds with each other, and the 546 CAYENNE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. whole with the epidermis and peduncle, is likewise composed of cells ; they are of a roimded or oval form, the parietes are thin, and their cavities usually contain a very large quantity of oil, in the form of innumerable droplets, many of considerable size, and which impart to this object, viewed under the microscope, a very beautiful appearance (fig. 165). Fig. 166 represents a section of the cortical portion of the pod. In the seed, two parts — the covering of the seed and the seed itself — require to be described. The covering of the seed possesses a very peculiar structure, which Fig. Ifi3. A fragment of the epidermis of the Catsicum Berry, viewed on its outer surface. it is difficult fully to understand, and therefore not easy to describe accurately. It is of a bright yellow colour, and of considerable thick- ness. Viewed under the microscope, its outer surface presents a cel- lular texture, the margins of what appear to be the cells being thick and tortuous, and the cavities dark and depressed, as though they were mther apertures than the hollow interiors of the cells. Vertical sections of this covering present a very singular appear- ance. In this view it appears as though composed of a number of tooth- like processes, having a somewhat radiate disposition, with intervals, between each process, the points or summits of the teeth ending in veiT minute hook-like spines, the points of these being lost in a thin CAYENNE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 547 membrane forming the external covering of the seed. It appears that these tooth-like processes really consist of the thickened walls of con- tiguous cells (fig. 167) ; that this is really so is evident from an ex- amination of the upper of the two sketches on the left of the figure ; these cells are best developed at the extremity of the seed. The seed proper consists of minute angular cells, having thick and colourless parietes ; their cavities are filled with molecules and glo- Fig. 164. A fragment of the epidermis of the Capsicum Berry, viewed on its inner surface. bules of oil of a yellowish or reddish-yellow colour, but do not contain starch. THE ADULTERATIONS OP CAYENNE. Cayenne is subjected to even more extensive adulteration than ordinary pepper. Results of the Examination of Samples. Of twenty-eight samples of Cayenne submitted to microscopical and chemical examination, no less than twenty-four icere adulterated^ and four only loere genuine. Twenty-two contained tnineral colounng mattei's. In thirteen cases this consisted of red lead, which was present in some of the samples in very considerable quantities, while in the re- NN 2 548 CAYENNE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. maiuiug seven samples it was some red ferruginous earth, Venetian red or red ochre. Vermilion^ or sulphuret of 7nercuryj was present in one of tlie Cayennes. Six of tlie Cayennes consisted of a mixture of ground rice, turmeric, and Cayenne, coloiu'ed with, either red lead, Venetian red, or ochre. Six of the Cayennes contained large quantities of salt, sometimes alone, but mostly combined with rice and the i^ed earths or red lead. Fig. 165. a, parenchyma of Capsicum Berry situated immediately beneath the epidermis j the cells in this situation are of a more rounded form, and are traversed by spiral vessels and woody fibre. &, the parenchyma surrounding the seed*. One of the samples was adulterated with a large quantity of the husk of lohite mustard seed. Lastly^ two were adulterated with rice, and were coloured in addi- tion, the one with red lead, and the other with a red ferruginous earth. The object of the use of red lead and other red colouring matters is twofold : first, to conceal other adulterations, and, second, to pre- I CAYENNE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 549 serve the colour of the Cayenne, as, when exposed to the light for any time, it usually loses part of the bright-red colour which it at first possesses, and therefore it hecomes deteriorated in the eyes of the pui'chaser. The red lead, &c., added does not, of course, pi-eserve the colour of the Cayenne, but simply supplies the place of that which it loses in consequence of exposm'e. Salt is employed for the same purpose. This substance has a re- Pig. 166. Transverse Section of Capsicum Berry. Magnified 100 diameters. markable efiect in bringing out the colour of the Cayenne. It is, however, also used to increase its weight. The adulteration of Cayenne with such substances as red lead and mercury is, doubtless, highly prejudicial to health ; it has been stated that colic and paralysis have both been produced by the use of Cayenne containing red lead. The salts of lead and mercury are characterised by the circum- stance that they are apt to accumulate in the system, and so to 550 CAYENNE AND ITS ADULTEEATIONS. produce symptoms of a very serious nature. Thus, no matter how small the quantity of merciu'y or lead introduced each day, the system in the end is slowly and insidiously brought under the influence of these poisons, and thus becomes seriously affected. The quantity of red lead introduced into the system in adulterated Cayenne is, however, by no means inconsiderable. A case of lead poisoning arising from the consumption of Cayenne adulterated with red lead is referred to in the evidence of Mr. Post- Fig. 167. Vertical Section of the Seed of Capsicum. Magnified 100 diameters. gate before the Parliamentary Committee on Adulteration in 1855 ; the case was received into University College Hospital. The man was in the habit of consuming large quantities of Cayenne, which, on being tested, was found to contain lead. The article known as soluble Cayenne, Mr. Scanlan stated before the same Parliamentary Committee, to have the following compo- sition : — ^ It contains both copper and vermilion ; the copper is acci- dentally introduced into it from the mode of preparation — it is taken CAYENNE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 551 from a copper still. They make a sort of tincture of the Cayenne pepper ; and then filter and pour it upon a quantity of salt in a copper still — it there takes up a little copper ; and then this salt is dried and mixed with vermilion and rose-pink/ The proportion of vermilion added is about six drachms to three pounds of salt. The Detection of the Adult e)'atioiis of Cayenne. The adulterations of Cayenne with 7'icejlour, turmency and miLstard husk, are determined by means of the microscope ; the structure of these articles has already been described and their microscopical characters represented. For the detection of the other adulterations of Cayenne, recourse must be had to chemistry. The fact of the presence of red earths may indeed be ascertained by means of the microscope, by viewing under that instrument a portion of the Cayenne, when the red earthy par- ticles may be plainly discerned. To determine their composition, how- ever, chemistry must be appealed to. The method for detecting the presence of the red ferruginous earths, and for their quantitative determination, will be found described at pp. Ill and 190, and that for salt under the head of ^ Water,' pp. 83 and 86. We have, then, now to describe more particularly the pro- cesses to be followed for the detection of lead and mercury. On the detection of lead. — The presence of lead in Cayenne may be determined by simply shaking up half a drachm or so of the Cayenne in water, and adding a few drops of sulphide of ammonium ; if lead be present, the liquid will become more or less dark or black, according to the quantity of the metal. But it should be remembered that iron gives a greenish-black pre- cipitate with the above-named reagent ; and therefore it is not safe to trust to the appearance presented on the addition of solution of sulphide of ammonium to water containing Cayenne. It is proper, therefore, in all cases to proceed as follows : — Incine- rate 10 grammes of Cayenne previously dried on a water-bath in a porcelain basin ; treat the ash with about 5 cc. of strong nitric acid ; heat nearly to dryness, so that part of the acid may become dissipated ; dilute with distilled water, filter, and pass sulphuretted hydrogen through the solution. The precipitate is collected on a filter, washed with water containing some sulphuretted hydrogen in solution, and then boiled with a little strong nitric acid. To the liquid a few drops of sulphuric acid are added, and it is then evaporated to dryness on the water-bath. The residue is exhausted with water, and the precipitate, consisting of sulphate, of lead is collected on a filter, washed with a very dilute solution of sulphuric acid, incinerated in a porcelain cru- cible and weighed. The solution of the ash of Cayenne in nitric acid may be tested qualitatively for lead by rendering it alkaline by means of ammonia, 552 CAYENNE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. adding then acetic acid in excess and testing with a drop of a solution of neutral chromate of potash. A bright yellow precipitate of chro- mate of lead will be thrown down if lead be present. On the detection of hisulphuret of mercury. — As mercury sublimes Fig. 168. 7 * '^ , *;^*v1^^ Cayenne, adulterated with, a a, red lead ; b b, pround rice ; and c c, turmeric, d d, husk and seed of cayenne much infested with the thallus and sporules of & fungus, to the attacks of which damaged cayenne is very subject. at a red heat, we cannot proceed in the analysis by incineration ; the solvent must be added to the Cayenne direct — this being aqua regia, a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, in the proportions of one part of the former to two oi' the latter acid. About 5 cc. of the acid should be added to 3 grammes of Cayenne I CAYENNE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 553 and boiled with it for an hour or so ; a small quantity of distilled ^vater is then to he added ; the mixture filtered and the filtrate evapo- rated nearly to dr^mess ; a little water must then again he added, and the solution tested. The tests employed are liquor potassse and iodide of potassium. The former gives a yellow precipitate, and the latter either a yellow or more commonly a beautiful scarlet-coloured precipitate of biniodide of merciu'y. The solution of iodide of potassium should be added in very minute quantity, as the iodide or biniodide is readily and almost instantly dissolved in an excess of this reagent ; and it should be Imown that very often, when the colour of the precipitate is yellow rather than red, after standing an hoiu* or two it will frequently change to tlie characteristic scarlet hue. To determine the quantity of the mercury in Cayenne, the solution in nitric acid is precipitated by means of sulphuretted hydrogen ; the precipitate is exhausted with a solution of sulphite of soda, to remove aiiy free sulphur which may have been thrown down, collected on a ^ eighed filter, dried and weighed. 554 SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. CHAPTER XXXIII. SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Any added vegetable or mineral substance not acknowledged in the names under which they are sold, including the admixture of cassia with cinnamon or its substitution for the latter spice. We now come to the consideration of the important subject of Spices and their Adulterations. The spices^ of the adulteration of which we are about to treat, are Ginger, Cinnamon, Cassia, Nutmegs, Mace, Cloves, and Allspice or Pimento, When it is remembered that many spices are sold in the state of powder, most of them bearing a high price, and that they are nearly all subject to a duty, which in some cases is considerable, it might be supposed that they would be particularly subject to adulteration. Notwithstanding these facts, little attention has been bestowed upon this subject by writers on the sophistication of food, or even by the Excise authorities, whose duty it is to protect the revenue from all frauds resulting from the adulteration of duty-paying articles. GINGER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. The ginger plant, Zinziher officinale, belongs to the very useful natural order, Zinziher acece, from which turmeric. East India arrow- root, and some other productions, are obtained. Ginger grows and is cultivated in the tropical regions of Asia, A-merica, and Sierra Leone. The stem reaches generally three or four feet in height, and is re- newed yearly ; while the root, which is the part known as ginger, botanically termed a rhizome, is biennial. The roots, or rhizomes, are dug up when about a year old ; in Jamaica this occurs in January or February, and after the stems are withered. They are well washed, freed from dirt, and in some cases, especially with the better kinds, the epidermis or outer coat is stripped off; and hence the division of ginger into white (scraped or uncoated), and into black (unscraped or coated). In estimating the quality of ginger, a variety of particulars have SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 555 to be taken into consideration — as whether the rhizomes are coated or uncoated, their form, colour, and consistence. The rhizomes of ginger of c/ood quality have no epidermis, are pkimp, of a whitish or faint straw-colour, soft and mealy in texture, with a sliort fracture, exhibiting a reddish, resinous zone round the circum- ference ; the taste should be hot, biting, but aromatic. The rhizomes of ginger of inferior quality are frequently coated ^ith the epidermis, are less full and plump, often contracted and slirivelled ; of darker colour, being of a brownish-yellow ; of harder texture, termed^m^y ) ^^^ more fibrous ; while the taste is inferior, and less aromatic. Cmnposition of Ginger. Ginger was analysed by Bucholz in 1817, and by Morin in 1823. Bucholz's analysis. Pale yellow volatile oil. . ,1-56 Aromatic, acrid, soft resin. . 3*60 Extractive soluble in alcohol . 0*65 Acidulous and acrid extractive insoluble in alcohol . . 10-50 Gum 12-05 Starch, analogous to bassorin . 19-75 Apotheme, extracted by potash (ulmin?) .... 26-00 Bassorin 8-30 ^A'oodv fibre .... 8-00 \^:atef 11-90 102-31 Marin's analysis. Volatile oil. Acrid soft resin. Resin insoluble in ether and oil. Gum. Starch. Woody fibre. Vegeto-animal matter. Osmazoma. Acetic acid, acetate of potash, sulphur. The ashes contained carbonate and sulphate of potash, chloride of po- tassium, phosphate of lime, alumina, silver, and oxides of iron and man- ganese. The volatile oil is pale yellow, very fluid, lighter than water ; odour resembling that of ginger, taste at first mild, afterwards hot and acrid. Soft resin, obtained by digesting the alcoholic extract of ginger, first in water, then in ether ; it possesses an aromatic odour, and a burning aromatic taste. It is readily soluble in alcohol, ether, and turpentine. Structure of Ginger, Examined with the microscope, the rhizome of ginger is found to present a well-marked and characteristic structure. The outer coat or epidermis consists of several layers of large, angu- lar, transparent cells of a brownish colom^, adhering firmly together, fc rming a distinct membrane, and, when macerated in water, becoming soft and somewhat gelatinous (fig. 169). Lying upon the under sui'face of this membrane, and scattered 556 SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. irregularly over it, are generally to be detected oil globules of various sizes, and of a deep yellow colour, as well as a few cells, identical in structure and tint with those of turmeric. In the substance of the rhizome itself several structures have to be described. It consists principally of cells having delicate transparent walls minutely punctuated, and adhering together so as to form a connected Fig. 169. .^C A portion of the epidermis ot the rhizome of Ginger, showing the cells of which it is composed, as well as the oil globules, a a ; also the turmeric-like cells, 6 b ; and c c, crystals very commonly noticed in great numbers lying beneath the epidermis. tissue. These cells contain in their cavities starch corpuscles, which are very abundant, and many of which, as the cell walls are easily broken, are seen in most sections to have become effused. Lying here and there in the midst of the above-described cells, are other cells of nearly similar size and form, but of a bright yellow colour ; these are in no respect distinguishable from the coloured cells of turmeric. It is to the presence of these cells that ginger owes its colour, which varies with the nmnber of such cells contained in it. SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 557 Traversing the rhizome in a longitudinal direction are bundles of woody fibre, sometimes enclosing, usually one, but occasionally two or even more dotted ducts or vessels. The starch corpuscles resemble in some respects those of East India arrowi'oot, Curcuma angustifolitty but are yet characterised by several distinct features. Fig. 170. This engraving represents the several tissues obserred entering into the forma- tion of the ginger rhizome, deprived of its epidermis, a «. cells containing the starch corpuscles ; h &, starch granules ; c c, turmeric-like cells ; d d, woody fibre ; e, dotted duct. Although, like those of C. angustifolia, they are usually elongated and flattened, they yet differ from the starch granules of that plant in being somewhat smaller, less elongated, and in the greater obscurity of the hilum and curved lamellae. The structures above described are shovm in the preceding drawing (fig. 170). 558 SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. In ground ginger the above structures are separated from their proper connection, and occur variously intermixed, and more or less broken and comminuted (see fig. 171). THE ADFLTERATIONS OF GINGER. In order to improve the colour of ginger, and, according to some, to protect it from the attacks of insects, it is frequently rubbed over with lime ; in other cases it is washed in chalk and water, when it is called Fig. 171. Genuine ground Ginger : a a, cells which contain the starch corpuscles ; b b, loose starch granules ; c c, turmeric-like cells ; d d^ woody fibre. tchitewashed gingery lastly, the surface of ginger is occasionally bleached by means of a solution of chloride of lime, and sometimes even by exposing it to the fumes of burning sulphur, and is thus made to present a white and floury appearance. By these processes an inferior ginger is often made to assiune the appearance of the better descriptions. But ginger is frequently adulterated. Out of twenty-one samples of ginger submitted to examination, no less ih2iTL fifteen, being more than two-thirds of the whole, were found to be adulterated. SPICES AND THEIR ADULTEBATIONS. 559 The substances detected were various in character, including sago mealy tapioca, potato flour, ivheat flour, ground rice, Cayenne pepper, mustard husks, and turmeric poivder — these occurring in various quan- tities, hut in the majority of cases constituting the principal part of the article. The Cayenne pepper and mustard husks are no doubt added with the view of concealing the other adulterations, and of giving apparent strength to the ginger. Fig. 172. Powdered Ginger adtdterated witli Sago powder. a a, cells of ginger ; h b, starch granules of ginger ; c c, large yeUow corpuscles analogous to those of turmeric ; d d, fragment of woody fibre ; e e, starch cor- puscles of sago meal. The Detection of the Adulterations of Ginger. The whole of the substances employed in the adulteration of ginger may be detected with ease and certainty by means of the microscope. Tlie microscopical characters of most of the articles used have already be en described : as wheat flour, at p. 287 ) ground rice, at p. -307 ; : tato flour, at p. 371 ; sago, at p. 375 ; turmeric, mustard husk, and lyenne under their respective heads. The structural peculiarities of Cayenne and mustard husk are so well marked that no difficulty whatever is experienced in identifying them I. 560 SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. when once seen under the microscope ; but in those cases in which the quantities present are but small they are apt to be overlooked. It is ad\dsable to wash away some of the starch from the portion of powder about to be placed under the microscope ; by this means the larger particles are broug-ht more clearly into view. The adulteration with wheat flour is one which might readily escape detection. The observer is therefore cautioned before proceeding to Fit?. 173. Powdered Ginger adulterated with Potato and Sago starches, a o, cells of ginger ; 6 6, starch granules of ginger ; c, large yellow cell, analo- gous to those of turmeric ; d, woody fibre ; e e, starch granules of potato ; //, starch corpuscles of sago^ altered by heat. the examination of powdered ginger to compare carefully the struc- tural peculiarities of the starch granules of ginger and wheat flour ; the difibrences, although not at first striking, are really considerable. Since ginger contains yellow cells very closely resembling those of turmeric, we can only conclude that turmeric has been added when the numt3er of such cells is much greater than in genuine powdered The adulterations of ginger with sago and potato are exhibited in the two preceding engravings (figs. 172 and 173). SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 561 Tlie engraving' (fig. 174) represents tlie adulteration of powdered ginger with tapioca and Cayenne. Fig. 174. Powdered Ginger, a a ; adulterated with cayenne, b b ; and tapiooa, c c. Magnified '200 diameters. CIKN^AMOl^ AND CASSIA KEH THEIR ADULTERATIONS. Cinnamon is the bark of the Cinnamomum Zeylanieum, one of the LauracecBy or laurel family, to which also belong Cassia and Camphor, as well as some other plants possessing medicinal properties, especially Clove bark. Cinnamon is cultivated principally in Ceylon. ' The cinnamon bark of Ceylon is obtained by the cultivation of the plant. The principal cinnamon gardens lie in the neighbourhood of Colombo. The bark peelers or choUahs, having selected a tree of the best quality, lop off such branches as are three years old, and which appear proper for the purpose. Shoots or branches much less than half an inch, or more than two or three inches in diameter, are not peeled. The peeling is effected by making two opposite (or, when the branch is thick, three or four) longitudinal incisions, and then elevating tlie bark by introducing the peeling knife between it. When the 562 SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. bark adheres firmly, the separation is promoted by friction with the handle of the knife. In twenty-four ihours the epidermis and greenish pidpy matter (ret« mucosum) are carefully scraped off. In a few hours the smaller quills are introduced into the larger ones, and in this way a congeries of quills formed, often measuring forty inches long. The bark is then dried in the sun, and afterwards made into bundles with pieces of bamboo twigs. ^ Cinnamon is imported in bales, boxes, and chests, principally from Ceylon, but in part also from Madi*as, Tellicherry, and rarely from Java and other places. ^ In order to preserve and improve the quality of the bark, black pepper is sprinkled amongst the bales of cinnamon in stowing them at Ceylon (Percival). Mr. Bennet states that ships are sometimes de- tained for several weeks through the want of pepper to fill the inter- stices between the bales and the holds. * When cinnamon arrives in London, it is unpacked and examined j all the mouldy and broken pieces are removed from it. It is then re- made into bales. These are cylindrical, three feet six inches long, but of variable diameter, perhaps sixteen inches on the average. These bales are enveloped by a coarse clcfth called gunny. The cinnamon in laoxes and chests is usually the email, inferior, and mouldy pieces.' Gomposition of Oinncmion. The constituents of cinnamon are volatile oil, tannin^ myxdlagey colouring matter , partly soluble in water and alcohol, but not in ether, 7'esin, an acid, starch, smdlignin. A decoction of cinnamon does not become blue on the addition of iodine ; this is partly owing to the small quantity of starch pre- sent, and partly, it is supposed, to the presence of some principle (tannic acid?) which destroys the blue colour of the iodide of starch. The cinnamon oil of commerce is derived from different trees of the genus cinnamomum. The oil is prepared by softening the bruised bark of Cinnam omum zeylanicum with salt water, distilling quickly, and drying with chloride of calcium. The oil consists chiefly of cinnamic aldehyde, which may be separated by means of acid sulphite of potassium, also of some hydrocarbon in very small quantity, together with cinnamic add and resins. The density varies from 1*025 to 1-050, the boiling point 220° to 225° C. The older samples of the oil become coloured and contain much resinous matter, which remains after the oil has been distilled off with salt water. The salt is extracted with cold water and afterwards the cinnamic acid with boiling water. Accord- ing to Mulder, two resins are fonned by oxidation of the oil. With nitric acid it forms a white crystalline nitrate and a red oil, and with ammonia a solid crystalline amide is formed. SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 563 Structure of Cinnamon', Cinnamon, under the microscope, presents a complicated and very- distinct organisation, which is best seen in longitudinal sections, car- ried through the thickness of the bark. Fig. 175. Longitudinal section of Cinnamon carried transversely through the bark, mag- nified 140 diameters. a a, stellate cells ; h b, woody fibre ; c c, starch cells ; d d, starch granules ; e e, granular cinnamon-coloured cells or bodies. On the outer or external surface of the section are observed nu- merous stellate cells, separable readily from each other, and similar to those which we have so often before described as occurring in other vegetable structures. These cells lie one upon the other in several layers, and form a considerable part of the thickness of the bark. They are situated in the intervals between the woody fibres ; they are o o 2 564 SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. of a quadrangular or oval form, having the long axes placed usually transversely to the bark, their breadth being greater than their depth. In whatever position they are viewed, both the central cavities and the rays which proceed from them are visible. Occasionally, though not usually, a few starch granules may be seen in the cavities of these cells. Proceeding from without inwards, these cells are succeeded by others, which are distinguished from the first by the absence of rays, by the thinness of their walls, and by the firmness with which they Fig. 176. Genuine Cinnamon powder, magnified 220 diameters, a a, stellate cells ; b b, woody fibre ; c c, starch granules. adhere to each other ; they generally contain a few starch corpuscles. These cells, which form several series, complete the thickness of the bark. Interspersed between both the first and second kinds of cells are numerous woody fibres, which are rather short, pointed at either ex- tremity, and fiu'nished with a central canal. It is these which impart the fibrous character to cinnamon, particularly observable in fractures of the bark. The starch corpuscles of cinnamon are small, more or less globular, and furnished with a very distinct hilxmi, which has the appearance of SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 565 a central depression. They usually occur singly, but sometimes united in twos or fours. Lastly, lying in the cavities of the most external of the second order of cells, are frequently to be observed deep cinnamon-coloured masses of granular texture. Fig. 177. B A, Stick of Cinnamon of the natural size and appearance, showing the thinness of the bark, and the manner in which the layers are enclosed one within the other ; a, cross section of same, exhibiting more completely the number of the layers, and their disposition. Bf Stick of Cassia of the natural size and appearance, showing the thickness of the bark, and the manner in which the layers are enclosed within each other ; b, cross section of same, exhibiting the dispositions of the layers. 566 SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. The above structural particulars are all shown in fig. 1 75. In ground cinnamon the several structui-es are disunited and broken. The stellate cells occur singly, or in groups of two, three, or more ; the woody fibre is disengaged, and is scattered about, resembling some- what, in form and appearance, the hairs which occur on many plants ; the starch corpuscles are set free from their cells ; and, lastly, the cinnamon-like masses may be seen in the field of the microscope, dis- pei-sed here and there (fig. 176). Composition and Structure of Cassia. Cassia, Cinnamonum cassia, belongs to the same genus of plants as the true cinnamon, and hence it resembles it very closely in its com- position and structure. Composition of cassia. — Since cassia is so frequently substituted for cinnamon, it becomes necessary that we bhould acquaint ourselves with its composition and structure. If tincture of iodine is added to a decoction of cassia, it turns blue, owing to the larger proportion of starch contained in it. Oil of cassia possesses nearly the same properties as oil of cinnamon ; it is said to be a thicker and heavier oil than that of cinnamon ; and its odour and flavour are inferior. Structure of cassia. — Notwithstanding the striking resemblances, between cassia and cinnamon, there are characters, however, by which they may be discriminated. The bark of cinnamon is scarcely thicker than drawing-paper, and breaks with an uneven and fibrous margin ; while each stick consists of eight, ten, or more pieces or quills of bark inserted one within the other. Cassia bark is much stouter, being often as thick as a shilling ; it breaks short, and without splintering. By these characters alone it is easy to distinguish cinnamon from cassia when in the whole state, as shown by the accompanying drawing (fig. 177). But these barks differ also in colour and taste. Cinnamon is paler and browner than cassia, which is ususally redder and brighter. The taste of one is sweet, mild, and aromatic, leaving no unpleasant im- pression on the tongue, while that of the other is less sweet, stronger, and is followed by a bitterness. These characters, however, vary in difiPerent samples, so that it is impossible by these means alone to distinguish cinnamon from cassia when in powder, and we are not aware that any certain means have been pointed out for effecting the discrimination, especially when the two are mixed in different proportions ; but here again, as in so many other cases, the microscope affords us invaluable assistance. Sections of cassia bark, viewed under the microscope, bear a close general resemblance to those of cinnamon, but differ in their greater SPICES AND THEIR ADULTEKATIONS. 567 -widtli and tlie relative proportions of tlie several structures, particularly in the size and number of the starch corpuscles (fig. 178). We observe on the outer surface, as in cinnamon, the peculiar stellate cells, the cavities of which, however, much more commonly than those of cinnamon, are filled with well-developed starch, cor- piiscles. Fig. 178. Longitudinal section of Cassia, carried transversely through the bark, magnified 140 diameters. a a, cells of epidermis ; 6 &, stellate cells ; d d, starch ceUs ; e e, starch granules ;; //, granular cinnamon-coloured masses. Lying next to these, we notice what may be termed the proper sarch cells, usually crammed quite full of starch corpuscles, which, vhile they have the same general form as those of cinnamon, are yet two or three times larger, as well as many times more numerous. The woody fibre occurs, as in cinnamon, interspersed between both descriptions of cells, and it does not appear to differ appreciably from t lat of cinnamon. 568 SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. Of the entire thickness of the bark, about one-fourth is formed by the stellate cells ; the remaining three-fourths being made up of the starch-bearing cells. In powdered cassia, therefore, as contrasted with powdered cinna- mon, the stellate cells and woody fibre ar« much less abundant, while the starch granules are at the same time much larger, and far more numerous (fig. 179). Fig. 179. ^^ Gentnne Cassia powder, magnified 220 diameters ; a a, stellate cells ; 6 6, woody fibre ; c c, starch cells ; d d, starch granules ; e e, granular masses. The Adulte7'ati(ms of Cinnamon and Cassia. From an examination of the analyses of thirty-tioo samples of cinna- mon, it appeared that of the twelve lohole cinnamons, seven were genuine, and that Jive consisted of nothing but cassia. That the essential oil is sometimes abstracted, and the bark, after being reduced, sold either whole or in the ground state. That of the nineteen samples of ground cinnamon, three consisted entirely of cassia. SPICES AND THEIR ADULTER ATIONS. 569 That ten of the samples, or more than one-half, were adulterated, the ai-ticles most frequently employed being either hahed wheat flour or sago meal, separately or in combination, but East India arroioroot and 2)otato flour were likewise detected each in one instance. That of the above adulterated samples three consisted of cassia adulterated, and seven of cinnamon, adulterated. That six only of the nineteen samples were genuine. In the prices charged for the samples of cinnamon examined, whether whole or in powder, genuine or adulterated, no constant diiference was to be observed, and consequently the public suiFers great loss by the substitution of cassia, which is so much cheaper, for cinnamon, and a still greater loss by the other sophistications. The wheat flour and sago detected were generally baked, to make them resemble in colour more nearly ground cinnamon or cassia, and thus the better escape detection. The Detection of the Adulterations of Cinnamon and Cas»ia, The detection of the various adulterations of cinnamon and cassia is, in nearly all cases, easy enough by means of the microscope ; all that is requisite is that the observer should be acquainted with the structure and characters of genuine cassia and cinnamon, as well as of the articles employed to adulterate them. The mixture of cassia with cinnamon of course constitutes an adul- teration, but very frequently cassia is substituted for cinnamon. The mixture and substitution are both discoverable with the microscope by the difference in the size of the starch granules, but the substitution may be detected in other ways. Thus when stick cassia is substituted for cinnamon, the substitution i3 known by the gi-eater thickness of cassia bark. Again, the decoction of cassia bark turns blue on the addition of iodine, when one of cinnamon similarly treated does not become blue. It is stated that the oil is sometimes removed from cinnamon bark, this being subsequently ground to powder and mixed with genuine cinnamon. This fraud may be discovered in two ways : the suspected cinnamon may be boiled in distilled water for a time and the oil distilled off; the quantity of oil obtained may be estimated by measurement in a small graduated tube rather than by weighing. A more expeditious process is to examine the cinnamon with the microscope ; if this has been acted upon by boiling water, the starch granules will be found to have lost their proper form, to have become distorted and irregular, while many of them are larger than natural. If the cinnamon has been subjected to the prolonged action of the water, the granules will have become so broken up and dissolved that they can no longer be detected. 570 SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. NUTMEGS AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. There are three species of Myiistica which furnish nutmegs. That which yields the best description, Mynstica fragrans, forms a tree from twent}^ to twenty-five feet high, somewhat similar in appearance to a pear tree. The fruit is smooth externally, pear-shaped, and about the size of an ordinary peach. It consists, tii-st, of an outer fleshy covering, called the pericarp^ which when mature separates into nearly equal longitudinal parts, or valves ; secondly, of the aril, or mnce, which, when recent, is of a bright scarlet colour ; and thirdly, of the seed proper, or nutmeg. This is enclosed in a shell, which is made up of two coats : the outer is hard and smooth ; the inner, thin, closely invests the seed, sending off prolongations, which enter the substance of the seed, and which, being coloured, impart the marbled or mottled appearance characteristic of nutmeg. There are two kind of nutmegs met with in commerce. The first, called the truCy roundj cultivated, or female nutmeg, is the product of Myridtiea fragrans. The second kind of nutmeg is called the false, long, wild, or rnale nutmeg, and is the produce chiefly of Myristica fatua ; but a kind of nutmeg which is also called wild, is obtained from Myristica Mala- harica. In the Banda Islands, three crops or harvests of nutmegs are ob- tained in the year ; the principal gathering is in July or August ; the second in November ; and the third in March or April. The fruit is gathered by means of a barb attached to a long stick : the mace is separated from the nut, and separately cm-ed. On account of their liability to the attacks oi an insect known as the nutmeg insect, considerable care is required in drying them. They should be dried in their shells, as they are then secure from the insect. They are placed on hurdles, and smoke-dried over a slow wood fire for about two months. In the Banda Islands, they are first dried in the sun for a few days. When the operation of drying is complete, the nuts rattle in their shells ; these are cracked with maUets, and the damaged, shrivelled, or worm-eaten nuts removed. ^ To prevent the attacks of the insect, the nuts are frequently limed. For the English market, however, the brovni or unlimed nutmegs are preferred. The Dutch lime them by dipping them into a thick mixture of lime and water ; but this process is considered to injure their flavour. Others lime them by rubbing them with re- cently-prepared, well-sifted lime. This process is sometimes practised in London.' — Pereira. Composition of Nutmegs, Nutmegs contain both a fixed and a volatile oil. 1^\iq fixed oil or myristin is prepared by beating the nutmegs to a paste ; this is subjected, SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 571 enclosed in a hag, to the vapour of water, and the oil afterwards ex- pressed by means of heated plates. It is imported in cakes which have somewhat the size and form of common bricks^ and are covered with leaves. The fixed oil procured in this manner contains a por- tion of the volatile oil, from which its colour and fragrant odour are derived. The volatile oil, on the presence of which the flavour and aroma of nutmegs principally depend, is procured by distillation with water ; the produce thus obtained at Apothecaries' Hall, London, is usually 4*5 per cent., but according to most observers nutmegs contain about 6 per cent. This oil has a specific gravity according to Lewis, of 0*948, and a(?cording to Bley, 0-920. It is a mixture of a volatile oil and a camphor. When left to stand, it deposits myristicin, which is readily soluble in b<3iling water, crystallising on cooling in long very thin prisms with dihedral summits or in stellse. It melts at above 100° C. and sublimes at a higher temperature. Now, nutmegs are frequently deprived of a portion of their essential oil by distillation, and alter being well limed, aie again sent into the market in this comparatively valueless state. Bonastre's analysis. Volatile oil 6-0 Liquid fat 7*6 , Solid fat 24-0 Acid 0-8 Starch 2-4 Gum 1-2 Ligneous fibre ...... 64*0 Loss 4*0 100-0 Structure of Nutmegs. Nutmegs under the microscope present pecidiarities of structure, . by which they may be distinguished, even in powder, from other vegetable productions. A thin section, viewed under an object glass magnifying 220 diameters, is seen to consist of minute angular cells. Those forming the white or uncoloured part of the nut present, previous to the action of water upon them, an opalescent appearance, from the quantity of oil enclosed in them ; their cavities contain in addition much starch, in the form of small but distinct granides, mostly of a rounded shape ; but occasionallv a few of the granules are angular ; and all have well-marked central depressions. The cells forming the coloured, vein-like portion of the nut differ from the other cells in colour and in being destitute of starch, con- taining apparently only a small quantity of oil (fig. 180). 572 SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. The Adulterations of Nutmegs. Since nutmegs are never sold in the powdered state, they are not liable to adulteration by admixture with foreign ingredients, like several of the spices which have been already noticed, as ginger, cinnamon, and cassia; nevertheless, they are subjected to a process Fig* 180. Section op Nutmeg. (Magnified 220 diamecers.) a a, cells forming the white or uncoloured portions of the nutmeg ; tli(»y are seen to contain numerous starch granules, h 6, the starch granules, c, a portion of one of the veins formed by the inversion of the inner coat of the seed vessel or endoplem^a ; it consists of Coloured cells, containing oil only, d, loose starch granules magnified 420 diameters. which impairs their value and quality as much as though they had ^ been actually adulterated in the same manner as by the abstraction of the volatile oil. The wild nutmeg obtained from the Myristica Malaharica has scarcely any flavour or odour, and according to Rheede, is of the size and figure of a date. ' The Turkish and Jewish merchants,' writes Rheede, ^ mix these nutmegs with the true long ones, and the mace with good mace, selling them together. They also extract from these inferior articles an oil, with which they adulterate that of a more genuine quality.' SPICES AND THEIK ADULTEEATIONS. 573 The work of M. Ohevallier^ entitled ' Dictionnaire des Alterations et Falsifications des Substances Alimentaires, Medicamenteuses, et Commerciales/ in treating of nutmegs, contains tJie following obser- vations, under the head of ^ Falsifications : ' — ' Nutmegs are sometimes mixed with riddled nuts, eaten by insects, and become brittle ; the small apertures are then closed with a kind of cement, formed of flour, oil, and the powder of nutmegs. This paste has even served to fabricate false nutmegs, inodorous and in- sipid. The workmen of Marseilles have even made them of bran, clay, and the refuse of nutmegs : these nutmegs, placed in contact with water, soften down in that liquid. ^ The worm-eaten nuts are equally insipid, and almost inodorous ; sometimes they have a mouldy odour.' Eighteen samples of nutmegs were subjected to examination, the result being that in no case had the essential oil been abstracted. The Detection of the Adulterations of Nutmegs. The only adulteration, excepting that by admixture with wild nut- megs, to which it appears that nutmegs are liable — and this doubtless is of rare occurrence — is by means of the artificial or factitious nut- megs mentioned by M. Chevallier. These may be readily discovered by soaking them in water, when, of course, they would readily break down. The differences between the cultivated and wild nutmegs have already been described. The nutmegs from which the oil has been abstracted may be re- cognised by the presence of punctures on the surface, and by their much greater lightness. It is singular that the starch granules of nutmeg are but little affected by boiling ; so that this means of discrimination, so satisfac- tory in the case of cinnamon, cassia, and some other spices, is of little or no value in the present instance. Of this remarkable circumstance it is not easy to afford an explana- tion ; it probably depends upon the difficulty with which the boiling water makes its way into the substance of the nut, in consequence of its hard texture and the large quantity of fixed oil contained in it. The differential duties on wild and cultivated nutmegs offer a premium for the substitution of the inferior for the superior article. MACE KWD ITS ADFLTEEATIOIfS. As there are two kinds of nutmeg, so are there two kinds of mace, the produce of the same plants : thus, there is true or cultivated n ace, and false or wild mace. Wild or false mace is of a dark-red colour, and deficient in flavour and ai-oma. 574 SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. CompositAon, The composition of mace closely resembles that of the nutmeg itself; it contains, as will be seen from the following analysis, a volatile and a fixed oil — Volatile oil. Red fat oil, soluble in alcohol. Yellow fat oil, insoluble in alcohol. Alcoholic extractive. Amiden. Ligneous fibre with lime. Structure of Mace, Viewed under the microscope, mace presents a structure very dis- tinct from that of the nutmeg itself. Covering the surface of the blades is a delicate membrane, consist- ing of a single layer of cells ; they are tubular, much elongated, taper at either end to a point, and resemble in size and form, although not in delicacy of texture, ordinary woody fibre. The long diameters of the cells are disposed vertically on the surface of the mace. But the chief substance is made up of other cells differing in size and form from those already noticed ; these contain fixed oil, and much starch. Imbedded in the midst of these cells are larger cells, spaces, or re- ceptacles, which, in thin sections, whether made crosswise or length- wise, appear as apertures. These contain the essential oil of mace. Scattered here and there may be seen, both in transverse and lonoi- tudinal sections, small bundles of woody fibre, of a brownish colour, enclosing one or two small spiral vessels. In transverse sections the ordinary starch cells are perceived to be arranged round the bundles in a radiate manner. The sti'ucture of mace is exhibited in fig. 181. The Adultei-ations of Mace, Like the nutmeg, mace may be deprived, by distillation, of its essential oil. The only adulteration of mace known to be practised is that by admixture with wild mace ; this is distinguished by its dark red colour and by its deficiency in fiavour and aroma. Of tivelve samples of mace subjected to examination the ivhole xvere genuine, CLOVES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. Cloves are the unexpanded flower-buds of Eugenia caryophyllata or Caryophyllus aromaticus, a tree from fifteen to thirty feet in height, one of tiie Myrtaceae or myrtle tribe. The word clove is derived from" SPICES AND THEIR ADULTEEATIONS. 575 the French word clou, from a fancied resemblance to a nail in the form of the clove. The flower-buds are arranged on terminal flower-stalks ; they are either gathered by hand or obtained by beating* with bundles of reeds, in which case cloths are spread beneath the trees to catch them ; they ai-e afterwards dried either by the tire, or, what is better, in the sun ; they are imported in casks or bags. Fig. 181. Transverse Section op Mace. , (Magnified 220 diameters.) a a, receptacles for the essential oil ; many of them appear in the section as aper- tures, and are represented in the figure as such. 6 6, the same, exhibiting the appearance of closed ceUs, from the circumstance of their not being cut into ; the colouring matter of mace is located chiefly in these cells or receptacles, c c, large air-bubbles usually observed in sections immersed in water, d d, cells filled with starch corpuscles, e, the starch corpuscles loose, magnified 420 diameters. /, the cells forming the delicate coat or cuticle investing mace. Composition of the Clove. Cloves contain, according to the analysis of Trommsdorf, volatile o'l, 18 ; almost tasteless resin, 6; tannin, 13 ; difficultly-soluble extrac- tive loith tannin, 4 ; gum, 13 ; ivoody fibre, 28 ; and water, 18 per cent. The volatile oil is obtained from cloves by repeated distillation. 576 SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. The yield on an average is said to be from seventeen to twenty-two per cent. It has "been ascertained that the oil, which was formerly regarded as a simple oil, is really composed of two volatile oils, possessing dif- ferent qualities, and one of which is lighter and the other heavier than water. The characters and composition of these oils are thus given in Pereira's 'Materia Medica,' ed. 1. part ii. p. 1093: — Fig. 182. Petal op Clove-bud. (Magnified 60 diameters.) A, transverse section of the petal of flower-bud of clove, showing the receptacles in which the essential oil is contained. B, surface of petal ; the receptacles for the oil in this view are indistinct. a. Light Oil of Cloves (^Clove-Hydrocarhon). — Colourless, sp. gr. 0-918, at 18° 0., boils at from 142 to 143° 0. It passes over with the vapour of water when the crude oil of cloves is distilled with potash. Incapable of combining with bases, but absorbing hydrochloric acid gas without yielding a crystalline compound. It consists of CjoHig ; hence it is isomeric with oil of turpentme. SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 577 /3. Heavy Oil of Cloves (Olove Acid ; Eugenic Acid). — When crude oil of cloves is distilled with potash, the clove hydrocarbon, sometimes called the light oil of cloves, passes over, eugenic acid remaining behind as a eugenate of potash from which it may be separated by a mineral acid. It is colourless when recently prepared, but becomes coloured by age with the formation of resins. Its specific gravity, according to Stenhouse, is 1*076, and its boiling point 242° 0. Its formula is Q^^^fic^. It combines with alkalies to form crystalline salts {alha- line eugenates, clove-oil alkalies). If a salt of iron be added to one of those, it yields a blue, violet, or reddish compound (a ferruginous eugenate), varying somewhat according to the nature of the ferruginous salt used ; thus the protosulphate of iron yields a lilac, the persulphate a red, which becomes violet and afterwards blue \ while the sesqui- chioride gives a vinous, which tm'ns to red (Bonastre). Nitric acid reddens clove acid. A substance which ciystallises in white nacreous laminae is fre- qu(3ntly deposited from the water distilled from cloves. This has been called clove-camphor or eugeiiin, and is said to be isomeric with eugenic acid. It is insoluble in water, and with nitric acid turns blood- red. The unexpanded flower-buds are not the only parts of the tree which are aromatic, as the footstalks and fruit or seed vessels are like- wise so to some extent. The peduncles, or footstalks, according to Guibourt, are sometimes substituted for cloves by distillers of the oil. The fruit, mother-cloves as they have been called, are occasionally met with in commerce ; they have the shape of the olive, but are smaller, and possess the odour and taste of the clove in a mild degTee. Structure of the Clove. The minute structure of cloves is extremely characteristic. The rounded head or hud consists of the unexpanded petals ; if a transverse section of one of these be made, it wiU be seen to be composed of cellular tissue, in the midst of which are numerous receptacles for the essential oil ; these extend through the whole thickness of the leaf, being usually thre6 or four deep. When the petal is viewed on the surface, the receptacles are seen but indistinctly, being obscured by the cellular tissue of which the sui'lace of the petal is formed (fig. 182). In a transverse section of the flowe^'-stalk, viewed with an object- glass of one-inch focus, the following appearances present them- selves : — In the outer third of the section, numerous large holes are ob- servad ; these are the divided receptacles ; next to these, passing inwards, are bundles of woody fibre, forming a narrow circle in the interior of the stalk ; extending from these to near the centre of the p p 578 SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. stalk is a tissue formed of numerous tubular cells, with ]arge spaces between them. The receptacles, as well as the tubular cells and inter- Fig. 183. Transvkrsr Section of FLOwER-sTAUi of the Clove. (Magnified 60 diameters.) a, receptacles for the essential oil ; the section being a thin one, they present the appearance of apertures, in consequence of being opened into, b b, cellular tissues surrounding the woody fibre, c c, bundles of woody fibre, d, the tubular structure and interspaces, of which the internal portion of the stalk is formed, e, the centre of the stalk ; it appears dark under the microscope, the structure being obscure. //, droplets of oil. Spaces, contain essential oil, visible in sections immersed in water, in the form of innumerable droplets (fig. 183). SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 579 Longitudinal sections exhibit a nearly similar structural arrange- ment (fig. 184). Cloves contain scarcely any starch. Fig. 184. LONGITUDIXAL SECTIONT OF FLOWER-STALK OF THE CLOVE. (Magnified 60 diameters.) ■^'^f^^ a a, receptacles for the essential oil, appearing as apertures from having been cut into in making the section, b, cellular tissue, c, woody fibre, d, the tubular structure and interspaces which form the internal portion of the stalk. e, the dark central part of the flower-stalk. //, droplets of oil. The clove-stalks present a structure somewhat similar to that of cL)ves themselves ; that is, they consist of cellular tissue, hoUowed out here and there into receptacles for the essential oil; but, in ad- pp2 580 SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. dition, the stalks are provided with an epidermis, or coating of the stellate cells, which are of such frequent occurrence in different kinds of bark. The Adulterations of Cloves. Cloves are but seldom sold in powder, and hence the liability to adulteration is greatly lessened ; they are, however, occasionally met with in that state. Clove-stalks, although very inferior, contain some of the active pro- perties of cloves, and, as already noticed, are occasionally used by dis- tillers for procuring the essential oil of cloves. We have reason to believe that in some cases the stalks are ground up, and mixed with the powder of genuine cloves. The quality and value of cloves are not unfrequently impaired, like some other spices, by the abstraction of the essential oil. This fraud used to be extensively practised in Holland, the di-aicn cloves, for more effectual concealment, being mixed with others of good quality ; and even in some instances the trouble was taken to restore as nearly as possible to the exhausted cloves their original appearance, by rubbing them over with some cqmmon oil. Twe?i^y^i?e samples of cloves, whole and in powder, were subjected to examination, the results being that one only of the powdered cloves contained a proportion of clove-stalks, while from none of the whole cloves had the essential oil been abstracted. The volatile oil, as imported into this country from India, has been found to be adulterated. Mr. M^Oulloch, on the authority of Milburn, states that the oil im- ported from India contains nearly half its weight of an insipid ex- pressed oil, which is discovered by dropping a little into spirits of wine, and on shaking it the genuine oil mixes with the spirit, and, the insipid separating, the fraud is detected. Cloves readily imbibe moisture, whereby their weight becomes greatly increased, a fact of which dishonest dealers have not failed to avail themselves. The Detection of the Adulterations of Cloves. The adulteration of powdered cloves with clove-stalks is readily detected by means of the microscope, which reveals the presence of the stellate cells of the stalk. If the essential oil has been removed, the cloves will be dry and bitter, no oil appearing on the surface when the cloves are pressed with the nail. The quantity of essential oil may be estimated by distillation ; genuine cloves yield from 17 to 22 per cent, of oil. Adulterations with foreign vegetable substances are all discovered by the microscope. SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 581 PIMEN^TO OR ALLSPICE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Pimento, Jamaica pepper, or Allspice, is the berry or fruit of the Myrtus 'pimento or Eugenia ^mnentOj one of the Myrtacece. It grows in the West Indies, and principally in Jamaica, especially on the hills oil the north side of that island. It forms a beautiful tree, which attains some thirty feet in height, and is planted in regular walks, which are named Pimento loalks. The fruit is gathered after it has attained its full size, but while still green ; it is usually sun-dried, but sometimes kiln-dried on sheets ; in diying, the colour of the fruits change from gre&n to reddish-brown ; when ripe, the berry becomes black or dark purple in colour, and is glutinous, and consequently in that state imfit for preservation.. Composition of Allspice, As in the case of cloves, the essential oil of pimento is a mixture of two oils — a light and a heavy oil. The properties of these are thus described in Pereira's ^ Materia Medica ' : — ^ By distillation with water, allspice, like cloves, yields two vola- tile oils — the one lighter, the other heavier than water. The oil of pimento of the shops is a mixture of these ; except in odour, its pro- perties are almost identical with those of oil of cloves. Its specific gravity at 8° 0. is 1'03. By distillation with caustic potash, the light oil is separated ; the residue, mixed with sulphimc acid, and submitted to distillation, gives out the heavy oil. ^ a. Light oil of pimento {Timento-Hydrocarhon) has not, to my knowledge, been previously examined. Its properties appear to be similar to those of the light oil of cloves. It floats on water and on licjuor potassse, and is slightly reddened by nitric acid. Potassium siiiks in, and is scarcely, if at all, acted on by it. ^ /3. Heavy oil of jyimento {Pimentic Acid). — Very similar to clove- acid. It forms with the alkalies crystalline compounds (^alkaline pimen^ ta'es), which become blue or greenish on the addition of the tincture of the chloride of iron (owing to the formation of a fe7'ruginous pimen- tate). Nitric acid acts violently on and reddens it.' The heavy oil is said by some to be identical with eugenic acid. Bonastre,^ in 1825, published the following analysis of the compo- sition of pimento berries : — 1 ' Journ. de Chim. M^d.' i. 210. 582 SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. Husks. Kernels. Volatile oil 10-0 5-0 Green oil . 84 2-5 Solid fat oil . 0-9 1-2 Astringent extract 11-4 39-8 Gummy extract 3-0 7-2 Colouring matter 4-0 Resinous matter 1-2 __ Uncrystallisable sugar . 3-0 8-0 Malic or gallic acid 0-6 1-6 Lignin .... 50-0 Saline ashes . 2-8 1-9 Water .... 3-5 3-0 Loss . . . 1-6 1-8 Red matter insoluble in water. 8-8 Pellicular residue . 16-0 Brown flocculi — 3-2 Total • 100-0 100-0 Complicated and complete as the above analysis would appear to be, it yet does not embrace tbe starch which is contained in the seeds in large quantity. Braconnet, however, detected the presence of starch, and estimates it as forming 9 per cent, of the seeds.^ Mr. Whipple estimates the yield of pimento oil to be about 4*37 per cent, of the weight of the seed. Sti'ucture of Allspice. As in the case of other seeds, the pimento berry is divisible into husk and seed, or seeds proper. The husk is thick, and, when dried, soft and brittle ; it sends off from its inner surface a prolongation which, forms a septum, and divides the interior into two parts or cells. Vertical sections of the husk, viewed under the microscope, present the following structures : — On the outer part of the section are seen several large cells or re- ceptacles for the essential oil, sometimes two or three deep ; more internally, numerous stellate cells, attached to and imbedded in cel- lular tissue, occur ; next to these are bundles of woody fibre and deli- cate spiral vessels ; while the deepest or innermost part of the section consists of cellular tissue only. Occupying each of the cells formed by the husk is a small flattish ieed of a dark brown or chocolate colour. After maceration, two 1 Duncan, * Edinb. Dispens.' SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 583 membranes may be separated, although with some difficulty, from the surface of the seed. The most external of these is thin and delicate, and consists of a single layer of elongated and angular cells. The Fig. 185. Vertical Section of Husk of Pimento Berry. (Magnified 220 diameters.) a, cells or receptacles for the essential oil. h, stellate cells, c, cellular tissue surrounding the stellate cells, d, bundles of woody fibre and spiral vessels, e, cellular tissue forming the innermost part of the section. internal tunic is composed of several layers of large corrugated and coloured cells ; it is to these that the dark colour of the surface of the seed is due ; when viewed under the microscope, they exhibit a cha- racteristic port wine tint (figs. 185 and 186). The structure of the seed proper, as displayed in vertical sections, is as follows : — 584 SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. Running round the outer part of the section is a single layer of large receptacles, the remaining thickness being made up of angular and transparent cells, the ca\dties of which are filled with niunerous well- defined starch granules (fig. 187). When pimento berries are reduced to powder, the whole of the foregoing structures become disunited, bix)ken up, and yariously in- Fig. 186. Portion of the Membranes on Surface op the Seed Propkb. (Magnified 220 diameters.) a. External membrane, consisting of a single layer of elongated and angular cells, b. Internal membrane, made up of several layers of large port wine coloured cells. termixed. The port- wine coloured cells are particularly conspicuous, and aiFord a character by which the nature of the powder may be at once determined. The several structures above mentioned, as they appear in genuine ground pimento powder or allspice, are represented in fig. 188, p. 586. SPICES AND THEIR ADULTEEATIONS. 585 The Adulterations of Allsjnce. Of twenty-one samples of ground allspice subjected to examination, 'One only was adulterated with mustard husk, a result probably mainly attributable to tbe great cheapness of this spice. Fig. 187. Vertical Section of the Seed Proper op Pdiejs'to Berry. (Magnified 220 diameters.) In the npper part of the figure two of the receptacles for the oil are exhibited ; and in the lower part, a a, the cells containing the small rounded starch cor- puscles ; b, loose starch corpuscles, magnified 420 diameters. The Detection of the Adulterations of Allspice. The adulteration with mustard husk is one which is very readily discoverable by means of the microscope, the structural peculiarities of which will be found described under the article ^ Mustard.' 586 SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. MIXED SPICE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Mixed spice, as the name implies, is a mixture in different pro- portions of several spices ; those of which it is usually composed are Fig. 188. Ground Pimento or Allspice. (Magnified 220 diameters.) a. Fragments of husk. b. Stellate cells, c. External coat or membrane of seed proper, d. Port- wine coloured cells, which f onn the second membrane of seed. e. CeUs of the seed, which contain the starch granules. /. Loose starch cor- puscles. ground ginger, pimento or allspice, with cassia or cinnamon, and sometimes a small quantity of powdered cloves. Such are the usual ingredients which enter into its composition. In some rare cases, however, it may contain other spices, as mace or nutmeg ; but what- ever the constituents, and in whatever proportions they are employed, mixed spice, when genuine, should consist entirely of a combination SPICES AND THHIR ADULTERATIONS. 587 IS, and should not contain a particle of farinaceous matter other at proper to the articles composing- it. Thus it should never wheat Jlour, potato farina^ or sago mealj and whenever any of spices, C4,i^^ ox^v^ccxv* xxv^^^w^vc..^ «, j^«.v. than that proper to the articles composing- it. ±nus i contain wheat Jlour, potato farina ^ or sago mealj and Fig. 189. Genuine Mixed Spice. (Magnified 220 diameters.) a. Woody fibre of ginger, a'. Cells of ginger which contain the starch, a". Starch granules of ginger, h. Outer husk of pimento or allspice, h'. Stellate cells of same, h". Husk of the seed proper of ditto. I'". Port-wine coloured cells of ditto, h"". Starch cells ; and V"", starch granules of same. c. Starch granules and fragments of powdered cinnamon. of these are present, the article is to be considered and treated as adi Iterated. The above engraving represents the structure of the several ingre- dients, of which genuine mixed spice is usually formed. 588 SPICES AMD THEIR ADULTERATIONS. The Adulterations of Mixed Spice, , Of' the twenfity-six samples of mixed spice subjected to microscopi6 examination, no less than sixteen, or considerably more than one-half, were adulterated ; and hence it is seen that, of all the spices, mixed spice is the most liable to adulteration. The substances employed were toheat Jlour in five cases, ground rice in two, sago in four, potato Jlour in one, and vegetable substances undetermined in three of the samples. The Detection of the Adulterations of Mixed Spice. The whole of the adulterations of mixed spice are discoverable by means of the microscope : the characters of wheat flour are described and figured at pp. 287 and 289 ; of rice at pp. 306 and 308 ; of sago at pp. 375 and 376 ; and of potato flour at p. 371. Fuller details respecting the adulteration of spices will be found in the author's work entitled ' Food and its Adulterations.' The present aflbrds an additional instance of what we have so frequently before observed — namely, that the higher the price of any article, the more it becomes subject to adulteration. It thus again appears that the public and the revenue are exten- sively defrauded through the adulteration of the majority of the spices sold. CUREY POWDER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 589 CHAPTER XXXIV. CURRY POWDER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Any starch or farina or any vegetable substance added for the sake of bulk and weight only ; or added mineral matters, including those employed in the . cokration of the Cayenne used. Se\t;ral ingredients enter into the composition of curry powder. The articles of which genuine curry powder of good quality ordinarily consists are turmeric, black pepper, coriander seeds, Cayenne, fenu- greek, cardamoms, cumin, ginger, allspice, and cloves. Of these, turmeric forms the largest proportion, next to this in amount are coriander seeds and black pepper ; Cayenne, cardamoms, cumin, and fenugreek form but a small portion of the article ; while the ginger, cloves, and allspice are in many cases omitted. The properties and stnictm'e of several of the above ingredients have been already fully described and illustrated, as turmeric, black pepper, Cayenne, ginger, cloves, and allspice ; it thus only remains to givt^ a description of the other ingredients which enter into the com- position of curry powder — namely, coriander seeds, cardamoms, fenu- greek, and cumin seeds. Conander Seeds. Coriander (^Coriandrum sativum^hQlon^^ to the natural family Um- belliferse ; it is an annual plant of a foot or a foot and a half in height ; it is cultivated in Essex, and although not really indigenous, is fre- quently met with growing wild in the neighbourhood of Ipswich and some parts of Essex. Coriander seeds yield about 0'37 per cent, of a volatile oil, which is obtained by distilling the bruised fruit with water. It has an aro- matic taste, in its dilute state smelling like orange flowers, but when concentrated having the odour of the seeds. Specific gra\dty 0*859 (Tr omsdoriF) or 0-871 at 14° C. (Kawalier). It dissolves in alcohol, ethtr, and oils, both fixed and volatile, and it explodes violently with iodine. Coriander oil is a mixture of several other oils. The fruit or seed vessels are globular, about tvrice the size of white mustard seeds, and of a light-brown colour. Each fruit consists of two hemispherical portions termed meticarps, each of which is a seed ; 590 CURRY POWDER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. each niericarp exhibits on its outer surface five primary ridges, which are depressed and wavy, and four secondary ridges, which are more prominent and straight. The channels are without receptacles for the essential oil, or, as they are technically termed, vittce ; but near the commissures in each mericarp there is a small vitta, so that each fruit is provided with four of these receptacles. The epidermis or husk is thick and brittle ; when examined with the Fig. 190. Traxsverse Section of Mericarp op Coriander. (Magnified 220 diameters.) a a, fibres forming the husk, b, the loose cells which unite the husk to the seed, c, the layer of deeply-coloured cells, in contact with the seed, d d, cells com- posing the seed itself. microscope, it is observed to consist of narrow fibres, which cross each other, and are disposed in a waved manner. It is united to the seed by means of loose cellular tissue, the cavities of the cells being empty. On the removal of the husk, these cells are torn through, some re- maining attached to it, and the rest to the surface of the seed. After the separation of the husk, the seed is still of a brown colour. Beneath the cells above described succeeds a delicate fibrous membrane ; and next to this is a layer of deeply-coloured cells, which merge into the cells which form the substance of the seed ; these are angular, with CUKRT POWDER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 591 well-defined parietes, their cavities enclosing oil in a molecular con- dition. The mature seed does not contain starch (fig. 190). The peculiar structure of the husk of coriander seeds aff'ords a means by which their presence in curry powder may be readily de- termined. Cardamom Seeds, m' Grains of Paradise. The seeds of cardamom yield by distillation a volatile aromatic oil, having a very pungent taste. Its specific gTavity is 0*945 ; it is soluble in ether, alcohol, and oils, also in acetic acid and caustic potash. It forms an explosive compound with iodine and it inflames when treated with strong nitric acid. The seeds of Amomum repens yield about 4*9 per cent, of this oil. Crystals are deposited from old cardamom oil, having the composition of camphine. Cardamoms likewise contain an ac7id resin and a fixed non-drying oil. The seed vessels or pods of cardamom are of a triangular form, and consist of three valves, tapering at either extremity to a blunt point ; the membrane forming them is thick, tough, and fibrous, and is made up of cellular tissue and bundles of woody fibre, which spread out from the flower-stalk, and are visible on the surface to the naked eye, imparting the striated appearance characteristic of the seed vessel of cardamom. From its interior, the seed vessel sends off" three prolongations or septa, which divide it into as many compartments ; each of these con- tains several hard seeds of a reddish-brown colour and exhibiting upon the surface peculiar markings. The seeds are united together by a gelatinous parenchymatous substance, which, under the microscope, is 3een to consist of numerous delicate tubules, filled with granular and oily matter. The covering of the seed, examined with the microscope, and viewed on its outer surface, is observed to consist of a single layer of coloured cells, much elongated, and of uniform diameter, terminating in rounded extremities, the cells being accurately adapted to each other. Beneath these are other cells, which bear a general resem- blance in form to those previously described, but dififer in being more irregular, much more delicate, and in the absence of colour ; they are dis- posed in an opposite direction to those of the outer layer (fig. 191, A). In transverse sections, the elongated coloured cells appear as small canals, of a rounded form. Lying beneath the coating, and forming part of the seed, is a single ro\7 of large cells, resembling receptacles. Next in order from without inv-ards is a layer of small cells, deeply coloured. Next to these suc- ceed the cells which constitute the principal part of the seed ; these for the most part resemble closely the cells of pepper, being very an- gular, but they difier in their more delicate and transparent appear- ance, and in being minutely dotted (fig. 191, B). Dr. Pereira, in his ^ Materia Medica,' quotes the statement made by Schleiden, that he has discovered in the cells of cardamom ^ amor- 592 CURRY POWDER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. phous, paste-like starch.' "We find tlie cells to be completely filled with minute, distinctly-formed starch granules, resembling closely those of rice. Probably the statement of M. Schleiden arose from his Fig. 191. Outer Memuraxe and Transverse Section op a CARDAMOii Seed. (Magnified 220 diameters.) 4^ A. Portion of outer membrane, exhibiting the elongated cells of which it is com- posed. B. Transverse section of seed, a a, cells forming outer membrane. b b, receptacle-like cells, c, layer of coloured ceils, d d, transparent and minutely-dotted cells, of which tbe substance of the seed itself is made up, and which are filled with starch corpuscles. having employed but a feeble magnifying power in the examination of the seeds. The presence of cardamom seeds in curry powder is most readily determined by means of the dotted and angular cells which form the substance of the seeds. CURRY POWDER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 593 Cumin Seeds. The cumin plant (Cuininutn cyminum) belongs, like coriander, to the natiu-al order Umbelliferse ; it is a native of Upper Egypt, but is Fig. 192. Transverse Section of Mericarp of Cumkc. (Magnified 220 diameters.) ^^I^'^K /fDT?,'!^.^ a a, cells forming the husk, h 6, commencement of two hairs or prickles, e, receptacle or vitta. d d, elongated cells which compose the innermost layer of husk, c c, cells and fibres of which the external surface of the S2ed is formed. //, cells of the seed itself, containing oil. extensively cultivated in Sicily and Malta. It yields a volatile oil, Q Q 594 CURRY POWDER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. obtained by extraction with absolute alcohol and precipitation by water. It is said to be a mixture of Cmninol and Cymine. Cumin seeds resemble somewhat caraway seeds, but they are larger, straighter, and of a lighter colour. The n'uit is double, like that of coriander and all other umbelliferous plants, consisting of two seeds or mericarps ; each mericarp has five primary ridges, which are filiform, and four secondary ridges, which are prominent ; but both are fur- nished with very fine hairs or prickles, and under each secondary ridge is a receptacle or vitta. Transverse sections of a cumin seed exhibit the following struc- ture : — The hairs or prickles are composed of cells, the long diameters of which are arranged in the long axes of the hairs. The husk or cover- ing of the seed is made up of numerous rounded or angular cells, in the midst of which the large and triangular vittse are situated ; and between the husk and seed itself, there is usually a small space, which is formed by the contraction of the seed after it has arrived at ma- turity. The surface of the seed is of a pale-brown colour, and its in- terior whitish and transparent. The exterior portion of the seed is constituted of elongated and flattened cells of a brownish colour, while the interior and chief substance of the seed itself is composed of nu- merous distinct angular cells, the walls of which are thick and perfectly transparent ; their contents consist principally of oil. The seeds do not contain starch (fig. 192). Cumin seeds possess a very peculiar medicinal taste and smell ; and it is to these that curry powder owes the greater part of its charac- teristic flavour and odour. Fenugreek Seeds. The structure of fenugreek seeds is very characteristic. The husk of the seed consists of three membranes ; the outer is formed of a single layer of cells, which bear a remarkable resemblance in shape to a short-necked bottle ; the long diameter of these cells is disposed vertically, the narrow, neck-like part being most external, and forming the other surface of the membrane. The second membrane consists of a single layer of cells, two or three times larger than the former, very much flattened, and having their margins regularly and beautifully crenate. The third and innermost membrane is made up of several layers of large transparent cells filled with mucilage ; these cells expand greatly when immersed in water (fig. 193). The seed itself consist of two lobes, which are made up of numerous minute cells ; those in the upper part of each lobe are of a rounded or angular form, while those situated near the innermost part become much elongated, the long axes of the cells being placed transversely in each lobe. The entire seed is covered by a single layer of small angular cells (fig. 194). CURRY POWDER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 595 Pig. 193. Outer Coat or Testa op a Fenugreek Seed. (Magnified 220 diameters.) il4^^ 4. Portion of the outer and second membrane stripped off ; « a, peculiar bot- tle-like cells ; b b, crenated cells of second membrane. B. Transverse section of husk of seed ; c c, bottle-like cells ; d, position of crenated cells ;e e, layer of coloured cells merging into,//, the large cells which form the innermost membrane, filled with mucilage. .QQ2 596 CURRY POWDER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Fig. 194. Traksverse Section of Lobe of Fexugreek Seed. (Magnified 220 diameters.) a a, layer of small angular cells on the surface, h b, rounded or angular cells, c c, the same cells gradually becoming more elongated as they approach the inner part of lobe, d d, single row of cells forming the innermost margin of lobe. THE ADULTERATIONS OF CTJRRT POWDER. In various works wliicli we have consulted, we do not meet with a single remark relating to the adulteration of currv powder. Like many of the other articles of which we have treated, this appears to have been neglected by writers on the adulteration of food. Remits of the Examination of Samples. Twenty-six samples of this article were subjected to analysis ; of these nearly four-fiftlis were adulterated. It appeared — That seven only were genuine. That nineteen were adulterated. CURRY POWDER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 597 Tliat ground rice, usually in very large quantities, was present in nine samples. Tliat potato farina was detected in one sample. Tliat salt was present in eight of the samples. Tliat the highly poisonous metallic oxide, red lead, was detected in no less than eight of the samples. That in seven of the samples, the adulteration consisted of grownd rice only. That in one sample, the adulteration consisted oi ground rice and salt. That in one sample, the adulteration consisted of ground Hce and red LEAD. That in three samples, the admixture consisted of salt only. That in three samples, the adulteration consisted of salt and red lead. That in three samples, the adulteration consisted of red lead only. That in one sample, the adulterations consisted of red lead, potato farina and salt. The above results do not give the whole of the adulterations to which the samples of curry powder had been subjected, since they do not include the ferruginous earths, which were shown, in our article on ^ Cayenne,' to be so frequently employed to impart colour to that substance. We have thus shown that curry powder was adulterated nearly to the; same extent as Cayenne, and with ingredients equally pernicious. Since the quantity of curry powder eaten at a meal is so considerable, its adulteration with red lead is even more prejudicial and dan'gerous thru in the case of Cayenne. Not long since we received a parcel of cuiry powder from a sm'geon, accompanied by the statement that the person who iiad partaken of it had been made very ill by it. We found it, on analysis, to contain a large quantity of lead. The lead in curry powder is, no doubt, generally introduced through the adulterated Cayenne employed in its manufacture. It is po^sible, however, that chromate of lead may here, as in some other cases, be used to intensify and render more permanent the colour of the powder. The whole of the ingreclients required for making curry powder may be obtained of most seedsmen. With a common pestle and mortar the seeds may be reduced to po^vder, and thus the housekeeper may herseK prepare genuine curry powder, of the best quality, at a cost of about 2d. per ounce. Since cuiry powder is retailed at 6<^., 8f?., and even Is. an ounce, it evi- dently bears an enormous profit. What, then, must be the gain upon tht sale of an article which is made up principally of turmeric powder, sah,, oTound rice, and inferior capsicum berries ? and of such a mix- ture many of the curry powders purchased at the shops almost entirely coLsist. 598 CURRY POWDER AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. The Detection of the Adultei-ations of CwTy Poivder. The adulterations of curry powder, with the exception of potato farina or starch, met with in one sample, being the same as those of Cayenne, the methods for their discovery are also the same; the reader is therefore referred to the article on ^ Cayenne.' The presence of potato starch is detected by means of the micro- scope ; the characters of its granules are described under the head of * Arrowroot/ TUKMERIC AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 599 CHAPTER XXXV. TURMERIC AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Any added vegetable or mineral substance. TuiacERic powder consists of the ground tubers of a plant belonging to tlie same genus as ginger, viz. Curcuma longa, and which is exten- sively cultivated in India and China. Composition of Turmeric, The composition of turmeric is shown in the following analysis : — ) Johri's analysis. Yellow volatile oil 1 Cur cumin 10 to 11 Yellow extractive . . . . . 11 to 12 Gura 14 Woody fibre 57 Water and loss 7 to 5 Acrid oil. Curcumin. Brown colouring matter. Gum (a little). Vogel and FeUetier's analysis. Starch. 100 Woody fibre. Chloride of calcium. Turmeric. To extract curcumin, the pulverised root is boiled with water, the residue treated with boiling alcohol ; the alcoholic solution is filtered, evaporated, the residue digested with ether, and the ethereal solution in its turn evaporated, when the curcumin is obtained, together with a littlt^ essential oil. Jt is heavier than water, in which it is insoluble, but dissolves readily in alcohol, ether, and in fixed and volatile oils. It melts at 40^0. The alcoholic solution of turmeric is characterised by its beautiful green fluorescence ; the spectrum of the solution not exhibiting any peculiar dark or bright bands. The fluorescence is best seen by plac ng the solution of turmeric in alcohol or benzol in a smaU beaker 600 TURMERIC AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. and concentrating the rays of the sun in the solution by means of a "burning-glass, when the illuminated cone thus produced will appear "bright green. Structure of Turmeric, The structure of the tuber of turmeric is well exhibited in the an- nexed figures. Fig. 195. Section op Tuber of Turmeric. a a, epidermis ; b 6, transparent cells ; e c, yellow masses ; d d, oil globules ; e e, resinous masses ; /, dotted duct ; g, elongated ceDs of woody fibre, lying by the side of the duct. Turmeric powder consists of large cells ; some of these are loosely imbedded in a reticular tissue, but others, and these the majority, are quite free ; they may be recognised with facility, under the microscope, by their size and bright yellow colour (fig. 195). When crushed, each cell is found to contain colouring matter as well as a number of starch granules, resembling closely those of Cur- cuma arrowroot, already described and figured (fig. 196). TURMERIC AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 601 On the application of iodine the cells become of a deep blue, and with potash, of a reddish colour. THE ADULTERATIONS OF TrEMERIC. Of fourteen samples of turmeric powder subjected to examination, two were adulterated with yelloio ochre, to the extent of nearly 20 Fig. 196. This engraving represents the appearance and characters of genuine ground Turmeric. Drawn with the Camera Lucida, and magnified 220 diameters. pel cent., while nearly all the other specimens contained considerable qujintities of alkali, carbonate of soda or potash, added no doubt to heighten the colour of the powder. Inasmuch as turmeric enters so largely into the composition of curry powder, mustard, and some other condiments, it became necessary to as( ertain whether it was liable or not to sophistication. The Detection of the Adidterations of Turmeric. Yelloio ochre consists of oxide of iron diluted with chalk ; the ash of turmeric powder must therefore be tested in the manner already elsewhere directed for the detection of those two substances. The 602 TURMERIC AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. presence of tlie oclire is in general sufficiently indicated by the colour and weight of the ash. Should the ash, say, of 10 grammes of the turmeric contain alkali, as carbonate of soda or potash, we must proceed as follows : the alkali must be dissolved out of the ash by means of distiUed water. The solution is coloured blue by means of a drop of tincture of litmus, and the amount of allialinity is ascertained by the addition from a graduated burette of a standard solution of sulphuric acid, the change in the colour of the litmus indicating the end of the reaction. For the determination and estimation of potash and soda the pro- cesses will be found given in the article on * Tea.' It is always well to test, before commencing the analysis, the re- action of the watery solution of the ash, as, unless this is decidedly alkaline, it does not contain alkali, and again it is proper also to test the a^, to ascertain whether salt has been used, and which is some- times employed to heighten the colour of vegetable powders. Very generally the presence of alkali in the ash of turmeric powder is suffi- ciently indicated by the gTeenish colour, more or less intense, exhibited by it when first removed from the fire. LIQUORICE AND ITS ADULTER ATIO^'S. 603 CHAPTER XXXVI. LIQUORICE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. DEFINITIOX OF ADULTERATION. Any added substance, vegetable or mineral. LiQFOEiCE is an article largely consumed, and it furnishes an illustra- tion of a system of adulteration which extends to a variety of other drugs and pharmaceutical preparations. Liquorice is met with under various forms and names ; thus, there is stick liquorice, the powder^ the Pharmacopmial extract, the foreign extract, pipe liquorice, and Pontefract lozenges. Stick liquorice consists of the underground stem or rhizome of a plant belonging to the genus Glycyrrhiza, usually in this country, Gly- cyrrhiza glahra ; the powder is the root ground and pulverised, while the other preparations named consist of the extract ; this, in the case of pipe liquorice and Pontefract lozenges, is said to be refined. The foreign extract, known as Solazzi extract or juice, is considered the l)est ; and, accordingly as it is prepared in Spain or Italy, it is called Spanish or Italian juice. We learn from Pereira that the Spanish extract is prepared in Catalonia from Glycyrrhiza glahra, while the Italian extract is obtained in Calabria, from G. echinata. Of late years the liquorice plant has been extensively cultivated in this country for medicinal use, especially at Mitcham, where so many different kinds of medicinal plants are grown. The constituents of the root of Glycyrrhiza glahra, according to the analysis of Robiquet, are liquorice sugar or glycyrrhizin, starch, aspa>'agin, resinous oil, albumen, looody fibre, and salts, especially j5?7«os- phat\ and nitrate of lime and magnesia. The quantities of these several constituents are not given by Robiquet, nor does he mention gum or oxalate of lime as constituents, although these abound in the juice of the root. .Vs, before entering upon the consideration of the chemical adultera- tion ^ of any article, it is necessary that we should be acquainted with the proportions of the principal ingredients of which that article is com- pose 1, we instituted in the first place certain analyses of the 7'oot, the poivder, and the extract. The following is the composition of 100 parts of the f7'esh root : — 604 LIQUORICE AND ITS ADULTEEATIONS. The Fresh Boot. Glycyrrhizin 8-60 Gum 26-60 Matter soluble in alcohol, chiefly resin . -75 Albumen '97 Starch 22-91 Woody fibre 13-36 Moisture 26-81 Ash, 3-07 per cent. Total . 100-00 The analysis of 100 parts of the undecorticated powder furnished the following results : — The Powder, Glycj'rrhizin 10-40 Gum 43-30 Matter soluble in alcohol, chipfly resin . . 1-09 Albumen 1*50 Starch 24-41 Woody fibre 16-20 Moisture 4-10 Total . 100-00 The analysis of the decorticated 2)oivder furnished nearly similar results : — The Decorticated Powder. Glycyrrhizin 13-00 Gum^ 37-10 Resin -80 Albumen 1-80 Starch 29-52 Woodv fibre 16*68 Moisture . 1-20 100-00 Five hundred parts of the fresh root furnished 175 parts of extract ; while the same quantity of the powder of the dried root gave 275 parts of extract. Lastly, 100 parts of this extract, dried at a temperature of 100° C, yielded 19-3 parts of liquorice sugar, and 80*3 parts of matter insoluble in alcohol, and which consisted chiefly of gum with a little albimien. When pure and genuine, extract of liquorice is entirely soluble in water. As will be shortly apparent, the above analyses furnish some useful data, by which the quality of the different kinds of liquorice may be judged of. Glycyrrhizin may be thus obtained. The filtered and concentrated aqueous infusion of the root is treated with dilute sulphuric acid. This occasions a dark brown precipitate^ which is washed with water LIQUORICE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 605 until it is quite free from sulphuric acid. It is then dissolved repeatedly in alcoliol of specific gravity 0-844. Small quantities of ether are now added to the not too concentrated solution as long as a dark-coloured resinous suhstance is precipitated. The filtrate on eva- poration deposits the glycyrrhizin. It is a yellov^, amorphous, non-fermentable substance, possessing a sweet taste ; sparingly soluble in cold, but easily soluble in hot water, soluble in cold alcohol and in warm ether. It is also soluble in alkalies, and is precipitated from these solutions by acids, in an excess of -^'hich it is, however, partially dissolved. ]iy boiling with dilute sulphuric and other acids it is decomposed, glyofrrhetin and glucose being formed. Its solution is precipitated by chloride of barium, sulphate of mag- nesia, sulphate of copper, and basic acetate of lead. Asjmragin may be obtained from liquorice root as follows : — The root, after being cut into pieces, is exhausted with water. The solution is boiled, mixed with acetic acid to separate the glycyrrhizin, and then with acetate of lead, malate and phosphate of lead being thrown down, together with colouring matter. The excess of lead is removed by sulphuretted hydrogen, the filtered liquid evaporated to a small bulk, when, after a few days, crystals of asparagin will become deposited. STRUCTURE OF LIQUORICE. The general structure of liquorice root is very distinctive ; the elements of which it consists are bundles of icoody fibre, cellular tissue, dotted ducts or vessels, and starch corpuscles. These elements are thus arranged : — In transverse sections of the root, a linear zone is observed, usur.lly distant from the circumference about the third of the thick- ness of the root. The part of the root without the zone is traversed by bundles of woody fibre, united together by cellular tissue ; that mthin the zone is traversed by numerous dotted ducts or vessels as well as by bundles of woody fibre ; while the cells of the cellular tissue, which forms the basis of the root, are filled with starch corpuscles (figs. 197, 198 and 199). These starch corpuscles are very characteristic : they are oval and sma 1, and in many of them the central cavity of an elongated form is visible (fig. 199). The ivoody fibre does not present anything remarkable in its structure ; the central cavity is well marked. In sections of the older roots medullary rays may be seen. The several structural peculiarities of liquorice root are aU clearly exhibited in the drawings abo^ e referred to. The yellow colouring matter of the root is situated almost entirely in tlie bundles of woody fibre, and in the waUs of the dotted ducts. 606 LIQUORICE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Fig. 197. Transverse section of root of Liquorice, showing the dotted duct^, the bundles of woody fibre, and the connecting cellular tissue. Magnified 40 diameters. LIQUOEICE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 607 THE ADTJLTEEATIONS OP LIQUORICE. Having tlius described the chemical composition and the structure of liquorice root, the subject of the adulteration of liquorice may next be considered. Fig. 198. Longitudinal section of Liquorice Root. Magnified 40 diameters. On consulting the works of different writers on adulteration, we have met with the following observations relating to liquorice : — Accum states that Spanish liquorice 4s frequently nothing else than a mixture of the worst kind of gum arahic, called Indian or Baroary gum, imported chiefly for making shoe blacking. A solution of the genuine Spanish liquorice juice is mixed with a solution of Barlary gum ; and the mixture, after being inspissated to a proper 608 LIQUORICE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. consistence, is again made up into cylindrical rolls, which, whilst still moist, are covered with bay leaves, and repacked in chests to resemble in every respect the genuine Spanish liquorice juice imported from Catalonia.' Fig. 199. Transverse section of Liquorice Root, magnified 220 diameters, exhibiting dotted ducts, two bundles of woody f^re, the cellular tissue, and the sta7xh corpuscles. The loose starch grains are magnified 400 diameters. Brande, in his ^Dictionary of Materia Medica and Pharmacy,' published in 1836, remarks as follows : — ^ The chief consumption of liquorice is in the preparation of the extract, which is imported from the South of Europe under the name LIQUORICE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 609 of Spanish juice ; it is usually burned and otherwise carelessly pre- pared and adulterated, and often contains copper, derived from the pans in which the decoction of the root is evaporated.' M. Chevalier states that ^ liquorice is often falsified by starch and a hsrge proportion of inert powders. It has also been falsified by an extract which gives it the taste of hay. ' It contains likewise metallic copper, removed mechanically from the pans of that metal in w^hich it is prepared. But it does not contain salts of copper, a conclusion which results from many experi- ments made by M. Villain.' ^ liquorice,' writes Pereira, ^ as met with in conunerce, however, is rarely pure. It contains the soluble principles of the root with some copper scraped off" the boiler by the spatula employed to stir the extract during its preparation. Fee says that four ounces of this extract yield two drachms and a half of metallic copper ; but there must be some great mistake in this statement. If the foreign extract be dissolved in water, and the solution filtered and inspissated, we obtain refined liquorice. But I am informed that the pipe refined liquorice is a very adidterated article. The Pontefract lozenges are maae of refined liquorice, and are much esteemed.' Results of the Exatnination of Samples, We will now proceed to state the results of our own examinations and analyses of liquorice, premising that genuine extract of liquorice should dissolve in water without leaving any residue, and therefore ought not to contain starch ; that it should yield from about 90 to nearly 100 parts of extractive matter, according to the state of dryness in which it may happen to be at the time of analysis ; this exti active matter should furnish from 75 to 85 per cent, of matter insoluble in alcohol, chiefly gmn ; and from 10 to 15 per cent, of saccharine matter or liquorice sugar. The analyses of thirty-four samples of liquorice, including the different varieties of roll and pipe liquorice, and Pontefract lozenges, carefully considered, furnish some important results. Thus it appears that the gum of the different kinds of roll liquorice varied from 65*5 to 33'5 grains per cent. ; of the saccharine matter from 14*9 to 8'9 per cent., part of this in some cases consisting of dine sugar ; of the extractive fi-om 75*9 to 47 T per cent. '3f the pipe liquorice, that the gum varied from 22*7 to 45*9 per cent. ; the sugar from 19 "6 to 11-0, the greater part of this consisting of cine sugar', and the extractive from 57 T to 43-7 per cent. <3f the Pontefract lozenges the gum ranged from 31*5 to 25'7 ; the sugcr, partly cane sugar, from 18T to 13T ; and the extractive from 45'[* to 43*8 per cent. J t further appears from the analyses that the whole of the roll liquorice furnished insoluble residues, varying in amount from 18*50 R R 610 LIQUORICE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. to 42-00 per cent. In twelve cases these residues consisted of boiled starchy probably rice (the starch present in the different samples of Solazzi and Baracco extract was always of this kind) ; in seven samples of icheatjlour, in one of potato starchy and in one of icheat floiw and rice. That the pipe liquorices likewise furnished insoluble residues, for the most part, in still larger amounts than the roll liquorice ; thus the smallest residue weighed, after being dried on a water-bath, 345 and the largest 41*0 per cent. In five cases this consisted of loheat Jlour^ in one of ryejiour^ and in one of potato^ rice, and loheatjiours. In five cases a small part of this residue consisted of gelatin, the pipes being furnished with a distinct tube of that substance. Lastly, that the Pont efr act lozenges furnished residues consisting of tcheat flour (subject to the action of heat), which varied in amount from 86*5 to 39*0 per cent. The ash of the different samples of roll and pipe liquorice and Pon- tefract lozenges varied from 2*50 to 16 per cent., and consisted in several cases of foreign mineral matter ; this in one instance amounted to 13 per cent., and was composed of carbonate of lime, or chalk. The ashes of the pipe liquorices in two or three causes were so deeply coloured as to lead to the suspicion that some coloured mineral earthy substance had been employed to increase their weight. It is thus evident that the different kinds of roll, pipe liquorice, and Pontefract lozenges are subject to very extensive adulteration, this in some instances amounting to nearly one-half the article. As a rule, the pipe liquorice and Pontefract lozenges contain a larger amount of foreign starchy matter than even the inferior descriptions of roll liquorice. Many of the pipe liquorices are in addition furnished with a thick coating of gelatin ; this is sometimes of the worst qua- lity and but little superior to glue. The best way to exhibit the tube of gelatin encasing the pipes is to place them in cold water ; the pipes will swell up and increase to two or three times their original size ; when in this state, the gelatin ma}^ be easily removed. The ingredients employed in the adulteration of the descriptions of liquorice above referred to consist, then, of starch of various kinds, as wheat, barley, rye, rice flours, and potato starch, either separately or in combination ; cane sugar, gelatin, and foreign mineral matter, as car- bonate of lime. Although not immediately connected with the object of this article, we yet, when engaged in the analysis of liquorices, thought it desirable to determine how frequently and to what extent the samples were contaminated with copper. We detected that metal in thirteen of the twenty-one roll liquorices examined, in greater or lesser amount ; the quantities in three of the samples were, for the 100 parts, '8, "25, '30 of a grain. Traces of copper were found in only one of the pipe liquo- rices, and in none of the Pontefract lozenges. We will now pass on to state the results of the examination of the extract of liquorice of the PharmMcopceia. LIQUORICE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 611 Ten samples of extract of liquorice were examined ; four of these dissolved nearly without residue, and were genuine ; the remainder of the samples deposited insoluble residues amounting to 3, 13, 17, 9, 7, 18*o and 33 per cent, respectively. In four cases they consisted of boiled stai'chy matter, and in one instance of starchy matter and gelatin. The sample containing the gelatin furnished only 65*5 per cent, of extract, and the insoluble residue amounted to 17 per cent., thus leaving 18 per cent, for moisture, which large quantity the liquorice was partly enabled to retain, in consequence of its admixture with gelatin. It is evident from the nature and quantities of the insoluble residues that the adulterated samples of extract of liquorice consisted of t\\Q foreign extract melted down. The compilers of the Pharmacopoeia were doubtless led to prescribe a form for the preparation of a genuine extract of liquorice by the knowledge of the fact of the adulteration of the foreign extract. We thus perceive to what an extent the regulations of the Pharmacopceia are evaded in this case. In further illustration of the extent to which the Pharmacopceia in this and doubtless in many other articles is disre- garded, we may mention that we were only able to procm'e the Pharma- copoeial extract at about one-third of the chemists' shops at which we enquired for it. In one case, although we particularly requested to be furnished with the true extract, some of the foreign extract was coarsely powdered while we waited, and handed to us as the article we enquired for, and for which we were made to pay twice the usual price. In the next and last place, we will proceed to state the results of the examination of nmneroiis samples oi poivdered liquorice. Of twenty-eight samples of liquorice in powder subjected to exami- nation, eleven were adulterated. Of these one consisted chiefly of iclieat flour, another contained a large quantity of woody fibre, two contained much foreign ivoody fibre, two woody fibre and turmeric, another icoody fibre and wheat fiour, one was made up chiefly of Indian corn, potato and sagofiours, and turmeric, another of sago, woody fibre, and tnuch turmeric, another of ^ast Indian arrowroot and a little turmeric, and another consisted almost entirely of potato flour, a little wheat fiour, and turmeric. Some of the samples likewise contained cane sugar. We stated at the commencement of this paper we believed it would be found that liquorice afibrded an example of a system of adulteration ' which extended to other and more important articles of the Materia Medica. We wiU now adduce some evidence to show that this is really the case. It has been ascertained that some wholesale druggists prepare, and they nearly all keep, what are known in the trade as compound powders. Ont! of these is liquorice, the genuine powder being distinguished as Pulvis Glycyrrhizfe Verus. Other compound powders are those of turmeric, gentian, fenugreek, aniseed, cumin, and elecampane. ER 2 612 LIQUOEICE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Those of turmeric, gentian, and fenugreek are usually prepared after the following receipts, or some modifications of them : — Turmeric Powder. Gentian Powder. Yellow ochre . . 1 lb. Gentian . . 1 lb. Turmeric . . . 1 lb. Linseed . .1 lb. Wheat flour . . 2 lbs. Wheat flour . 2 lbs. Cape aloes . grs. Fenugreek Powder. Fenugrpek, lb. iss. Tunneric, 3 xii. Wheat flour, lb. iii. This custom is defended on the plea that no deception is practised, and that these powders are sold as compound articles. This may be so as between the wholesale and retail dealers in drugs, but it assuredly is not the case as between these parties and the medical profession and the public ; the liquorice powders, the extensive and varied adul- teration of which we have just described, were sold simply as liquorice, and no acknowledgment whatever was made even in a single instance of their compound character. It is evident that the practice of making and selling these com- pound powders is most objectionable ; it indicates a laxity of principle, both on the part of the wholesale and retail dealers in drugs, and it is clear that the medical profession and the public are by it seriously imposed upon. It is affirmed that it is as cattle medicines that these compounds are used. Although this is the case to some extent, yet it is very cer- tain that they are not thus exclusiveh^ employed ; besides, why should these adulterated powders be thrust down the throats of cattle ? We have now shown that liquorice in all its forms and varieties is subject to an enormous amount of adulteration, and that various sub- stances are employed for that purpose. Thus it has been shown — That the whole of the foreign extracts or roll liquorices were adul- terated, some to the extent of nearly 50 per cent. That the whole of the pipe liquorices examined were also adul- terated, some of them not containing one-third their weight of liquorice. That the Pontefract lozenges likewise contained but little liquorice. That of the samples of the extract of liquorice of the Pharmacopoeia, one-half were adulterated ; these for the most part consisting of the foreign extract melted down. Lastly, that a large proportion of the powdered liquorices examined were adulterated, many of them containing only as much liquorice as was necessary to impart the flavour of the genuine powder. Of the adulterations discovered in roll liquorice, some are practised by the foreign preparers of the extract, while others are the work of LIQUORICE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 613 parties nearer home. It is, we believe, not uncommon for tlie foreign extract to be melted down after its arrival in this country, for the purpose of subjecting it to further adulteration. In some cases the adulterating ingredients, as flour and chalk, are so clumsily mixed with the liquorice, that particles and masses of these substances may be detected by the naked eye alone, and may be picked out with a penknife. The adulterations of pipe and powdered liquorice described were no doubt effected in this coimtry. Fig. 200. LiQUOiUCE Powder, adulterated with Turmeric and East Indian arrowroot. (Magnified 220 diameters.) Of the ingredients employed in the adulteration of liquorice, some are themselves liable to adulteration. This is the case with the tur- meric used, which we have found to be adulterated to the extent of nearly 20 per cent, with yellow ochre. THE DETECTION OF THE ADULTERATIONS OF LIQUORICE. Since most of the adulterations of liquorice consist in the addition of vegetable substances of difierent kinds, the microscope affords the chief means for their discovery. 614 LIQUORICE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. The characters of 'wheat flour ^ turmeric and East Indian arroivroot have already been described and delineated in woodcuts ; the ap- pearances presented by liquorice powder adulterated with the two last named substances are also exhibited in fig. 200. The chief chemical adulterations practised are those with sugar and chalk. The process for the detection and estimation of the last is pointed out under the head of ' Tea/ while for the detection of cane sugar in liquorice powder we may proceed as follows : — Add about 50 cc. of cold water to 15 grammes of the powder ; filter, and evaporate on a water-bath at a gentle heat. If cane sugar be present it will crystallise as the evaporation draws near to an end, and if now a little sulphuric acid be added, the residual mass will imme- diately become charred. Sulphuric acid does not carbonise liquorice sugar or glycyrrhizin, but forms with it a chemical compound or sul- phate. Glyeyrrhizin and cane sugar may be thus separated from each other: add excess of basic acetate of lead to a strong filtered infusion of the powder, remove the lead held in solution by means of sulphu- retted hydrogen, filter, evaporate on a water-bath, and when dry weigh the residue, which consists of cane sugar. Or the glycyrrhizin may be removed from the powder or the extract by means of warm ether. The residue, containing the cane sugar, may be converted into glucose by boiling with dilute sulphuric acid, and the glucose estimated by means of the copper test. ANNATTO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 615 CHAPTER XXXVII. ANNATTO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Ill cake and roll aniiatto, any foreign vegetable or mineral substance, and in solutions, any foreign vegetable or mineral substance other than tlie alsali nece.-sary to the solution of the annatto. The next article which falls under our consideration is annatto ; this, though not employed as food, is yet added to several articles of con- sumption, and it therefore becomes of interest to ascertain whether it is subject to adulteration or not. Amaatto is the colouring matter obtained from the seeds of a plant named Bixa orellana^ L., and which forms the type of the small natu- ral c«rder Bixinece. It is a native of South America, the West and East Indies ; but the article annatto is chiefly prepared in Brazil and Cayenne. The tree is an evergreen, and the seeds are enclosed in pods, the colouring matter being situated on the outside of the seeds. It appears that two different processes are pursued in order to separate the coloiu-ing matter. According to the ordinary process, the seeds, after being removed from the pods, are bruised and transferred to a vat, when they are mixed with as much water as covers them. Here they are left for several weeks or months. ' The substance thus obtained/ Dr. Ure states, ^ is now squeezed through sieves, placed abo^ e the steeper, that the water containing the colouring matter in suspension may return into the vat. ' The residuum is preserved under the leaves of the Annana (pine- apple tree) till it becomes hot by fermentation. It is then again sub- jected to the same operation, and this treatment is continued imtil no mort3 colour remains. ' The substance thus extracted is passed throug-h sieves, in order to separate the remainder of the seeds ; and the colour is allowed to subfide. The precipitate is boiled in coppers until it is reduced to a cc nsistent paste. It is then suffered to cool, and is dried in the shade.' The second process is that recommended by Leblond. He proposes sim^ ly to wash the seeds until they are entirely deprived of colom', to precipitate the colouring matter by means of vinegar or lemon 616 ANNATTO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. juice, and to boil it up in the ordinan^ manner, or to drain it in bags, as is practised with indigo. The annatto prepared in this way is said to be four times as valuable as that made according to the hrst- described process. It does not appear from either of these descriptions that anything is added to the annatto except water. This is important with refer- ence to its adulteration. Before proceeding to enter upon the question of the adulteration of any article, the first step necessary is to make oneself acquainted with its properties and characteristics ; and if the substance be vege- table, it is requisite that we should determine its structure by means of the microscope. We thus obtain certain fixed data or standards of comparison from which to start. STEIJCTUEE or THE SEED OF ANNATTO. Subjecting the seeds of annatto to examination with the microscope, we find that their outer or red portion does not exhibit any very de- finite structure, that the surface of the seed proper consists of narrow or elongated cells or fibres, vertically disposed ; while the inner white portion consists of cells filled with numerous starch corpuscles, well defined, of medium size, and resembling in form and in the elongated and stellate hilum the starch granules of the pea and bean (fig. 201). In genuine manufactured annatto but little structure is met with ; in portions of the outer cells are however seen — as well as in those speci- mens w^hich in the course of their preparation have not been sub- jected, as they usually are^ to the action of boiling water — a few of the starch corpuscles. Annatto is used by dyers, painters, soap-makers, and to colour milk, butter, and cheese. By d3'ers and soap-makers it is frequently purchased for use in the state m which it is imported, these parties adding the alkali as a solvent as they use it *, in these cases it does not pass through the hands of the English so-called manufacturers at all. In other cases the manufacturers re-prepare it in the several forms of roll, cake, orange, black, and fluid annattos. COMPOSITION OE ANNATTO. The pulp surrounding the unfermented fresh seeds was found by Dr. John to consist of 28 parts of colouring resinous matter, 26*5 of vegetable gluten, 20 of ligneous fibre, 20 of colouring, 4 of extractive matter formed of matters analogous to vegetable gluten and extrac- tive, and a trace of spicy and acid matters. The colouring matter is soluble in water, but more so in alcohol and alkalies. The latter change its colour somewhat from red to orange. When annatto is used as a dye, it is cut in pieces and boiled in a copper with crude pearl ashes. ANNATTO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 617 On subjecting- tlie seeds of annatto to examination, we obtained an ash which weighed 4-80 per cent., and which was nearly white, with here and there a faint tinge indicating the presence of a mere Fig. 201. Section of seed of Anxatto. «, coloured portion ; h, cells of husk ; r. layers of cells situated between the husk and seed proper ; c?, cells of 5^eod quality. According to the Pharmacopoeia, it should have a specific gravity of 1*039, and should furnish 32*5 grains of citric acid per ounce, equal to 7 '4 per cent. But it must be remembered that this applies to the unalcoholised juice, while the Board of Trade standard is a specific gravity of 1 '030 without spirit and 30 grains of acid per ounce, equal to 6*8 per cent, of acid. In making an analysis of a sample of the juice the first thing to be done is to take its specific gravity, which is most accurately deter- mined by the specific gravity bottle. If alcohol be present, the liquid should be evaporated to fully one-half, and restored to its original volume by an addition of water, when the specific gravity is to be again taken. The points now to be determined are the acidity, the total solids, 654 LEMON AND LIME JUICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. the amount of mineral matter and the alkalinity of the ash, the per- centage of sugar and of spirit. If all these results correspond with those obtained from the examination of genuine lemon juice, we shall have reason to believe that we are dealing with a genuine sample, but this by no means necessarily follows, as it may possess the right specific gravity, acidity, total solids, and yet not contain a particle of lemon juice. This renders lit necessary that the analysis should be carried still further. Thus search must be made for cane sugar, tartaric, sulphuric, hydrochloric, and nitric acids, but especially the first two acids named, and attention must also be paid to the amount and composition of the ash. We will now proceed to describe the various steps of the analysis. Acidity. — The acidity is determined in 50 cc. of the juice either by the employment of a weighed quantity of pure carbonate of soda, or, better still, by means of a standard solution of caustic potash contain- ing one equivalent of caustic potash in 1,000 cc. The quantity of alkali used is to be calculated, notwithstanding the presence of a small quantity of malic acid, into citric acid, the chief acid of the lemon, juice. 1,000 cc. of the solution of potash saturate 64 grammes of anhydrous citric acid, OgHgO^, or 70 grammes of the ordinary crystal- lised citric acid. On the detection of citric and malic acids. — Exact chemical methods for the estimation of these acids, especially when they are mixed with other organic acids, do not exist ; we merely give, therefore, certain qualitative tests whereby the presence of these two acids can be detected. The lemon juice to be tested is rendered slightly alkaline by means of ammonia ; chloride of ammonium and then chloride of calcium is added, the mixture being well shaken and allowed to stand for some time. If any precipitate appear, this will consist in all probability of tartrate of lime, which is separated by filtration, and to the filtrate three volumes of strong alcohol are added, whereby the citric and malic acids will be precipitated as lime salts. The precipitate is separated by filtration, washed with alcohol, and dissolved in a little dilute hydrochloric acid. The solution is rendered very slightly alkaline by means of ammonia, and is then boiled. A white heavy precipitate, thrown down by boiling, conclusively proves the presence of citric acid. The boiling liquid is filtered, allowed to cool, and again precipitated as above by means of alcohol. The precipitate is boiled with some strong nitric acid. Any malic acid present will thereby be converted into oxalic acid, which, after neutralisation with ammonia, may be detected by the addition of a solution of sulphate of lime. A white turbidity of oxalate of lime establishes the fact of the presence in the lime juice of malic acid. Total solids. — For the determination of these, 10 cc. are to be eva- porated on the water-bath in a weighed platinum basin until the weight becomes constant Miney'al matter. — The dried solids are now to be incinerated^ the LEMON AND LIME JUICES AND THEIR ADULTEEATIONS. 655 Hfih. weighed, and its alkalinity determined with a standard sulphuric acid solution, containing 40 grammes of sulphuric acid in 1,000 cc. The object of determining the alkalinity of the ash is simply to ascertain whether free mineral acids were present in the juice or not. Of course, if those acids, especially sulphuric acid, have been added, the ash will not exhibit an alkaline reaction. Sugar. — From 200 cc. of the lime juice most of the citric acid is removed by the addition of a solution of basic acetate of lead, an excess of which is to be avoided. In the liquid, after it has been rendered exactly neutral, the glucose is determined by means of the standard copper solution, in the mamier described in the article on ^ Sugar.' Another part of the same solution, freed from the citric acid as above mentioned, is boiled for two hours mth a few drops of sulphuric acid, in order to convert any cane sugar which may be present into glucose, which is then to be estimated in the same manner as before. 100 parts of glucose correspond to 95 parts of cane sugar. Alcohol. — 100 cc. of the lime juice are neutralised with caustic soda and the alcohol is distilled off. The specific gravity of the dis- tillate is to be ascertained, and from it the quantity of alcohol present is calculated, as at length described in the articles on ^ Beer' and ^ Wine.' Tartaric acid. — 50 cc. of the lemon juice are to be neutralised with ammonia, and a solution of chloride of calcium, containing some chloride of ammoniiun, is added. The liquid is allowed to stand for some hours, when, if any tartaric acid be present, a crystalline pre- cipitate of tartrate of lime, 04H4CaOg, 4H2O, will be deposited, which maybe collected on a filter, washed, dried, and weighed. But it must be remembered that this precipitate may contain sulphate of lime ; an estimation of the sulphuric acid in it should therefore be made. But the amount of tartaric acid is more accurately determined by adding to the lemon juice a solution of acetate of potash and a volume of alcohol equal to that of the lemon juice employed. The tartaric acid will be precipitated as acid tartrate of potash, C4H.K0g, if the solution be allowed to stand for 24 hours. Oare should be taken not to touch the sides of the glass with the rod, as crystals of the tartrates, which adhere firmly to the glass, are consequently deposited. Suljyhuric acid. — The sulphuric acid is to be precipitated from 50 cc. of the lemon juice by means of a solution of chloride of barimn rendered acid by the addition of a few drops of hydrochloric acid ; the sulphate of barium is to be collected on a filter, washed, incinerated, weighed, and calculated for sulphuric acid. Genuine lemon juice con- tains little more than traces of sulphuric acid, and hence for all prac- tical purposes the whole of the sulphuric acid found in the juice may be considered as free sulphuric acid. Hydrochloric acid. — The quantity of hydrochloric acid, like that of sulphuric acid, contained in lemon juice is very small. If, therefore, more than traces be found in a sample, it may be safely assumed that an addition of hydrochloric acid has been made. This is determined 656 LEMON AND LIME JUICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. by precipitation with a solution of nitrate of silver, as described in the article on ' Water.' Nitnc acid. — The presence of nitric acid may be determined by neutralising the lime juice with pure soda, and reducing the nitrates to ammonia by means of aluminium, as described under the head of ' Water/ The iron and brucine tests may be employed as qualitative tests. It is extremely unlikely that nitric acid has ever been employed in the adulteration of lime juice, for it would act, even in the dilute state, upon the many organic substances contained in that liquid, and it would itself be reduced to nitric oxide, imparting a disagreeable smell to the article, completely spoiling it, in fact. One great characteristic of genuine lemon juice consists in the plea- sant taste and frag-rant odour of the extract. Results of Examination of Samples. Lemon Juice. > s o 1 1 1 11 II 1^ o o 1 Crosse & Blackwell m o H w 1035-16 None 7-776 8-990 0-262 None 0-002 Trace 2 Barnes & Co. 1034-72 7-648 8-976 0-314 C-002 3 H. R. H. . 1020-96 2-728 4-610 0-212 jj 0-825 4 . . . . 1035-20 )> 7-782 9-270 0-353 0-002 5 . . . . 1023-56 >5 4-081 7-154 0-110 » 0001 " Lime Juice. 1 Crosse & Blackwell 2 H. R. H > fO t "o o A < o I < •c m o 1036-04 None 7-168 1018-40 J, 3-472 1037-84 7-680 1026-48 „ 6-605 1034-92 ;; 7-155 1038-88 5> 7-399 8-915 5-056 9-412 8-583 9-530 9-670 0-465 0-395 0-473 0-390 0-330 0-437 1^ ^1 75 <1 None 0-0021 0-434 0-0018 0-002 0-001 0-001 Trace Of the five samples of lemon juice examined, the results of the analyses of which are given above, judged by the Board of Trade LEMON AND LIME JUICES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 657 standard, whicli requires a specific gravity of lOSO with 6*8 per cent, of acid, it will be seen that three of the samples exceeded, both in respect to their gra\TLty and in the amount of acid, the above standard, while two were greatly below it, being obviously adulterated, the one T^7th a large quantity of water ^ and the other with both water and ^ul- phuric acid. Of the six lime juices examined, four exceeded the standard above referred to, while the fifth sample was only slightly below it, and the sixth was adulterated with a large quantity of both water and sulphuric add. It is obvious from these analyses that the Board of Trade specific gravity is too low for the amount of acid which they specify, and that the gravity should not be less than 1034, while the proportion of acid n et with in the genuine lemon and lime juices of commerce usually e 'cceeds by nearly one per cent, the standard laid down by the Board. vv 658 SAUCES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. CHAPTER XLI. SAUCES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Any free sulphuric acid beyond the proportion allowed in the vine^icar with which they are prepared, or any other mineral acid ; red ferruginous earths, lead, and copper. A GREAT variety of substances, cMefly vegetable, enter into the com- position of the various sauces in use. The following is an enumera- tion of the chief of these : — Tomato, garlic, shallot, sorrel, mushroom and walnut catsup, raisins, tamarinds, the seeds of fenugreek and cumin, the leaves of a variety of herbs, as tarragon, chervil, mint, thyme, marjoram, &c., the seeds of an Indian plant called Dolickos sqj'a or soj/a, of which soy is made ; a variety of spices and condiments, as pepper, Cayenne, mustard, mace, cloves, ginger, and nearly all the other spices ; salt, treacle, and burnt sugar as colouring agents, and flour as a thiclvening ingredient. Out of the above articles, variously combined, and in different proportions, nearly all the sauces in use are compounded. Into the composition of some few, however, animal substances enter, as the muscular fibre of shrimps, lobster, and an- chovy. The following are the chief results deducible from a consideration of the analyses of thirty-three samples of sauce of different kinds : — 1. That treacle and much salt formed the basis of the five samples of India Soy examined, if they did not even entirely consist of these two ingredients. 2. That of the seven samples of Tomato Satjce analysed, six were artificially coloured, one probably with cochineal, and the rest by the addition of considerable quantities of the ferruginous pigment hole armenian. 3. That the samples of Essence oe Lobsters examined were saturated with very large quantities of hole armenian. 4. That the samples of Essence of Shrimps were impregnated to an equal extent with hole armenian. 6 That the whole of the samples of Essence of Anchovies analysed were adulterated with very large quantities of the feiTuginous oxide hole armenian. SAUCES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 659 6. That three of the samples of Essence of Anchovy contained but a small quantity of inuscular fibre. 7. That two of the samples contained a portion of fiour — one being a sample of essence of shrimps, and the other of essence of lobster. 8. That out of the eighteen red sauces submitted to examination, no less than sixteen contained hole armenian, and this usually in very large quantities, far exceeding the amounts detected in any of the potted meats and fish. 9. That LEAD, for which separate analyses were made in each case, was not detected in a single instance. 10. That traces only of copper luere discovered in some three or four The above results, then, regarded as a whole, although bad enough, are yet not so bad or serious as the account given by xA.ccum and some other writers of the adulteration of anchovy paste, &c., would lead us to infer, since lead was not detected in a single instance. There is no doubt, however, but that lead does sometimes occur. Mitchell states, ^ several samples which we have examined of this fish sauce, " poisonous anchovy sauce," have been found contaminated with lead.' Further, it is more than probable that the muscular fibre in several of the samples of anchovy, lobster, and shrimp sauce, con- sist'id either entirely or in part of the fibre of other inferior and cheaper fish. The only efiectual remedy against certain of the adulterations of the sauces, especially the fish sauces, consists in their preparation at home. Receipts for several of the sauces are given at page 512 of the author's work, ^ Food and its Adulterations.' It appears, then, that the red sauces, as shrimp, lobster, anchovy, and tomato sauces, at the time of the analyses the results of which we have just quoted, were almost invariably highly coloured with bole ariijenian. Since that period however, this practice has, we are happy to stato, been nearly abandoned. The ferruginous substance just named is a natural earth, containing a large quantity of the red oxide of iron ; but freq iiently an article is made in imitation of it, consisting of a mixture of Venetian red and chalk. Of this red earth or dirt as much as from 10 to 15 lbs. are added to 100 gallons of anchovy sauce. Oooks often colour the sauces prepared by them for the table with carmine-, this when genuine, is an animal colour, but it is frequently adulterated with vermilion. ]^erceiving clearly the evils connected with the employment of artificial colouring matters, many of the most respectable manufac- turers have, to a very gi-eat extent, abandoned their use, except in the case of anchovy sauce, which they state to be unsaleable without a sma ; I quantity of the colouring matter. The difterence between the ordi lary coloured and the uncoloured sauce is very striking ; the first is u u:illy bright red — as red, in fact, in some cases, as a brickbat, U TJ 2 660 SAUCES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. tliis redness arising entirely from the introduction of the bole anne- nian — while the other is usually of a pinkish fawn colour. The various colouring matters to which reference has already been so frequently made are used not merely for the sake of increasing the colour of the articles, and thus, as it is very often erroneously considered, improving their appearance, but likewise for other purposes, especially to conceal other adulterations ; thus, when very large quantities of wheat flour are added to mustard, or flour and sugar to cocoa, the natural colour of those articles becomes so reduced that the addition of some foreign colouring matter is rendered necessary. Not unfrequently the use of these colouring matters involves con- siderations of cleanliness; this is so in the case of anchovy sauce. The quantity of refuse matters and dirt contained in the fish from which this is prepared is often very great ; and it is the presence of these more than anything else which causes the sauce to present a somewhat unsightly appearance before the red earth is added. It is this circumstance which has chiefly led to the use of the bole arme- nian ; the maker, in place of carefully removing the refuse and dirt, grinds it all up with the fish, trusting to the bole armenian to conceal the impurities, thereby saving himself much trouble and some loss. We are informed by Messrs. Crosse & Blackwell that the impurities which they are obliged to remove in the preparation of the uncoloured anchovy sauce are almost incredible, but that the extra trouble and loss are fully compensated by the greatly improved quality and flavour of the article. Notwithstanding this improvement in quality, so strong do Messrs. Crosse & Blackwell find the prejudice in favour of the red sauce that many parties absolutely refuse to take the uncoloured sauce — pre- femng the inferior article simply because of its redness ; and Messrs. Crosse & Blackwell have been reluctantly driven again to add a small quantity of the bole Armenian to this particular sauce. Walnut Catsup. — ' Quantities are daily met with, which on chemical examination, are found to abound with copper. Indeed, this condi- ment is often nothing else than the residue left behind after the process employed for obtaining distilled vinegar, subsequently diluted with a decoction of the outer green husk of the walnut, and seasoned with allspice, cayenne pepper, pimento, onions, and common salt.' — Accunij page 319. AERATED WATERS AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 661 CHAPTER XLII. AERATED WATERS AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. The sale of so-called soda or potash waters without their respective alkalies, the \ resence in lemonade and ginger beer of tartaric acid, bitartrate of potash, or sulphuric acid. Cee CAIN^ aerated waters and drinks^ as soda and potash waters, lemonade and Hnger beer, are largely consumed, partly as medicines and partly as pleasant and refreshing beverages. The two last-named partake of the (Character of articles of food, and all of them are very liable to adul eration, with the natm-e of which it is very proper th^t the food anal} st should be well acquainted. It is very important, in the manufacture of aerated beverages, that the "Skater used should be of a high degree of purity, and should espe- cially be free from contamination with organic matter. Some manu- facturers are very particular about the quality of the water they use, whilo others are as careless on the subject and make use of any they can c btain. i urthermore, great care should be taken that all the vessels used shoui d be of scrupulous cleanness, and that none of these waters should be al owed to remain in contact with lead or any other metal for any lengtli of time. The neglect of this precaution explains the presence of lead and other metals in considerable amount in aerated waters in man}' cases. Much attention has recently been directed to the presence of metallic contaminations in certain aerated waters. THE MANUPACTTIRE OF AEKATED WATERS. Th3 most complete apparatus as yet devised for the manufacture of aeratt d and soda waters may be divided into three parts — the gene- rator, the gasometer, and the vessel containing the solution to be im- pregn ited with the gas. Tlie carbonic acid gas used must be of great purity. It must be free from itmospheric air and from any gas which might give it a percep- tible .' mell. The gas is generated in a leaden cylinder by the action of conce itrated sulphuric acid upon either finely powdered marble or chalk, or upon magnesite, which is essentially carbonate of magnesia. 6(52 AERATED WATERS AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. The mixture is constantly kept in motion by means of a stirrer, which passes through a stuffing box on the top of the generator. The car- bonic acid escapes through a tube, and is conducted through four vessels, to free it from sulphuretted hydrogen and other gases. The first of these vessels contains a solution of sulphate of iron to remove and destroy offensive gases, including sulphuretted hydrogen, the second a mixture of sulphate of iron and carbonate of soda to absorb oxygen, and the two others pure water. From the last of these vessels, which are made either of strong glass or of tinned copper, the washed pm'e carbonic acid escapes, and is conducted into a large upright cylinder of tinned copper, about six feet high, and one and a half foot in diameter. This cylinder, before the generation of the gas begins, is filled with water, which by the pressiu-e of the gas produced is gradually forced out. Thus any admixture with atmospheric air is avoided. As soon as this gasometer is quite filled with carbonic acid, water is pumped in from the bottom to about four-fifths of the capacity of the cylinder by means of a force pump, the gas being therefore subjected to a pressure of five atmospheres. The gasometer communicates by means of a tube with the vessel in which the aerated water is to be prepared. This vessel is a horizontal cylinder of tinned copper, capable of holding about 250 pints. It is filled to the top with pure water, and then about one- fifth of its contents are allowed to run out, carbonic acid taking the place. The impregnator is provided with a gauge to ascertain the pressure exerted upon the water contained in it ; this, to facilitate the absorption of the gas, is constantly kept in motion by means of a stirrer, the axis of which passes through the sides of the vessel. The gas is now allowed to enter from the gasoo'eter into the impregnator until the gauge shows a pressure of about two atmospheres. The com- munication is then shut off, and the stirrer is set in motion. The car- bonic acid is rapidly absorbed by the water, and the pressure of course diminishes. From time to time this is restored by opening the tap until it permanently reaches two atmospheres, and the gauge shows that the water is now sufficiently saturated with gas ; the concentrated saline solution of potash, soda, &c., is introduced into the impregnator through a screw hole at the top of the cylinder, and the pressure is again restored by a fresh addition of carbonic acid. Lastly, the liquid is drawn off into bottles, a specially constructed tap of brass being employed in order to reduce the loss of gas to a minimum. An apparatus, similar to that above described, has been constructed by Tyler ; but it is in some particulars not so perfect. Thus, lie does not pass the gas after its liberation through a series of washing bottles, but directly into the gasometer. AERATED WATERS AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 663 Soda Water, The British Pharmacopoeia directs that soda water should con- tain 30 grains of bicarbonate of soda to 20 ounces or one pint of water, and that as much carbonic acid should be forced into it as can be introduced by the pressure of 7 atmospheres. Each bottle, there- fore, of soda water should contain 15 grains of bicarbonate of soda. But a very large proportion of the soda waters ordinarily sold do not contain a particle of soda ; they consist simply of water impregnated with car- bonic acid gas, while in the preparation of those which really do contain the alkali no fixed rule has hitherto been observed, and hence the quantity of soda has been found to vary very gi*eatly. The use of a very hard water for the manufacture of soda water appears to be most undesirable ; should the water contain chloride of calcium or magnesium, or the nitrates or sulphates of lime or magnesia, part of these will become precipitated as carbonates with the formation of salts of soda, and a turbidity will be produced in the water which is very unsightly, and which in many cases would render it unsaleable. It is true, however, that the subsequent impregnation of the water with carbonic acid gas serves to redissolve in part the carbonates ; but a ay iron and alumina which the water may have contained, and which had been thrown down by the alkali, would not be taken up again. Potash Water, The British Pharmacopoeia also gives a formula for the preparation of potash water. This is exactly the same as that for the soda water, St) that each bottle would contain 15 grains of carbonate of potash. The remarks as to the unsuitability of hard water for the manu- facture of soda water apply equally to that of potash water. We btilieve that potash water is rarely met with without its containing more or less of the alkali, although the amount is found to vary greatly in different cases. But now that a standard has been introduced into the Pharmacopoeia for the manufacture of these waters, greater uni- formity may be expected. Lemonade. This beverage should consist of the juice of the lemon, a certain amount of the peel to flavour it, ivhite sugar and ivater in certain pioportions, the whole being subjected to fermentation by the addition of a little yeast. Thus prepared, lemonade is really an alcoholic beverage, the alcohol arid carbonic acid being generated at the expense of the sugar, although the amount of alcohol is but small, indeed scarely sufficient to affect the brain of even the most sensitive teetotaller. But a very common way of making lemonade is to add a propor- ti( 'U of syrup consisting of citric acid and sugar to water impregnated 664 AERATED WATERS AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. with carbonic acid pras, the sugar not being subjected to fermentation. This beverage would satisfy the demands of teetotallers, since it does not contain any alcohol. Very frequently, however, lemonade is prepared in ways very differ- ent from the above, and by much cheaper formulae. Tartaric acid and bi tartrate of potash are frequently made to do duty for citric acid. Sulphuric acid is in some cases used in conjunction with the tartaric acid and for the same purpose. Ging&i' Beer, Ginger beer — that is to say, the bottled and effervescent beverage commonly known as ginger beer — should be prepared on the same principle as lemonade ; the genuine article should not contain any- thing but ginger, ivhite sugar , and loater, the mixture being subjected, in the same manner as lemonade, to fermentation. If anything further be allowable, it should simply be an addition perhaps of a little lemon or other simple flavouring, with a view to improve the taste of the article. In the case of ginger beer, then, the only acid which should be present is carbonic acid. Dr. Ure gives the following receipt for the manufacture of ginger beer : — ^ Boil 65 gallons of river water, 1^ cwt. of the best loaf sugar, and 5 lbs. of the best raw ginger, bruised, half an hour ; then add the whites of 10 eggs, beaten to a froth with 2 ounces of dissolved isinglass. Stir it well in, and boil twenty minutes longer, skimming it the whole time. Then add the rinds of 50 lemons, boiling them ten minutes more. Cut 28 lbs. of good malaga raisins in half, take away the stones and stalks, and put them with the juice of the lemon, strained, into the hogshead. Strain the hot liquor into a cooler, and when it has stood two hours and is settled, draw it off the lees, clear, and put it into the cask ; filter the thick and fill up with it. Leave the bung out, and when at the proper temperature stir 3 quarts of thick fresh ale yeast well into it ; put on the bung lightly and let it ferment six or seven days, filling up with liquor as it ferments over ; when the fermentation has ceased, pour in 6 quarts of French brandy and 8 ounces of the best isinglass, dissolved in a gallon of the wine, then secure the bung effectually and paste paper over it, &c. Keep it two years in a cool cellar, then bottle it, using the best corks and sealing them, and when it is four years old commence using it.' Dr. Ure, in the above receipt, seems to have aimed at the prepa- ration of ginger beer of remarkable excellence and quality ; the beverage no doubt would have been good and drinkable very shortly after its manufacture. We believe that it is a \eYj uncommon thing to meet with a ginger beer compounded simply of sugar and ginger subjected to fermentation. Nearly all the articles sold as ginger beer in the shops contain tartaric acid, bitartrate of potash, or cream of tartar, and even sometimes sulphuric acid. AERATED WATERS ASB THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 665 Another receipt given in ^ Ure's Dictionary ' for tlie preparation )f a ginger beer is the following : — Barbadoes ginger root 12 ozs. Tartaric acid . 3 ozs. White sugar . 8 lbs. Gum arabic . 8 ozs. Essence of lemon . 2 drachms Water . 9 gaUs. Che ginger root, bruised, is to be boiled for an hour ; the liquor ha\dng 1>een strained, the tartaric acid and sugar are added, and the mixture 1 .oiled ; the gum arabic, dissolved in a separate portion of water, is then i dded vnth the essence of lemons. When the whole has cooled to 38° U. some fresh yeast is to be added, and the beer carefully fermented. J 'hen bottle for use. Pereira gives the following formula, for which he was indebted to ? Er. Pollock, for the preparation of ginger beer : — ^ Take white sugar, lO lbs. ; lemon or lime juice, 18 ounces ; honey, 1 lb. ; ginger, 1 ruised, 22 ounces ; water 18 gallons. Boil the ginger in 3 gallons f the starch sugar is capable of being converted into an * unfermentable extractive matter,' which gives a solution of lower specific gravity for the same amount of carbon, and hence the estima^te of the original gravity would come out too low ; indeed, it is affirmed that this extractive substance indicates only about five-sixths of the saccharine principle from which it is derived. The experiments upon solutions of known composition by Messrs. CIraham, Hofmann, and Redwood consisted in fermenting these solutions a ad analysing them in difierent stages of fermentation. They estimated tiie specific gravity of the fermented liquid, and distilled a measured quantity of it, took the specific gravity of the distillate after it had been made up to its original bulk by the addition of water, and they like- wise estimated the specific gravitj' of the residue in the retort or doalcoholised liquid, which also had been made up to its original bulk. The difference between the specific gravity of the distillate and the s])ecific gravity of water they called the ^ spirit indication ' of the bt^er, whilst the difference between the original gravity of the wort and ol' the dealcoholised liquid they called ' gravity lost.' The spirit indication and the gravity lost both may be calculated for sugar, but it is obvious that they cannot exactly furnish the same results. For while the spirit indication is based upon the specific gravity of the spirit, which may of course be accurately calculated into sugar, the ^ gravity lost ' is obtained from a liquid of unknown composition, the gravity of which, as we have seen above, is lower than th J gravity of an equally strong solution of starch sugar. To make thi results obtained in the latter way correspond with those given by the former method, a large ' number is to be added to the specific gravity of the fermented liquid to obtain the gravity of the original wort, than to the results obtained in the former method. This difference is 686 MALT BEVERAGES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. obvious by a reference to the annexed tables by Messrs. Graham, Hofinann, and Redwood, copied from ' Watts's Dictionary.' Table to ascertain Original Gravities by the Distillation Process. Degrees of Spirit Indication^ with corresponding Degrees of Gravity lost in Malt Worts. Degrees of spirit •0 •1 •2 •3 •4 •5 •6 •7 •8 •9 indication. 0-2 0-6 0-9 1-2 1-5 1-8 2-1 2-4 2-7 1 3-0 3-3 3-7 4-1 4-4 4-8 6-1 5-5 5-9 6-2 2 6-6 7-0 7-4 7-8 8-2 8-6 9-0 9-4 9-8 10-2 3 10-7 11-1 10-5 12-0 12-4 12-9 13-3 13-8 14-2 14-7 4 16-1 15-5 16-0 16-4 16-8 17-3 17-7 18-2 18-6 19-1 5 19-5 19-9 20-4 20-9 21-3 21-8 22-2 22-7 2;]'l 23-6 6 24-1 24-6 25-0 25-5 26-0 26-4 26-0 27-4 27-8 28-3 7 28-8 29-2 29-7 30-2 30-7 31-2 31-7 32-2 32-7 33-2 8 33-7 34-3 34-8 35-4 35-9 36-5 37-0 37-5 38-0 38-6 9 39-1 39-7 40-2 40-7 41-2 41-7 42-2 42-7 43-2 43-7 10 44-2 44-7 45-1 45-6 46-0 46-5 47-0 47-5 48-0 48-5 11 49-0 49-6 60'1 50-6 51-2 51-7 62-2 52-7 53-3 63-8 12 54-3 64-9 65-4 55-9 66-4 56-9 57-4 57-9 58-4 58-9 13 59-4 60-0 60-5 6M 61-6 62-2 62-7 63-3 63-8 64-3 14 64-8 65-4 65-9 66-5 67-1 67-6 68-2 68-7 69-3 69-9 16 76-5 — — — — — — — — -— Table to ascertain Original Gravities by the Evaporation Process. Degrees of Spirit Indication, with corresponding Degree. Malt Worts. ' of Gravity lost in Degrees of spirit •0 •1 •2 •3 •4 •5 •6 •7 •8 -.9 indication. 1-4 1-7 0-3 0-7 1-0 2-1 2-4 2-8 3-1 1 3-5 3-8 4-2 4-6 6-0 5-4 6-8 6-2 6-6 7-0 2 7-4 7-8 82 8-7 9-1 9-5 9-9 103 10-7 IM 3 11-5 11-2 12-4 12-8 13-2 13-6 14-0 14-4 14-8 l.'5-3 4 15-8 16-2 16.6 17-0 17-4 17-9 18-4 18-8 19-3 19-8 5 20-3 20-7 21-2 21-6 221 22-5 23-0 23-4 23-9 24-3 6 24-8 25-2 25-6 26-1 26-6 27-0 27-6 28-0 28-5 29-0 7 29-5 30-0 30-4 30-9 31-6 31-8 32-3 328 33-3 33-8 8 34-3 34-9 35-5 36-0 36-6 37-1 37-7 38-3 388 39-4 9 40-0 40-5 41-0 41-6 42-0 42-6 43 43-^ 44-0 44-4 10 44-9 45-4 46-0 46-5 47-1 47-6 48-2 48-7 49-3 49-8 11 50-3 60-9 51-4 51-9 62-5 63'0 53-5 64-0 54-5 65-0 12 55-6 56-2 56-2 57-3 57-8 58-3 58-9 59-4 59-9 60-5 13 61-0 61-6 62-1 62-7 63-2 63-8 64-3 64-9 65-4 66-0 14 66-5 67-0 67-6 68-1 68-7 69-2 69-8 70-4 70-9 71-1 15 72-0 — — — — •"" — — — — MALT BEVERAGES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 687 The first column contains the whole degrees of the spirit indication, while the tenth of the degrees are placed at the top of the other columns. The degrees of gravity lost which are found by going horizontally to the right from the degree of spirit indication lost until the respective column headed by the tenth of the degree is reached, are to be added to the gravity of the fermented liquid to obtain the specific gravity of the original wort. It seems somewhat strange that Messrs. Graham, Hofmann, and Eedwood should not have taken notice of the effect of the extract of the hops upon the specific gravity of the wort. Mineral matter. — The total solids of the beer, obtained as described, are incinerated at the lowest possible temperature, and the ash weighed. Salt. — The ash is dissolved in pure nitric acid and the chlorine is piecipitated by means of a solution of nitrate of silver, the resulting chloride of silver being washed, dried and weighed. The chlorine cannot be determined volumetrically in the usual m inner, since the phosphates contained in the ash exert a considerable induefice upon the quantity of silver solution used. Alcohol. — 100 cc. of the beer are to be neutralised with caustic sola and the alcohol distilled ofi" and estimated from the specific gravity of the distillate, after this has been made up to the volume of th 3 beer employed, as described in the article on ^ Wine.' We give below a table of the specific gravity of mixtures containing a small amount of alcohol only : — Specific Gravity and Strength of Spirits. Volume Weight Specific Volume Weight Specific pi T cent. per cent. gravity. per cent. per cent. gravity. 1- 0-80 0-99850 3-0 2-40 0-99560 1-1 0-88 0-99835 3-1 2-48 0-99546 1-2 0-96 0-99820 3-2 2-56 0-99532 1-3 1-04 0-99805 3-3 2-64 0-99518 1-4 M2 0-99790 3-4 2-72 0.99504 1-5 1-20 0-99775 3-5 2-80 0-99490 1-6 1-28 0-99760 3-6 2-88 0-99476 1-7 1-36 0-99745 3-7 2-96 0-99462 1-8 1-44 0-99730 3-8 3-04 0-99448 1-9 1-52 0-99715 3-9 3-12 0-99434 2-0 1-60 0-99700 4-0 3-20 0-99420 2-1 1-68 0-99686 4-1 3-28 0-99406 2-2 1-76 0-99672 4-2 3-36 0-99392 2-3 1-84 0-99658 4-3 3-44 0-99378 >-4 1-92 0-99644 4-4 3-52 0-99364 2-5 2-00 99630 4-5 3-60 0-99350 2-6 2-08 99616 4-6 3-68 0-99336 2-7 2-16 0-99602 4-7 3-76 0-99322 2-8 2-24 0-99588 4-8 3-84 0-99308 2-9 2-32 0-99574 4-9 3-92 0-99294 688 MALT BEVEEAGES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. Specific Gravity and Strength of Spirits — cont. Volume Weight Specific Volume Weight Specific per cent. per cent. gravity. per cent. per cent. gravity. 5-0 4-00 0-99280 6-6 5-30 0-99072 6-1 408 0-99267 6-7 5-38 0-99059 5-2 4-16 0-99254 6-8 5-46 0-99046 6-3 4-24 0-99-241 6-9 6-54 0-99033 6-4 4-32 0-99228 7-0 5-62 0-99020 6-5 4-40 0-99215 7-1 6-70 0-99008 5-6 4-48 0-99-202 7-2 6-78 0-98996 5-7 4-56 0-99189 7'3 5-86 0-98984 5-8 4-64 • 0-99176 7-4 5-94 0-98972 5-9 4-72 0-99163 7-5 6-02 0-98960 6-0 4-81 099150 7-6 6-11 0-98949 6-1 4-89 99137 7-7 6-19 0-98936 6-2 4-97 0-99124 7-8 6-27 0-i)8924 6-3 505 0-99111 7-9. 6-35 0-98912 6-4 5-13 0-99098 8-0 6-43 0-98900 6-5 6-21 0*99085 — — — Carbonic acid. — The free carbonic acid is to be determined in the manner at length described in the article on /Aerated Beverages.' Beer usually contains no more than from O'l- to 0*5 per cent., even when bottled. THE ADTJLTEEATIONS OF MALT BEVERAGES. Genuine malt beverages should consist only of the products of malt, hops, and water, and any addition to these may, strictly speaking, be viewed in the light of an adulteration. Such for ages has been the composition of the malt beverages of this country. Now, however, all this seems to be threatened with a change. The law itself is revolutionising the manufacture of beer, and is legalising the wholesale adulteration of this national beverage. The addition of cane sugar, treacle, and salt to the wort is now permitted ; indeed, we have met with instances in which an article, which had been denominated beer, has been produced without its con- taining a particle of either malt or hops. It may be said that since the most important constituent of malt is its sugar, and that it is this which furnishes the alcohol of the beer, no great harm is done by permitting the ad,dition of a further quantity of sugar. But this mode of reasoning is very fallacious, since extract of malt contains a variety of other substances, organic and mineral, besides sugar, so that the beverage produced from pure malt extract and a mixture of this with sugar and various other substances, is very different in its actual composition and in its dietetic properties and effects. MALT BEVERAGES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS* 689 I If it be allowable to make so-called beer from other constituents than malt and hops, surely this should be distinguished from the true and genuine malt beverages by the adoption of some distinctive name, so that the public may know what they are really consuming: The adulterations which either have been or are practised on beer are multifarious, and they include the following : — Water y sugar and treacle, liquorice, humt sugar, vegetable hitters, including picric acid, Qocculits indicus and strychnia ; carminatives and opium ; various ynineral Jidulterations, as those with alum, salt, sulphate of iron, carbonate of lime, soda, &c. The adulteration tvith water. — The practice of diluting with water nearly all liquid articles of consumption, especially those containing alcohol, is almost imiversal. This admixture is one of the most frequent adulterations practised upon beer, and it is one which is commonly effected by the publican, who contrives to make by it three barrels of beer cut of two, endeavouring to make up for the dilution of the liquid and the consequent loss of its sensible properties by adding sugar, including burnt sugar, to restore the colour, and salt to increase the pungency and flavour. Adulteration with cane sugar. — Now, although the addition of sugar to the wort, including cane sugar, is allowed by law, we pre- sume such an addition is not permissible to the beer after it is fer- mented and with a view to its adulteration by means of water ; and hence, when the presence of cane sugar is demonstrated in any beer, it must be taken as affording conclusive evidence of adulteration. Sometimes both cane sugar and glucose are introduced into the boer bv making use of treacle and the form of impure sugar termed ^ foots.' Adulteration with liquoince. — Spanish juice or liquoince is not uufrequently used in the adulteration of porter and stout for the double purpose of colouring and sweetening the beverage. Adulteration with burnt sugar, caramel, or essentia hina. — When milt is dried at a high temperature and is converted into what is ki own as black or patent malt, part of the sugar is caramelised, and w len the burnt sugar in the beer is derived from this source it is, of coTirse, not to be regarded as an adulteration. But when burnt sugar not so derived is added to cover and conceal the impoverishment of th<3 beer with water, its presence must in that case be regarded in the light of an adulteration. Adulteration with vegetable bitters. — The vegetable bitters which have been known to be employed in the adulteration of beer are gentian, chiretta, quassia^ tvormivood, orange peel, orange powder an 1 camomile — the last two possess aromatic properties, the camo- mile being likewise narcotic — also piciic acid, cocculu^ indicus, and stn/chnin. A broad distinction is to-be drawn between the bitters first named 690 MALT BEVERAGES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. and picric acid, cocculus indicus, and strychnin, since tliese are all of a highly poisonous nature. Pia^c or trinitrophenic acid, formerly called carbazotic acidy or artificial indigo hitter, CgH3(N02)30, is obtained from a variety of substances, amongst others the following: carbolic acid or phenol, salicin, indigo, aloes, benzoin and other resins, and silk. Picric acid crystallises in yellow, shining laminae, composed of octa- hedrons, and sometimes in needles and granules. The crystals belong to the trimetric system. It melts, when slowly heated, into a brownish-yellow oil, which becomes crystalline on cooling. It volatilises undecomposed at a low temperature, and at a higher temperature it boils, giving off a highly irritating vapour, which condenses into needles and scales. When quickly heated it undergoes decomposition, accompanied by a violent explosion. It possesses an intensely bitter and sour taste, and reddens litmus. In doses of from 1 to 10 grains many animals are killed, including rabbits and dogs, convulsions and delirium being produced. It is soluble in water in diiFerent proportions according to its temperature. One part of picric acid is dissolved in 86 parts of water at 15^ 0. and in 26 parts at 77° 0., the solution being of a deep yellow colour, and concentrated it stains the skin. It is easily soluble in alcohol and ether, also in warm concentrated sulphuric acid, from which it is precipitated unchanged on the addition of water. Its power of imparting colour to water is really surprising. Water containing 10000 P^^ ^^ picric acid is of a distinctly yellow colour, and if the quantity present be greatly below this, the colour may still be brought out by viewing the water in a stratum two or three inches in depth. Cocculus indicus is the fruit of Cocculus sube7'osuSy also named Menispermum cocculus. These seeds possess strongly narcotic and poisonous properties, due to the presence of an alkaloid called picro- toxin, OigHuOg, which is present in it to the amount of 2 per cent. This alkaloid is extracted by exhaustion with boiling alcohol. The alcohol is distilled off, the fatty matter is removed by boiling with a considerable quantity of water, and the aqueous extract mixed with a small quantity of neutral acetate of lead to remove colouring matter. The filtrate is freed from lead by means of sulphuretted hydrogen, evaporated, and the picrotoxin obtained by crystallisation. From pure solutions it crystallises in stellate groups of needles, from coloured liquids in interlaced threads, which after a time change into more solid needles and even into laminae. It possesses an intensely bitter taste, and does not act on vegetable colours. It dissolves in 150 parts of cold and 26 parts of boiling water. It is very soluble in boiling alcohol and in ether. Picrotoxin is highly poisonous, giving rise to giddiness, a species of intoxication, convulsions, and even death. It reduces cupric oxide in the same manner as glucose, but its r MALT BEVERAGES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 691 reducing power is less by about five times. It dissolves in strong sulphuric acid, forming a safiron-coloured solution, and with sulphuric acid and bicarbonate of potash the solution assumes a red-brown colour. Strychnin is obtained from several species of plants of the genus Sti-ychnos, especially Strychnos nux vomica ; this genus also contains 6'. St. Ignatii, a plant yielding the beans of St. Ignatius, and S. tieuU, which furnishes the upas-tieute, the Javan arrow poison. Strychnin may be extracted from ground Ignatius beans or from nux vomica by exhaustion with alcohol. The alcohol is distilled off', the residue is dissolved in water, and a solution of basic acetate of lead is added. The strychnin remains in the solution, which is freed from the excess of lead lay means of sulphuretted hydrogen and then boiled with magnesia. Thereby the strychnin is precipitated, and isi then purified by repeated crystallisation from alcohol. 100 parts of uux vomica yield about 0*6 parts of strychnin. Pure strychnin crystallises in white four-sided pyramids of the trimetric or rhombic system, which have the formula Q^^^^jd^, It is soluble in 6,667 parts of cold and 2,500 parts of boiling water. It has an alkaline reaction, and since it resists putrefaction it may be extmcted from bodies even after they have been buried for a long period; according to McAdam as lon^ as three years. Its solution is intensely bitter, and hence its leputed employment in the adulteration of bitter beer. It is extremely poisonous, one-eighth of a grain being sufficient to kill a large dog ; and, since it is cumulative in its action, poisonous effects may be produced by the continued use of this alkaloid even in the minutest doses. The following are the circumstances which induced the editor of the ^Lancet,' Mr. Wakley, to undertake, through the author, a very extended and rigorous enquiry into the subject of the alleged adulte- ration of beer with strychnin. In the year 1850 a report came before the public in which it was a->serted that the deadly poison strychnin is commonly employed by bi'ewers in the manufacture of ^bitter beer' or ^pale ale.' The following was the origin and foundation of this report : — In the course of a lecture delivered at the Conservatoire des Arta el Metiers, M. Payen is asserted to have stated that strychnin was prepared in large quantities in Paris, and that the French authorities had ascertained that it was destined for England, it being employed in tLe manufacture of the celebrated bitter beer of that country. This statement, after having appeared in some of the French papers, aiid amongst others in the ^ Oonstitutionnel,' attracted the attention of some English journalists, who commented at some length upon it, in- cautiously treating the assertion as though its truth had been fuUy ascertained. At length the injurious statement made its way into the colmnns of the ^ Times' newspaper, and thus became universally dis- seninated. It was impossible for the brewers of bitter beer, the preparation of Y y2 692 MALT BEVERAGES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. which is confined to a small number of persons, to pass "by without notice so grave a charge, and one so immediately affecting their interests. Accordingly the two chief firms, those of Messrs. AUsopp Jt Sons and Messrs liiss Sc Co., lost no time in publicly denying, in the most unequivocal terms, that strychnin, or any other deleterious substance, was ever employed by them in the manufacture of their beer. These celebrated brewers suggested that their bitlier beer should be subjected to a searching chemical and microscopical examination, and expressed their willingness to place the enquiry in the hands of the Analytical Sanitary Commission. They offered to throw open their breweries, stores, &c., in the most complete and unreserved manner, and to afford every facility for the fullest investigation. Feeling that the subject was one of great importance ; that it in- volved the public health to a great degree, and also the pecuniary interests of a trade which, from its magnitude, had almost assumed a national character; that it also affected the judgment of the medical profession by whom the bitter beers had been so strongly recommen- ded — Mr. Wakley ultimately agreed to undertake the enquii'y upon the distinctly declared condition that the results of the investigation and analyses, whether favourable or unfavourable to the reputation and quality of the beer, should be unreservedly and faithfully com- municated to the public. In order to put the statement to the test, forty samples of bitter beer were subjected to analysis — twenty of the ale of Messi^s. Bass ^ Co. and the like number of samples of the ale of Messrs. AUsopp 8f Sons. They were all found to consist of the products of malt and hops and the constituents oi pure spring boater ; no other ingredient of any kind being discovered, either organic or inorganic. These samples were procured under circumstances which precluded the possibility of error, fallacy, or of preparation for the selection. Under the above circumstances, and after the most scrutinising ex- amination, microscopical, chemical, and physiological, we failed to detect the smallest atom of strychnin, or indeed of any other ingre- dients than the products of malt and hops and the constituents of pure spring water. Unknovni to, and wholly independent of ourselves, Messrs. Graham and Hofmann, at the request of Messrs. AUsopp & Sons, subjected several samples of their bitter beer to analysis. In their published report it is stated that they also failed to discover the slightest trace 'of strychnin. It may be weU to consider how far the statement made that strychnin is employed in the preparation of bitter beer is consistent with probability. In order to form an opinion on this point, it is necessary to obtain clear ideas of the quantity of this substance neces- sary to impart bitterness to a given bulk of fluid, to determine the chemical condition in which it exists in beer, and to ascertain the i MALT BEVERAGES. AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 693 amount of strychnin which may be introduced into the system with safety to health and life. With respect to its bitterness, we find that one grain only of strychnin imparts a decided and persistent bitterness to at least 40,000 grains of water, or upwards of half a gallon ; but the taste of the same quantity of strychnin is perceptible when diluted with 420,000 grains, or six gallons of water. But it must be remembered that most beers contain free acetic acid in variable amount, and that, therefore, strychnin added to beer becomes converted into acetate of strychnia. Now this salt, although very bitter, is less so than strychnin itself j consequently, a larger amount of the combined alkaloid is necessary to impart the same degree of bitterness. We have ascertained that no less than three grains of acetate of strychnia are needed to give a persistent and suitable bitterness to half a gallon of water; it is therefore evident that not less than one grain and a half of strychnin in combination with acetic acid would be required to impart such a degree of bitterness to the same quantity of beer as to render its use in the preparation of bitter beer a matter of any moment. Now a quantity of strychnin so considerable as this could not be taken in beer even without danger to life. Were the quantity present in beer much below this, its use would still be ittended with the greatest danger, since this poison, like digitalis, colchicum, and certain other active vegetable products, is liable to be retained in the system, and to accumulate in it to such an extent as at length to give rise to the tetanic spasms and other consequences symptomatic of poisoning by strychnin. From all these considerations, therefore, we conclude that the state- ment made concerning the use of strychnin in beer is scarcely consistent with probability. Narcotics. — The hop is employed in the manufacture of beer, partly i'or its bitter, and partly on account of its narcotic, properties, and the .same remark applies to cocculus indicus ; but tobacco and opium^ which jiave also been resorted to, are used mainly for their narcotic or sopo- ]'ific eifects, which simulate somewhat those of the hop. We believe that the employment of both tobacco and opium are so rare that it is scarcely necessary to enter into any long description (»f the composition and properties of the active principles contained in those substances. We shall, however, give the method for the detec- 1 ion in the one case of the nicotin and in the other of the morphin, ^v^hich are their two most important and distinctive principles. Carminatives. — The carminatives of the use of which there is evi- dence are ginger j coriander, caraivay seeds, cardamom seeds, grains of 2'aradise and ca2mcum, the whole of which will be found described in their appropriate places. Mineral adulterants. — A great variety of mineral substances are employed in the adulteration of beer. Some of these are used to give the beer an appearance of strength and to make it froth, bead or ^head' 694 MALT BEYERAaES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. well. The substances employed for this purpose are chiefly sulphate of iroriy alum, and salt ; others, as chalk and the alkalies, are used to correct undue acidity ; and again others, as su^jhuric acid and cream of tartar or bitartrate of potash, to give to the beer a tartness or hard- ness characteristic of age, and which is preferred by some beer drinkers. It has already been stated that the law allows of the addition of a certain quantity of salt, which must not exceed 50 grains per gallon, including that contained in the water used in the brewing, and tbis addition it permits for no sufficient reason, lending its official sanction in this case, as in so many others, to the deterioration and adulteration of an important article of consumption. It appears from our analyses that salt is almost constantly present in porter. This addition we know is made in the first instance by the brewers themselves ; but there is also no doubt that a further quantity is frequently used by the publican to assist in bringing up the flavour of beer which has been reduced in strength by the addition of water. The quantity of salt contained in porter is often sufficiently large to communicate a perceptibly saline taste to the mouth. The salt is used by the brewei*s in the following manner : — It is first mixed up in a tub with flour, usually wheat flour, and the mixture is cast by handfuls over the surface of the wort in the cooling vat. It is said to assist in the preservation and fining of the wort, and it is alleged that these are the only purposes for which it is employed by the brewer. The presence of ii^on, which is added chiefly to stout, causes it of course to be more strengthening and tonic, but iron is a tonic which does not suit all persons ; and if it be desirable that we should take it at all, since it is a medicine, it should be administered in suitable cases only by the physician, and not indiscriminately by the brewer. From different sources we obtain the following information in reference to the use of many of the substances above enumerated. Mr. Phillips furnished the Committee on Adulteration of 1855 with the subjoined evidence in regard to the adulteration of beer : — ^ It is chiefly common salt and sulphate of iron that are used for adulterating beer, and also quassia.'' Mr. Edwin Wickham's evidence was to this effect : — * From my experience in brewing I believe that the great adultera- tion of beer takes place in the cellars of the publicans and not in the breweries, although I know it is done by some brewers.' Mr. Scholejielcl. ^ Do you believe that the adulteration of beer is a common thing ? ' — ' Very common, so much so that the exception is not to adulterate ; and I believe those exceptions are very few.' Mr. Wickham gave the following as the receipt in frequent use amongst publicans for the adulteration of porter : — ' To one barrel of porter eight gallons of water, six pounds of sugar, one pound of gelatin (or patent size will do), a handful of common salt, extract of gentian or quassia to restore to it the original bitter MALT BEVERAGES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 695 flavour, sulphate of ammonia to bring: it back to its colour, half an ounce of sulphate of iron^ and if required to taste oldish, an ounce of roche alum.^ Again, Mr. Wiekham affirmed — ' I have known single instances of tobacco being used in beer.' Mr. P. L. Simmonds, in evidence before the same Parliamentary- Committee, stated that ^ at least 250 tons of cocculus indicus are annually imported, chiefly, I suppose, for the use of brewers.' He further stated that * from 200 to 300 tons of the acrid seeds of cardamom, or grains of paradise, are also annually imported, and chiefly used to give an artificial strength to beer and spirits.' Also that * cocculus indicus is commonly introduced into beer for the pur- pose of giving a false strength Uy it. In one case which came under my knowledge, the publican was found using it for the purpose of adulte- rating his beer to be sold the next day.' Mr. Gav, in the evidence before quoted from more than once, gave tlie following mtormanonm regarato cocculus indicus : — He stated * I have ground many hundredweights of cocculus indicus.' Mr. Moffatt, ' What is it used for ? ' — ^ I suspect to go into the poor man's drink.' ' For whom did you grind cocculus indicus ? ' — ' For wholesale druggists.' Mr. Eodgers alleged in his evidence that ' cocculus indicus can be obtained from the brewers' druggists under the name of multum.^ Mr. Simmonds also made this remark in his evidence — ^ In the suburbs of London I may mention that it is a common practice \% ith the publicans to adulterate beer on Saturday nights much more than on other nights.' He likewise deduced the inference that beer is extensively adulte- rated from the following statistical "particulars : — * There is one matter,' he observed, ' which occurs to me as being exceedingly singular, which is that the consumption of malt and hops continued stationary, though the consumption of beer, with the in- creasing population, must have increased very largely. In the last fifteen years there has been scarcely any variation in the amount of hops con- sumed, and some substances must therefore be used very extensively to make up the difterence. The extent of land under cultivation for hops in the last three years has averaged 50,000 acres, being only 7,000 acres beyond the culture of thirty years ago. The home produc- tion in the last ten years has scarcely increased at all, and yet the ship- ments of beer and ale have more thim trebled in value, and the home consumption must necessarily have increased also.' Another feet, proving the extensive practice of adulteration in beer, was related by Mr. Wicfliam, in reply to the question by Mr. Swift : — ^ Is it not customary for publicans to sell the beer at the price which they pay to the brewers, so that this adulteration forms their actual profit ? ' — ^ Yes, many publicans do so.' 696 MALT BEVERAGES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. Mr. Morris, who wrote a book some years since, entitled ' Brewing Malt Liquors' described and recommended a variety of articles to be employed in the brewing of beer and porter, as colouring, cocculus indie us, sioeet flag root, quassia, coriander seeds, capsicum, caraway seeds, grains of paradise, ginger, heans, oyster shells, and almn. ^ Tbe colouring,' Mr. Morris remarked, ' gives a good face to tbe beer, and enables you to gratify the sight of your different customers,' And again, ' Beans tend to mellow malt liquor, and from their properties add much to its inebriating qualities ; but they must not be used in too large a quantity. Oyster shells are very good to recover sour beer. ^ Aliun is generally put into the vat, as it gives the beer a smack of age. ^ Oocculus indicus is used as a substitute for malt and hops, and is a great preservative of malt liquor. It prevents second fermentation in bottled beer, and consequently the bursting of the bottles in warm climates. Its effects are of an inebriating nature.' Another writer, Mr. Child, also the author of a work on brewing porter, which went through eleven editions, gave the following receipt for making porter : — 1 quarter of malt. 8 lbs. of hops. 9 lbs. of treacle. 8 lbs. of liquorice root. 8 lbs. of essentia bina. 8 lbs. of colour. Capsicum, half an ounce. Spanish liquorice, two ounces. Cocculus indicus, a quarter of an ounce. Salt of tartar, two drachms. Heading. Ginger, three ounces. Lime, four ounces. Linseed, one ounce. Cinnamon, two drachms. The essentia bina, he states, ' is compounded of 8 lbs. of moist sugar, boiled in an iron vessel (for no copper one could withstand the heat sufficiently) till it comes to a thick, syrupy consistence, perfectly black and extremely bitter.' Colour ^ is composed of 8 lbs. of moist sugar, boiled until it obtains a middle state between bitter and sweet, and which gives to porter that mild, mellow colour usually so much admired.' The heading ^ is a mixture of half alum and half copperas, ground to a fine powder ; and is so called from giving to porter the beautiful head of froth which constitutes one of its peculiar properties, and which landlords are so anxious to raise to gratify their customers.' Other receipts by Mr. Morris are as foUow : — Malt, 25 quarters. Hops Cocculus indicus beriy Lef The charcoal contains the picrotoxin, which may be separated by boiling with a little pure alcohol, filtering, and evaporating to dryness on slips of glass. It is recognised by its forming plumose tufts of acicular crystals, or else oat-shaped forms. If greater time be allowed in the evaporation the picrotoxin crystallises in quadrilateral prisms. 704 MALT BEVERAGES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. Dr. Lanpfley, of Micliio^an, recommends the acidiilation of the beer with hydrochloric acid and agitation with ether, which dissolves out the picrotoxin — the hydrochlorides of the other alkaloids being insoluble in that menstruum. The ethereal solution is then evaporated, when the crystals of picrotoxin may be further tested * by rubbing with nitrate of potash, adding a drop of sulphuric acid, and then a strong solution of potash or soda. A bright reddish-yellow colour is given if picrotoxin be present.' — Parkes. Detection of 7iux vomica and strychnin^ opium and morphin, and tobacco and nicotin. — At least one gallon of the beer is evaporated on the water-bath at a temperature, which should never rise above 80° C. The syrupy residue is extracted with repeated quantities of cold absolute alcohol, and the alcoholic solution evaporated on the water-bath at a temperature not exceeding that above mentioned. The liquid, which is strongly acid, is to be very nearly, but not quite, neutralised by means of soda solution, and it is then well shaken with pure ether. The ether takes up the picrotoxin, if present, and the ethereal solution is to be evaporated and tested for the alkaloid. The liquid, after the removal of the ether by heating it, is now to be rendered distinctly alkaline by means of soda, whereby the alkaloids are liberated ; it is again well and repeatedly shaken with pure ether, and after an hour or two the ether is separated and evaporated at a very low temperature in a glass basin or large watch-glass. The ether will dissolve the strychnin and nicotin but not the morphin, which re- mains in the alkaline liquid. If on the evaporation of the ether no residue remains, no alkaloid can be present, but if an oily and strongly smelling liquid is obtained, the presence of tobacco in the beer may be suspected. If a crystalline deposit is formed, strychnin would probably have been used. The residue, if any, whether oily or crystalline, is tested as fol- lows: — A portion is slightly heated. A smell of tobacco would reveal the presence of nicotin beyond all doubt. To another part of the residue a small fragment of chromate of potash and a drop of sulphuric acid are added. The slightest trace of strychnin will be detected by the liquid assuming a deep and beautiful violet-blue coloration. For the detection of morphin, the solution is acidulated with hy- drochloric acid, next rendered slightly alkaline by means of ammonia, and then well shaken with pure fusel oil, in which, especially when slightly warmed, the morphin is easily soluble. The fusel oil is to be separated from the watery solution, and it is then to be evaporated on the water-bath. If morphin be present it will remain in the form of microscopic needles. This residue may be further tested, and the pre- sence of morphin will be proved, if its concentrated solution separates iodine from a solution of iodic acid, and if it, when heated in the water- bath for a quarter of an hour with a few drops of concentrated siU- phuric acid containing a little nitric acid, produces a violet coloration. This latter reaction is very distinctive of morphin. MALT BEVERAGES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 705 The following process for the detection of strychnin has been published by Mr. Rod2:ers : — ' The evaporated extract of the beer is digested, after the addition of a little hydrochloric acid, in an evapo- rating basin, then strained and evaporated to dryness over a vs^ater- bath ; digest the residue in spirit, filter, and again evaporate to dryness ; treat with distilled water acidulated with a few drops of hydrochloric acid, and filter ; add excess of ammonia, and agitate in a tube with chloroform. The strychnin in an impure condition is entirely separated with the chloroform. This chloroform solution is to be carefully separated by a pipette and poured into a small dish, wiped to dryness ; the residue evaporated, moistened with concentrated sulphuric acid, and heated over a water-bath for half an hour ; water is then added and excess of ammonia, the mixture being agitated once more with chloroform, when the strychnin will be again .separated, now in a state of sufficient purity for testing, which can be done after evapo- rating a few drops on a piece of white porcelain.' Detection of carminatives. — The carminatives employed in the adulteration of beer may be divided for the most part into two classes. In the one the active principles are not dissipated by the temperature •)f boiling water, and hence they will be found in the extract of the beer, evaporated on the water-bath. To this division belong ginger, f^apsicim[i, and grains of paradise. The active principles of these may l)e separated from the extract of beer by treating it with alcohol, (evaporating the alcoholic solution nearly to dr^oiess, and exhausting the residue with ether, in which the lupulin is insoluble. The ethereal solution may now be evaporated and tested. The taste will afibrd a sufficient distinction between the named substances, but if any doubt be entertained as to the presence of capsicin this will be dissipated by burning the extract, fimies of an intensely acrid character being evolved. In the other division the active principles consist of volatile oils, as ill caraway and coriander. In this case the only chance of discovery is by the distillation of a given quantity of the beer, say 500 cc. Any volatile oil present will be found in the distillate, and its presence would be revealed by its odour and taste. Detection and estimation of sulphate of iron. — Take half a litre of the beer, evaporate, and incinerate the residue. If iron be present in as small a quantity as one part of the sulphate to 315,000 parts of beer, equal to 2 grains in 9 gallons, the ash will be of a reddish colour, whereas in genuine beer it is always white or greyish white. The ash is boiled with strong hydrochloride acid, and the liquid tested with a solution containing both ferrocyanide and ferricyanide of potassium, wliich will give a blue precipitate of Prussian blue if iron be present. For the quantitative estimation of the iron proceed as directed under ' Tea.' Detection and estimation of alum. — Incinerate the residue of from one to two litres of beer, and proceed as described under * Bread.' z z 706 MALT BEVERAGES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. Estimation of salt. — Evaporate 250 cc. of the beer to dryness, incine- rate and dissolve the ash in pure nitric acid ; filter and precipitate in the filtrate the chlorine by means of a solution of nitrate of silver. The chloride of silver obtained is collected, washed, dried and vreighed. It is usually recommended to estimate the chlorine volumetrically from the neutral solution of the ash, but this method of proceeding gives very erroneous results, inasmuch as the phosphates contained in the beer are likewise precipitated by the standard silver solution. Estimation of lirnCy soda, potash, and sulphuric acid. — In making an analysis of beer with a view to determine whether it contains any excess of the above substances, it is necessary to refer to the analyses given below of the ash of genuine beer, and to deduct from the quantities found the normal amounts present in the ash. Again, the alkalinity of the ash must be estimated. If this be considerable it will show that some alkaline earth or alkali has been added, the exact nature of which will be revealed on further analysis. The methods for the estimation of the whole of the above-named substances will be found fully described in the article on ^ Tea.' So far we have said nothing about the estimation of sulphuric acid in beer. This may exist in two states, either combined or free. If in the former condition, it is no doubt derived from the water used in brewing, or from the sulphate of iron or alum employed in the adul- teration of beer. The water used by the Burton brewers contains, as has already been noticed, large quantities of sulphate of lime. For the estimation of the free sulphuric acid, see ' Vinegar.' Detection of cream of tartar. — To a portion of beer alcohol is added until the pi-ecipitate formed begins to be permanent — that is to say, is not entirely dissolved on agitating the mixture. The beer is allowed to stand for twenty-four hours, when, if cream of tartar be present, this will have separated in a crystalline state. It may be collected, incinerated, and from the alkalinity of the ash the amount of bitartrate of potash may be calculated. Analyses of the Ash of Beer. Potash . London Beer. Munich Beer. Speyer Beer. Scotch Ale (14 samples). Scotch Porter (2 samples). Dublin Porter (2 samples). London Porter (5 samples). 38-35 36-58 37-68 3-2-29-8 18-9-20-9 21-4-32-0 4-9-31-1 Soda 7-68 9-03 6-59 20-9-38-5 33-8-38-8 24-0-42-7 21-8-50-8 Lime 2-45 1-48 2-98 0-2- 2-0 1-3- 1-6 8- 1-5 0-8- 6-9 Magnesia. 3-78 5-64 4-66 01- 5-6 0-2- 1-4 0-2- 1-2 0-1- 1-2 Sulphuric acid 1-36 1-68 2-56 1-6-19-2 2-2- 6-4 2-8-10-1 1-6-12-2 Chlorine . 2-76 3-14 2-14 4-3- 18-25 7-4-11-4 6-9-10-1 6-5-14-5 Silica . 9-87 9-96 10-29 4-6-19-1 13-3-18-6 6-9-19-7 8-2-19-7 Phosphoric a«id 33-76 31-69 33-10 6-0-25-7 12-5-18-8 7-9-20-0 9-3-20-6 The above table is taken from ' Watts's Dictionary.* The first three analyses are by Walz, the rest by Dickson. MALT BEVERAGES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 707 The Detection of the Adulterations of Haps. The several substances elsewhere enumerated as having been dis- covered in hops may all be readily discerned, frequently by the eye alone, and invariably by the microscope. The structure of cardamom seeds, or grains of paradise, the article most frequently employed, will be found described and figured under the head of * Ourry Powder.' 2 z 2 708 CIDER AND PERRY AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. CHAPTEK XLIV. CIDER AND PERRY AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS, DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Any other added constituents than those derived from the juice of the apple or pear ; any added water, sugar, or spirit. CrDER, as all the world knows, is the fermented juice of the apple. The varieties of apple are exceedingly numerous. They have been ranged in three classes — the sweet, the bitter, and sour kinds. The best of these is the bitter ; these yield a juice richer in sugar, the cider made from it being brighter and keeping longer. As a rule, it may be said that those apples make the best cider which furnish a juice of the highest density. Berard has given the following percentage composition of the apple : — Water 86-28 Sugar 6-45 Ligneous matter 3*80 Gum 3-17 Malic acid 0-11 Albumen 0-08 Chlorophyl 0*08 Lime 003 100-00 The exact composition of the juice of the apple varies, of course, according to the degree of ripeness, the kind of apple, season, climate, and soil. According to Schulze, the specific gravity of apples and pears ranges between 0*72 and 0*91, and they contain from 13 to 21 per cent, of solids, of a specific gravity of 1*4. The specific gravity of the fruit would indicate that it contains a considerable quantity of some gas, most probably carbonic acid gas. ^ The quantity of sugar contained in apples varies especially with the degree of ripeness of the fruit. The sugar is stated in * Watts ' CIDER AND PERRY AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 709 to amount, on the average, in the unripe fruit, to 4*9, in the ripe to ll'O, and in the over-ripe to 7*95 per cent., the higher amount being equal to o'l per cent, by weight of alcohol. To make good cider it is necessary that the apples should be ripe, but not over-ripe ; and in order to ensure their ripeness, they are kept for a month or so after being gathered. In Devonshire and some other places the apples are collected in heaps under the trees, where they are allowed to remain until they become sufficiently ripe. Ure states, however, that too much care cannot be taken to separate the sound from the spoiled or decayed apples, for the latter furnish an acid leaven, impart a disagreeable taste to the juice, and prevent the cider from lining properly. The unripe apples should also be separated, since they contain too small an amount of saccharine matter. During the process of the ripening of the apple, the mucilage is diminished; and a volatile oil of a yellowish colour, and of a sharp and harsh taste, are formed ; this oil boils at 190° 0., dissolves spar- ingly in water, but readily in alcohol and ether : it forms a crystalline compound with hydrochloric acid, and is decomposed by chlorine. An artificial apple oil is made by dissolving valeriate of amyl in 6 or 7 parts of alcohol. In its unfermented state the juice consists mainly of mucilage^ glucose, niti^ogenous mattefi', malic acid, together with a small quantity of acetic acid, these several constituents being held dissolved in a large quantity of water. The specific gravity of the juice of 20 different sorts of apple, according to Schulze, ranged between 1020 and 1027 ; and in two instances it reached the gravities of 1033 and 1037. The acid in the juice, according to the same authority, ranged between 0*48 and 1*13 per cent. It is stated in ^ Watts 's Dictionary ' that in Wurtemberg the specific gravity of the juice in warm seasons reaches 1080, and even approaches 1090. The free acid, estimated as tartaric acid, amounts to from 0'4 to 1*2 per cent, and the sugar from 4 to 10 per cent. It would appear that the gravities of 1020 to 1027, mentioned above, are much too low. Oouverchel has given the following table of the specific gravities of the juice of different kinds of apple. The gravities range from 1060 to 1094, the average being 1072 : — Green reinette 1094 English reinette 1080 Red reinette 1072 Musk reinette 1069 Touilletraye 1064 Orange apple 1063 Reinette of Caux 1060 According to Dr. Richardson, the ash has the following percentage composition : — 710 CIDER AND PERRY AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. Potash 36-68 Soda 26-09 Lime 4*08 Magnesia 8*75 Sulphuric acid 6*09 Silicic acid 4-32 Phosphoric acid 12-34 Phosphate of iron 2-65 100-00 MANDTACTTJRE OF CIDEE. The apples are reduced to a state of pulp, either by means of stones or by revolving cylinders and knives, as is done in the case of the sugar-beet. According to Ure, wben the fruit is half mashed, about one-fifth of its weight of river-water is added. We should have considered that this addition of water would prove exceedingly detrimental to the quality of the cider, and we can scarcely think that the practice is one generally adopted. Ure also states that, after the apples are crushed, they are put into a large tub or tun for 12 or 24 hours. ^ This steeping aids the separation of the juice, because the fermentative motion which takes place in the mass breaks down the cellular membranes, but there is always a loss of alcohol carried off by the carbonic acid disengaged, while the skins and seeds develop a disagreeable taste in the liquid. The vatting might be suppressed if the apples were so comminuted as to give out their juice more readily.' Muspratt has thus expressed himself in regard to the vatting of the fruit after it has been crushed : — ^ There can be no doubt that this pro- cedure is attended with good results, and it is probable that sufficient importance is not attached to it, since many ciderists carry the pulp at once from the miU to the press. Even during the short process of grinding, the air changes the colour of the mass to a deep red, though whether this is produced by the absorption of oxygen or from the action of the constituents of the fruit upon each other has never been accu- rately ascertained. It is most probable, however, that each cause has an influence depending on the other. Certain it is, that when the juice is at once expressed from the apples it is a meagre thin liquid, while that of the poorest fruit, when exposed for some hours to the air, becomes quite red and runs sweet and luscious, when, after being well ground, the pulp is submitted to the press.' The pulp is now put into hair cloths, from 3^ to 4J feet square, and when the sides are folded over the contents the layer of pulp is about 6 inches in thickness. Formerly mats made of reeds or straw were employed, but their use has been long discontinued. The mashed fruit is subjected ' stratum super stratum ' to strong pressure, till what is called a cheese or cake is formed. The mass is to be allowed to drain for some time before applying pressure, which i CIDER AND PERRY AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 711 ought to be very gradually increased. The juice which exudes with the least pressure affords the best cider. That which flows towards the end acquires a disagreeable taste from the seeds and skins. • The must is put into casks with large bung-holes, where it soon exhibits a tumul- tuous fermentation. The cask must be completely filled in order that all the light bodies suspended in the liquid when floated to the top by the carbonic acid may flow over with the froth. Flat tubs are placed under the casks to catch the overflowings. The cake left after the expression of the juice is taken out of the press, divided into small pieces, and mashed anew, about half its weight of water being added. The mass is again subjected to pressure. A much poorer cider is thus obtained, which, as it will not keep, requires to be drunk soon after being made. The cake is again mashed up with water and squeezed, when a liquor is obtained which may be used for moistening fresh-ground apples. Some three or four days usually elapse after the introduction of the must into the casks before fermentation sets in, but the exact time varies according to temperature and other circumstances. After the completion of the fermentation the liquid becomes clear and bright and exhibits its characteristic vinous colour. It is now racked off into other casks, the sediment being put into linen bags ; a further quantity is thus filtered oft' and added to t^at first obtained. Sometimes it is necessary to make use of finings, as isinglass, albumen, or blood, as in the case of beer and wine. The changes which the juice undergoes during the vinification are precisely analogous to those which wort and must undergo under similar circumstances. Alcohol and carbonic acid are formed at the expense of the sugar, while the malic acid imparts piquancy to the beverage, part of the aroma and flavour being due to the volatile apple oil, which is held in solution by the spirit. A considerable period must elapse, however, before the cider really becomes ripe and fit for sale. Usually the casks are moved into cellars in January, and in March they are bunged down, when it has become fit for sale ; but it will be gradually improved by further keeping. Sometimes the cider is stored in vats holding as much as 2,000 gallons each. The cider for bottling and effervescing cider should be bottled in September or October of the following year j some persons, however, bottle it in April or May. According to Brande, the strongest cider made contains 9*08 per cent, by volume of alcohol, and the weakest 4*79 per cent., but it is stated in ^ Watts's Dictionary ' that the largest amoimt of sugar contained in the apple is 11*0 per cent., a quantity which is incapable of yielding the high percentage of alcohol above mentioned. Muspratt says it is common to mix with the new cider about to be bottled a portion of old and sound liquor of the previous year's manu- facture, with a view to check the progress of the fermentation and the consequent bursting of the bottles. 712 . CIDER AND PERRY AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. Acetic acid is very quickly developed in cider, rendering it soiir and hard. It is said that cider or perry will not keep if it be removed in cask after it has been prepared ; and, according to Dr. E. Smith, in order to fortify it to bear a journey in cask it is common to add sugar. * This so far injures it that it may renew the acetous fermentation, but it temporarily masks the acid flavour and makes the fluid more agreeable to the palate of those not accustomed to its use.' Spirit puncheons preserve cider better than any other casks. Sometimes sulphur is burnt in the casks before the introduction of the cider. PERRY. The remarks hitherto made in reference to the composition of the apple and the manufacture of cider, apply for the most part also to the pear and the preparation of perry. The composition of the pear resembles very closely that of the ?pple, but it usually contains a larger proportion of sugar. It likewise contains traces of pectic and gallic acids and an essential oil. In con- sequence of the larger amount of sugar, perry is usually richer in alcohol than cider. It is said to contain, on an average, 10 per cent, alcohol by volume. ADULTERATION OF CIDEK. Perry and cider appear to be but little liable to adulteration. Like the other alcoholic beverages they are prone to have their strength reduced by the addition of water. In fact, this addition, as we have already seen, is sometimes made to the apple-juice itself. But in whatever stage the water be added, it must be regarded, we consider, in the light of an adulteration. Another practice is to colour cider with burnt sugar. This proceed- ing, as we have more than once insisted, is objectionable, because in some cases it impairs the delicate flavour of the article to which the bitter burnt sugar is added ; and since the colour thus produced is often unnaturally deep, and therefore offensive to the eye of a real connoisseur. Cider, as abeady pointed out, is exceedingly apt to pass into the acetous fermentation. The excess of acid is very frequently removed by the use of an alkali, as soda, chalk, and formerly even of lithargey which is oxide of lead. The use of such a substance as oxide of lead for the correction of the acidity has often given rise to injurious and in some instances to fatal results, colic and even paralysis Irequently ensuing. Dr. Muspratt, in his ^ Dictionary, ' has thus expressed himself in reference to the addition of lead to cider in order to correct any undue acidity : — ' This practice cannot be too strongly condemned. It is only very lately that the editor had to examine a beverage, which had CIDER AND PERRT AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 713 caused most serious inconvenience to a whole family, including colics, bilious obstructions, and other dangerous complaints. It was found to be contaminated with a very notable quantity of lead. Upwards of two thousand years ago it was known that lead had a most injurious effect on the animal economy. The ancients were very scrupulous as to the use of anything containing that metal ; its presence in articles of daily consumption is to be dreaded. For many, by misplaced con- fidence, have arrived at an untimely end, or at least have been affected with that disease termed the Devonshire or painters' colic, and, in numerous instances, paralysis has been the final result.' ^ The leaden beds of presses for squeezing the fruit in cider countries,' Accum writes, ' have produced in9alculable mischief. These conse- (][uences never follow when the lead is combined with tin, because this metal, being more eager for oxidation, prevents the solution of .the lead.' Sometimes the excess of acidity is masked, but of course not removed by the addition of sugar. We have not met with any state- ment respecting the fortification of cider and perry by the addition of spirit, but such a proceeding would appear to be one very likely to be adopted in some cases. Results of the Analysis of Samples. Specific Alcohol Malic Acetic Sugar. Total Mineral Gravity. by weight. Acid. Acid. SoUds. matter. 1 1012-92 4-70 0-364 0-086 3-63 5-76 0-27 2 1013-08 4-88 0-328 0-111 3-96 6-14 0-53 3 1012-84 4-76 0-329 0-118 3-75 5-38 0-22 4 1001-92 6-01 0-368 0-119 1-72 2-67 0-29 6 1011-64 4-88 0-310 0-133 3-83 5-18 0-24 6 1012-40 4-88 0-343 0-111 3-91 5-33 0-22 7 1027-68 2-08 0-367 0-177 5-82 7-63 0-37 8 1028-96 2-32 0-533 0-053 6-30 8-94 0-27 9 1007-48 4-39 0-224 0-088 2-83 3-64 0-23 10 1015-64 3-67 0-332 0040 4-38 5-65 0-23 11 999-20 i)-07 0-302 0-151 1-09 1-80 0-18 12 998-36 4-76 0-310 0-146 1-04 1-66 0-16 Samples 1 to 6, inclusive, consisted of draught or still cider manu- fae,tured by different makers, and were obtained from different public and eating houses in London ; samples 7, 8, 9 and 10 were efiervescing or champagne ciders prepared by four diflferent manufacturers ; while, laetly, samples 11 and 12 consisted of Herefordshire cider, obtained frcm a gentleman who bottled it himself for his own use. For the whole of these samples we are indebted to Messrs. Welch & Mac Gill, wine merchants, 134 Fenchurch Street, E.G. ri4 CIDEE AND PERRY AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. ANALYSIS OF CIDER. The analysis of cider and perry is almost identical with that required in the case of malt liquors ; it has already been described at length in the article on those beverages. The specific gravity must be taken, the sugar, alcohol, acidity, total solids and mineral matter estimated in accordance with the pro- cesses elsewhere in this work so frequently described. The only special examinations which would have to be made are those for the detection of alkalies, alkaline earths and lead in the ash. In the first place, the weight of the ash would, in many cases, afibrd tolerably conclusive evidence of the addition of some mineral matter, while an estimation of the alkalinity of the ash would afford further evidence in the same direction. But for the identification of the particular substance added we must search for soda, lime, and lead by the methods which have been abeady given. The details of the process for the estimation of lead will be found fully set forth in the articles on ^ Water' and ^ Vinegar,' WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 71 5 I CHAPTEK XLV. WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Any added substance or liquid not the product of the grape, including red coL)uring matters, but excepting alcohol or spirit, which must not be added so as to raise the strength of the wine beyond 13 per cent, of absolute alcohol by weight, equal to 15*8 per cent, by volume, or 28*1 per cent, of proof spirit. Any added mineral substance, including the alkaline carbonates, and sulphate of i)otash, which must not exceed eight grains per bottle of one-sixth of a gallon ; also lead. We propose to treat the subject of Wine and its adulterations princi- pally under the following heads : 1st, the manufacture of wine ; 2nd, its composition ; 3rd, its analysis ; 4th, its adulteration \ and 5th, the detection of its adulterations. The Manufacture of Wine, The ripe grapes, after being carefully picked, and sometimes freed from damaged or unripe berries, are crushed and pressed, the juice in the case of white grapes being usually freed from stalks and husks ; it is then put into casks placed in a cellar or other cool situation, where it undergoes fermentation. In the case of black grapes the husks and stalks are not removed, but are allowed to ferment together with the juice. The wine is next drawn oft the residue or murk, which is pressed, and the wine thus obtained added to that first drawn off from the barrel. With regard to the removal of the stalks there is, however, no invariable rule. Messrs. Thudichum and Dupre write : — ^Practi- cally, in the case of white wines, the stalks are never separated from the gra )es ; in some cases of light wines which incline to be viscous it is even ad^'untageous to leave the stalks in prolonged contact with the mu 'k. But this is exceptional, inasmuch as the murk of white grapes is, 8 3a rule, pressed immediately, and not left in contact vrith the must for any length of time.' With most black grapes the case is diiferent, because they have to remain in contact with the juice for a long time durng fermentation, and in some cases, if the stalks are left in, a hard wins is produced, which it will take years to soften. It is essential, if pure and natural wines are required, that the gra}>es should be thoroughly ripe. In the Sauterne district, according to l)rs. Thudichum and Dupre, Hhe best hemes of every bunch are 716 WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. cut out at intervals and carried to the press ; and an entire harvest of a vineyard consists of several, up to eleven, separate gathering's of all that has attained the highest state of ripeness.' In the finest situations of the Rheingau the grapes are not collected until the rains or frosts of the autumn necessitate the vintage. At Coudray, as at Tokay, the best wines are made from the grapes which have been longest on the vine. Although ripeness is essential to the production of the best white wines, in the case of the red wines quality is, to some extent, sacrificed to colour, and unripe fruit is chosen. ' Consequently the highest quality of the wine is abandoned in favour of a conventional dye ; and the unripe wine has to remain years in barrels and bottles before it acquires those properties which fit it for use.' — Thudichum and Dupy-i. Again, champagne grapes are not permitted to attain to the high- est maturity, because it is desired that such wines should be of as pale a colour as possible. Composition of the Grapes. Several varieties of grapes have been subjected to analysis, with the following results : — Fresenius. Ripe white Austrian grapes. Schlieper. Kleinberger grapes. Fresenius. Riesling grapes. Fresenii Johannis- berg grapes. LS. Ass- manns- haiisen grapes. Ripe. Very ripe. Yery ripe. Glucose .... Tartaric acid . . Albuminoid sub- stance .... Pectin, gum, fat, &c Ash 13-8 1-11 0-8 0-5 '0-36 10-6 0-92 0-6 0-2 0-38 12-9 84-9 1-8 0-7 0-08 2-58 13-5 0-78 1" 18-38 76-3 5-66 15-1 0-56 -3-4 19-06 74-4 6-52 19-2 0-74 |„ 22-94 17-3 0-84 Soluble portion . . Water Skins, stones, and cellulose . . . Pectose .... Ash Insoluble portion . 16-57 79-80 2-6 0-9 0*11 3-61 99-98 100-18 100-34 99-98 Composition of the Juice or Must, The juice or must resembles, of course, to a considerable extent, the grapes themselves. The principal organic substances which enter into the composition of the juice of ripe grapes are sugary albumen, gluten, gum or vegetable mucus, tannin and colouring matter, the tannin being derived mainly WINE AND ITS ADULTEEATIONS. 717 from the stalks, stones, and husks of the grapes, minute quantities of fat and icax from the husks, as well as much fat from the stones. The husks of white grapes gradually hecome brown, as we see in raisins, this change being due to the conversion of a part of the tannin into an insoluble substance, named apothema by Berzelius. The juice of grapes free from stalks, stones, and husks, contains scarcely any tannin. The principal saline and mineral substances present in grape juice are free tartaric and rtialic acids, tartrate of potash, tartrate and malate of limey sulphate of potash, chloi'ide of sodium, phosphates of lime and maynesia, manganese, iron and silicic acid. The malic acid occurs in > largest proportion in unripe grapes. Before proceeding to make wine from grapes, it is very important to [iscertain the amount of fruit sugar present in the juice or must. This object is simply effected by taking the weight or specific gravity of the must, for which purpose various contrivances have been adopted ; but the instrument in general use has been termed a glucometer. This may be so graduated that each degree shall indicate a percentage of sugar ; or it may be so arranged as to indicate by one degree of its scale a quantity of fruit sugar which after fermentation would yield a volimie per cent, of absolute alcohol, or about ^ 1,500 grammes of sugar per hectolitre of must.' Where the amoimt of sugar present is determined solely from the gravity, a deduction or allowance has to be made of from one-tenth to one-fifteenth of the total solids indicated, on account of the presence of other constituents of the juice. ' In the north and centre of France must will seldom show more thaii 15°; but in the hottest regions of the south, in parts of Spain, Italy, Cyprus, Madeira, must is produced which shows up to 24° of the French glucometer.' — Thudichum and Dupre. This higher amount is not all converted into alcohol, because fermentation ceases in a liquor containing more than 16 per cent, of alcohol by volume, equal to 28 per cent, of proof spirit. Sometimes, when the must is very sweet, and it is not desired to produce sweet wines, it is diluted with water. In other cases, when the must is very poor, sugar is added ; practices which are both to be condemned, since the resulting wine must of necessity be of an inferior quality, and deficient in the special wine-> -tj ^ ^ _^. S o 2 ll i|i > ^ 2 1"^ » . m 03 8*^ 1-° ^^ o-^ 1-^ P^^ CO ^ ^ 02 ^ , ^ ^ >» ^ _^ a "tt • c Id f-t - (B O (U 1^ o3= r4 75 P.O 2^i 1-^ 1: H < •9852 9-05 11-18 19^69 •9807 12^62 15-36 27-31 1 9-12 11-27 19-84 6 12-69 15-45 27-48 9-20 11-36 20-01 5 12-77 15-55 27-64 •9849 9^27 11-45' 20-16 4 12-85 15-64 27-80 8 9^34 11-55 20-31 3 12-92 15-73 27-97 7 9^41 11-64 20-46 2 13-00 15-82 28-13 6 9^49 11-73 20-63 1 13-08 15-91 28-29 5 9-56 11-82 20-78 13-15 16-00 28-46 4 9-63 11-91 20-93 •9799 13-23 16-10 28-62 3 9^70 12-00 21-08 8 13-31 16-20 28-79 2 9^78 12-09 21-25 7 13-39 16-30 28-95 1 9^85 12-18 21-40 6 13-46 16-40 29-11 9^92 12-27 21-55 5 13-54 16-50 29-29 •9839 9-99 1-2 -36 21-70 4 13-62 16-60 29-44 8 10-07 12-45 21-87 3 13-69 16-70 29-61 7 10-16 12-55 22-07 2 13-77 16-80 29-77 6 10-26 12-64 22-27 1 13-85 16-90 29-93 5 10-35 12-73 2247 13-92 17-00 30-10 4 10-44 12-82 22-67 -9789 1400 17-10 30-26 3 10-54 12-91 22-87 8 14-08 17-20 30-45 2 10-63 13-00 23-07 7 14-17 17-30 30-64 1 10-72 13-09 23-27 6 14-25 17-40 30-84 10-81 13-18 23-47 5 14-33 17-50 31-03 i -9829 10-91 13-27 23-67 4 14-42 17-60 31-22 ; 8 11^00 13-36 23-87 3 14-50 17-70 31-41 ! 7 11-08 13-45 24-04 2 14-58 17-80 31-60 6 11-15 13-55 24-20 1 14-66 17-90 31-79 5 11-23 13-64 24-36 14-75 18-00 31-99 4 11-31 13-73 24^52 •9779 14-83 18-10 32-18 3 11-39 13^82 24^68 8 14-91 18-20 32-38 2 11-46 13-91 24-84 7 15-00 18-30 32-56 1 11-54 14-00 25-01 6 15-08 18-40 32-73 11-62 14-10 25-17 5 15-17 18-50 32-91 •9819 11-69 14-20 25-34 4 15-25 18-60 33-08 8 11-77 14^30 25-50 3 1533 18-70 33-26 7 11-85 14-40 26-66 2 15-42 18-80 33-43 6 11-92 14-50 25-83 1 15-50 18-90 33-61 5 12-00 14-60 26-00 15-68 19 00 33-78 4 12-08 14-70 26-16 •9769 15-66 19-10 33-96 3 12-15 14-80 26-33 8 15-75 19-20 34-14 2 12-28 14-90 26-49 7 15-83 19-30 34-32 1 12-ai 15-00 26-66 6 15-91 19-40 34-50 12-39 15-09 26-82 5 16-00 19-50 34-66 •9809 12-46 15-18 26-98 4 16^08 19-60 34-82 8 12-54 15-27 27-15 3 16-17 19-70 34-97 3 B 738 WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Alcohol Tables. 4i < .la- ill < II +SOQ < •9762 16-25 19-80 35-14 •9717 19-91 24-20 42-73 1 16-33 19-90 35^30 6 20-00 24-30 42-90 16-42 20-00 35^46 5 20-08 24-40 43-07 •9759 16-50 20-10 35^62 4 20-17 24-50 43-25 8 16-58 20-20 35^77 3 20-25 24-60 43-42 7 16-66 20-30 35-95 2 20^33 24-70 43-60 6 16-75 20-40 36-11 1 20-42 24-80 43-77 5 16-83 20-50 36-27 20-50 24-90 43-94 4 16-91 20-60 36-43 •9709 20-58 25-00 44-12 3 17-00 20-70 36-61 8 20-66 25-09 44-29 2 17-08 20-80 36-78 7 20-75 25-18 44-46 1 17-17 20-90 36-96 6 20-83 25-27 44-63 17-25 21^00 37-13 5 20-91 25-36 44-81 •9749 17-33 2M0 37-31 4 21-00 25-45 44-99 8 17-42 21-20 37-48 3. 21-08 25-54 45-15 7 17-50 21-30 37-66 2 21-15 25-64 45-31 6 17-58 21-40 37-83 1 21-23 25-73 45-47 5 17-66 21-50 38-01 •21-31 25-82 45-63 4 17-75 21-60 38-18 •9699 21-38 25-91 45-79 3 17-83 21-70 38-86 8 21-46 26-00 45-95 2 1791 21-80 38-53 7 21-54 26-10 46-11 1 18-00 21-90 38.71 6 21-62 26-20 46-27 18-08 22-00 38-87 5 21-69 26-30 46-43 '9739 18-15 22-09 39-03 4 21-77 26^40 46-59 8 18-23 22-18 39-19 3 21-85 26-50 46-76 7 18-31 22-27 89-35 2 21-91 26-60 46-92 6 18-38 22-36 39-51 1 22-00 26-70 47-07 5 18-46 22-45 39-67 22-08 26-80 47-23 4 18-54 22-54 39-83 •9689 22-15 26-90 47-39 3 18-62 22-64 40-00 8 22-23 27-00 47-55 2 18-69 22-73 40-16 7 22-31 27-09 47-71 1 18-77 22-82 40-32 6 23-38 27-18 47-87 18-85 22-91 40-48 5 22-46 27-27 48-03 •9729 18-92 23-00 40-64 4 22-54 27-36 48-19 8 19-00 23-10 40-81 3 22-62 27-45 48-35 7 19-08 23-20 40-98 2 22-69 27-55 48-51 6 19-17 23-30 41-16 1 22-77 27-64 48-67 o 1.9-25 23-40 41-33 22-85 27-73 48-83 4 19-33 23*50 41-51 •9679 22-91 27-82 48-99 3 19-42 23*60 41-68 8 23-00 27-91 49-15 2 19-50 23*70 41-85 7 23-08 28-00 49-31 1 19-58 23*80 42-03 Q 23-15 28-09 49-47 19-66 23*90 42-20 6 23-23 28-18 49-63 •9719 19-75 24 00 42-38 4 23-31 28-27 49-78 8 19-83 24-10 42-55 3 23-38 28-36 49-94 WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 739 Alcohol Tables. >J ^ 4^ >j 4J • 43 C3 ti •w *y • 11 III IS sq^ ^1^ 02 ^ ai ^ < .9672 23-46 28-45 50-10 24-38 29-55 52-01 1 23-54 28-55 60-25 -9659 24-46 29-64 52-16 23-62 28-64 60-41 8 24-54 29-73 62-32 •9669 23-69 28-73 50-57 7 24-62 29-82 62-48 8 23-77 28-82 50-73 6 24-69 29-91 62-64 7 28-85 28-91 50-89 5 24-77 30-00 62-80 6 23-91 29-00 51-05 4 24-85 30-08 62-96 6 24-00 29-09 51-21 3 24-91 30-17 53-12 4 24-08 29-18 51-37 2 26-00 30-25 53-28 3 24-15 29-27 51-53 Proof Spirit, 2 24-23 29-36 51-69 •91984 49-24 67-06 100 1 24-31 29-45 51-85 Determinatton of Glycet-in, Tlie following is the method of M. Pasteur for the determination of the glycerin of wine resulting from the transformation of a portion of the sugar consequent on fermentation : — To half a litre of wine 40 grammes of animal charcoal are added ; the mixtm-e is to be frequently shaken, and after twenty-four hom-s the charcoal is separated by filtration. It is now to be well washed with cold water, and the filtrate is to be evaporated on a water-bath to 200 cc. It is then neutralised with milk of lime evaporated to dry- ness, and the residue treated with a mixture of two parts of ether and one of alcohol. This solution, which may contain fruit sugar, is evapo- rated in a water-bath, and lastly dried in vacuo over sulphuric acid, and finally weighed. Estimation of Alcohol, Numerous as the proposed methods for estimating alcohol are, there are but very few which give exact and easily obtainable results. The most important and generally employed method is based upon the fact that the specific gravity of a mixture of alcohol and water has a very close relation to the quantity of alcohol contained in it. Alcohol is lighter than water, the specific gravity of absolute alcohol being 0*792 ; fi.nd the specific gravity of a dilute alcohol lies between that number f nd 1-000, the specific gravity of the water. With very great care, tables have been constructed for estimating the specific gra^-ities of ifiixtures of alcohol and water ; so that, the gravity of an alcoholic liquid being given, the percentage of absolute alcohol contained in it can directly be seen from those tables. 3b2 740 WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. The preceding tables are taken from Thudichum and Dupr^'s work before referred to. The alcoholic liquid, the specific gravity of which is to be esti- mated, must of course be freed from the solid matters found iu the wine, which is easily effected by simple distillation. Measure a certain quantity of wine, conveniently 100 cc, render it slightly alkaline by addition of caustic soda solution, in order to fix the volatile acids, add about one decigramme of pure tannin and 25 cc. of water, and boil the mixture till the distillate amounts to about 100 cc, or fill eventually up with water to the volume of the wine employed. All alcohol is now in the distillate, mixed with water, and only very small quantities of the different ethers, which give to the wine its flavour. It is not advisable to distil less than three-fourths of the volume of the wine, since the last traces of alcohol volatilise only with difficulty. Some authors distil no more than about one-half, or even less, which is de- cidedly too little. Having now obtained the alcoholic liquid, its specific gravity is to be estimated, which may be done iu various ways, but most accurately by the use of the ' specific gravity bottle.' This is a little glass flask, holding about 20 to 40 cc, provided with a perfo- rated glass stopper, or a small thermometer as stopper. The bottle must be first weighed, then filled with pure distilled water of 15*6° 0. The difference between the two weights is of course the weight of the water contained in the bottle. The bottle is then rinsed out with the alcoholic liquid, the specific gravity of which is to be taken at a temperature of 15*5° C, and the weight determined. The weight of the alcohol, divided by that of the water, gives the specific gravity of the liquid at 15*5° 0. The same process holds good for the deter- mination of the specific gravity of all other liquids. A glance at the table given above shows the percentage of alcohol contained in the wine. It is most convenient to express the amount of alcohol in parts by weight in volimies of wine. There are three cases which may occur : — (I.) The wine employed, and the distillate obtained, have been measured. 1. Required percentage of alcohol by weight in weight of wine. — Multiply percentage by weight given in the tables by the specific gravity of the distillate, and divide by the specific gravity of the wine. 2. Required percentage of alcohol by weight in volume of wine. — Multiply percentage by weight of distillate by the specific gravity of distillate. (II.) The wine and the distillate have both been weighed. 1. Required percentage of alcohol by volume in volume of wine. — Multiply percentage by volume of distillate by the specific gravity of the wine, and divide by the specific gravity of the distillate. 2. Required percentage of alcohol, by weight in volume of wine. — Multiply percentage by weight of distillate, by the specific gravity of the wine. WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 741 3. Required percentage of alcohol by weiglit in weight of wine. — • These numbers are given in the tables. (III.) The toine has been measured , the distillate weighed. — The percentage of alcohol is directly given by the alcohol tables. Of other methods for the estimation of alcohol in wine we mention the foUovdng ; but for a more elaborate description of them we must refer the reader to works specially treating of the subject. Estimation founded upon the boiling-points of mixtures of alcohol and water. Estimation founded upon the expansion of alcoholic liquids ; and lastly, estimation founded upon the tension of the vapour of the liquid. Several ingenious apparatus have been constructed upon the above- mentioned principles. These methods require the greatest possible care, and are very liable to error. With heavy wines the best process is that by dis- tillation, and next. Balling's plan, which can be completed in the least time. Estimation of Alcohol by conversion into Acetic Acid, This method is only applicable to alcoholic liquids containing minute quantities of alcohol, where its determination with accuracy by the specific gravity test would be impossible. The alcohol is converted into acetic acid by heating it in a strong closed flask, with a mixture of a solution of bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid. The acetic acid formed by the oxidation of the alcohol is distilled over and esti- mated by means of standard soda solution in the usual way. Of course care must be taken to add sufficient bichromate to oxidise all alcohol present. One equivalent of alcohol, CjHgO, corresponds to one equivalent of acetic acid, Ofiflr^, or 46 parts alcohol are equal to 60 parts of acetic acid. Detetmiination of Alcohol by Specific Gravity of dealcoholised Wine. If a measured quantity of v^ne be boiled down to about one-fourth of its bulk, and then filled up again with distilled water to the volume employed, the specific gravity of the liquid must of necessity be higher than the specific gravity of the original vdne, since all alcohol has been driven away, and only the non- volatile constituents have been left. All these latter have a higher specific gravity than water ; the specific gravity of their solution must, therefore, also be higher than the specific gravity of water. It has been proved by Bailing and others, that the specific gravity of the dealcoholised wine gives pretty accurately the amount of total solids, if we consider the liquid to be a solution of pure cane sugar only, and the difference of the specific gravities will give us the amount of alcohol driven off" by boiling. The amount of volatile ethers, aldehydes, &c., is so small as not to interfere practically with the accuracy of the determination. 742 WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. The principle involved is, that the specific gravity of a dilute alcohol multiplied by the specific gTavity of a solution of cane sugar gives the specific gravity of the mixed fluids ; and the specific gravity of the mixture divided by the specific gravity of the dealcoholised liquid restored to its original bulk, gives the specific gravity of the dilute alcohol, and hence the percentage of the alcohol driven off; or ex- pressed in formula — Sax Ss = Sm, and Sra Sa= , Sa being the specific gravity of the diluted alcohol, Ss that of the sugar solution, and 8m that of the mixture. The estimation of the alcohol in a wine is conducted as follows : — Take a measured quantity — say 100 cc, boil it down to about one- fourth, and add sufficient water to the dealcoholised liquid to make it up to its original bulk. Take its specific gravity at 15-5° 0. Divide the specific gravity of the entire wine by the specific gravity of the same dealcoholised. The product is the specific gravity of the alcohol. It is evident that a certain amount of error must be committed by the adoption of this method, inasmuch as we calculate a varying mix- ture of many different organic and inorganic substances, as if it were cane sugar only, notwithstanding that this substance is not present at all in wine. This method has been recommended by Balling and Mulder, and requires less time and experience than any other. Subse- quent researches by Dr. Kraft (^ Zeitschrift fiir anal. Ohemie' — R. Fresenius), however, have shown that the time is gained at the expense of the accuracy of the determination. Estimation of Total Free Acids. The principal free acids in wine are tartaric, malic, and acetic acids. We shall speak afterwards of the estimation of tartaric and malic acids ; at present we have only to describe the estimation of the total acidity. This is most easily accomplished by means of a standard soda solution, of such strength that 1,000 cc. of it neutralise half an equivalent of a bibasic, and a whole equivalent of a monobasic acid. Such a solution would neutralise 60 grammes of acetic acid, and 75 of tartaric acid. Measure 100 cc. of wine into a beaker, and add from a graduated burette the soda solution imtil the reaction of the wine is perfectly neutral, that is, when neither blue litmus nor turmeric paper is changed. The number of cc. of soda solution used, multiplied by 0'075, gives the total free acid calculated as tartaric acid in per- centages. This estimation is most conveniently combined with the determination of the alcohol, just described, since also in this estima- tion the wine must be rendered neutral, or even alkaline. WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 743 Estimation of Volatile Acids. Of volatile acids, only acetic acid is present in estimable quantity. Formic and propionic acids are contained in wine, but not in such quantities as could be estimated by operating upon a small quantity of wine. The estimation of acetic acid is an indirect one. 100 cc. of the wine are boiled down in a beaker to about one-fourth, and the remaining acid estimated as just described above. The difference of acidity before and after boiling is due to acetic acid, volatilised by the heat employed, while the amount of soda solution used after boiling is calculated into tartaric acid as described above ; 1,000 cc. of soda solution are equal to 60 grammes of acetic acid. It is commonly recommended to distil the wine from a retort, and to estimate the acetic acid in the distillate. The objection to this method is that acetic acid would partly be volatilised as acetic ether, a neutral substance, and the result would thus become too low. We prefer, therefore, to avoid this objection and to dispense with distillation. Estimation of Bitartrate of Potash. Bitartrate of potash is only with difficulty soluble in water, and nearly insoluble in absolute alcohol, and still more so in a mixture of alcohol and ether. Upon this fact the methods for estimating bitartrate of potash in wine are based. Berthelot's method is commonly em- ployed. Mix 20 cc. of wine with 100 cc. of a mixture of alcohol and ether, and let the liquid stand in a stoppered flask for two or three days. During this time nearly all the cream of tartar will have crystallised out, and may be collected upon a weighed filter, dried and weighed. Estimation of Total Tartaric Acid. Neutralise in 200 cc. of wine about one-fifth of the total acid with caustic potash, add 100 cc. of a mixture of alcohol and ether, and allow to crystallise for 48 hours ; all tartaric acid will have separated in the form of bitartrate of potash. The difi'erence between this estimation and that of the bitartrate of potash, existing naturally in the wine, gives the amount of free tartaric acid, as acid tartrate of potash. The total amount of acid is either ascertained from the weighed quantity of bitartrate obtained ; or the potash salt may be dissolved upon the filter with boiling water, after having been washed vdth the mixture of alcohol and ether. The acidity of the solution is to be determined by the standard soda solution. This gives the amount of the half-combined tartaric acid, and this again doubled furnishes the total tartaric acid. A correction should be made for the solubility of the bitartrate of potash in the solution employed, namely, 0'02 per cent, of bitartrate in the wine. The above method gives results in most cases of sufficient accuracy for practical purposes, except where the amount of tartaric acid falls below 0*05 per cent. In this case neither the acidity of the precipitate, nor of the alcoholic 744 WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. mixture, nor of the wine itself, can be estimated within less than 0*1 cc. of standard soda solution. Another important source of error in the case of sherries and other plastered wines, is the presence of sulphate and chloride of potash in the wine, both of which are decomposed by tartaric acid on the addition of alcohol-ether ; the tartaric acid combines with the potash, the sulphuric acid being set free. A higher amount of bitartrate of potash than is naturally present in the wine is obtained in such cases. Estimation of Malic Acid. A measured quantity of the wine (from 50 to 100 cc.) is rendered alkaline by means of lime-water, which precipitates the phosphoric and tartaric acids as lime salts. The liquid is to be filtered, and to the concentrated filtrate strong alcohol added, whereby the malic acid is precipitated as malate of lime, together with some sulphate of lime. The precipitate is collected upon a weighed filter, dried at 120^0. and weighed. The sulphuric acid may now be estimated in it by dissolving in strong hydrochloric acid, and precipitating with chloride of barium, as has been more than once described. But it will be more convenient and quicker, to incinerate the precipitate without weighing, and to estimate the amount of carbonate of lime formed from the malate of lime by the standard acid mentioned under ' Ash of Wine.' One part of carbonate of lime is equal to 1 -72 parts of malate of lime, O^H^CaO^, or 1*34 parts of malic acid, O^HgO^. Determination of Tannic Acid. The presence of tannic acid, and some idea of the quantity con- tained in any wine, may be formed by the black or inky colour pro- duced on the addition of a persalt of iron and acetate of potash ; the use of the latter reagent, whereby tartrate of potash and acetic acid are formed, is rendered necessary because the black colour is not readily yielded in the presence of free tartaric or malic acids, but a little free acetic acid does not interfere with the reaction. Wines containing as little as 0*005 per cent, of tannic acid furnish a very marked result, and it would be quite easy to frame a quantitative iron colour test which would furnish results of considerable accuracy. Another colour test, nearly equal in delicacy to the preceding, is furnished by a strongly ammoniacal solution of ferricyanide of potas- sium. If a few drops of such a solution be added to a solution of tannic acid, or to a wine containing that acid, a deep blood-red coloration takes place, the depth of which is proportionate to the amount of tannin present. The red coloration is also produced by this test, which is more applicable to white than red wines, in solutions of gallic acid, which, however, does not usually occur in wine. Another process is the well-known gelatin process. A standard solution of gelatin, or gelatin and alum, is prepared ; the amount of tannin being deduced from the quantity of the solution used, or, when ^ WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 745 gelatin alone is employed, from the weight of the dried precipitate. It is unfortunate, however, that a less quantity of gelatin than 0*06 per cent, is not determinable in this manner. There are few white wines with which solution of gelatin does not give rise to a slight cloudiness, but in red wines an abundant precipitate is produced, con- sisting in part of colouring matter. One of the great difficulties of using the gelatin test volumetrically is to determine the point of saturation ; in this particular either the iron or ferricyanide of potassium may be applied, so as to affi)rd help. Another difficulty consists in the impossibility of separating from the wine the compound of tannin and gelatin formed ; this may be in part overcome by the use of special dltering arrangements, as by the apparatus suggested by Mr. Estcourt (see ^ Chemical News,' No. 745). One hundred parts of gelatin give, with gallotannic acid, 134 to 135-6 of the compound. Faure found the following quantities of tannin in certain wines by means of a standard gelatin solution : — Gelatin Solution required by 100 Parts of Wine. 1 cc. = 0-010 gramme of tannin. Castillon 6-0 cc. Fronsac 4-8 cc. Sautenie 4-0 cc. Barsac . 4*5 cc. Carbonnieux 6-0 cc. Chateau Lafitte . 10-1 cc. „ Margaux 9-3 cc. Latour . 13-3 cc Giscours 12-3 cc. St. Est^phe . 7-0 cc. In a solution of gelatin and water, as little as 0*04 hundredths per cent, may be determined quantitatively : but in wine, as we have stated, not less than 0*06. This arises from the fact that the gelatin preci- pitate is, to some extent, soluble in the wine. Detection of Racemic Acid, Racemic or paratartaric acid is obtained usually from crude tartar. The mother-liquor is treated vdth chalk, the insoluble tartrate and rticemate of lime are thrown down and separated. These are next treated with sulphuric acid, whereby the tartaric and racemic acids are liberated ; the latter, when exposed to the air, crystallises, the crystals of the former being distinguished by their transparency, and those of the latter by their efflorescence. Racemic acid is less soluble in water and alcohol than tartaric acid ; one part of acid requires 5*7 parts of water at 15° 0. and 4*8 of alcohol. It gives a precipitate with sulphate of lime, which tartaric acid does not; then, again, tartrate of lime is soluble in acetic acid, but the racemate of the same base is insoluble. It crystallises in double ol)lique rhombic prisms without hemihedric faces. Racemic acid has no action on polarised light. ^46 WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Detection of Succinic Acid. Half a litre of wine is shaken up with 40 grammes of animal charcoal, and after decolorisation the charcoal is to be well washed with cold water. The filtrate and washings are to be evaporated on a water-bath, nearly to dr3mess, the drying being finished, under the air-pump. The residue is then to be treated repeatedly with one part of alcohol of from 90 to 92 per cent, strength, and two and a half parts of ether. The solution is evaporated, the residue exactly neutralised with lime-water, and again evaporated to dryness on a water-bath ; the glycerin is then extracted with a mixture of ether and alcohol. The residuum is chiefly succinate of calcium, which may be obtained in nearly a pure state by extraction with alcohol containing 89 per cent, of spirit. Succinic acid is soluble in 5 parts of water at 16° 0. and in 2*2 of boiling water : it is rather less soluble in alcohol, slightly soluble in ether ; sublimates at 140°, melts at 180°, and boils at 235° 0. ; it may be heated with nitric, hydrochloric, and sulphuric acids, and aqueous solution of chromic acid without decomposition. The salts of the alkalies are soluble, those of the alkaline earths are insoluble, or with difficulty soluble in water. A solution of a neutral succinate of an alkali gives with a neutral solution of a ferric salt a gelatinous red- brown precipitate of basic succinate of iron. It crystallises in rhombic or six-sided plates or prisms. Detection of Formic Acid. Distil the wine ; neutralise the distillate with ammonia, evaporate to dryness, dissolve the residue in water, add a drop of nitrate of silver, and boil. If formic acid be present, a thickish brown precipitate of metallic silver will be produced. Should the quantity of formic acid present be very small, the greater part of the acetic acid must be removed by fractional distillation. Estimation of Ethers in Wine. Wine contains two classes of ethers — volatile and fixed. The ethers are organic salts, and are decomposed by solution of caustic potash into alcohol and a salt of potash, acetate, propionate, or tartrate, as the case may be. The volatile ethers are first separated from the fixed by distillation. 250 cc. are to be taken and about 200 cc. distilled over. The free acid in the distillate is then exactly neutralised by means of soda solution and a measured quantity of standard soda solution added to the liquid, which is introduced into a flask, and is then closed with a well-fitting cork and heated for one or two hours. The ethers are decomposed, and some of the caustic soda neutralised by the acids of the ethers* WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 747 The remaining caustic soda is estimated by means of standard sulphuric acid solution, and the amount of soda which was first neutralised is calculated for acetic ether, which is the chief of the volatile ethers. The Jia:ed ethers are estimated by a similar process, but the presence of the organic nitrogenous matters makes the estimation more difficult, since the action of the caustic soda upon these substances produces large quantities of free ammonia. 500 cc. of the wine are evaporated to a small bulk, rendered alkaline with soda solution, heated in a stoppered flask, and finally distilled. The distillate contains much free ammonia and a small quantity of alcohol formed from the organic ethers. Sulphuric acid is added to the distillate to neutralise the ammonia, and the liquid distilled again. Pure dilute alcohol passes over, the strength of which is to be estimated as described under ^ Alcohol.' Of course only an extremely diluted alcohol is obtained, since the amount of fixed ethers is very small. The amount of alcohol obtained is calculated for tartaric ether, the chief constituent of the fixed ethers. Thudichum and Dupre convert the alcohol obtained into acetic acid by oxidising agents, and estimate the acetic acid, which can be done alkalimetrically with much greater acciu-acy than the estimation of the alcohol contained in an extremely diluted spirit. Berthelot''s formula. — According to Berth elot, the quantity of ethers found in any matured wine stands always in a certain fixed relation to the amounts of alcohol and acid present, and he gives the following formula for the estimation of the ethers. The alcohol and the acidity are to be first determined, the latter being calculated as acetic acid. A, the amount by weight of alcohol foand ; B, the proportion of alcohol per thousand, which corresponds to the total free acid found, 46 parts of alcohol representing 60 parts of acetic acid. By multiplying A. by 1*17 and adding 2*8, we obtain a figure representing the proportion per cent, of the alcohol deduced from the acid found, which is present in the wine as ether and which we will call 0. Then B, multiplied by and divided by 100, gives the quantity of alcohol present as ethers in 1,000 parts of wine. Suppose a sherry to contain 18 per cent, of alcohol by weight and 0*4 per cent, of acid calculated as acetic acid, then C=18xM7+2-8=23-86 0*4 per cent, of acetic acid corresponds to 2*9 per thousand of alcohol, and 23-86 X 2-9 and divided by 100 = 00*69 per thousand parts of wine. The Determination of the Alhu7ninous Matter. If to weU-fermented white wines a little chlorine water be added, the wine will remain clear ; if this addition be made to new white wines and most red wines, a flocculent precipitate wiU appear, con- sisting of a compound of chlorine and albumen, and which may be colJected on a filter, dried, and weighed. 748 WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. In those wines, however, in which no precipitate appears on the addition of chlorine water, it is not to be inferred that albumen is absent, for in such cases a certain amount of that substance ^dll be detected, either by combustion or by the process of Wanklyn and Chapman, devised for the determination of the albuminoid ammonia present in potable water. This process has been described in detail in the article on * Water,' but we will here give a very brief outline of it as applied to wine. Ten cubic centimetres of wine and 2 grammes of carbonate of soda are added to about 1,000 cc. of pure distilled water, entirely free, as previously ascertained, from ammonia ; about one-third of the mixture is distilled off, and the ammonia estimated in the distillate by Nessler's test. This proceeding gives the free ammonia in the wine. To the remaining contents of the flask are now added 2 grammes of pure permanganate of potassium, and 10 grammes of hydrate of potash previously dissolved in boiled water, to make sure of the absence of any free ammonia. Distillation is then recommenced. This treatment occasions the decomposition of the albumen and the formation of am- monia. About one-half or two-thirds of the mixture are distilled over, and the ammonia estimated either by Nessler's test or by titration with a standard solution of sulphuric acid. The amount of ammonia multi- plied by 10, Wanklyn and Chapman's formula, gives the quantity of albuminoid substance in 10 cc. of wine, or multiplied by 100, the percentage of albuminous matter in the wine. The amount of nitrogen met with by Mulder, in certain wines, was as follows : — Name. Nitrogen. Benicarlo 0*020 per cent. Roussillon 0-029 „ St. George 0-020 „ Narbonne 0*021 „ White Cotes 0-023 Old Burgundy Pommard . . . 0-040 „ The above quantities of nitrogen are made up of the nitrogen of the ammonia of the wine, of that of the ferment, and lastly of the albumen proper. That from the ammonia may, as we have seen, be separately estimated, and its amount deducted. Thudichum and Dupre found the following quantities of albu- minous matter in the wines specified below, as estimated by Wanklyn and Chapman's process : — Ingelheimer (red) .... 0-373 per cent. Port, 1851 0-0888 Sherry, thirtv vears in bottle . . 0*1807 Madeira ." * 0*1581 Niersteiner 0*355 Natural port 0*0527 Port, 1865 0-1760 WINE AND ITS ADULTEKATIONS. 749 Lastly, in twenty-five wines, chiefly sherries recently analyzed by the author, he found by the combustion process the following quantities of nitrogen :- '^ Per cent. Per cent. Old brown sherry . . . 0-030 Public-house sherry . 0-029 Santiago . 0-024 >» » . 0-027 Finest Montilla . 0-025 j» >> . 0-020 Amontillado . . 0-020 » » . 0-028 Manzanilla . 0-028 Hambro' sherries . 0018 Marsala . . 0-039 » )> . 0-022 Madeira . . 0-022 ?» » . 0-010 j)i . 0-018 » » . 0-017 Cadiz sherry . 0-025 » >> . 0-017 Sherry . . 0-022 >» » . 0-015 )» • . 0-023 » » . 0-014 . 0027 J? » . 0-016 Restaurant sh erry . 0-017 We have dwelt thus fully on the presence and determination of al- buminous matter in wine, because of the practical importance attached to the enquiry, as the amount present sometimes enables us to declare, as in the case of Hambro' sherry, whether a wine is adulterated or not. Again, excess of albumen in wine frequently causes it to spoil, helps the conversion of alcohol into acetic acid, and conduces to the generation of the fungus which forms mould in wine. Determination of Ammonia, A given quantity of the wine, say 100 cc, is taken, and twice the quantity of water added ; one-third of this is distilled ofi^, the residue in the retort is made slightly alkaline with carbonate of soda -, and another third is distilled off into a second receiver. The object of the first distillation is the removal of the greater part of the alcohol and volatile acid. The ammonia is estimated in the second distillate either by titration with sulphuric acid or by Nessler's process. It is necessary to be watchful to ascertain that the wine does not become acid during tht; distillation. Determination of the Colouring Matter of Red Wine. Mulder's process for isolating the colouring matter of red wine is as follows : — Acetate of lead is added to the wine so long as any precipitate is thrown down ; this is collected on a filter and washed until the water cea ses to be acid : the filtrate is of a pale violet colour, but becomes colourless as soon as the acid reaction disappears. The precipitate, suspended in water, is now subjected to the action of sulphu- retted hydrogen ; this removes all but a trace of the lead ; it is again collected and washed, the filtrate being of a red colour so long as it retains its acid reaction. The bluish-black mass thus obtained, a mixture of sulphide of lead 750 WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. and colouring matter, is now boiled with water to remove extractive matters — tartaric acid, sugar, gum, &c., and is then exhausted vrith a mixture of alcohol and acetic acid, the tincture being of a beautiful red colour ; this tincture is then evaporated ; it is at first red, but as evaporation proceeds, violet, and lastly, when but little acetic acid re- mains, of a singularly beautiful blue. The liquid is now evaporated to dryness, the fat extracted with ether, and the last trace of lead with acetic acid ; what then remains consists of the colouring matter in a perfectly pure state. Estimation of the Mineral Matter, Evaporate in a platinum dish a measured quantity of wine — 50 cc. are commonly sufficient. The residue is then to be incinemted and the ash weighed. The incineration is often a very slow and tedious process, since the organic matters burn only with very great difficulty, and the temperature must not be too high, in order to avoid loss by the volatilisation of the salts of potash. The salts of tartaric and malic acids are converted by the incineration into carbonates, which give a very good measure of the quantity of those salts. A standard sulphuric acid solution, which contains in 1,000 cc. one-half equiva- lent of anhydrous sulphuric acid (40 grms.), is now dropped upon the moistened ash, till the reaction is exactly neutral. The results are most conveniently calculated for caustic potash or tartrate of potash, notwithstanding that a good quantity of carbonate of lime is present in the ash, but this is derived from tartrate or malate of lime. If necessary, the soluble carbonates may be separated from the lime and magnesia salts by means of boiling water, and both separately esti- • mated. Estimation of Phosphoiic Acid. The phosphoric acid may either be directly precipitated from the wine by the method we are just going to describe, or better, the wine is first evaporated, incinerated, and the ash boiled with nitric acid to dissolve the phosphates. In either case, the bulk of the liquid should be as small as possible, not amounting to more than 20 cc. ; 100 to 200 cc. of wine should be employed. Add to the evaporated wine, or to the solution of the ash, a solution of molybdate of ammonia in nitric acid in excess, and keep the mixture for some hours at a temperature not exceeding 50° 0. All phosphoric acid is precipitated as yellow crystalline phospho-molybdate of ammonia, mixed with variable quanti- ties of molybdanic acid. The precipitate cannot therefore be directly weighed. It is washed with some molybdate of ammonia, dissolved in dilute ammonia ; and the alkaline solution, which contains now all the phosphoric acid present in the wine, precipitated with a solution of chloride of magnesium. The precipitate consists of phosphate of ammo- nia and magnesia. It is filtered after some hours' standing in the cold, WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 751 washed with dikite ammonia, incinerated and weighed. One hundred parts of it contain 63-96 parts of phosphoric acid. For fui-ther details of the method, which requires great care, a work on analytical chemis- try, as Fresenius's ^ Quantitative Analysis,' may be consulted. Estimation of Sulphuric Acid, From 50 to 100 cc. of wine are rendered acid hy pure hydrochloric acid, heated to boiling, and chloride of barium added to the boiling liquid. Immediately a white precipitate of sulphate of barium is formed, which settles very easily after some minutes' boiling. If the chloride of barium be added to the cold liquid, the sulphate of barium ftills down as a very fine powder, which always passes through the pores of the filter-paper. It is separated by filtration, well washed with hot water, incinerated, and weighed ; 100 parts of it contain 34'335 parts of anhydrous sulphuric acid (SO3), or 42*49 parts of HgSO^. Estimation of Chlorine, Take 100 cc. of the wine, render them acid with pure nitric acid, and add nitrate of silver solution. Chloride of silver is precipitated, especially after agitation of the liquid. It is to be separated by filtration, dried, incinerated, and weighed in a porcelain crucible. The piecipitate should be separated fi'om the filter-paper as cleanly as possible, since the organic matter of the paper reduces the chloride to metallic silver ; 100 parts of the precipitate contain 24*724 parts of chlorine. Determination of the Total Solids. It might be supposed that the determination of the total solid mat- ters contained in a wine was a very simple and easy operation, and one wiiich might be made to yield accurate results. It will be seen that any such conclusion would be erroneous. Two methods are usually employed — one, which may be termed the direct method, consists in the evaporation of a given quantity of wine, say 10 cc, on a water-bath, drying it till it ceases to lose weight, and weighing. Now, the fault of this method is that, however care- fully the evaporation may be conducted, the sugar, dextrin, and cer- tain of the extractive matters become more or less changed, chemically ani physically, from the heat to which they are subjected. Still, this process, though not exact, furnishes valuable com- pai-ative results. Messrs. Thudichum and Dupre state that by this method they have found in a number of analyses of wine rich in sugar more sugar than the total amount of solids found ; but this is in part explained by the fact that they dried the residue at a temperature of 110° 0. The second, or indirect method, is one which is also very easily 752 WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. performed, and whicli, on the whole, yields results of a more satisfac- tory character than the first process. A given quantity of the wine is first freed by evaporation, or, better still, by distillation, from its alcohol ; the remaining liquid containing the solids is now made up with water to its original bulk, and its specific gravity taken. The gravity thus found will correspond with the amount of solids specified in the following table of Balling : — Sugar Table {Temperature, I7*b^ C.) Specific Per- Specific Per- centage.! Specific Per- Specific Per- gravity. centage. gravity. gravity. centage. gravity. centage. 1-0040 1-004 1-0080 2-016 1^0120 3-036 1-0160 4-064 1 -029 1 •041 1 •062 1 •090 2 •054 2 •067 2 •087 2 •116 3 •080 3 -092 3 •113 3 •141 4 •105 4 •118 4 •138 4 •167 6 •130 6 •143 5 •164 5 •193 6 •155 6 •168 6 •190 6 •219 7 •180 7 •194 7 •215 7 •245 8 •206 8 •219 8 •241 8 •270 9 •231 9 •245 9 •266 9 •296 1-0060 1^256' 1-0090 2^270 1-0130 3^292 1^0170 4-322 1 •281 1 •295 1 •318 1 •347 2 •307 2 •321 2 •343 2 •374 3 •332 3 •346 3 •369 3 •400 4 •358 4 •372 4 •395 4 •426 6 •383 6 -397 5 •420 5 •451 6 •408 6 -423 6 •446 6 •477 7 •434 7 •448 7 •472 7 -603 8 •459 8 -474 8 •498 8 -529 9 •485 9 -499 9 •523 9 -555 1-0060 1-509 1-0100 2-525 1-0140 3^549 1-0180 4-581 1 •534 1 •550 1 •575 1 •607 2 •560 2 •576 2 •600 2 -633 3 •585 3 •601 3 •626 3 -659 4 •610 4 •627 4 •652 4 •685 6 •635 6 •652 5 •677 5 •710 6 -661 6 •678 6 •703 6 •736 7 -686 7 •703 7 •729 7 •762 8 •711 8 •729 8 •755 8 •788 9 -737 9 •754 9 •780 9 •814 1-0070 1-762 1-0110 2-780 1-0150 3^806 1-0190 4-840 1 -787 1 -805 1 •832 1 -866 2 •813 2 •831 2 •858 2 •892 3 •838 3 •856 3 •883 3 •918 4 •864 4 •882 4 •909 4 -944 6 •889 6 •908 5 •935 5 -970 6 •914 6 •934 6 •961 6 •996 7 •940 7 •959 7 987 7 6^022 8 •965 8 •985 8 4^012 8 -048 9 •991 9 3^010 9 •038 9 5-074 WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Sugar Table {Temperature^ 17*5® C.) 753 Specific Per- Specific Per- Specific Per- Specific Per- Gravity. centage. Gravity. centage. Gravity. centage. Gravity. centage. 1-0200 5-100 1-0213 •438 1^0226 •778 1^0239 -118 1 •126 4 •464 7 •804 1-0240 6-144 2 •162 5 •490 8 •830 1 •170 3 -178 6 •517 9 •856 2 •196 4 •204 7 •543 1^0230 5^882 3 •223 5 •230 8 •569 1 -908 4 •249 6 •256 9 •595 2 -934 5 -275 7 •282 1-0220 6-621 3 •961 6 -301 8 •308 1 •647 4 •987 7 -327 9 •334 2 •673 5 6-013 8 -354 1-0210 6^360 3 •699 6 •039 9 •380 1 •386 4 •726 1 -065 1-0250 6-406 2 •412 5 •751 8 •092 This table is "based upon the gravity of beer worts, but it is found to answer well for wine, an allowance or deduction being made for the greater weight of the ash in the latter ; in fact, the whole of the ash bund should be deducted, since the amount of the extract, minus the ;ish, is required. In weak thin wines, containing but little ash, the deduction is not usually of much importance, but as, in some wines, the ash amounts to as much as half a per cent., the error would be considerable if the deduction were not made. The following total residues, minus ash, obtained by the two methods, are from Thudichum and Dupre's treatise : — 1st method. 2nd method. Sugar per cent. Marsala .... 4-132 . 5-780 . 4*70 Port 4-632 . 6-909 . 5-26 Lachryma Christi . . . 24-262 . 32 022 . 26-784 THE ADULTEEATIONS OP WLNE. Wine, as might be supposed, and as is well known, is very liable to adulteration, and this in a great variety of ways. The practice begins with the very must itself, and may be said not to end in many cases until the wine reaches the consumer. The composition and quality of the must vary of coui'se with many circumstances — the kind of grape, the season, and especially with the dogree of ripeness of the fruit. Some musts, as those derived from well-ripened grapes, are often particularly rich in sugar. Others again, from unripe grapes, yield a must in which acids predominate. Dilution and Sioeetening of the Must. Now it has occurred to certain ingenious gentlemen to subject both the rich and the sour musts to special treatment. Thus M. Petiot recom- 3c 754 WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. mends an addition of water to must which abounds in sug-ar, and he has elaborated his method into a system, which has even been named after him, and the wine thus manipulated is distinguished by the appellation of ^ Petiotised ' wine. On the other hand, M. Gall recommends an addition of sugar to poor musts ; to the sour musts he adds water to reduce the acidity, and then sugar to make up for the deficiency occasioned by the addition of the water. This method too has served to immortalise the author, and such wine is known in Germany as ' Gallisirter ' wine. High are the eulogiimis passed upon the wines produced from must so treated, and some enthusiastic writers would lead us to believe that they are far superior to the wines the produce solely of the juice of grapes. Thus Petiot obtained by repeated pressure and dilution from a quantity of black gi-apes, which should have yielded only 60 hecto- litres of wine, by the aid of 240 litres of sugar solution containing 18 per cent., 90 hectolitres of white, and 195 hectolitres of red wine — in all 300 hectolitres of what Petiot denominates ^ wine in the full sense of the word.' The Petiotised wine, according to Thudichum and Dupre, ^ is less acid and more drinkable. It has more bouquet than the wine which has been made from the grapes directly. It has an extraordinary power of lasting.' ' The infusion wines resemble natural wines in all essential qua-- lities. They contain all the essential ingredients and almost in the same proportions as the natural product. The non-essential ingre- dients, or those which are frequently hurtful to the natural wine, are diminished in the infused wines to such an extent that their absence is a favourable circumstance.' — Thudichum and Dupre. Of course the amount of tartrate of potash and of free acid is less than in wines made from undiluted must, and hence in this respect it is urged in favour of these artificial wines, that they are more like old wines, being milder to the taste from having deposited part of their tartar. But they also contain L ss mineral matter generally, less potash and phosphoric acid, as well as a smaller quantity of the peculiar acids of the wine, malic and tartaric acids. It is well established that fermentation ceases in a liquid which contains 16 per cent, of alcohol by weight, correspondinir to about 32 per cent, of sugar. Now, in parts of Spain, Italy, Greece, and Madeira, the must frequently contains an amount of sugar equal to 24 per cent, of alcohol, and, since fermentation ceases above 16 per cent,, of course much of the sugar in such rich musts will remain un- converted if the sugar be not brought down by dilution with water, and this fact furnishes one argument in favour of the adoption in some cases of Petiot's method ; but then it may be said that grapes which furnish such a saccharine juice are scarcely fitted for wine- making at all, and that they correspond rather to raisins than to grapes WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 755 of which wines are usually made — at all events, if wines be made from such grapes, they should be of thff sweet class, such as Lunel and some of the sweet Sauternes. Musts which contain only an amount of sugar equivalent to 6 or 8 •per cent, of alcohol, are hardly rich enough for making wine, but it must be remembered that grapes contain different quantities of sugar according to their degree of ripeness, and hence it is a common practice to test the juice from time to time, with a view to ascertain the amount of sugar contained in it, and so to regulate the period of the ingathering. In some temperate countries — as the Bheingau — the grapes never become too ripe, and are therefore allowed to hang on the vines until the autumn is far advanced. Regulation of the Acidity of the Must. An important part of the process of Gall consists in the regulation of the amount of acid in the must. In bad years the grapes are so rich in acidity that the wines produced from them are too sour to be agreeable to the palate. Five parts of acid in one thousand of wine are contained in wines of good quality ; in sour ones often as much as from 15 to 18 per thousand. Now it is in such cases that the process of Gall comes into opera- tion ; but it is held by many that such sour must is not fit for the manufacture of vrine. Still we would say of this process, as well as of that of Petiot, that, provided the wines so made are properly dis- tinguished, as by the names of the authors of the process, there are cases in which the wine grower is justified in having recourse to them. GaU depresses the acidity of all must to 0*5 per cent., and raises the amount of sugar to 20 per cent. Of course, therefore, the quantity of wine so produced is greatest the sourer the original must ; this to us appears to be a radical fault of the method. ^ But what struck the observer as most remarkable was this circumstance, that the wine was always better than the wdne from the same sour must made by the ordinary means.' — Thudichum and Dupre. In the case of over-acid wines, the excess of acidity is in some cases got rid of by the direct addition of an alkali, such as carbonate of lime or soda, and in other cases by the addition of neutral tartrate of potash, as recommended by Liebig. This salt combines with a part of the free tartaric acid, forming acid tartrate of potash, which, on account of its comparative insolubility, separates. ^ The addition of the carbonated alkalies or of chalk alters the bouquet of the wine.' — Parhes. The Coloming of Wine, This consists of two different processes, the one applicable to cer* tain so-called white wines, as sherry, Madeira, and wines of a similar class ; the other to red wines, especially port. 3c2 756 WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. The coloration of sherry and other analogous wines is effected sometimes by the direct addition of sugar, often cane sugar, more or less caramelised, but frequently by the addition of the concentrated must, obtained by evaporation in large pans. Part of the sugar of the must is decomposed by the heat, particularly at the margin of the pan, colouring the sugar more or less deep brown. The syrup thus obtained is added to "\^dne until the required shade of colour is ob- tained. Much more frequent, however, than this process is the direct addition of caramel. The colouring of red wines is practised on an extensive scale. There are, in fact, several kinds of wine, especially port, which are as a rule artificially coloured. Frequently red wines are manufactured by dyeing white wines with some vegetable pigment. Many different plants producing red fruits are extensively cultivated solely for the purpose of extracting their colouring matters, which serve as adulterants of red wines. Black cherries, bilberries, but particularly elderberries, serve alike for this purpose, while Brazilwood or logwood is largely employed. Let no one think that this adulteration is carried on secretly ; the elder-tree, for instance, is cultivated in Spain and Por- tugal on a large scale, and immense quantities of dried elderberries are exported from the latter country. Spain alone imported, in 1866^ 145,000 kilos, while large quantities were sent to Brazil and France. An article is extensively used for the coloration of red wines, termed Jeropiga. This consists usually of must, often more or less evaporated, and sometimes partly fermented, brandy, and foreign red colouring matter, for the most part that of elderberries ; but another form of Jeropiga is made, which is composed of the same ingredients, minus the red dye, and this is added to wines requiring to be sweetened and fortified. In the case of red wines the colouring matters are usually added to the grapes during crushing. The Tlastering of Wine, The second operation to which the must or juice of the grape is frequently subjected is that known as ^ Plastering.' It consists in dusting over the must a considerable quantity of burnt gypsum, plaster of Paris, or sulphate of lime. Sometimes the sulphate of lime is mixed with a proportion of chalk or carbonate of lime, or chalk is entirely substituted for the plaster. Parkes states that the substance used for plastering consists of a mixture of 80 per cent, of sulphate of lime, 12 of carbonate of lime, and 8 of quicklime, sulphide and chloride of calcium, of which from 1^ to 7 lbs. is used to one hectolitre of wine. The practice is a very ancient one, and it prevails in Spain, Por- tugal, and the south of France — including especially Perpignan and Languedoc — Greece, and probably other countries ; and the wines more I WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 757 particularly subjected to this process are sherry, port, and certain French and Greek wines. The effect of the addition of the sulphate of lime has already been explained, and it consists principally in the removal of the tartaric acid in combination with the potash, insoluble tartrate of lime being formed, and a soluble bitter and aperient salt, sulphate of potash. When chalk is added as well as sulphate of lime, a portion of the free tartaric acid is likewise thrown down, the acidity of the wine being of course thereby reduced. When chalk is entirely substituted for the plaster, not only is the tartrate of lime thrown down as before and part of the free acid either removed or neutralised, but there is no formation of the highly objec- tionable sulphate of potash, and hence it would appear that this is a preferable mode of treating the must. Indeed, this plan has been spe- cially recommended by Mulder. Again, it must be remembered that the addition of either sulphate or carbonate of lime occasions the conversion of the soluble phosphates into phosphate of lime, which also would be precipitated if the acidity of the wine were not considerable. The amount of malic acid in must does not appear to have been determined with any accuracy, so that the effect of plastering on that acid has not been ascertained. From the solubility of the malate of lime one would infer that it was not precipitated from the must, and yet the slight degTee of alkalinity of the ash of plastered wines would appear to lead to a contrary con- clusion ; we must bear in mind, however, that in the ripe grapes most of the malic acid has disappeared. But we believe that good must re- quires no such treatment, nor is it very easy to determine what are the actual advantages of the operation of plastering so commonly and so long practised. It has been alleged that plastering increases the strength of wine by the removal of a portion of the water, but this belief is erroneous, as also that it aids in some way or other in the clarification of the wine, but it certainly is mischievous in other ways: thus, as already ex- plained, it removes a great part of the tartaric acid from the wine, leaving the potash behind in the form of sulphate of potash, while at the same time it does not lessen the acidity an atom. It deprives the wine, in fact, of a very valuable salt, sul^tituting another salt of an injurious character. Oare must be taken not to faU into the error of calculating all s ilphuric acid found in the wine into sulphate of potash, since the must of grapes naturally contains a small quantity of combined sul- phuric acid ; and, since the determination of the quantity thus present is a matter of considerable importance in connection ^vnth the plastering o:^ the wine, we have made some analyses of grapes and grape juice v^ ith a view to determine the question. According to Boussingault and other authorities, the sulphate of potash naturally present in wine should not exceed three grains per 758 WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. bottle, but subsequent enquiries bave led us to tbe opinion that tbe amount of sulphate of potash present often exceeds this very conside- rably, and that as much as six grains, if not more, may be present in some cases. This conclusion is based upon tbe following facts. Two samples of Spanish grapes yielded 0'0451 and 0*0336 per cent. of sulphuric acid, equal to 11 "46 and 8*53 grains of sulphate of potash per bottle, on an average therefore 9*99 grains. 100 parts of grapes were found to consist of 18 parts of husks and stones, and 82 parts of juice. 18 parts of the husks of a third sample of grapes contained 0*0247 of sulphuric acid, while 82 parts of the juice yielded 0*0189, equal to 4*8 grains per bottle. Calculated in the above given ratio, 18 : 82, 100 parts of the husks contain therefore 0*137 per cent., and 100 parts of the juice 0*023 per cent, of sulphuric acid, equal to 5*82 grains of sulphate of potash per bottle. Another similar experiment showed that 100 parts of must con- tained 0*014 parts of sulphuric acid, equal to 3*54 grains of sulphate of potash in a bottle of one-sixth of a gallon. The juice contains, therefore, on an average, 4*68 grains of sulphate of potash per bottle, while, as we have seen, the whole grapes yield 9*99 grains per bottle. Hence we see that, in calculating the amount of sulphate of potash in any wine due to plastering, a deduction must be made of either the one or the other of the amounts above named, according as the wine has been made either from the juice alone, or from the juice and husks. Even in the latter case, the deduction of 10 grains per Ijottle would be too much, since it is very certain that the whole of the combined sulphuric acid present in the husk and stones would not be removed by the pressure and maceration to which the grapes are subjected. Then, again, supposing it be known that the 7nust has been sul- phured, basing the calculation on the statement of Thudichum and Dupre, that one pound of sulphuric acid is thereby added to a butt of wine, a further deduction will have to be made ; although we think that, if based upon the above statement, the reduction would be by far too great, since it amounts to no less than 24*9 grains of sulphate of potash per bottle. Of the sulphurous acid generated by the burning of the sulphur a great part is not absorbed by the wine at all, but escapes ; that how- ever which is retained is gradually oxidised and converted into sul- phuric acid ; this decomposing part of the tartrate of potash, sulphate of potash is formed, tartaric acid set free, and the acidity of the wine thereby increased. Again, it must be remembered that a portion of the sulphuric acid present in any wine may, in some cases, be derived from the operation of sulphuring the ivine and the casks^ that is to say, of submitting them to the fumes of burning sulphur. The following particulars in reference to the plastering and the fumigation of wine are taken from a letter by Dr. Thudichum, which appeared early in 1874 in the ^ Times.' ^ WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 759 ^Each quantity of collected grapes sufficient to yield a butt of must previously to being trodden and pressed is invariably dusted over with from 30 to 40 lbs. of burnt plaster of Paris (sulphate of lime). The effect of this practice is to precipitate all tartaric and malic acid of the must and to substitute in their place sulphuric acid. The must, therefore, as it runs from the press contains no bitartrate of potash, or so-called tartar, but sulphate of potash instead. In conse- quence all sherry contains nearly the whole of the potash of the must as sulphate, amounting to from 1|- kilogramme (about 3 lbs.) to 7 kilogrammes (about 14 lbs.) per butt of 484 litres or 108 gallons (equal to from 36*1 to 169-2 grains per bottle of one-sixth of a gallon). ^ The common varieties of must are not only plastered but also impregnated with the fumes by the combustion of about 5 ounces of sulphur per butt, which adds about a pound of sulphuric acid to that brought in by the plaster.' We would remark, in reference to the above quotation, that the plastering does not remove all the tartaric acid, in fact none of that which is in the free state, nor is it by any means certain that the malic acid is removed. In fact, ripe grapes are nearly if not entirely free from that acid. The foUovdng figures by Thudichum and Dupre vnll illustrate the effect of plastering upon the acidity of the wine and upon the alkalinity of the ash : — ' The tartaric acid present in the original juice amounted to 0-916 gramme per litre ; in the sample treated with 20 per cent, of plaster it had been reduced to O'Ol gramme, the amount of malic acid remaining the same. The original juice yielded 4*085 grammes of ash per litre, containing 2-415 grammes of carbonate of potassium, while the sample treated with 20 per cent, of plaster yielded 7*255 grammes ash, containing 0*005 grammes carbonate of potassium.' Of course the quantity of plaster actually employed is much less than that mentioned above, but at the same time the experiment illus- trates in a general way the effects of the addition of sulphate of lime to the must of grapes. The amount of sulphate of potash actually met with in plastered sherries by Thudichum and Dupre ranged, as we have seen, from 36*1 to 169*2 grains per bottle, while in nimierous analyses which we have made the quantities have ranged from 18*0 to 54*6 grains per bottle of one-sixth of a gallon. But we have not yet quite done with the subject of plastering. It appears that ' the Greeks and Romans put gypsum into their new wine, stirred it often round, then let it stand for some time, and when it had settled decanted the clear liquor.' Geopon. lib. vii. p. 483. The object of this treatment, it is stated, was to clarify the wine. The Deplaste7'ing of Wine, It is obvious from what has already been said that the plastering of wine cannot be otherwise than most injurious to its flavour and whoiesomeness, since it removes the whole of the combined tartaric, and, 760 WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. when carbonate of lime has been employed, part of the free acid, and since for the healthful and beneficial tartrates a bitter and aperient salt is substituted. Hence it will be apparent that any process whereby the sulphuric acid can be removed and the original tartaric acid restored, and in the form in which it previously existed, namely, as a tartrate of potash, is highly desirable and would improve greatly the flavour and quality of all wines which had been plastered and increase very considerably their money value. Such a process we have devised, and we have obtained for it pro- visional protection, with the intent to take out a patent in the names of the authors, Arthur Hill Hassall and Otto Hehner. This process consists of two parts ; in the first, the amount of combined sulphuric acid present in the wine is determined either volu- metrically or gra\imetrically, by means of a solution of chloride of barium, and in the second, a quantity of tartrate of barium nearly equivalent to the amount of sulphuric acid present is added to the wine, this being occasionally shaken for three or four days. At the end of this time all but the normal quantity of the sulphuric acid of the wine is precipitated as sulphate of barium, while the tartaric acid is re- stored in exactly the same amount in which it was originally present, this uniting with the now liberated potash gives rise once more to the formation of tartrate of potash, the most characteristic saline consti- tuent of all genuine wines. The tartrate of potash uniting with the free tartaric acid of the wine forms bitartrate of potash or cream of tartar in nearly the quantity in which it existed in the original and unplastered must. But since now the restoration takes place in an alcoholised liquid the bitartrate is rendered less soluble than it would be in the must, and hence a consider- able separation of crystallised cream of tartar takes place very shortly after the deplastering of the wine, thus rendering it mellow, and pro- ducing at once the effect otherwise only obtainable in genuine wines by prolonged keeping. In the process thus briefly sketched out, not a trace of barium can possibly remain in solution in the wine ; first, because rather less of the barjrta salt is used than is necessary to decompose the whole of the sulphates present ; and second, since the sidphate of barium formed is the most insoluble of all known chemical compounds, and hence the process is free from the smallest risk. It has been more than once stated that sulphate of potash is present in many wines to the extent of nearly one ounce per gallon. Now, bearing in mind that it is a nauseous, bitter and aperient salt, it is not possible but that the wines should be improved by its removal and by the restoration of its original wholesome tartaric acid ; and indeed, the improvement is very obvious when the plastered and the deplastered wines are tested and tasted one against the other. In fact the improve- ment is so great that it unquestionably makes a difference of several shillings per dozen in the value of any wines so deplastered. j WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 761 Fortification of Wine, We have now finished with the description of the practices re- ported to in the treatment of the must, and we have to describe those to which the fermented liquid or wine is subjected ; and first to treat of the fortification of wine. It is alleged that the addition of spirit to wine is rendered necessary in order to arrest fermentation and so to avoid acetification, and to make the wine keep, so as to allow of its bearing the voyage from France, Spain and Portugal or elsewhere to this country, but if all this be true, then it would follow that no wines can be imported and kept for any length of time which are not fortified. But this we know is far from being the case, as some of the finest and most costly wines contain but a moderate amount of alcohol and yet keep and indeed improve by keeping, for many years. The practice of adding spirit to port, sherry, Madeira, and all the stronger wines is all but universal, while the same addition is con- stantly made to a verv^ large proportion of what may be termed the lighter wines, both white and red, and including alike those of Germany and France. It is a grave question for consideration whether this practice ought to be allowed in the case of wine to be regarded as genuine ; and, if allowed, certain limits beyond which it ought not to be earned should be specified, these probably varying to some extent w4th the kind of wine operated upon. Supposing it to be conceded that the addition of spirit is in some cases necessary and allowable, yet such wines ought to be classed difierently, so as to distinguish them from natural wines or those the direct product of the fermentation of the juice of the grape. Again, those wines which contain added grape spirit should be distin- gaished from those to which corn, potato, and other similar spirit has been added. In fact, in no true sense can wines which have been thus treated be considered as genuine grape wine ; such mixtures must be regarded as artificial productions. , Again, most certainly the amount of spirit added should be con- fi]ied within the limits of that which the grape itself is capable of affording. We know really that the spirit added is rarely grape spirit, but is that derived from grain or the potato^ while the wdne is brought up to a strength far beyond that which grape juice can yield — first, because it rarely contains sufficient sugar to generate such a quantity ; and second, because, if it did, fermentation would be stopped in the wine by the alcohol formed before all the sugar was converted. The composition and consequently the specific gravity of grape juice varies much in accordance with a great variety of circumstances, as the soil, the condition of the grape as to its ripeness, and climate. That important constituent, sugar, is especially liable to variation. From data given by Mulder we find that the specific gravity of the must ranges from 1'039 to 1*1283 j the mean of all the gravities 762 WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. being 1'076. From these gravities lie deduces the following ap- proximate results, that the sugar of must of different countries varies between 13 and 30 per cent. Now 198 parts of sugar represent and are convertible into 92 parts of alcohol by weight, so that the juice of French and German grapes should furnish from 6 to 14 per cent, of alcohol, equal to from 13*09 to 30*26 of proof spirit, but since in the manufacture of wine some of the sug^ar remains unconverted and some of the alcohol is evaporated, the yield of alcohol is usually less than that stated, so that the maximum yield may be taken at about 28 per cent., and this is really found to be some- what beyond the quantity of alcohol furnished by the strongest of the natural wines, the sherries and ports of Spain. Thudichum and Dupre state that the must of Xerez contains from 14*6 to 24 per cent, of sugar, and that therefore it can only by fermentation yield from 14 to 23 per cent, of proof spirit, or, taking one sherry with another, a mean of 18*5 per cent. They say they are quite certain that no natural sherry ever ranges over 12 per cent, of alcohol by weight equal to 260 per cent, of proof spirit. Five samples of vino fino from the San Lucar districts, and which were declared to be the product of the natural fermentation of the must, were found to contain 26*5 of proof spirit, equal to 17 degrees centigrade on Gay-Lussac's scale ; 27*2, equal to 17*5 per cent, alcohol ; 26*5 proof spirit, 27*9 or nearly 18 per cent, of alcohol, and 27*2 of proof spirit or 17*5 per cent, of alcohol. These quantities are somewhat above the highest amount given by Thudichum, and approach that given by Mulder, namely, 28 per cent. These higher figures may probably be explained by the circumstance that the strength of a wine in alcohol increases somewhat by keeping. With respect to the strength of natural wines some valuable information has recently been obtained by the Commissioners of Customs, through Mr. Keen, one of their inspectors. Of 554 samples of wine furnished by Spain, 282 were found to be free from added spirit, and of these the average strength was ascertained to be 24*10 degrees of proof spirit. Of the 557 samples of Portuguese wines, 381 were ascertained to be natiural and to furnish 24*27 per cent, of proof spirit. With regard to fortified wines one was ascertained to have a strength of 56*7 degrees, a strength noi much inferior to that of old Cognac brandy. It was found, however, that the average strength of the whole of the Spanish wines tested, including the 272 which had been more or less fortified, amounted to 28*10, the average strength of the Portuguese wines, including the 176 which had been fortified, amounted to only 25*96 ; but it must not be supposed that these figures represent the average strength of the wines sold in this country under the names of sherry and port, since natural wines are here rarely met with. As is elsewhere stated, the average of samples of fiheriy tested by us reached 38*3 per cent, of proof spirit. I WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 763 The practice of fortification is not at an end even when the wine reaches this country, for in many cases it receives further doses of spirit in our bonded warehouses and in the cellars of some of our wine merchants. Further details will be given under the heads of several of the wines, the adulteration of which is hereafter considered. The Flavounng of Wine. Not unfrequently the flavour and aroma of wines are imitated by various artificial means. Thus astringency is imparted by means of tannin or substances containing it, as the sawdust of oak, or a tincture made from the seeds of the grape, while an artificial bouquet is produced, amongst other things, by means of extract of sweet b?'iarj etdetfloiverSy onis root, cherry and laurel water. It is by means of a tincture made from the flowers of the elder- tree that the Muscatel flavour and bouquet are imparted to Moselle wine. The Blending of Wine. Frequently two or more kinds of wine are mixed together, some- times with a view either to the production of a more drinkable wine than either woidd be in its separate state, bat often in order to suit the taste of the customer. Wine consumers are usually ignorant about the principles of wine-growing, and they demand from one year to the other exactly the same quality of wine, with the same flavour, strength, and appearance, notwithstanding that the same quality of wine is I'arely naturally produced. To suit this demand the wines are blended, either one kind with another or by the addition of spirit and sugar, till the required quality and strength are obtained : thus sherries, as ordinarily sold, rarely contain less than 17 or 18 per cent, of alcohol, and often more. The wine growers themselves hardly ever mix several qualities of ^vine together. The agents for export buy them from the growers and blend them according to the country the wines are to go to, and tbe diflerent customers. Clarets are especially so blended. ' Chateau Neuf du Pape is used as " doctor " to feeble, acid, and pale wines of bad years. Wine of the Ermitage goes to Bordeaux and is there mixed with the feebler Gironde wines.' (Thudichimi.) These two f;imous classes of wine never therefore occur in a pure, unmixed state ill commerce, since their value for adulterating Bordeaux wines is too great. A second kind of blending frequently practised consists, in the c.ise of sherries, in the addition of small quantities of stock or mother v^ines termed ' Soleras ; ' see p. 792, and in the case of champao-ne o f ' Liqueur,' which consists of wine of the best description, mixed ^^\\h. sugar and usually brandy. The very best wines are used to give t( > the first-class champagnes their tine flavour, while inferior qualities re^ceive only an addition of brandy and sugar. The composition of these liqueurs varies according to each description of wine, weak 764 WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. samples requiring more spirit than strong and full-flavoured wines. The champagne to be exported to different countries receives different additions : thus for England full-flavoured wines are required, and only a small quantity of liqueur is added ; for Russia much liqueur is added, diminishing thereby the acidity, and making the champagne appear sweet and flat ; for Austria and parts of Germany it is manufactured very sweet, while France receives only a moderate quantity. Factitious Wines. These wines are manufactured on an enormous scale, certain dis- tricts and places being famous or infamous for the manufacture. One of these places is Cette, in Normandy, where those who follow this trade do not hesitate to place over their doors boards with the announce- ment, ^ Wines Manufactured Here.' Another is Bingen on the Rhine. By the term factitious wines two things may be meant : one, that the articles denominated wine may be entirely artificial products, not containing any wine the produce of the grape, but such compounds are rarely manufactured •, the other, that the wines are made up by various additions and by blending in imitation of certain well-known descriptions of wine, as by the conversion of white wines into red, of claret into port, of certain light wines into sherry, as Hamburg or Hambro' sherry, and many other like practices. Lead in Wine. But wine not unfrequently contains lead. In some cases this is an accidental impurity or impregnation, but more frequently it is to be regarded as an adulteration. When lead is accidentally present it is derived from the shot used in cleaning the bottles. When added intentionally to wine, it is so for the purpose of pre- venting it from turning sour. Dr. Watson ^ states that the practice of adding lead to wine was at one time common in Paris. Dr. Warren ^ relates an instance in which thirty-two persons were made seriously ill by drinking wine adulterated with lead ; one of them died, and another became paralytic. In Dr. lire's ' Dictionary,' we find these remarks in relation to the use of lead in France : — ^ This distemper (excessive acidity) formerly gave rise to the very dangerous practice of adding litharge as a sweetener, whereby a quantity of acetate or sugar of lead was formed in the liquor, productive of the most deleterious consequences to those who drank of it. In France the regulations of the police and the en- lightened surveillance of the Council of Salubrity have completely put down this gross abuse.' Lastly, Graham, in his ^ Treatise on Wine Making/ published many years since, under the article ^ Secrets,' belonging* to the mysteries of 1 * Chemical Essays,' vol. viii. p. 369. ^ < Medical Trans,' vol. ii. p. 80. WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 765 \'intners, recommends lead to be used for several purposes. The follow- ing receipts are copied from that work : — * To hindei' Wine from turning, * Put a pound of lead melted in water into your cask pretty warm, and stop it close.' ' To soften Grey Wine, ' Put in a little vinegar wherein litharge has been well steeped, and boil some honey to draw out the wax. Strain it through a cloth, and put a quart of it into a tierce (42 gallons) of wine, and this will 7nend it^ To cure Wine of its Muddiness. A lump of sugar of lead of the size of a walnut and a tablespoonful of sal enixum are directed to be added to a tierce of wine. Accum has the following remarks in reference to the use of lead in wine : — ' The most dangerous adulteration of wine is by some preparations of lead that possess the pi-operty of stopping the progress of acescence in wine, and also of rendering white wines, when muddy, transparent. I have good reason to state that lead is certainly employed for this purpose.' ' Lead, in whatever state it is taken into the stomach, occasions terrible diseases, and wine adulterated with the minutest quantity of it becomes a slow poison. The merchant or dealer who practises this dtmgerous sophistication adds the crime of murder to that of fraud, and deliberately scatters the seeds of disease and death amongst those consumers who contribute to his emolument. If to deface the current coin of the realm be denounced as a capital offence, what punishment should be awarded against a practice which converts into poison a liquor used for sacred purposes ! ' These remarks have a wider applica- tion than to the subject of the adulteration of wine with lead. It appears that no real necessity ever exists for having recourse to lead to remedy the more usual defects of wine. It may here be stated that the muddiness, and especially the ropi- ness and viscidity of wine, are due to the presence of an azotised matter prticipitable by means of tannin. It is in white wines deficient in taimin that this malady chiefly occurs. M. Francois recommends for its cure the use of the bruised berries of the mountain ash in a some- what unripe state, and of which one pound well stirred in is sufficient for a barrel. ' When wine becomes stringy, in which case acetic and lactic acids are formed, it may be improved by adding a little tea. About one ounce of tea boiled in two quarts of water should be added to about forty gallons of wine. Bitter wine is treated with hard water or sulphur, bad smeUing wine with charcoal, too astringent wine with gelatine, wine which tastes of the cask with olive oil.' — Parkes. The wines of the adulteration of which we propose to treat are 766 WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. chiefly Sherry, Madeira, Cape, Port, French red 2vines, Champagne, German^ Greek, and Australian koines. SHERRY AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. The grapes from which this wine is made are white ; they are grown in the province of Andakisia, near Cadiz, in Spain : those which furnish the better qualities of wine are cultivated in the vineyards surrounding the town of Xeres de la Frontera, and hence the wine is called the wine of Xeres. The greatest care and labour are bestowed upon the cultivation of the vines from the fruit of which sherry is made. The grapes are not gathered until they are very ripe, and even somewhat shrivelled with the heat of the sun ; sometimes the fruit after being plucked is exposed to the sun for a day or two, and for the very best wine the finest grapes only are used. The fermentation is continued imtil nearly all the sugar has become converted, and the wine is often not drawn off for four or five months after the commencement of fermentation. It is at first of a pale straw colour, but darkens with age. Sometimes, however, a peculiar colour- ing liquid, termed ^ arrope,' is added. This is prepared by boiling sherry down to a syrup. It is by the addition of this substance that the dark sherries are prepared. The sherry termed Amontillado, and which at the present time is so much in favour with us, is a very dry wine. A singular fact with reoard to this wine is that its peculiarities are not due to any ascer- tained causes capable of imitation, but are entirely accidental so far as the manufacture is concerned. In attempting to prepare it the fruit is plucked at a much earlier period, and trodden by the peasants ; but of a hundred butts of wine made from the same grapes and by the same process, some only will be Amontillado and some ordinary sherry. SheriT bears too high a price and is too extensively consumed to escape the hands of adulterators. AH sherries should be divided into three classes ; 1st, genuine and natural sherries, the produce, without the addition of any kind, of the juice of the grape ; 2nd, fortified sherries, strengthened, sweetened, and coloured with spirit, sugar, and colouring all derived from the grape ; and 3rd, adulterated sherries, not wines really, not sherries at all, but mixtures, fortified, sweetened, and coloured with spirit, sugar and coloiu'ing not derived from the grape. These mixtures, if sold at all under the name of sherry, must certainly be regarded as adulterated. If this view be not enforced, then it follows that all mixtures of foreign spirit, sugar, and colouring, with possibly a dash of genuine grape wine, must be accepted, drunk, and paid for by the public as sherry, and on the same footing as the really genuine products of the grape. Now, from all we know, and all we can learn, there is scarcely a WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 767 single natural sherry in this country, that is to say, a sherry which belongs to the first division, and which consists solely of the fermented juice of the grape without addition of any kind. Thudichum and Dupre state that no natural sherry ever contains more than 12 per cent, of alcohol by weight, and we may safely conclude, when more than that amount is present, it has been fortified. They write now however — ^ Some Amontillados and sherries are offered for sale which in their alcoholicity (12 to 13*6 per cent.) closely approach the undoubtedly unbrandied and natural wines of the Rheingau and Sauternes, though containing about one or two per cent, more than these. Their taste is freely vinous, rich, pure, mellow, and quite free from heat or the taste of added spirit.' That there should be no natural sherry in this country is certainly very extraordinary, since these wines are largely produced and con- sumed in the countries in which sherry is made. In explanation of this absence of genuine sherry in this country, it is said that it will not stand the voyage, and that, if it would, it is such a different article to that to which the British public has by long abuse become accustomed, that it would not be drunk. We decline to accept either of these statements ; we see no reason whatever why natural sherry, with its alcohol reaching, in some cases, as high as 27, or even possibly 28 per cent, of proof spirit, should not bear the voyage and keep quite as well as the wines of France, Germany, Hungary, and Greece. Further, we see no reason for believing that well and carefully pre- pared natural sherry, if introduced into this country, would not be approved and consumed. No doubt the palates of the wine-drinkers of this country have been seriously vitiated and perverted, and that they have been taught to some extent to like the fiery and saccharine compounds and liquors with which they have been supplied under the name of sherry ; no doubt, also, that if a quantity of sugar be added to sherry it becomes necessary to fortify it with much spirit to prevent a secondary fermentation setting in; but we hold that these strongly fortified wines are not sherries in any proper or strict sense ; that their habitual consumption in an undiluted form is injurious to the stomach, impedes and deranges digestion, over-stimulates the nervous system, and, in fine, impairs the general health. The drinking of such wines is a form of dram-drinking, and is a worse habit than the drinking of spirits and water, because these wines are usually very much stronger than spirits and water as ordinarily consumed. Spirits are mostly drunk in the proportion of a wineglass of spirit made lip with water to a tumblerful. Now, such a mixture will usually contain about from 16 to 20 per cent, of proof spirit, whereas most sherries sold in this country contain nearly 40 per cent. We have said that scarcely a single natural sherry is to be met with in this country. The very finest and purest sherries imported belong to our second division, and are fortified with grape spirit only, or with grape spirit, grape sugar, and grape colouring, according to the 768 WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. kind ; but the great bulk, we fear, of the sherries consumed in Great Britain are to be referred to the third division, and contain foreign spirit, foreign sugar and colouring, and are, in fact, mixed and adul- terated articles. But there is really a fourth class of sherries — those into which very little wine at all really enters, or, if it does, it is wine of a totally different class and name : to this class belongs Hambro' sherry ; and since this name has become somewhat a term of reproach, the name of Elbe sheiTy has to some extent been substituted ; and to this class also belongs much of the cheap sherry so extensively advertised and consumed, and so commonly vended at public-houses and restaurants. The adulteration of sherry commences with the must or juice of the grape itself, which is almost constantly prior to fermentation dusted over as already described 'at length with a considerable quantity oi plastei' of Paints or sulphate of lime ; the commoner varieties being not only plastered, but also, as already noticed, impregnated with the fumes derived from burning sulphur. The following par- ticulars in reference to the manufacture and adulteration of sherry are taken from the letter of Dr. Thudichum to the ^ Times/ already quoted: — ^ The must ferments in the sheds called bodegas, there being no cellars properly so called at Xeres. In a fortnight the sugar has all fermented away, and the must is transformed into wine. This is allowed to deposit its lees during some months, and is racked in the following February or March. On this occasion some brandy is added to the wine, by which its alcoholicity rises to about 29 per cent, of proof spirit. In spring and early summer the wine (still termed " mosto," and so to the time of the next harvest) undergoes what is termed its first evolution, and after that is ready for further prepa- ration. ^ This consists in the addition of various ingredients which impart colour, sweetness, spirit, and flavour. Colour is imparted by the addi- tion of caramely produced by the boiling down in coppers of previously plastered grape juice ; the brown syrup is dissolved in wine and spirit, so as to form a deep brown liquid, containing from 35 to 50 per cent, of proof spirit, termed " color," or " vino de color." Frequently caramel made from cane sugar is used instead of that made from grapes. Some colour is made from the juice of rotten or otherwise inferior grapes. Sweetness is imparted by the addition of " dulce" — that is, must made from grapes dried for some days in the sun, to which one-sixth of its volume of spirit, of the strength of 40° by Oartier's alcoholometer, has been added (a process by which all fermentation becomes impossible). Every hundred liti*es of dulce con- tain, therefore, 19 litres of absolute alcohol, equal to 33*78 per cent, of proof spirit. Flavour is imparted by the addition of some old selected wine, which is kept in so-called ^ soleras.' Ultimately brandy is added to the mixture to the extent of fortifying it up to 35 as the minimum, f WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 769 most frequently up to 40 or 42, and sometimes, as your custom-house correspondent proved, up to 50 per cent, of proof spirit. ^ In a butt of ordinary sherry (40 jars) there is mostly one-fifth of its volume of dulce (eight jars) ; consequently, about one-sixth of unfermented grape juice, and which remains unfermented. The better sherries are made less sweet, and only the few finest varieties are left unsweetened. The " dulce" is never plastered, and therefore its addi- tion depresses a little the large quantity of sulphate of potash introduced by the ^^ colour." ^ Sherries contain from IJ to 8 grammes of sulphuric acid as potash salt per litre (equal to from 17"5 to 93*3 grains per bottle of one-sixth lyallon), and the more the older and better they are : most " soleras" are near the highest figure.' Accoi-ding to Mr. Bernard a butt of sherry intended for the English market in 1860 was made up as follows : — 1 jar of spirit, about 60 o.p. 8 jars of s^weet wine, or dulce. 7 jars of soleras or mother wine. 10 jars of dry wine, 1854. 14 jars of dry wine, 1859. 40 jars of sherry. Previous to its exportation, a portion of brandy is nearly always added to sherry. The practice of brandying wine is a very objection- i^ble one, since it cannot fail to injure the delicacy of the flavoiu* of the wine, and to retard those natural changes in it consequent upon keeping, and which are so improving to its quality. Low-priced sherries are imported from Spain at about 18/. per butt, expressly for adulteration. On their arrival they are mixed with Cape wine and cheap hrandy, and the mixture is flavoured in imitation of good sherry, the colour being either increased or diminished accord- iag as brown or pale sherry is required. ' There is a place at Cadiz called the Aguada, where inferior wines are received from various parts of Spain for the purpose of mixing sherry to be shipped to England and other countries as sherry wine. The wine from the Oondado de Niebla is preferred to any other wine for mixing.' — Thudichum and Dupre. At the Bay of Rosas also there is a mixing station, where wines are prepared for North and South America. The author of the ^ Tricks of Trade' states that at Oette, in France, great quantities of sherry are made up and shipped for the English u arket, the composition of which is nothing more than dt, cheap white nine, strengthened with brandy, coloured with treacle, and flavoured with almonds. Lastly, the same writer states, a kind of sherry is manufactured in this country, the basis of which is pale 7nalt and suyar candy, a small quantity of French brandy and inferior wine being added to flavour the mixture. The practice of restoring muddy or ropy wines by means of lead is also resorted to in the case of sherry and most of the other wines. 3 D 770 WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. Genuine sherry is a yery wholesome wine, in consequence of its freedom from acidity, sugar, and other extractive matters. A variety of sherry, the well-known Manzanilla, is produced in the district of San Lucar ; the grape from which it is made is said to be full of flavour and to ripen early. ' The wine is rank and common, hut improves in taste and flavour by keeping. When its fermentation is perfect it is of light body, light colour, and has great lasting qualities ; but withal it is so peculiar that a person unaccustomed to it would believe it to be a medicinal tincture rather than a wine, and require some length of time to habituate himself to its enjoyment.' — Thudi- chum and DuprS. ^ Some derive the name from the town of Manzanilla in the Oon- dado de Niebla, near Sevilla. Others believe it to be derived from man- zana, an apple. Others again think that its taste, flavour and fragrance, and slight bitterness remind of the camomile flower ; and that, as this is termed Manzanilla, the wine was called after it. It is also alleged, but by no means proved, that some descriptions of Manzanilla wine are produced by the addition to ordinary wine of essential oil of camo- mile and other ingredients.'— Thudichum and Dupre. The wine which is produced in the island of Sicily known as Marsala, when exported to England is always brandied, and most of that which arrives there is made up in imitation of sherry. Never- theless, very excellent Marsala is frequently met with in this country. We will now proceed to set forth the results of the analyses of a great variety of wines of the sherry class. Before doing so, we will make a few remarks on the principal saline and inineral substances pre- sent in the juice of the grape and in the wine made therefrom. The principal saline and mineral substances present in grape juice, as already elsewhere stated, are free tartaric and malic acids, tar- trate of potash, tai'trate of lime, sulphate of potash, chloride of sodium^ phosphates of lime and inagnesia, manganese, iron, and silicic acid. The malic acid occurs in largest proportion in unripe grapes. The different proportions of the inorganic constituents of wine exert an important influence upon the quality of the wine. It is, how- ever, much to be regretted that very few reliable analyses exist of the ash of pure must, and particularly of that from which sherry is ob- tained, and still fewer of the ash of pure and natural sherry ; so that there are but slight data to go upon whereby the exact amount and composition of the ash either of the pure must or the pure sherry may be determined. As far a.« the analyses recorded go, it would appear that the ash of genuine sherry amounts to about 0*25 per cent, of the wine, equal to about 29*2 grains per bottle of one-sixth of a gallon, and the sulphuric acid to about 0*013, equal to 1*4 grain per bottle. As will appear hereafter, these data are of considerable importance in the determination of the questions of the genuineness and of the plas- tering of the sherries and other wines, the results of the analysis of ■which are a^out to be stated in detaiL WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 771 % QO to i d fn^ r-l c B d Spec. grav. at 15-6° C. . 11 O f o 1 % < 1 1 1 1004-48 990-0 990-5 987-6 984-0 1003-34 Absolute alcohol by) weight . - i 16-210 14-640 15-830 17-098 20-333 15-523 Proof spirit . J 35-03 31-73 34-32 36-80 43-61 33-65 Grape sugar . 4-015 0-087 1-553 0-991 0-780 3-598 Cane sugar . none. none. none. none. none. none. Tartaric acid 0-405 0-426 0-411 0-375 0-306 0-485 Acetic acid . 0-049 0-067 0-042 0-021 0-050 0-054 Sulphuric add 0-113 0-206 0-087 0-087 0-163 0-136 Phosphoric acid 0-027 0-021 0-026 0-017 0-023 0-059 Total solids . 6-493 3-005 3-322 2-422 2-464 5-963 Ash . . . 0-411 0-602 0-629 0-532 0-404 0-412 Nitrogen 0-030 0-024 0-025 0-020 0-028 0-034 Alkalinity of ash . 0-0-28 0-044 0-019 0-019 0-028 0-026 Sulphate of potash,' 28-7 52-2 21-9 21-9 41-3 34-6 grains per bottle Bitartratft of potash,) 1.R-2 20-4 8-8 8-8 12-8 12-0 grains per bottle j | 1 1 i 2 1 1^ i f i Si >. i 1 i Spec. grav. at 15-5° C. i m 993-2 t . 1002-08 1000-65 990-1 988-9 990-2 j Absolute alcohol 1 weight Proof spirit . by) • J 16-084 16-155 17-584 18-923 18-923 17-903 34-83 34-93 37-83 40-64 40-64 38-52 Grape sugar . 2-348 3-652 1-243 1-264 2-630 1-018 Cane sugar . none. none. none. none. none. none. Tartaric acid . 0-526 0-531 0-432 0-397 0-324 0360 Acetic acid . 0-088 0-054 0-026 0-071 0-099 0-036 Sulphuric acid 0-132 0-135 0-210 0-071 0-153 0-178 Phosphoric acid , 0-084 0-067 010 0-018 0-019 0-012 Total solids . 6-409 5-925 2-764 3-174 4-406 3-594 Ash . . . 0-349 0-342 0-500 0-474 0-444 0-466 Nitros:en 0-022 0-018 0-025 0-022 0-023 0-027 Alkalinity of ash . 0-036 0-053 0-009 0-006 0-008 0-010 Sulphate of pota grain'* per bottle sh,| 33-5 34-1 53-3 18-0 59-6 45-0 Bitartrate of pota grains per bottle .] 16-8 24-8 4-0 2-8 3-6 4-8 3d2 772 WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. c ^ , as s 1 *> i& H H u u m ^ •il •^1 i^ s>% s^ 2 2 goQ ^M J^W. X>CQ ^m X3 J2 a s a P^ s 1 Spec. grav. at 15-5 W W ° C. . 991-8 993-7 997-9 990-8 995-8 995-3 986-5 Absolute alcohol weight Proof spirit . ^^ 1 18-638 * 39-83 18-847 18-154 17-584 18-231 18-613 17-250 40-47 39-03 37-84 39-19 39-99 37-13 Grape sugar . 2-493 1-754 1-421 2-056 1-948 4-383 1-753 Cane sugar . none. 1-350 1-741 0-711 1-951 none. 0-481 Tartaric acid 0-360 0-445 0-360 0-330 0-368 0-285 0-219 Acetic acid . 0-045 0^025 0-066 0-074 0-045 0-006 0-123 Sulphuric acid . 0-096 0-216 0-135 0-192 0-183 0-034 0007 Phosphoric acid . 0-022 0-022 0-017 0-025 0-024 0-015 0-005 Total solids . . 3-926 4-888 5-776 4-082 5-594 4-976 2-907 Ash . 0-326 0-602 0-390 0-482 0-480 0-124 0-145 ^ Nitrogen . 0-017 0-029 0-027 0-020 0-028 0-018 0-018 'Alkalinity of ash . 0-016 0-008 0-010 0-012 0-005 0-013 0-012 Sulphate of pot a tsh,| 24-4 54-6 33-9 48-7 46-5 8-5 1-7 grains per bottle Bitai-trate of pota ish,) ^.g 3-6 4-8 5-6 2-4 6-0 5-6 grains per bottle Sherry. Sherry. Sherry. Sherry. Xeres. Vino fine. Espe- rado. Spec. grav. at 15-5° C. . 984-8 986-2 994-2 997-0 1-0684 983-0 988-1 Absolute alcohol by) weight . r 1 16-164 17-33 17-582 17-453 13-23 18-23 17-25 Proof spirit . 34-94 37-31 37-83 37-51 28-62 39-19 37-13 Grape sugar . 0-145 1-382 2-624 3-118 5-82 1-401 1-97 Cane sugar . — • 16-35 Tartaric acid 0-307 0-360 0-372 0-373 j 0-153 0-331 0-390 Acetic acid . 0-065 0-042 0-041 0-020 0-028 0042 Sulphuric acid 0-230 0-216 0-198 0-189 0-206 0-181 Phosphoric acid 0-019 0-024 0-021 0-025 0-016 0-018 Total solids . 1-610 2-499 4-736 4-892 23-89 2-221 2-74 Ash . 0-472 0-472 0-500 0-483 0-14 0-342 0-440 Alkalinity of ash 0-040 — — — — — — Sulphate of potash,) grains per bottle j 68-23 54-7 50-1 47-9 — 62-31 45-82 WINE AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 773 Sherry. Hamburg Sherry. Manza- nilla. Spec. grav. at 15*5° C. 990-9 997-3 997-4 989-5 994-7 992-4 988-4 Absolute alcohol hy\ weight . i 17-307 18-231 18-361 17-094 17-563 18-230 12-384 Proof spirit . J . 37-26 39-19 39-47 36-80 37-79 39-19 26-81 (xrape sugar . 4-527 6-147 3-838 6-106 6-200 0-184 Cane sugar . 0-430 — — — — Tartaric acid . 0-432 0-437 0-372 0-355 0-352 0-346 0-375 xVcetic acid . . 0-019 0-019 0-023 0-047 0-045 0-039 0-097 Sulphuric acid . 0-154 0-026 0-019 0-023 0-020 0-054 0-041 riio0 per cent., and the mixture is allowed to stand in a well-closed vessel, it being shaken from time to time. After a few days about two-thirds of the liquid are distilled off, and if necessar}^ treated with chloride of calcium a second time. When a bladder is filled with alcohol containing water, the water evaporates through the bladder, absolute alcohol at length only re- maining. The specific gra-^dty affoi*ds the readiest means to ascertain whether the alcohol is absolute or not, but the presence of water may also be de- tected by the addition of some white dehydrated sulphate of copper ; if this turn blue by the absorption of water, the alcohol is not yet absolute. Fusel Oil. In distilling the fermented liquids prepared from a variety of sub- stances, as from various descriptions of corn, potato, and grapes, especialty the murk of grapes, various volatile bodies besides ethylic alcohol pass over, and since most of these have a higher boiling point tlian alcohol, they come over chiefly with the later portions of the distillate. These volatile substances have received in the aggregate the name of fusel oil, but this really possesses a very complex composition, differing somewhat in flavour, taste, and composition, according to the source from which it is obtained. The odom' is heavy, penetrating, and dis- agreeable, and the taste fiery and nauseous. It always contains ethylic and amylic alcohols, and also fatty acids and ethers, and frequently other lighter members of the monatomic alcohol series. The oil from the potato consists almost entirely of amylic and el hylic alcohols, the former constituting the greater part, and the latter btdng capable of separation by agitation with water. Sometimes potato fusel oil is found to contain in addition tetrylic or hutylic alcohol, C,H,„0. The oil obtained from the murk of grapes has been ascertained to yield tritylic oir: loropylic alcohol, O^jd, 796 sriRiTUOUs liquors and their adulterations. Fusel oil from Hungarian wines lias been analysed hj F. Grimm^ and was found to consist chiefly of amylic alcohol with a little ethylic alcohol, but no propyl ic or butylic alcohol. The chief acid was caproic with a little caprylic, and a very minute quantity of cenan- thylic acid, but no pelargonic acid. In most lands of fusel oil several members of the fatty acid series are met with ; capric acid in the form of caj^rate of amyl has been found in the oil from Scotch distilleries. In the residue obtained in the preparation of alcohol from wheat and maize, Wetherill found acetic, caprylicj formic^ caproic, and ccnanthylic acids. Johnson has detected cajync acid in potato fusel oil. Mulder has found j^fdmific and cenanthic acids, a very small quantity of cenanthic ether, and an unsaponitiable 2vaxy body in the fusel oil from rum. Fehling- obtained from the fusel oil of beet molasses not only several volatile fatty acids, but a neutral fat, which when heated gave off the odour of acrolein, and which when saponified yielded cajmic acid. Perrot found in the fusel oil procured from the same source various alcohols and ethers, as also a substance in the form of a fetid liquid, having the formula OgHjoO, which distilled over at about 200° 0. Although some of the fusel oil passes over with the alcohol, yet as it has a higher boiling point than alcohol much of it remains behind in the retorts, as also some acetic acid produced by the oxidation of the alcohol. A portion of the acetic acid, however, passes over with the alcohol, and this may be separated by distillation with carbonate of potassium, but the fusel oil is more diflicult of separation, and is best removed by means of bone black or animal charcoal. Properties of fusel oil. — Dr. Taylor remarks of fusel oil, that ^ in small quantities it produces intoxication. I have experienced the effects of the vapour, and found them to be giddiness, accompanied with a feeling of suffocation and a sense of falling. Headache followed which lasted for half an hour. * Two drachms of the oil killed a rabbit in two hours, three drachms in an hour, half an ounce in a quarter of an hoiu*, and one ounce in four minutes.' Much of the unwholesomeness of spirit imperfectly rectified arises from its contamination with fusel oil. Detection of fusel oil. — When the nose is applied to spirits in its hot state containing fusel oil, the vapour of the oil irritates the eyes and nostrils ; it has very nearly the same smell as an alcoholic solution of cyanogen, as may be perceived by standing near the discharge-pipe of the refrigeratory worm of a raw-grain whisky still. Spirits con- taminated with fusel oij. intoxicate more strongly than pure spirits of the same strength, and excite, in many persons, even temporary frenzy. If one part of hydrate of potash, dissolved in a little water, be mixed with 150 parts of spirits, and the mixture be well shaken, then slowly evaporated down to 15 parts, and mixed with 15 parts of dilute SPIRITUOUS LIQUOHS AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 797 sulpliiiric acid in a well-corked phial, tliere will soon exhale from the mixture a peculiar offensive odour characteristic of the quality and origin of the impure spirit, whether ohtained from raw grain, from malt, potatoes, rye, arrack, rum, brandy, &c. This process may be used also for testino- wines. The Defuselntion of Alcohol. The separation of the fusel oil invariably contained in all crude spirits obtained by distillation is a matter of considerable importance ai;d difficulty, since fusel oil imparts to spirit a peculiarly unpleasant taste and smell. Although the boiling points of ethylic and amylic alcohols are widely different, namely, 78*4° 0. and 132° C, it is not possible to sepa- Tate the two alcohols by fractional distillation, since fusel oil evaporates to a considerable extent even at ordinary temperatures. The absorbing power of icood charcoal is the means most generally made use of in the defuselation of spirits. The charcoal should be Tecently ignited and reduced to a fine powder. The spirit must be allowed to filter slowly through it, but frequently the charcoal is •directly put into the still, where it retains a part, but by no means the whole, of the fusel oil. A better method of separation is to pass the vapour of the spirit before condensation through a stratum of wood •charcoal. The employment of a layer of dioxide of manffanese, besides the use of charcoal, the addition of slaked lime and of soajy-boiler^s lye have all been recommended. A solution of chloride of lime added to the spirit before rectification is frequently emplo3'ed. Chloride of zinc and chloride ^of calcium^ as also suljyhate of copper decomposed by caustic potash, have been proposed. Lastly, ITunefeld recommends manganate ofpotas- sivm, but this acts both upon the ethylic alcohol and upon the fusel oil, the spirit having imparted to it a disagreeable flavour. Milk has been employed for the defuselation of spirits. Breton Tecommends olive oil, which is said to absorb the amylic alcohol. Soda ■•so(fp is capable of retaining 20 per cent, of its weight of fusel oil. By cooling the spirit to be freed from amylic alcohol to — 15° 0. the fu^el oil falls to the bottom and may be separated. The Physiological Action of Alcohol, The question is as yet by no means settled, whether alcohol when talcen into the system is absorbed without alteration and eliminated imdecomposed, or w^hether any is decomposed and oxidised in the l^lood. It is certain that the urine of persons who partake freely of ardent spirits contains large quantities of alcohol, which may be sejiarated by distillation, the distillate being in some cases inflammable. TL e opinion, however, which was formerly entertained, that the alcohol 798 SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. accumulates in certain organs, as in the liver and brain, seems to he without foundation. The experiments of Dr. Percy, Strauch, Masing, and others seem to show, that all the alcohol is eliminated as such, whilst Schidinus and Anstie affirm that a part disappears in the system. AMien taken in small quantities, alcohol aids digestion, but the habitual use of larger amounts induces a thickening of the connective tissue between the glands of the stomach, and even disappearance of the glands. It causes enlargement of the liver, and, when injected into the portal vein, augments the quantity of sugar. Alcohol lessens- the secretion of carbonic acid through the lungs, and also the elimi- nating power of the kidneys, whilst it increases at first the force of the action of the heart, but eventually it depresses the action by paralysing the vaso-motor nerves. On the nervous system alcohol acts as an ansesthetic, diminishing and even suspending thought, and the action of the senses. Although in some cases it is said that the senses are sharpened by it, yet the experiments of Edward Smith show that this is not the case. In moderate doses alcohol causes a feeling of comfoi-t and exhilamtion^ but different spirits behave very differently in this respect, probably in consequence of their containing different ethers and volatile oils. Thus- sam-shoo and ralLki cause great excitement, followed by torpor and de- pression, while absinthe is very hurtful. The voluntaiy muscular power is gi-eatly lessened, especially by the consumption of large quantities of ardent spirits, and in very large doses the respiratory muscles or the nerves in connection with them are paralysed, and thus death is not unfrequently caused. The tem- peratm-e of the body is considerably depressed by large doses of alcohol, and this is abundantly proved by the evidence of Arctic explorers, a& Sir John Richardson, Mr. Goodsir, Dr. King, Captain Kennedy, Dr. I^^ne, and others, who found the use of alcohol under the influence of great cold to be particularly hurtful. ^ Alcohol appears to decrease strength and impair nutrition, by hin- dering oxidation, and, if in large quantities, the reception of food ; while habitually taken in any large quantity, it leads to degeneration of the tissues of certain organs, especially of the liver, the nervous system, the heart, lungs, and kidneys.' — Parhes, Methods of Estimating the Quantity of Alcohol pi-esent in any Sjnrituoiis Liquid, Saecharometers, ^c. — There are several methods by which the amount of alcohol contained in any spirituous liquid may be determined with greater or less accuracy. One of the readiest of these means is to ascertain the specific gravity of the spirit by a specific gi*a\dty instru- ment for liquids. Of these instruments, many different kinds have been invented, with scales adapted to the range of the liquids for the SPIRITFOUiS LIQUORS AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 799 determination of tlie density of wliicli tliey liave been constructed:: thus we have saccharometerSy hydrometers, alcoholometers, &c. ; but tlie principle on whicli these instruments are constructed is alike in all cases. By the saccharometer the amoimt of extractive matter in beer or other alcoholic liquids is ascertained. Sykes^ hydrometer. — The instrument in general use for determinino- the specific gravity of spirituous liquids in this country is what is Ivuown as Sykes^ hydrometer. It difiers from the ordinary hydrometer- in the division of its scale, and also in the use of weights. The hy- drometer is calculated to show the strength in spirit either above or- below a certain fixed standard, denominated ^ proof.' Proof spirit 1:3 defined by Act of Parliament to be * such as shall, at a temperature of 51° of Fahrenheit's thermometer, weigh exactly f| parts of an equal measure of distilled water.' That is to say, 13 measures of proof" spirit weigh as much as 12 measures of water. The stem of the instru- ment is graduated and subdivided so as to meet the extremes of -s ariation in the strength of the liquors examined by it. Sykes' hydrometer is the instrimient mostly used by the Excise, by brewers, distillers, and publicans. Since the specific gravity of a spirituous liquid is subject to great variations at different temperatures, it is necessary that the tempera- ture of the spirit at the time of taking its weiglit should be noted, and corrections made for this by means of certain tables which have been constructed for the purpose. The standard temperature at which the specific gravity of the spii*it is usually taken is 60° Fahrenheit, equal to 15-5° 0. The specific gravity test for determining the amount of alcohol present in liquids is applicable only when they are free from any solid substance, as extractive, sugar, &c., the presence of which of course influences the gravity. AVhen, therefore, any liquid contains sac- charine or other solid matter, it is requisite that the spirit shoidd be separated by distillation, and that the quantity and specific gravity of the alcohol thus obtained shoidd be taken. Where strict accm^cy is required, it will be necessary to have recourse to distillation in almost all cases, since there are but few spirits which do not contain more or less solid matter. Centesimal alcoholometer. — The instrument, invented by M. Gay- Ijussac many years since, called the centesimal alcoholometer is a con- siderable improvement on Sykes' hydrometer. The instrument, when im— iiiersed in any spirituous liquid at the temperature of 15° Oentigi'ade, equal to 59° Fahr., at once indicates the quantity of alcohol by volume- present. As its name implies, the stem is divided into ahimdred parts or degrees, and is so contrived that each degi-ee represents one-hundreth. } art of anhydrous or pure alcohol ; thus the point at which it floats^ when immersed in any spirit at a certain temperature, indicates the- percentage of absolute alcohol contained in that spirit. The value of this instrument is that it shows at once the percentage of alcohol— 800 SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS AND THEIR ADULT/IERATIONS. all subsequent calculations, with the loss of time involved and the pos- .sibility of inaccuracies, being thereby avoided. EhulUoscojye. — Another instrument, constructed on a totally diifer- ent principle to the ordinary densimeters, is the ehullioscope or ebulli- tion alcoholometer. This instrument is based upon the fact that the boiling point of spirituous liquids varies according to the amount of •alcohol contained in them (a discovery made by the Abbe Brossai-d- Yidal, of Toulon), without its being essential^ modified, like the other instruments, by the presence and nature of any solid ingredients which may be contained in them. There are several forms of this instrument ; there is the original one of M. Brossard-Vidal, and the modifications by M. Oonaty, b}^ ^M. Lerebours and Secretan, and by Dr. Ure. The mercurial thermometer used in the modification of the instru- ment by MM. Lerebours and Secretan is graduated centesimally in degrees, which correspond to those of the centesimal alcoholometer of M. Gay-Lussac, and its bulb is plunged in the liquid to be proved. The liquid is carefully heated by means of a spirit lamp, the flame of which should not be strong, lest it occasion the too rapid ebullition of the spirit. Before using the instrument, it is necessary to determine the boiling point of pure water, and the barometrical pressure of the •atmosphere on the day on which the experiments are made. In Dr. lire's modification of the instrument, the scale is adapted to that of Sykes' hydrometer. It would be of the greatest possible advantage — would save much time and trouble — if densimeters of all kinds were revised, and were Teduced to one uniform centesimal scale, as is done, in fact, in many of the instruments in use on the Continent. The ehullioscope is probably sufficiently accurate in the results which it furnishes to afford considerable service to the distiller, the .rectifier, the wine-maker, and the brewer ; but it is certainly not so w^here extreme accuracy is required. Alcoholometric dilatometer. — Another instrument which has been invented for the determination of the proportion of alcohol in spirituous liquids is the alcoholometric dilatometer of M. Silbermann. By this instrument, the amount of spirit is determined by the dilation of the spirituous liquid at various temperatures. i^nother instrument has been devised by M. Geissler, of Bonn, based upon the expanding power of the steam obtained by heating a spirituous liquid. This power is measured by the height of a column of mercury, which can be raised by the steam at a heat of 100° 0. The instrument is called a vaporimeter. Specific Gravity Bottle. — But the most accm-ate method of deter- mining the quantity of alcohol contained in spirituous liquids from their specific gravity is by means of the specific gravity bottle. In ^sing this, the same precautions with regard to temperature and the presence of any solid substance in the spirit must be observed as in the Fahr. 8428 30 8397 31 8365 32 8332 33 8299 33 8265 34 8230 35 8194 36 8157 37 8118 39 8077 41 8034 43 7988 46 7939 49 100 cc. of the spirit are distilled, and the distillation carried nearly to dryness ; the distillate is made up with distilled water to the original bidk, again brought to a temperature of 15*5° 0. and its specific gravity ascertained. These particulars being determined, the percentage of alcohol is ascertained by the alcoholometrical table of Tralles, p. 801. The third column of this table exhibits the difference of the specific gravities which give the denominator of the fraction for such densities as are not found sufficiently near in the table, and the dif- ference of their numerators is the next gi'eatest to the deusity found in the table ; for example, if the specific gravity of the liquor found for 15 -5° 0. be 9605 (the percentage will be between 33 and 34)^ the difference from 9609 (which is the next greatest number in tho table) = 4, and the fraction is ~, therefore the true percentage is 33 j3, or, decimally, thus, 33*31. In order to ascertain the amount, by volmne, of alcohol in the gin or other spirit under examination, it is necessary to proceed as follows : — In order to find the percentage of absolute alcohol of 7939 specific gravity in a sample of spirit, the specific gravity of the spirit is looked for in the second column of the table, and if the exact figure be not found the next higher gravity is taken. For instance, we have obtained a distillate having a specific gravity of 9436, then we find in the table that the next higher specific gravity of 9444 corresponds to 44 per cent, of alcohol. The diflference between the two specific gravities is then calculated — in this case it is 8. In the third column we find that a difference of 17 corresponds to ou© per cent, of alcohol, a difference of 8 therefore to 0*47 per cent., which has to be added to the whole number found. A spirit of a specific * SPIRITUOUS LIQUOES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 803 gravity of 9436 contains consequently 44*47 per cent, "by measure of absolute alcohol. But now supposing we have subjected 150 cc. to distillation,, and have obtained 100 cc. of distillate, which we found to contain 44*47 per cent, of alcohol, we have to consider that this percentage was obtained from 150 cc. We say, therefore, 150 : 44*47 = 100 : x, and by calcu- lating this simple rule of three sum, we find x to be 29*6 per cent. Detection of fmel oil. — There are no chemical reactions unfor- tunately whereby the presence of this oil in the minute quantity in which it is ordinarily contained in the wines and spirits of commerce may be detected, much less estimated. The method usually relied upon is the odour of the oil. This is best perceived when the ethylic alcohol has either been allowed to evaporate or when it has been separated by certain special means. A very simple and common prac- tice is to rub some of the spirit between the hands and, after allowing the alcohol to evaporate, the odour may sometimes be perceived. Or a portion of the spirit may be put into a glass or bottle with some porous chloride of calcium, when the odoiur of the fusel oil will become, after the lapse of some hours, veiy perceptible. See p. 796 for fiurther details. BRANDY AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Any foreign spirit, suj]jar, any acrid or carminative substance, or any substances emploj'ed to produce flavour and aroma not derived from the grape. Water in such proportion as to reduce the percentage of absolute alcohol below 50 per cent, by volume. Brandy is obtained by the distillation of both white and pale red wines, from refuse vsdnes ; also from the murk left in the wine press, and the refuse of wine casks. One of the largest brandy-producing countries is the south of France. The quality and strength of brandy depend upon that of the wine from which it is prepared ; and as a rule white wines furnish the best brandy, since they contain more of the volatile constituents, especially cenanthic ether, than the red. The grapes grown in some districts furnish brandy possessed of peculiar aromas ; thus the wines of Selleuil, in Dauphine, furnish a brandy having the aroma of the Florentine i?'is, while those of St. Pierre, in Yivarais, a spirit having the odour of the violet. Of the many descriptions and qualities of brandy, the best is true cognac J which is obtained by the distillation of wines of a superior (j^uality. Brandies prepared from inferior wines contain a smaller quantity of the essential oils, and hence they have less of the characteristic bouquet and liavoiar which distinguish brandies 'of the first quality. 3f2 804 SPIIIITUOUS LIQUORS AND TEEIR ADULTERATIONS. But owing to the perfection of the machinery now employed in the distillation of spirituous liquids, a superior product is obtained from many inferior descriptions of wine. A brandy of a lower quality is obtained in Spain and Portugal from the dark red wines of those countries. In France the brandy sold is usually of two strengths — the one contains from 18 to 20 degrees Baume, and is called ^ eau de vie a preuve de Ilollande/ and the other ' eau de vie a preuve d'huile ; ' but the brandies as first made are stronger than the ^ preuve de HoUande/ and are distinguished as five-six, four-five, three- foiu*, two-three, three- five, four-seven, five-nine, six-eleven, three-six, three-seven, three- eight, and three-nine. The brandies of different districts are stated to be all distinguish- able by an experienced dealer by peculiarities in their aroma and fiavour. Genuine French brandy coimnonty exhibits an acid reaction, owing to the formation of a minute quantity of acetic acid, when it is apt also to contain acetic ether. Of course when kept in casks for a long time it may take up therefrom both astringent and colouring matters. When first distilled brandy is perfectly colourless, pale brandy obtaining the colour which it exhibits from the cask in which it is kept, while brown brandy is coloured with sugar or caramel, dissolved in lime water. Ure says that brandy is sold usually about 10 per cent, under proof, equal to oO'So per cent, of alcohol by volume. THE ADTJLTERATI02?^S OP BRANDY. One of the most frequent adulterations of brandy is with loater. Another adulteration is with spint obtained from cotm, sugar^ molasses J beetroot, or i^otatoes. In some cases one or other of these different spirits is substituted for genuine brandy, the flavour of brandy being communicated to them by artificial flavourings, but the requisite colour being obtained by means of burnt sugar. Much of even the French brandy imported into this country con- sists either in part or wholly of corn, but more frequently of beetroot spirit. Strange to relate, a very large quantity of com spirit has of late been imported into France, to be used in the adulteration of French brandy. Part of this corn spirit is returned to us in the form of brandy, this adulterated brandy on its arrival in this country under- going in many instances fm-ther adulteration by the addition of more corn spirit, and thus it becomes doubly adulterated. The article known as British brandy consists for the most part of corn spirit flavoured. The flavouring is accomplished sometimes by the addition of a little genuine brandy, but more frequently by distil- lation of the murk, the name give© to the refuse skins and pips of the SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 805 I grape left after the distillation of tlie wine. ' The British brandy maker buys up this murk, and imports it into this country, paying upon it the same duty as upon wine. By distilling British molasses over these lees, the manufacturer obtains, to some extent, the peculiar flavour which characterises French brandy.' — Tricks of Trade. The late Br. Normandy, in reply to a question put to him by Mr. Scholefield, Chairman of the Parliamentar}^ Committee relative to the Adulteration of Food of 1855, made these remarks in regard to the flavom'ing of brandy by means of artificially-prepared essences : — ' Brandy is extensively prepared in this coimtry, especially since the discoveries of modern chemistry of producing essential oils artificially — oils which have the odom* of that particular ether to which brandy owes its flavour.' When molasses spirit is employed it is necessary it should be pre- viously rectified by distillation over freshly-burnt charcoal and quick- lime. Indeed it is essential that all spirits, especially potato spirit, employed in the adulteration of brandy should imdergo careful recti- fication, in order to free them from the peculiar tastes and odours, which might but too plainly reveal the nature and origin of the spirit. Receipts are of course not wanting for the manufacture of spimous French brandy. Br. Ure gives the following formula as one which is employed for converting corn spirit into imitation brandy. Pure alcohol is to be diluted to the proof strength ; to every hundredweight of the spirit, half a pound of arffol^ 2vine-stonej or ci-eam of tartar pre- viously dissolved in water, is added, as well as a little acetic ether, some French %vine vinegar, bruised French 2Jlums, and fiower stuff from Cognac (murk). The spirit is then to be distilled ofi", with a gentle fire, in an alembic furnished with an agitator. The spirit which comes over is coloured with burnt sugar to the tint required, and roughened to the taste with a few drops of the tincture of catechu or kino. Oak sazvdust and tincture of grape stones, prepared purposely from the murk, are used to impart to new brandy the taste of an old spirit which has become ripened in an oaken cask. The author of a work on ^ Malted and Unmalted Corn, connected with Brewing and Bistilling,' gives the following receipt for making an adulterated brandy, suitable for retail purposes : — To 10 puncheons of brandy . . . 1,081 gallons Add flavouring raisin spirit . . . 118 „ Tincture of grains of paradise . . . 4 „ Cheriy laurel water .... 2 „ Spirit of almond cake .... 2 „ Total . , 1,207 gallons. Add also, 10 handfuls of oak sawdust, and give it complexion with burnt sugar. 806 SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. The case of "brandy affords, tlien, an apt illustration of the pitch of refinement to which the art of adulteration has reached in these days. Hesults of the Examination of Sam2)le8, Of eighteen samples of brandy subjected to examination — The alcohol ranged from 30 to 50 per cent, by volume. The majority of the samples consisted of so-called British brandy. Nearly all the brandies were coloured with burnt sugar. Lastly, in none of the samples was Caye7ine present. This is par- ' ticularly worthy of note, because some of the brandies were procured at houses at which both the gin and rum were found to be adulterated with that substance. This at least shows that acrid substances are not so frequently employed in the adulteration of brandy as of other spirit- uous liquors. This result is, therefore, in some degree satisfactory. Brandy and rum are seizable if sold by or found in the possession of the dealer unless it possesses a certain strength, 17 per cent, below proof, by Sykes' hydrometer, equal to 40 per cent, by weight. The following are the words of the Act 30th Geo. III. : — ^ No distiller, rectifier, compounder, or dealer shall serve or send out any foreign spirits of a lower strength than that of one in six under hydrometer proof, nor have in his possession any foreign spirits mixed together except shrub, cherry or raspberry brandy, of lower strength than as aforesaid, upon pain of such spirits being forfeited ; and such spirits, with the casks and vessels containing the same, may be seized b)^ any ofiicer of Excise.' It will be perceived that many of the brandies examined by us were sold in violation of the Act above quoted, and, as usual, without let or hindrance by the Excise. DETECTION OF THE ADULTERATIONS OF BRANDY. The adulterations of brandy already noticed are mth icater, foreign spirit J sugar, buimt sugar, and various substances to impart flavour and aroma, as grains of paradise, tincture of catechu or hino, a tincture prepared from the seeds of the grape, artificial essence of brandy, raisin spirit, cherry laurel ivater, and the water distilled from almond cake. If we except grains of paradise the other substances used are usually present in too minute quantities to be discoverable by the ordinary methods of analysis pursued operating on the quantity of brandy usually submitted to the analyst. "We therefore do not propose to dwell upon the methods whereby some of the substances above enumerated might under certain favourable circumstances be detectable, but we limit our observations to water, extraneous spirit, sugar, burnt sugar, and grains of paradise. Water, — The amount of water present in any spirituous liquor not containing any considerable quantit}^ of solid matter may be approxi- SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 807 luately determined by simply taking the specific gravity of the liquid and deducing from it by reference to certain tables, which have been specially prepared for the purpose, the amount of absolute alcohol or spirit thereby indicated. But when solid matter is present one portion of the spirit must be distilled and the amount of alcohol in the dis- tillate determined, and another portion must be evaporated on the water-bath, and the solid matter present so ascertained. AVith these data the quantity of water is then determined by difference. Exti-aneous spirit. — The rectification of potato, corn, and other spirits not derived from the gi-ape is in these days usually so perfect that the detection of foreign spirit, that is, spmt not derived from the gTape, is impossible in many cases. When, however, the spirit is less perfectly rectified and contains minute quantities of fusel oil, it may be discovered in some instances by the methods already referred to for detecting the disagreeable and characteristic odour of that sub- stance. See pages 796 and 803. Sugar. — For the determination of sugar, whether grape or cane, we refer the reader to the article on ^ Sugar.' Burnt sugar. — See the report on ^ Vinegar.' Detection of Cayenne pepper and grains of ^^^tfadise. — ^The detec- tion of Cayenne and grains of paradise is readily effected in the case of brandy and other spirits by simply evaporating a portion of the spirit and tasting whatever residue be left. The presence of Cayenne is sufficiently demonstrated by the irritating character of the vapours evolved when the substance containing it is burnt. Supposing the fiery and pungent residue not to give off such vapours, this would lead to the inference that the substance to which the pungency was due really consisted of grains of paradise, but since these contain not only a fixed resin of an acrid and burning taste, but also a volatile oil having the smell of camphor and a hot penetrating taste, a further means of discrimination is thereby afforded. RUM AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Any foreign spirit, added sugar, or any acrid or carminative substance, or any substances employed to produce flavour and aroma. Water in such proportion as to reduce the absolute alcohol to below 60 per cent, by volume. RiJM is the spirit obtained from the fermented skimmings of the juice of the sugar cane, mixed with a proportion of molasses and lees, and diluted with water. * The wort is made in Jamaica by adding to 1,000 gallons of dunder ^08 SriRITUOUS LIQUOES AND TIIEIR ADULTEIIATIONS. 120 gallons of molasses, 720 g-allons of skimmings ( = 120 of molasses in sweetness) and 160 gallons of water; so that there may he in the liquid nearly 12 per cent, of solid sugar. Another proportion often used is 100 gallons of molasses, 200 gallons of lees, 300 gallons of sldmmings, and 400 of water ; the mixture containing, therefore, 15 per- cent, of sweets.' — Ure. From 1,200 gallons of the saccharine liquid thus prepared usually about 115 gallons of rum of the strength of proof spirit are obtained. In France a large quantity of spirit is made from the molasses of the beetroot sugar manufacture. It sometimes happens, in consequence of the large quantities of lime- and potash contained in the liquor, which impart to it an alkaline- reaction, that the fermentation is stopped and cannot be then revived until the alkali has been neutralised by the addition of sulphuric acid. Rum owes its distinctive smell and taste to a peculiar volatile ether, butyric ether or hutyrate of ethyl. It differs from other spirits in its tendency to cause perspiration ; for this reason it is often used by those suffering from colds and coughs*. THE ADULTEEATIONS OF KUM. The adulterations of rum consist chiefly in the addition of watery whereby its'strength is reduced ; of Cayenne or cocculus indicus, to give the adulterated article apparent strength ; and, lastly, of sugar and burnt sugar J to restore the sweetness and colour lost in consequence of dilu- tion. An instance leading to fatal results of the adulteration of rum with cocculus inclicus occurred some years since at Liverpool. It is recorded in Dr. Taylor's book on ^ Toxicology.' Several sailors drank a glass each of the sophisticated spirit : one- died the same evening, but the others, although made seriously ill,, ultimately recovered. Lead has been discovered in rum in some cases ; this is generally to be regarded as an accidental impregnation, the lead being derived from the worm of the still. It is in neio rum that lead is chiefly met with. Dr. Traill found that the spirit received into a tumbler as it came from the still always contained lead, but that it disappeared from the same spirit after having been kept in an oaken cask for some time. The explanation of this curious fact is, that the spirit extracts tannin from the cask, and the lead uniting with this forms an insoluble com- pound and becomes precipitated. There is a kind of nun termed ' Pineapple Kiim.' The flavour of pineapple is communicated to the spirit by steeping in it slices of the pine. Recently chemists have found out methods of imitating very exactly the flavour of the pine, and hence this artificially prepared, flavoiu-ing is often had recourse to in this country to convert not only ordinary rum, but even ordinary spirit into * Pineapple Rum.' SPIEITUOUS LIQUOES AMD TIIEIE ADULTERATIONS. 809' This flavouring iiiay be prepared by distilling butter with sulphuric acid and alcohol, or by combining amy lie or potato alcohol with butyric acid, and then dissolving the but^Tate of amyl formed in alcohol. This- flavouring is much used in sweetmeats. Results of the Examination of Sa7U2)Ies. OHiventy samples of rum subjected to analysis, the alcohol ranged from 47 per cent, by volume the highest, to 27 per cent, the lowest, while Cayenne was detected in six of the samples ; that is, some of the spirits did not contain much more than half as much alcohol as others, and consequently were of little more than half the value. The same was found, as will appear hereafter, to be the case with the gins ex- amined ; some of them contained only half the quantity of spirit that others did, and this although the price paid for them was nearly the same in all cases. THE DETECTIOI^' OF THE ADULTEKATIOXS OP ErM. The methods to be employed for the detection of loater, sugar , and Cayenne are the same as those referred to under the head of ^ Brandy.^ The processes for the detection of grains of j^ctradise and cocculus indieus will be found described in the article on ' Beer.^ It is easier to discover the presence of the latter in rimi than in beer, owing to the smaller quantity of extractive matter contained in that spirit. A very excellent method of determining the presence of cocculus indieus is to evaporate about half a pint of rum to dryness, to dissolve the extract in about ten ounces or so of water, and to place in it a small live fish. If the spirit contain picrotoxin the fish will soon ex- hibit the usual symptoms of poisoning by that deadly substance. For the process for the detection and estimation of the lead see reports on ^ Water ' and ' Vinegar.' GIN AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. DEFINITION OF ADULTERATION. Any acrid substance, sulphuric acid, combined or free, lead, zinc, and water in such proportion as to reduce the absolute alcohol to below 50 per cent, bj volume. Gin was made originally in Holland, in the distilleries of Schiedam,, and hence that which is brought to this country is termed ^ Plollands gin.' In Holland it is made solely from unmalted rye and barley malt, rectified with juniper berries. In Britain, gin is for the most part 810 SPIRITUOUS LIQUOES AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. o"btained from a mixture of malt and barley, molasses and corn Leincr sometimes employed, particularly when there is a scarcity of grain ; and it is usually flavoured not only with juniper berries, but with certain other substances, most of which are aromatics, and amongst which are the following: coriander , cardainom, and caraway seeds, grains of jiaradisCj angelica root, calamus I'oot, crushed almond cake, liquorice poivder, and orange peel. These ingredients, variously combined, form what is known in the trade as 'gin flavouring.' Pure gin should consist, as does Hollands, solely of rectified corn -spirit flavoured with juniper berries. THE ADULTERATIONS OF GIN. Gin is commonly diluted or adulterated with large quantities of water. But since the addition of water to gin renders the mixture whitish and turbid, by occasioning the precipitation of the oily and resinous matters of the juniper and other substances employed to flavour the gin previously held in solution by the spirit, it becomes necessary to * fine ' the gin, as it is termed, that is, to restore the transparency of the spirituous mixture. The substances more commonly employed for this piu'pose are alum, carbonate of j^otash, and occasionally acetate of lead. Aliun dissolved in water is first added to the weakened spirit, and then a solution of carbonate of potash. The whole is stirred together, and left at rest for twenty-four hours. The alumina of the alum, precipitated by the carbonate of potash, acts 'as a strainer upon the milky liquor, and carries down with it the finely-divided oily matter, which produces the blue colour of the diluted liquor.' — Accum. Roche alum is sometimes used for clarifying spirituous liquors without any other addition. ' Another method consists in adding first a solution of subacetate of lead, and then a solution of alum. This practice is highly dangerous, because part of the sulphate of lead produced remains dissolved in the liquor, which it thus renders poisonous. Unfortunately this method of clarifying spirituous liquors, I have good reason to believe, is more frequently practised than the preceding method, because its action is more rapid, and it imparts to the liquor a fine complexion, or great refractive power ; hence some vestiges of lead may often be detected in malt spirit.' — Accum. Another substance added to gin is sulphuric acid. Mr. Mitchell states that a mixture composed of almn, carbonate of potash, almond oil, sulphuric acid, and spirits of wine, is frequently added to gin. ' This compound,' he remarks, ' not only fines the gin, but communi- cates to it the property of "beading," or hanging in pearly drops or beads on the sides of the glass containing it. When gin does this, it is generally supposed to be strong in proportion as it beads, and. the above mixture communicates to weak gin that property, so that it will be SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 811 €\ ident gin can be considembly diluted witli water, and yet, by tbe addition of the above, appear of its proper strengtli/ But opacity is not the only evil produced by the addition of water to gin 5 the strength and flavour of the gin are so reduced that it be- comes necessary to add other substances to restore the qualities lost by dilution — these being sugar to sweeten it, and cayenne, in the form of tincture of cajisicum, or grains of j^aradise, to give it pungency and ajiparent strength. The flavour and properties of gin are further modified by the use of compounds Imown as ginjlavourings. These are composed of various cordial and aromatic substances, each distiller usually giving the preference to a formula of his own. In Dr. Muspratt's ^ Chemistry ' will be found several receipts for gin flavom-ings, copied from the note-book of an extensive spirit Tectifier. Two of these are as follows : — Plain or London Gin is made as follows : 700 gallons of the second rectification. 70 lbs. German juniper berries. 50 lbs. coriander seeds. 3^ lbs. almond cake. 1^ lb. angelica root. G lbs. liquorice powder. For the manufactiu'e of West Country Gin, known also as Plymouth gin, the annexed is the process given in Dr. Muspratt's work : — In- troduce into the still 700 gallons of the second rectification, and flavour with — 14 lbs. German juniper berries. 1 ^ lb. calamus root, cut ; and 8 lbs. sulphuric acid. This gin is much used in Cornwall, and particularly in the western counties of England: it is also used in making British Hollands, and in that case is mixed with about five per cent, of fine gin, reduced to twenty-two under proof with liquor. Amongst the ingredients enumerated in the other receipts, and not contained in those above given, are orange peel, calamus root, cassia buds, orris root, cardamoms, and grains of paradise. In Shannon's work, * On Brewing and Distilling,' we meet with the following instructions for reducing unsweetened gin, and for preparing anil sweetening British gin : — To Reduce Unsweetened Gin, A tun of fine gin 252 gallons. Water 36 „ Which, added together, make . . . 288 „ The Doctor is now put on^ and it is further reduced with water 19 „ Which gives .... 307 gallons of gin. S12 SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. ' This done, let one pound of alum be just covered with water, and dissolved by boiling ; rummage the whole well together, and pour in the alum, and the whole will be fine in a few hours. ' To Prepare and Sic set en British Gin» '■ Get from your distiller an empty puncheon or cask, which will con- tain about 133 gallons. Then take a cask of clear rectified spirits — 120 gallons — of the usual strength at which rectifiers sell their goods ; put the 120 gallons of spirits into your empty cask. ^ Then take a quarter of an ounce of oil of vitriol, half an ounce of oil of almonds, a quarter of an ounce of oil of turpentine, one ounce of oil of juniper berries, half a pint of spirit of wine, and half a pound of lump sugar. Beat or rub the above in a mortar. When well rubbed together, have ready prepared half a gallon of lime water, one gallon of rose water : mix the whole in either a pail or cask, with a stick, till every particle shall be dissolved ) then add to the foregoing twenty-five pounds of sugar dissolved in about nine gallons of rain or Thames water, or water that has been boiled : mix the whole well together, and stir them carefully with a stick in the 133-gallon cask. * To force doivn the same, take and boil eight ounces of alum in three quarts of water for three-quarters of an hour ; take it from the fire, and dissolve by degrees six or seven ounces of salt of tartar. When the same is milk warm, pour it into your gin, and stir it well together as before, for five minutes, the same as you would a butt of beer newly fined. Let your cask stand as you mean to draw it. At every time you propose to sweeten again, that cask must be well washed out, and take great care never to shake your cask while it is drawing.' But it appears there are other little practices, besides those con- nected with adulteration, which are sometimes had recoiu'se to by retailers of spirits. Mr. Shannon_, from whose work ^ On Brewing and Distilling ' we have just quoted, gives the following advice and recommendations as to certain manipulations and particulars which should be observed in retailing spirits over the counter. ' When you are to draw a sample of goods to show a person that has judgment in the proof, do not draw your goods into a phial to be^ tasted, or make experiment of the strength thereof that way, because the proof will not hold except the goods be exceedingly strong ; but draw the pattern of goods either into the glass from the cock, to run very small, or rather draw off a small quantity into a little pewter pot, and pour it into your glass, extending your pot as high above the glass as you can without wasting it, which makes the goods carry a better head abundantly than if the same goods were to be put and tried in a phial. ^ You must be so prudent as to make a distinction of the persons jou have to deal with ; what goods you sell to gentlemen for their SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 813 o\vii use who require a great deal of attendance, and as much for tune e made of pewter, and when the food was allowed to remain in the ])lates for some time, or was of a greasy or acid nature, a portion of the 824 UTENSILS EMPLOYED IN PREPARATION OF FOOD. metal was very liable to become dissolved ; and tben ag-ain, particles of the metal were sometimes actually removed either in the course of cleansing the plates, or by the action of the knife in eating. It is still no unusual circumstance to meet with such plates, and we have our- selves often eaten off them. Their great recommendation, especially in former times, when crockery was not so cheap as it is now, was their not being liable to be broken. It is also a common practice to store milk In glazed vessels. Here the same objection obtains, and danger arises, the lead of the glaze being quickly acted upon by the acids of the milk as in the case of storing milk in lead or other metallic vessels. Such glazed vessels are very commonly used in the making of cheese, especially abroad : in some instances the milk is intentionally allowed to become sour, of course with an action correspondingly great on the glaze. Vinegar, wine, spirits, and water are all very frequently stored in glazed earthenware bottles or jars, and they are all in consequence very liable to be contaminated thereby. The acid of the vinegar would of course act speedily and greatly upon the glaze ; wine and spirits also contain acids which would be liable to exert a similar action ; while some of the acids and salts of water, especially the impure waters often sent to chemists for analysis, would lead to a like result. So much is this the case, that we have been constantly in the habit of insisting that the samples of water sent for analysis should always be stored in glass vessels. In the case of water, it is not alone the glazing which becomes dissolved, but some- times a considerable quantity of the substance of the jar itself, lime and sulphuric acid being thus frequently introduced into the waters to be analysed. Again, metallic contaminations are exceedingly apt to arise from the various metals which enter into the composition of the pipes and taps employed in the storage and conveyance of various liquid articles of food. It is in this manner that the presence of lead, copper, zinc, and tin is explained in vinegar and aerated waters. Lastly, in Parkes' ^Chemical Essays' a curious practice is recorded whereby lead in the metallic state is introduced into an article of food. It appears that — ^ In some parts of the North of England it is customary for the innkeeper to prepare the mint salad by bruising and grinding the vege- tables in a large wooden bowl with a ball of lead of 12 or 14 lbs. weight. In this operation the metal is cut and portions of the lead are ground oiF at every revolution of the ponderous instrument. In the same country it is the common practice to have brewing coppers constructed with a bottom of copper, and the whole sides of lead.' From all that has been advanced it will be evident that the greatest possible cleanliness should be insisted upon in the case of all metallic cooking utensils. No food ought to be allowed to stand in them for any UTENSILS EMPLOYED IN PREPARATION OF FOOD. 825 length of time^ especially when cold, since cold liquids absorb and re- tain more oxygen than when hot ; the vessels ought, when the cooking is finished, to l3e emptied as soon as practicable and thoroughly cleansed with hot water, and be wiped quite dry, and they should not, as is too often the case, be allowed to clean themselves simply by the draining away of their contents. It should not be forgotten that the action of nearly all the metals, when introduced into the human system, is cumulative, that is to say, that the dose of one day is added to that of the day following, so that, however small, and comparatively harmless the quantity of metal introduced at a meal may be, the time at leng-th arrives when the system becomes so impregnated as to occasion injurious and even poisonous results. This view of the matter demonstrates the necessity of insisting upon the absolute freedom of all articles.consumed as food from even the minutest amount of avoidable metallic contamination. In reference to this point we may quote the following observations from Accum : — ' Though after all a single dose be not mortal, yet a quantity of poison, however small, when taken at every meal, must produce more fatal effects than are generally apprehended, and different constitutions are differently afiected by minute quantities of substances that act powerfully on the system.' We do not propose in this place to give the processes for the de- tection of the several metals to which we have referred, since they will be found fully described elsewhere in this work under their appropriate headings. APPENDIX. ON THE BLEACHING OF GINGER. {Beprinted from Tr avers ^ Son's Weekly Circular, May 7, 1860.) When water, sulphuric acid, and chloride of lime, which is a mixture of hypochlorite of calcium and of chloride of calcium, are mixed together, and agitated as in the process ordinarily adopted for the bleaching of ginger, several chemical changes ensue and continue in operation for some hours subsequent to the mixing of the ingredients. Through the action of the sulphuric acid on the hypochlorite of cal- cium, hypochlorous acid is evolved, whilst the chloride of calcium present yields hydrochloric acid. Now, since hypochlorous and hydrochloric acids cannot exist together, water and chlorine are formed, the sulphuric acid uniting with the lime, sulphate of lime resulting. Lastly, when the sul- phur is ignited to which the ginger is exposed in the last part of the process of bleaching, sulphurous acid gas is abundantly formed. Such, stated in as few words as possible, is an outline of the chief chemical changes attending the process usually pursued for the bleaching of ginger. It is obvious from the ingredients employed, as well as from a consider- ation of the changes above alluded to, that in any analysis made for the purpose of ascertaining the effects of the process on the condition and wholesomeness of the bleached ginger, the principal points which require to be determined are the quantities of lime, chlorine, and sulphuric acid contained in the unbleached and bleached gingers. These, as also certain other particulars, will be found set forth in the following analyses: — Unbleached Ginger 1,000 grs. Chlorine "45 Sulphuric acid . . 6-37 Lime 3-75 Total . 10-67 Silica 1-20 Ash 31-80 The chlorine and sulphuric acid in the unbleached ginger are in the combined states and not in union with the lime. • APPENDIX. Partly bleached Ginger. Chlorine . . 7-50 Sulphuric acid . 8*96 Lime . . . 13-49 Bleached Ginger. Chlorine . . 4-07 Sulphuric acid . 11-20 Lime . . . 12-82 Total . 29-95 Total . 28-09 Silica . Ash ... 2-04 40-3 Silica . . . 1-16 Ash .... 43-80 827 These results are strictly in accordance with what would naturally be anticipated from a knowledge of the process of bleaching followed. The analysis of the partly bleached ginger shows some increase in the amount of sulphuric acid, and a very large augmentation in the chlorine and lime ; that of the bleached shows a stiU larger amount of sulphuric acid, as also would be anticipated from the fact of its having been subjected to the fumes of burning sulphur. The silica is least in the bleached ginger, as likewise we should expect would be the case. Subtracting the amounts of chlorine, sulphuric acid, and lime found in the unbleached from those of the bleached gingers, it appears that the excess of those substances contained in the latter is as follows : — Partly bleached. Chlorine . . 7-05 Sulphuric acid . 1*59 Lime . . . 9-74 Total . 18-38 Or neariy 2 per cent. Bleached. Chlorine . . 3-62 Sulphuric acid . 4-83 Lime . . . 9*07 Total 17-52 Presuming the chlorine to be in union with the lime, as also the sul- phuric acid, and which, indeed, they are in part, they represent the subjoined amounts of chloride of calcium and sulphate of lime, leaving a large surplus of lime not combined with either the chlorine or the sulphuric acid: — Partly bleached. Chloride of calcium 10-96 Sulphate of lime . 2-70 Excess of lime . 4 '72 Bleached. Chloride of calcium 5-63 Sulphate of lime . 8-21 Surplus of lime . 3-68 It must be understood, however, that the chlorine is not all combined with lime, part of it being in the free state ; the same remark applies to the sulphuric acid, part of which was not only in the free state, but existed in the form of sulphurous acid, especially in the bleached ginger, although, in the analysis, it was more convenient to convert it into sulphuric acid. The excess of lime, not combined with either the chlorine or sulphuric acid, is explained mainly by the fact that the chloride of lime used contained much caustic lime and carbonate of lime, and was, therefore, not chemically pure. The proportion of chlorine in the chloride of lime of commerce varies very greatly. Calculating the quantities of sulphur, chlorine, sulphuric acid, and lime 828 APPENDIX. found in the partially and wholly bleached gingers for I cwt., we arrive at the following results : — Partly hleached ginger. — Per cwt. ozs. drs. grs. Chlorine . 12 5 3 Sulphuric acid 2 6 47 Lime . . 17 3 36 32 7 26 Equal to . 21bs. 7 26 BleacTied ginger, — Per cwt. ozs. drs. grs. Chlorine . 6 3 63 Sulphuric acid 8 6 13 Lime . . 16 2 31 3 This gives rather more than one-fourth of an ounce of chlorine, sulphuric acid and lime to the pound of ginger. The original amount of chloride of lime and sulphuric acid used were for the cwt. as follows : — lbs. ozs. drs. Chloride of lime 5 9 5 Sulphuric acid 1 pint l-5th. To these quantities must be added the sulphurous acid generated by the sulphur burned. It follows therefore, that not nearly the whole of the ingredients used in the bleaching are taken up by the ginger during the process. We have now before us all the elements necessary to enable us to arrive at a clear judgment as to whether the ginger is or is not rendered unwhole- some by the process pursued. From the calculations given, it appears that the entire addition of chlorine, sulphuric acid, and lime resulting from the bleaching is a little over a quarter of an ounce to the pound of ginger. Now this amount, although considerable, when we consider that ginger is a condimental sub- stance, and that it is mixed with articles of diet only in very small quanti- ties, is by no means sufficient to render the ginger unwholesome or injurious. Nevertheless, except in appearance, which is certainly greatly improved, we consider that the unbleached ginger is much to be preferred, a conclusion confirmed by the fact that the agents used extract some of the active properties of the root. An attentive consideration of the analyses shows that a chief objec- tion to the process of bleaching adopted consists, mainly, in the large quantity of sulphurous acid added to the ginger, derived from the burning of the sulphur. In the course of time this becomes converted into stdphuric acid, which, in place of bleaching, tends to darken the ginger. Now were this part of the process either omitted or modified, one objection would be obviated. There are two plans which might be followed with advantage. The first is, that the ginger, after exposure to the fumes of sulphur, should be well washed in pure water. This would serve to remove the greater part of the free sulphurous acid. The second plan consists in the substitution for the sulphur of the hy- posulphites of soda or lime. This should be placed in water, the ginger APPENDIX. 829 added, and the sulphurous acid liberated by the addition of a little sulphuric acid. Finally, the ginger should be washed in water and dried. The sul- phites are valuable and powerful bleaching agents. THE DETECTION OF ALUM IN BREAD. It appears that we now possess an easy and certain method for the detection of alum in bread. Professor Hadow, of King's College, London, formerly suggested the immersion of the bread in a decoction of logwood^ whan the presence of alum he affirmed would be indicated by the appearance of a blue coloration. But this process has long since been declared to be quite worthless, and had been generally abandoned, until Mr. Horsley, of Cheltenham, succeeded in improving it by certain modifications, so that by it we are now able to detect even very small quantities of alum in a very ready manner. The preparation of the necessary solutions is as follows : — An alcoholic solution of logwood is obtained by digesting half an ounce of logwood in 10 ounces of methylated spirit for eight hours and filtering. A saturated aqueous solution of ammonium carbonate is also prepared. A teaspoonful of each of these solutions is then diluted with about a wine- glassful of water, and a thick slice of the crumb of the bread suspected to contain alum is then placed in the dark red liquid. The bread is allowed to soak till it is quite soft, which will be the case in about five minutes, and is then placed on a white plate. If alum be present in large quantity the bread will have assumed a dark indigo-blue colour, whilst with smaller amounts the colour will be more or less blue, but with very small quan- tities it is sometimes difficult to say whether the colour is red or blue. We have tested this method carefully, examining the bread both chemi- cally and by means of Mr. Horsley's method, and we have found that the one method corroborates the other. THE ADULTEBATION OF BEER. During the last few years German and especially Bavarian beer has been larg< ly adulterated with the flowers, tubers, and seeds of Colchkum autumnale, all (if which contain the highly poisonous and bitter alkaloid Colchwin, G-re; t quantities of this plant are gathered in meadows, where it is conspicu- ous in autumn by its purplish blue flowers, and in spring by its leaves and seed capsules. As far as we are aware, the alkaloid has not been detected in the beer itself, but of the employment of the plant no doubt whatever exists. Beans and peas are also largely used to adulterate Bavarian beer, and so to save malt. AVlien recently a large brewery at Munich was consumed by fire, and the fire-1 irigade officers gained entrance into the brewing-rooms, more peas and beans were found than malt, and the brewer, after some hesitation, acknow- ledged that he had employed them for a long time in the preparation of the wort I nfortunately the German sanitary laws are as yet so imperfect as to afford but little protection against such frauds. 830 GENEEAL SUMMARY OF ADULTEEATION. Havin^g now treated very fully of the adulterations practised upon nearly all articles of consumption, both Food and Drink, we are in a position to take with advantage a review of the whole subject, and to treat of adulteration in its more general and important aspects and relations. Thus — amongst other points — to define what constitutes adulteration ; to prove its prevalence ; to consider the excuses lu-ged in extenuation and the real causes of its prevalence ; who are the parties guilty of adulteration ; to give a classification of the substances em- ployed ; to show the importance of the question in its commercial, sanitary, and moral bearings ; and, lastly, to treat of the means which may be employed for the discovery and prevention of adulteration. DEEINITION OF ADULTEKATION. 1. The sale of one article in place of another is not an adulteration, but a substitution — as of chicory for cofiee, of foreign animal fat for butter. 2. So, likewise, the abstraction of any portion or constituent of an article, as of the fatty matter or cream from milk, or the butter from cocoa. 3. The presence of substances in articles in consequence of im- purities contained in the materials with which they were prepared, as, for example, of arsenic in the hydrochloric acid used in the pre- paration of unfermented bread, does not constitute adulteration ; they are simply impurities. 4. The accidental presence of substances, in any commodity, as of earthy matter in pepper and tea, is not an adulteration. 5. The presence of substances derived from the vessels or utensils in which the articles are prepared or cooked, as of copper in vinegar, pickles, &c., of lead, arsenic, antimony, tin and other metals in various articles of consumption. These can hardly be termed accidental impurities, since they are the known and inevitable results of the use of such vessels. Excluding, then, from the class of adulterations all cases of substitutioriy abstraction^ of impurities and contaminations , whether J GENERAL SUMMARY OF ADULTERATION. 831 accidental or resulting from the employment of certain vessels used for preservation, storing or cooking, adulteration may be thus de- fined: — It consists in the intentional addition to an article of any substance or substances, the presence of which is not acknoioledged in the name under which the article is sold, for purposes of gain, deception, or concealment. It is not easy so to frame a definition which shall apply to every case : that now given does, however, most certainly embrace the great majority of adijdterations practised, and it excludes substitutions, abstractions, impurities, and contaminations, because it specifies that th(3 addition must be intentional. According to this definition the sale of faced green tea, the pre- sence of copper in bottled and tinned fruits or vegetables, of coffee containing chicory for and as coffee, of cocoa, into which sugar and starch have been purposely introduced, and of mustard, containing .flour and turmeric, as cocoa and mustard, constitute so many adulte- rations. The consumer entering a shop and asking for any article has a right to expect he will be supplied with that which he demands, and for which he pays ; and he ought not to be furnished with a mix- ture of articles not acknowledged in the name under which the mixture is sold, and the nature and proportions of the ingredients entering into which are almost always unknown to him. This right undeniably belongs to the purchaser, and any wilful violation of it constitutes adulteration. The words coffee, cocoa, and mustard convey distinct ideas : these names have been bestowed upon certain vegetable productions — coffee upon the berries of the coifee plant, cocoa and mustard upon the seeds bruised and reduced to powder of the cocoa and mustard plants : any application, therefore, of these words to mixtures and compounds is obviously improper, and in many cases is in a high de- gree deceptive. The plea that the addition of chicory to coffee, of flour and sugar to (;ocoa, of turmeric and flour to mustard, as well as numerous other additions, constitute improvements, ought not to avail. In nineteen castas out of twenty, these additions are no improvements at all ; and, wh'ire they really are so, the mixtures ought to be acknowledged in the names under which such mixed articles are sold ; and not only ought this to be done, but the proportions of the several ingredients shoLild in strict fairness be likewise stated. In our opinion, therefore, in the sale of mixed articles, the law shoald require — (1.) That the mixed article should not be sold under the name of any one of its constituents ; (2.) That the name given it shoald show that it is a mixture ; and (3.) That the proportion of all the principal constituents should be stated. Thus it should not be lawful, as it is now, to sell under the name 832 GENERAL SUMMAKY OF ADULTERATION. of miLstard a compound of wheat flour, turmeric, and cayenne pepper, with in some cases scarce!}^ any mustard at all, or as coffee a mixture consisting almost exclusively of chicory, even although the ad- mixture is acknowledged in general terms by affixing a label to the package, with a statement that the article is mixed. Such labels are usually printed in inconspicuous characters, and are placed upon some obscure part of the package, so that they frequently escape the notice of the purchaser, besides which, amongst the poor there are large nimibers of people, and children particularly, who are unable to read at all. The Sale of Food and Drugs Act fails to meet in this particular the requirements of justice, for although it stipulates that mixtures should be sold as such, it makes no provision as to the names under which they are sold, or as to the proportions of the ingredients. Thus, mixed mustard, coffee and cocoa will all be sold under the name of the unmixed and pure articles. But any measure dealing with the subject of adulteration ought to contain provisions to meet cases of substitution, abstraction, and those impurities of food due to carelessness or permitted for certain special objects, as, for example, the removal of copper from the vessels for the purpose of greening picldes and preserves. The recent Sale of Food and Drugs Act does in fact take notice of substitution and abstraction, but it especially exempts impurities of all kinds, although their presence may be due to culpable negligence, or even to inten- tional admixture, as the large quantity of earthy matter frequently contained in pepper and tea, and in this respect, as in so many others, the Act in question is defective. By including cases of substitution and abstraction, the framers of the Act referred to were enabled to get rid of the word adulteration altogether, which word, strange to say, is not once mentioned in the Act, although of course nearly the whole of the offences under it are cases of adidteration. This course was not at all necessary, as it would have been veiy easy to have included substitutions and ab- stractions under adulterations, but one need not go far to find the reason for the abandonment of the word adulteration. The Sale of Food and Drugs Act is for the most part the work of the manufac- turers of articles of food — to them the word in question is an abomination, and so it was cleverly determined to burk it altogether. According to the Act referred to there is now no such thing as adulteration, this wholesome and meaning word being therein entirely abolished. Another defect of the Act alluded to is that it does not contain any definitions of adulterations, as it ought to have done. A schedule should have been given, setting forth under the name of each article what constitutes adulteration. Such a document it would have been very easy to have prepared, and it would have put an end to the doubts, difficulties and contradictions which are certain to arise under GENERAL SUMMARY OFaBWtERATION. 833 tlie present Act, because it -would define plainly what was prohibited ill the case of every article. The schedule should have been framed in fact in the manner in which the definitions are drawn up which head the different chapters of this work. PREVALENCE OF ADTJLTERATION". The following particulars will serve to convey some idea of the great prevalence of adulteration. During the course of the six years from 1850 to 1856 the author <3xamined over 3,000 samples of the principal articles of consumption, as well as many drugs, and the one great result of this extended ■experience went to prove that during those years there were few articles of consumption the adulteration of which was practicable, and which, at the same time, could be rendered profitable, which were not extensively subjected to adulteration. Since the period referred to he has analysed some thousands of additional samples with the gratifying result that adulteration does not now prevail to anything like its former extent, this result being due to several causes : — To the exposures made for so long a period in the * Lancet ' ; to the increased facilities for detecting adulteration ; to the several enquiries into the subject by Parliamentary Committees ; and to the Acts which have been passed dealing with the subject. But although not nearly so prevalent as formerly, it yet does prevail to it, large extent, and we believe that it is again increasing, and that much legalised adulteration will take place under the Sale of Food and Drugs Act, a measure framed in the interests of the manufacturers of, and dealers in, food. The evidence of the former prevalence of adulteration does not, how- ever, rest upon the testimony, undeniable as that evidence has been shown to be, of a single enquirer ; but many scientific observers of un- doubted capabilities, and in every respect trustworthy, have testified to the same effect ; as, in this country, Accum, Mitchell, Normandy, •Gray, O'Shaughnessy, Pereira, Thomson, Warington, Taylor, Calvert, •Quekett, Bastick, Gay, Phillips of the Excise, and many others ; and abroad, MM. Garnier and Harel and M. Chevallier. The numerous witnesses examined before the Parliamentary Com- mittee on Adulteration, of 1855, with one or two unimportant excep- tions, concurred in their statements respecting the general prevalence of adulteration. Indeed, so conclusive was the evidence deemed that the Committee admitted that they had been constrained to acknowledge that the statements made as to the extensive practice of adulteration had been fully confirmed by the enquiry, and that legislation had been rendered imperative. I'he Committee stated, in their Report, that they ^ cannot avoid the conclusion that adulteration widely prevails.' ' Not onlv is the public 3h 834 GENERAL SUMMARY OF ADULTERATION. health thus exposed to danger, and pecuniary fraud committed on the whole community, hut the puhlic morality is tainted, and the high commercial character of the country seriously lowered hoth at home and in the eyes of foreign countries/ These are grave statements and admissions, made on the very highest authority. Of course no evidence can he more satisfactory or conclusive than that of witnesses who speak to what they themselves have ascertained in the course of their investigations ; there is, however, evidence of the existence of adulteration of another kind, and that is the occasional supply of articles of consumption to workhouses and other puhlic estahlishments under market price. We have hecome acquainted with more than one instance of this kind, especially in the articles arrowroot and oatmeal ; the diiFerence in price heing ascertained to have heen made up hy adulteration. Dr. Normandy concluded his evidence hefore the Parliamentary Committee refeiTed to with this remark : — ^ Adulteration is a wide-spread evil, which has invaded every hranch of commerce ; everything which can he mixed or adulterated or dehased in any way, is dehased.^ To the general accm-acy of this declaration our own experience compelled us to suhscrihe. It may in the next place be considered how it happens that adulte- ration is so prevalent. Various reasons have heen assigned to account for this prevalence : the majority of these have heen suggested by parties more or lesf^ interested in adulteration, either directly or indirectly ; the principal of them we shall proceed to notice, and first those reasons, or rather excuses, which have heen urged in defence of adulteration. EXCUSES URGED IK EXTEXUATIOK OF ADFLTERATIOX. One reason assigned in defence of many adulterations is that they are practised in obedience to the wishes and tastes of the public. Another, that the additions made to several articles constitute im- provements. It is on the first of these pleas that the practice of colouring red sauces, potted meats, and fish with bole armenian ; cheese with annatto ; pickles, bottled fruits, and vegetables with copper ; and sugar confectionery with various pigments consisting of salts of arsenic, copper, lead, and antimony, is excused. Now, although it may be true that the public, in some instances, prefer the more highly coloured article, yet they do so as a mere ques- tion of appearance, and in total ignorance of the means by which these colours are obtained ; these means explained, and the public made aware of the fact that they are produced by some of the most poisonous substances known, it is not correct to say that they would M GENERAL SUM3IAIIY OF ADULTERATION. 835 Imowingly sanction the use of tliese poisons, and would prefer, merely for the sake of colour, articles which were known to contain injurious substances to those which are pure and wholesome. It is on the second of these pleas, viz., that the additions made to several articles constitute so many improvements, that the addition of chicory to coffee is defended ; wheat-floiu* and turmeric to mustard ; sugar and starch to cocoa ; sulphuric acid to vinegar. We have already treated of the addition of chicory to coffee, and of sugar and starch to cocoa ; and have shown that it is very questionable whether chicory is an improvement to coffee, and whether it is not positively hurtful ; if it be an improvement, still it is proper that each of the articles called chicory and coffee should be sold by itself, and used or not by the public as it might wish. In the case of cocoa it has been proved that the sugar and starch are emplo3^ed in many cases to such an extent that the compound of starch, sugar, and cocoa scarcely retains the flavour or smell of the latter substance, while its colour is so altered and reduced, that it becomes necessary to have recourse to coloured earths to bring it up to its proper standard. The manufacturer tells us that mustard by itself is so disagreeable that we could not eat it, and hence the use of wheat-flour and timneric. But the answer to this statement is that, in some of the so-called mustards, the tm'meric and wheat-flour are so out of proportion that the compound scarcely retains the flavour of mustard. Again, that genuine mustard cannot be so impalatable a thing is proved by the fact that there are now some manufactm'ei*s who profess to seU nothing but the genuine article. Another plea m'ged in extenuation of certain additions is, that they are necessary in order to make the articles keep. It was on this ground that the legislature was brought to sanction the addition of sulphuric acid to vinegar ; but that it has no real foundation in this case is shown by the fact that there are now manufacturers conducting extensive establishments who do not add even the smallest proportion of sul- phuric acid to their vinegar. When, therefore, the manufacturer or seller defends any particular admixture or adulteration, on any of the pleas referred to, namely, that it is practised to suit the public taste, that it is an improvement, or that it is necessary in order to make the article keep, we would ad\dse our readers to look well into the matter for themselves. They will be almost sm-e to find something wrong, some fallacy at the bottom of these statements. They will too often find that this pretended regard for the wishes and tastes of the public resolves itself into a question of gain to the manufactm^er or trader. Another plea sometimes urged in extenuation of adulteration, and perhaps there is something in it, but not much, is that it is impossible to supply genuine articles at the prices the public are willing to pay for thorn. 8 H 2 836 GENERAL SUMMARY OF ADULTERATION. No doubt the public like to obtain wliat tliey require at as cbeap a rate as possible, — but it is for the trader to fix the prices at which he can afFoi-d to sell his <^oods, and not the public ; further, if it were ex- plained to the public by the dealer that he could not answer for the quality or purity of the very cheap articles sold, there are, we believe, very few persons who would be so silly as to prefer the adulterated to the genuine article, although the former might be apparently the cheaper. We say apparently cheaper y because in many cases these so-called cheap articles are really the dearest in the end, for, owing to the extent to which they are adulterated, they do not go nearly so far as genuine articles would do. The public then, we consider, is but little at fault. It merely requires to be made acquainted with the true and actual state of things, and there is no doubt but that in ninety-nine out of every hundred cases it would prefer the genuine to the adul- terated commodity, even although for this a somewhat higher price had to be paid. A further excuse sometimes urged in defence of certain adultera- tions is that they do no harm. By this plea we suppose is meant that they are not hurtful to the health, but only to the pocket. On this ground the adulteration of milk with water is sometimes de- fended. Now we are of opinion that there are few more scandalous and indirectly injurious adulterations than this. Milk is an important and prime article of diet, full of nourishment, and in proportion as water is added, so are those who partake of the diluted compound robbed of their proper nourishment. Such are some of the excuses employed in defence of adulteration. That they should be urged by certain manufacturers and traders, whose profits in some cases are so largely dependent upon adulteration, is not so surprising ; but what really is astonishing is that thei-e should be found some few men, very few, we are happy to state, of more or less scientific repute, who, influenced by certain considerations of interest, lend the weight of their names and use their scientific attain- ments in defence of adulteration. Science is never so rightly or so nobly employed as when it ministers to the wants and well-being of mankind, and especially when it is used for the protection of the public health. On the other hand, is it not an unworthy and an ignoble use to make of science to employ it in defence of practices which even those who defend them most in their own consciences must condemn ? And yet there are men who thus demean themselves. Thus they endeavour, if possible, to get up a cry of exaggeration, and this in the face of evidence of the most conclusive and demon- strative character. Another course pursued is to cite some of the less important in- stances of adulteration, as, for example, the addition of almn to bread, of water to spirits, and to argue from them as though they were not, GENERAL SUMMARY OF ADULTERATION. 837 as they really are, parts of a system, but as if they were the worst iustances of adulteration, and as though the entire case rested upon tliem. Another favoiu-ite plea used in extenuation of adulteration is that the quantities in which some of the substances are employed, as those used for the sake of colour, are too inconsiderable to be pro- ductive of hurtful results. This is so sometimes, but it certainly is not the case in the ma- jority of instances. In many cases injurious consequences have been actually proved to ensue; thus many persons have been poisoned outright, and have lost their lives, from the use of coloured sugar confectionery; others have been rendered seriously ill. Oases of lead paralysis have been produced by the lead purposely introduced into snuiF, and the same, it has been asserted, has occurred from the use of cayenne coloured or adulterated with red lead. Again, illness of a serious, and even fatal, character has been produced by the use of poisonous adulterants not pigments, as from lead in wine, cocculus indicus in beer and spirits. Indeed, instances might be mul- tiplied to a large extent of disease originating in the use of substances employed for adulteration. Who can tell how many invalids and tender children have fallen victims to the dangerous adulterations practised upon food, drinks, and drugs, if the true causes of premature death could be traced out in all such cases ?. That dyspeptic ailments often owe their origin to the adulteration of articles of food is un- questionable. Besides, if the employment of poisonous pigments and other substances is to be permitted at all, what guarantee or seciu'ity have we against accidents resulting from the careless and ignorant use of such poisonous or injiurious articles ? The only right and safe principle upon which to act we maintain is to discard the use of all additions to articles of consumption that are unnecessary, or which may pos- sibly become a source of danger. Again, it must be remembered that the ill eifects of adulteration cannot be estimated by the quantity of any particular ingredient contained in any one article. So prevalent is adulteration, that in the course of a single day it often happens that several injiuious ingredients are partaken of, and in order to arrive at any correct conclusion we must therefore take the sum of the whole of these ingredients. Lastly, in endeavoming to estimate the effects of adulteration on health, the fact must be borne in mind that some of the metallic poisons used are what are called cumulative. We have been induced to enter into an examination of the various pleas on which the practice of adulteration is sometimes defended, in order that when the readers of this work hear them urged, as some of them doubtless will, they may know what they are really worth, and how they may be refuted. Having noticed the various pleas on which adulteration is de- 838 GENERAL SUMMARY OF ADULTERATION. fended, we liave still to consider to what cause or causes its prevalence is due. REAL CAUSES OF THE TREVALENCE OF ADULTERATION. The great cause which accounts for the larger part of the adul- temtion which prevails is the desire of increased profit ; a second cause is excessive and unfair competition. A tmder, perceiving that his neighbour in the same business is selling his goods at prices at which, if genuine, it would be impossible to realise a profit, knows that this can only be done by having recom'se to adulteration, and finding that he cannot compete with his unscrupulous fellow-trader, at length he himself too often has recourse to the same practice. We thus per- ceive how difficult it is for many tradesmen who desire to do so to conduct their business in an honourable way, and to resist the tempt- ation to adulterate. The main causes of the prevalence of adultera- tion are, then, the desire of increased profit and excessive and unfair competition. WHO ARE THE PARTIES GUILTY OF ADULTERATION? The next question for consideration is : Who are the parties guilty of adulteration ? The answer is, in some cases, the manufacturers, and in others the retail dealers. This distinction is of the utmost importance, especially with reference to the means to be adopted for the discovery and sup- pression of adulteration. Some of the adulterations practised require to be so on the large scale, and involve the use of extensive machinery, which the trades- man does not possess ; and in consequence certain adulterations, as of flour, of chicory, of cocoa, of spices, and of many drugs, are practised by the grinders and roasters of those articles ; there is a class of persons Imown as spice and drug grinders, with whom lies much of the fault of the adulteration of spices and drugs. In the drug trade the practice at one time was very general, and it stiU prevails to some extent, of adding sawdust of different kinds, as well as other articles, in order, it was m^ged in excuse, to make up for the varying and average loss sustained by different drugs in the course of drying and grinding to a uniform loss of 4 per cent. This is called the 4 per cent, system ; however, the practice does not stop here, but leads to every species and degree of abuse. The adulterations of mustard, vinegar, annatto, snuff, coloured sugar confectionery, and some other articles, are also usually practised by the manufacturers. There are good reasons why, in many cases, the manufactm'er should be the adulterator. Not only has he the necessary machinery and other means of performing the requisite operations on a large scale, but the GENEEAL SUMMAHY OF ADULTEEATION. 839 Tesponsibility of adulteration is tlius taken off tlie shoulders of the tens of thousands of traders by whom the public is immediately supplied, and is confined in some degree to the comparatively small body of nianufactm-ers^ whose proceedings are conducted in retirement and secrecy, and whose premises are not accessible to the public. The retail trader, however, takes in many cases his share in the work of adulteration ; as one example, we may mention that much of the adulteration of beer and spirits is perpetrated by the publican. Even in those cases in which the retailer does not himself adulterate, he often piu-chases of adulterating merchants with guilty Imowledge ; thus, in many cases, he is aware of the fact that the article he pur- chases is adulterated from the price paid for it being less than that at which the genuine article can be procured. In such cases the trades- man is a party to the fraud, and is as guilty as the actual perpetrator of "the adulteration. It should be Imown that even the purchasing of articles of con- sumption in the raw state by the trader afibrds no certain guarantee for the genuineness of those articles, provided they are afterwards •sent to the grinder or manufacturer to be ground or manufatured. "We have known tradesmen who, wishing to protect themselves as far as possible against adulteration, have purchased the best cocoa T:>eans and chicory nibs, and have then sent them to the grinder to he prepared, but, upon being returned to them, they were found to be adulterated. Messrs. Ridgway & Co., of King William Street, forwarded to the author, some years since, some flake cocoa for ex- amination : this was found to be adulterated with wheat-flour. ]Messrs. Ridgway then stated that they had purchased the best cocoa Iteans they could procure, and sent them to the manufacturer to be siiade into ^ake cocoa, which should consist of nothing but cocoa. I^he manufacturer, in this case, had subtracted some of the cocoa, and had replaced it with wheat-flour. Since this occm'red Messrs. Ridgway have had a mill erected on their premises, so as to be •enabled to make their own flake cocoa. Now it must not be inferred from these remarks that there are not many honest manufacturers and traders connected with the manu- fjicture and sale of articles of consmnption. We know that there are many such, and on behalf of some of those who either are really guilty of, or who lend themselves to adulteration, the excuses may be urged that until veiy recently the legislature has been indiflerent to this subject, and did not protect the honest trader, and that in self-defence, and for very livelihood's sake, he is often driven to •adulterate. CLASSIPICATION^ OF ADULTEEATION. Not only is adulteration prevalent, but the articles employed are xe.ry numerous — different kinds of substances being used for different 840 GENERAL SUMMARY OF ADULTERATION. purposes. The majority of substances used are so for one of tliree purposes : either for the sake of hulh or iceightj the articles used of coui'se being cheaper than those to which they are added ; for the sake of colour, that is, to heighten and improve the appearance of articles as it is considered, often erroneously, the natural colour of such articles being frequently altered and reduced b}^ dilution with other adulter- ating substances added for bulk and weight ; or, lastly, to increase the ^mngency of articles and to heighten their properties dixA flavour. The first kind of adulteration is the more usual form, and is that by which the practice is rendered so profitable ; the second, that which consists in the addition of colouring matters of various kinds, is often necessitated by the first kind, so that these two descriptions of adul- teration frequently go together. An example of the first kind of adulteration is fiu'nished by the addition of roasted com to chicory or coffee powders, and of water to milk. Of the second, in the addition of red lead to cayenne, Venetian red, umber, &c., to chicory and cocoa ; while an example of the third form of adulteration is met with in the addition of alkalies, as also the chromates of potash, hellebore, and powdered glass to snuff". Now it is in the second class, viz., that which consists in the em- ployment of colouring matters of various kinds, that the majorit}^ of those adulterations are included which are prejudicial to health ; this will be seen more clearly hereafter. So numerous and various are the substances employed for adulter- ation that a classification of them according to the article in which they are encountered, and the purpose to which they are applied, be- comes useful. Such a classification is given in the following tables. The annexed table contains only the names of those substances which we have ourselves ascertained, by original observations and analyses, to be actually employed for the adulteration of articles of food ; it does not include drugs. GENERAL SUMMAET OF ADULTEEATION. 841 Classijied List of the varioiis Substances ascertained hy Ourselves to he Employed for the different Purposes of Adulteration : viz. for Bulk and Weighty for Colour^ or for Smelly Taste, and other Properties. For Taste, Smell, For Bulk and Weight. For Colour. and other Anxatto. Properties. Eye, Wheat, and Barley- Turmeric, Red ferru- Sulphate of Cop- Flours, Turmeric, Car- ginous Earths, Salt, per. bonate and Sulphate of Alkali. Lime, Red ferruginous Earths, Red Lead, Salt. Arrowkoot , Sago, Potato, and Tapioca Starches, and various mixtures and combina- tions of these with the inferior Arrowroots. AXCHOVIES Dutch, French, and Sici- Bole Araienian, Vene- han Fish. tian Red. BlIANDY . Water. .. Burnt Sugar. BllEAD . Mashed Potatoes, Rice, .. Alum, Hards and Beans, Rye, Indian Stiiff. Corn. Butter . Water, Foreign Fat, Curd, and excess of Salt. BC>TTLED Salts of Copper, usu- Salt. Fruits and ally the Acetate or Vegetables Sulphate. Cheese . .. A nnatto, Bole Ai-me- nian, Venetian Red. Sage, Parsley. Coloured East India Arrowroot, Cochineal, Lake, In- Artificial Essen- Confectiox- Wheat and Potato digo, Prussian Blue, ces, as Acetate i;ry. Flour, Hydrated Sul- Antwerp Blue, Ar- of Ethyl, Buty- phate of Lime. tificial Ultrama- rate of Amyl, rine, Carbonate of Acetate of Copper or Verditer, Amyl, Valeri- Carbonate of Lead, anate of Amyl. or Wliite Lead, Red Lead, Vermilion ; Chromates of Lead, Lemon, Orange and deep ; Gamboge ; Sap Green ; the three Brunswick Greens, Emerald ■ Green or Arsenite of Copper, Indian Red ; brown fer- ruginous Earths, chiefly Umber, Sienna, and Van- dyke Brown, and various combina- tions of the above pigments. 842 GENERAL SUMMARY OF ADULTERATION. List of Substances (^continued). ClNNAMOX For Bulk and Weight. For Colour. For Taste, Smell, and other Properties. Cassia, and most of the articles mentioned un- der Spices. COPFEE . Chicory, Roasted Wheat, Rye and Potato Flours, Roasted Beans, Mangel- wurzel, Acorns. Burnt Sugar or Black Jack, Venetian Red. , Chicory , Roasted Wlieat and Rye Flours, Burnt Beans and Acorns, Sawdust, Ma- hogany Sawdust, Car- rots, Mangel-wurzel. Ferruginous Earths, as Venetian Red and Umber, Burnt Sugar or Black Jack. Cocoa and Chocolate. Maranta, East India, and Tacca or Tahiti Arrow- roots ; Tons les Mois ; the Flours of Wheat, Indian Corn, Sago, Po- tato, and Tapioca, and various Mixtures of these ; Sugar, Chicory, Cocoa Husks. Venetian Red, Red Ochre, and other ferruginous Earths. Cayenne Pep- per. Ground Rice, Mustard Husk, Salt. Red Lead, VermiHon or Bisulphuret of Mercury, Venetian Red, Turmeric. Custard and Egg Pow- ders. Wlieat, Potato, and Rice Flours. Chrome Yellow or Chromate of Lead, Tiunneric. Curry Pow- der. Ground Rice, Potato- farina, Salt. Red Lead. Salt. Flour . Rice, Beans, Rye, Indian Corn, Potato Flour. .. Alum. Ginger . Wheat, Sago, and Potato Flours, Ground Rice, Mustard Husks. Turmeric Powder. Cayenne Pepper. Gin Water, Sugar. Cayenne, Cassia or Cinnamon, Sugar, and fla- vouring of dif- ferent kinds. For fining, Alum, Salt of Tartar. Honey . Cane Sugar. Isinglass Gelatine. GENERAL SUMMARY OF ADULTERATION. List of Stihstances (continued). 843 Lard For Bulk and Weight. For Colour. For Taste, Smell, and other Properties. Potato Flour "Water. Alum. Salt, Carbonate of Soda, Caus- tic Lime. L]:mon and Lime Juices Water. .. Sulphuric Acid. Liquorice Wheat Flour, Potato Starch, boiled Starch, probably Rice, Chalk, and Gelatine. MVLT Beve- UAGES. Water, Sugar, Treacle. Burnt Sugar, Liquo- rice. Alum, Sulphate of Iron, Salt. Mustard Wheat Flour, Turmeric, Cayenne Pepper. Turmeric. Milk . Water. Annatto. M.UIJIALADE . Pulp of Apple or Turnip. Oatmeal. Barley Flour, and the in- teguments of Barley caUed Rubble. Porter and Stout. Water. Sugar, Treacle. Sugar, Treacle, Salt. Pickles . .. Salts of Copper, usu- ally the Acetate of Copper. Potted Meats .visD Fish. Flour, probably Wheat Flour, boiled. Bole Armenian, and sometimes Vene- tian Red. Preserves . Inferior and cheaper Fruit, Apple, &c. Salts of Copper, in- cluding the Ace- tate, Fuchsine. Pepper . Wheat and Pea Flour, Ground Rice, Ground Mustard Seeds, Linseed Meal, P. D., or Pepper- Dust, Sand, Woody Fibre. SAfrO Potato Flour. TI^NED Vege- tables. Sulphate of Copper. RU.AI Water. .. Cayenne, Burnt Sugar. Sugar . Wheat Flour, Potato Flour, and Tapioca Starch. 844 GENERAL SUMMAHY OF ADULTERATION. List of Substances (continued). Spices : Cloves CiNNAMo:r . Pimento Mixed Spice , Sauces, as the Essences of Anchovies, Lobsters, and Shrimps, and Tomato Sauce. Tea. Vinegab Wine For Bulk and Weight. Powdered Clove-stalks in one case. Cassia, Wheat Flour, Sago Meal, and mixtures of these ; East India Arrowroot, Potato Flour. Mustard Husk in one in- stance. Wheat, Sago, and Potato Flours, Ground Rice, two Vegetable Sub- stances, one of which resembled Linseed. Exhausted Tea Leaves; Leaves, other than those of Tea, British and Foreign, amongst the former those of Sj'- camore, Horse-Chest- nut, and Plum ; Lie Tea, Paddy Husk, Sand, Quartz,Magnetic Oxide of Iron, Starch. Water. Extraneous Spirit, Water. For Colour. Red ferruginous Earths, as Bole Ar- menian and Vene- tian Red. Plumbago or Black Lead, Gum, Indigo, Prussian Blue, Tur- meric, Chinese Yel- low, China Clay, Soap-stone or French Chalk, Mica and Sulphate of Lime. Burnt Sugar. For Taste, Smell, and other Properties. Sulphate of Iron, Catechu, Gum, La Veno Beno, Chinese Botan- ical Powder. Sulphuric and Py- roligneous Acid. Cane Sugar, Sul- phate of Po- tash. Of tlie two following tables the one is of articles ascertained to be used by others ; the second, of articles stated to be employed by different writers, but of the use of which no positive proof is given, although there is no doubt but that most of them either have been or are occasionally employed. GENEBAL SUMMARY OF ADULTERATION. 845 List of Articles ascertained by Others to be used for the Purpose of Adulteration. E(rrTLED Fruits and Vegetables For Bulk and Weight. For Colour. For Taste, Smell, and other Proi^erties. Decoctionof Logwood, Beetroot, and Ani- line Colouring. Bread . .. Sulphate of Copper. Cheese . Potatoes, Beans. Mangold Flowers, Saffron, Red Car- rots. Sage, Parsley. Chicory . ("Joffe3 Flights. Hambro' Powder. Flour . Mineral White or Hy- drated Sulphate of Lime. Gin. ! . Grains of Para- dise, Sulphuric Acid, various Gin Flavour- ings, contain- ing Coriander Seeds, Angelica Boot, Oil of Almonds, Cala- mus Root, Al- mond Cake, Or- ris Root, Car- damom Seeds, Orange Peel, Grey and White Salts. Lard Mutton Suet. Alum, Potash. ilALT Beve- rages. .. .. Cocculuslndicus, Picric Acid, Colchicum, Tobacco. Milk and Cream. Flour or Starch, Boiled "White Carrots, Treacle, Gum and Dextrin. Mustard Ginger, Charlock, Potato Flour, Rice, Clay, Plas- ter of Paris. OATME.iL Rice and Maize. 846 GENEEAL SUMMARY OF ADULTERATION. List of Substances (continued) » For Taste, Smell, For Bulk and Weight. For Colour. and other PORTEIl A^'D Properties. CocculusLidicus, Ale. Grains of Para- dise, Capsicum, Ginger, Quas- sia, Worm wood. Calamus Root, Caraway and CorianderSeeds, Ginger, Orange Powder,Liquor- ice. Honey, Sul- phate of Iron, Sulphuric Acid, Cream of Tar- tar, Alum, Car- bonate of Po- tash. Oyster Shells, Harts- horn Shavings, Fabia amara or Nux Vomica, Beans. Rum .. .. Cocculuslndicus. Sugar . Potato Sugar, Gum, Dex- trin. Tea The Leaves of Beech, Rose Pink, Dutch Plane, Bastard Plane, Pink, Vegetable Elm, Poplar, Willow, Red and Yellow Fancy Oak, Hawthorn, Dyes, Chrome Yel- Sloe. low, Venetian Red, Carbonate of Cop- per, Arsenite of Copper, Chromate and Bichromate of Potash, Carbonates of Lime and Mag- nesia. WlXE Jerupiga, Cider, mixtures Elderberry Juice, Lead, Bitartrate of inferior and different Logwood, Brazil of Potash, Oak Wines, the juice of Wood, Bilberries, Sawdust, Cate- Rhubarb, Gooseberries, Burnt Sugar, Black chu, Cherry Apples, and Peai-s. Cherries, Cochi- Laurel Water, neal, Mallow Flow- Carbonates of ers. Soda and Po- tash, Artificial Flavouring. GENERAL STJMIVIAIIY OF ADULTEEATION. 847 List of Articles stated hy Others to he employed for the different Purposes of Adulteration, hut of the Use of which no Positive Evidence has been adduced, although it is extremely prohahle that many of them have heen, or are occasion- ally, had recourse to. For Bulk and Weight. For Colour, For Taste, Smell, and other Properties. Arro^vroot Ground Rice. .Vnchovies . Sprats, Sardines, Plaster of Paris. Bread . Barley, Oat, Pea Flour, Pipe Clay, Plaster of Paris, Bonedust, Car- bonates of Lime, Mag- nesia, and Soda. COIX)URED CONFECTION- EUY. White Potter's Clay, Pipe Clay, or Cornish Clay ; Chalk, Sand. Cobalt, Smalt, Lit- mus, Naples Yellow. Coffee . Roasted Peas, Coffee Grounds, Carrots, Beet- root, Parsnip, Baked Liver. Madder Root. Chicory . Torrefied Ground Rice, Roasted Biscuit, Oak Bark Tan, Exhausted Tan, called Croats. Baked Horses' Liver, Burnt Blood. Cocoa and Chocolate. Old Sea Biscuits, Coarse Branny Flour, Animal Fats, as Tallow, Lard, Treacle, Sulphate of Lime, Chalk. Red Lead, Yermilion, Bed and Yellow Ochre. Flour Chalk, Bone Earth, Plas- ter of Paris, Powdered Fhnts. Gin . . . .. .. Acetate of Lead, Oil of Turpen- tine. Koney . Chalk, Sulphate of Lime, and Pipe Clay. Lemon and Lime Juices. .. Tartaric Acid, Hydrochloric and Nitric Acids Litmus .. .. Common Arsenic and Peroxide of Mercury. ^48 GENERAL SUMMARY OF ADULTERATION. List of Substances (continued). Malt Beve- llAGES. For Bulk and "Weight. For Colour. For Taste. Smell, and other Properties. .. .. Gentian, Chiretta, Quassia, Worm- wood, Orange Peel, Camo- mile, Opium. Mustard Pea Flour, Linseed Meal, Radish Seeds. Chromate of Lead. • Milk . Sheep's Brains, Gum Tra- gacanth, Milk of Al- monds. Turmeric. Pepper . Ground Oil Cake, Clay. Raspberry Jelly. Currant Jelly. Orris Root. Sugar . Sand, Plaster of Paris, Powdered Marble, Chalk, Bonedust, and Common Salt. 1 Sauces , Chalk, Plaster of Paris. Red Lead. ! Vinegar Acetic, Hydro, chloric, Nitric, and Tartaric Acids; Cayenne, Long Pepper, Mustard Seed, Salt. Anotlier arrangement or classification of substances used for adul- teration is into those that are not injurious, but the use of which is isimply fraudulent, and into those which are hurtful to health. A list of all the substances employed for adulteration, which are more or less prejudicial to health, will be given hereafter. IMPORTANCE OF THE SUBJECT OF ADULTERATION. The subject of adulteration is undoubtedly one of such high import- ance, that it may fairly engage the earnest thoughts of the financier, the sanitarian, and the moralist. The financier, because it involves to a large extent considerations of profit and loss ; profit to the manufacturer and seller of adulterated articles, and loss to the consumer and the revenue. The sanitarian, because some of the articles employed in adultera- i GENERAL SUMMARY OF ADULTERATION. 849 tion are of an exceedingly injurious character, and calculated to affect materially the public health. And the moralist, since the practice of adulteration inyolves decep- tion, and even fraud. Adulteration is therefore a great national question, closely affecting the pocket of the consumer, the revenue, and the health and morals of the people. We shall now proceed to enlarge upon each of these heads. THE PECIJNIARY BEARINGS OF ADULTERATIOlsr. The pecuniary hearings of the subject of adulteration are of very gr«^at importance, and they relate to the consumer, the manufacturer, merchant or tradesman, and the revenue. The great profit of adulteration arises from the sale of articles so adulterated as to be greatly inferior in value to genuine commodities, a price being demanded for these mixed goods yielding a larger profit than could be obtained by the sale of unadulterated goods ; in fact, ihey are often sold at the rate of the pure articles. This increased proht to the seller is just so much loss to the consumer. So great is the loss of the consumer arising out of the practice of iidulteration that it is questionable whether it does not amount in most cases to more than the sum of the whole of his taxes. The greatest losers by adulteration are the humbler classes, the labourer and the iirtisan, who are compelled to purchase the articles they use at the cheapest shops, where adulteration prevails to the greatest extent. This practice, therefore, presses with peculiar hardship upon the labouring portion of the population. It is clear that the sellers of adulterated articles of consmnption, be they manufactm-ers or retail dealers, are in a position to enhance their profits by the practice of adulteration, and are enabled to under- sell, and too often to ruin, their more scrupulous and honest compe- titoi's. The question of the adulteration of food is therefore one which vitally affects the interests of the more hmiest and respectable portion of the tradimj community, who depend upon the manufacture and sale of articles of consumption, and it behoves them strenuously to exert themselves to put an end to a system of adulteration, which under- mines the very foundation of trade, namely, Faith in Commercial I:n'^t];grity. 'J'he pecuniary interests of the State in the question of adulteration will become apparent when we remember that a large part of the reveiiue is derived from duties on articles of consmnption. The more these articles are adulterated, the more is the revenue defrauded. It is not possible to estimate with certainty the precise loss to the State arising out of adulteration; but from the millions of money etween different vegetable substances, we must examine and com- pare most carefully these several tissues and structures, the one with the other. We must compare, both size and structure, the cellular tissue of one vegetable substance with that of another, and the same wdth the woody fibre, the vessels, the starch, &c. Before proceeding to determine the minute structure of any vege- table substance by means of the microscope, we would strongly re- commend ' the observer to study some work on Structural Botany, and tlius to become acquainted with the characteristics of the principal tissues and elements which enter into the organisation of the several competent parts of vegetables. He should acquaint himself with the characjters and structure of cellular tissue, woody fibre, vascular tissue, scleroLis tissue, of starch granules, with the general structure of roots 860 GENEBAL SUMMARY OF ADULTERATION. and stems, leaves, flowers^ including tlie pollen, and particularly with seeds. He "will find a little preliminary study of vegetable anatomy facilitate greatly liis subsequent and more special enquiries. With a view to discover whether adulteration is practised upon any article, and the extent to which it is sophisticated, or whether adul- teration prevails extensively in any town or locality, it is necessary that a considerable number of samples should be obtained and exa- mined ; that these should be procured without the knowledge of the vendor, and that the purchases should be made with such precautions, as to preclude the possibility of mistake ; and also to allow of th& verification of the samples to the satisfaction of a court of law^. In conducting the enquiries relative to adulteration, which were^ published for so many years in the ^ Lancet,' under the title of ^ The Analytical Sanitary Commission,' the following method w^as pur- sued : — The purchases were made in the presence of witnesses, the author himself — for greater security, and knowing well the fearful responsi- bility w^hich rested upon him — accompanying the purchasers on all occasions. Immediately that any article was thus obtained, the names of the sellers and of the buyers were placed upon it, the date of the purchase, and the price paid for it. Subsequently each sample w^as subjected to careful microscopical and chemical examination, the results- of the analysis being written on the package and subsequently published from time to time in the ^ Lancet,' together wdth the names and ad- dresses of the merchants or traders from w^hom the purchases were- made. The publication of the several reports, which for a long time came out almost weekly, extended over a period of seveml years, and although the names of between two and three thousand traders w^ere thus made known, in one case only were any legal proceedings re- sorted to, and even in this single instance the action was abandoned at an early date, without any acknowledgment being made of error having been committed. We are disposed to rely more upon the regular publication of the names and addresses of those whose goods have been analysed for the suppression of adulteration than upon any other means, ia consequence of the excellent effects which have undoubtedly resulted from their publication in the ' Lancet.' So great has been the efi'ect of this publication, combined wdth the greater facilities which now exist for the detection of adulteration, and the disclosures made be- fore Parliamentary Committees, that we are of opinion that not one- twentieth part of the adulteration now prevails, in the metropoHs at least, as at the time w^lien the reports of ' The Analytical Sanitary Commission ' first appeared. In some articles the improvement is- manifest to the eye alone, as in the red sauces, pickles, bottled fruits. and vegetables, and coloured sugar confectionery. GENERAL SUMMARY OF ADULTERATION. 861 The following remarks, in reference to the piihlication of the names of traders in the ^Lancet,' and the eftect produced by the microscope, appeared in the 'Quarterly Review ' for March, 1855, in a notice of the author's work, entitled ' Food and its Adulterations.' ' A gun suddenly fired into a rookery could not cause a greater coiimiotion than did this publication of the names of dishonest trades- men ; nor does the daylight, when you lift a stone, startle ugly and loathsome things more quickly than the pencil of light, streaming through a quarter-inch lens, surprised in their native ugliness the thousand and one illegal substances which enter more or less into every description of food which it will pay to adulterate. Nay, to such a pitch of refinement has the art of fabrication of alimentary substances reached, that the ver}^ articles used to adi\J.terate are themselves adul- terated ; and while one tradesman is picking the pockets of his cus- tomers, a still more cunning rogue is, unknown to himself, deep in his own.' To summarise the preceding remarks, therefore, we would observe that for the discovery of adulteration we must have recourse to both chemistry and the microscope, and must examine a sufficient number of samples obtained by making purchases at shops in the ordinary way ; but for its prevention when discovered recom'se must be had to the punishment of the offenders. Sale of Food and Drugs Act, No punishment can be more effectual than the publication of the names and addresses of the adulterating tradesmen or merchants; but we must also put in operation the means which the legislature has now placed at our disposal for the suppression of adulteration. No less than three Acts have been passed dealing with the question of the ndulteration of food and drugs. The first of these, ' An Act for Preventing the Adulteration of Articles of Food or Drink,' came into operation in 1860, and was the result of a Parliamentary enquiry, under the chairmanship of the late Mr. Scholefield, in 1855. This was a very inefficient measure, and was found to be quite use- less; we do not remember to have ever heard of a prosecution imder it. The second Act, entitled ' An Act to Amend the Law for the Pre- vent] on of Adulteration of Food and Drink and of Drugs,' was passed in 1^^72. This was also a very inefficient Act, but one which, owing mainly to the interpretation put upon one of its clauses by the judges, who laid down the sound rule that the seller of an article ought to have a knowledge of its composition, and should know whether it was pure or ad-ulterated, yet exerted a very beneficial effect. Under it many prosecutions and convictions took place, so that manufactm'ers and ti-aders, finding that it really, in some cases at all events, reached 862 GENERAL SUMMARY OF ADULTERATION. them, gTew very wroth, and banded themselves together in order to- get the Act repealed. In this endeavour they have been but too successful. They obtained the appointment of another Parliamentary Committee, before whom a very one-sided enquiry took place, which has resulted in the passing* of * The Sale of Food and Drugs Act,' being 'An Act to Repeal the Adulteration of Food Acts, and to make better provision for the Sale of Food and Drugs in a Pure State.' The Act in question will be found printed at the end of the volume, aud we will now proceed to criticise its provisions. Clause 3 provides that * No person shall mix, colour, stain, or powder, or order or permit any other person to mix, colour, stain or powder any article of food with any ingredient or material so as to render the article injurious to health, with intent that the same may be sold in that state ; and no person shall sell any such article so mixed, coloured, stained or powdered, under a penalty in each case not exceeding fifty pounds for the first offence ; every offence after a con- viction for a first offence shall be a misdemeanour, for which the person on conviction shall be imprisoned for a period not exceeding six months with hard labour.' Here is a clause in which lawyers will delight, as it will be the fruitful cause of future litigation. There is no attempt made to define what constitutes injurious admixture. Everybody must form their own conclusions on the matter as best they may. These will often be erroneous, mistaken prosecutions will frequently be instituted at great cost and labour, and to the bitter disappointment of those concerned in them. It would have been quite easy to define what really consti- tutes injurious admixture. Will the coloration of green tea, or the presence of alum in bread, or the admixture of water with milk be deemed admixtures injurious to health imder this clause? That the first adulteration — we beg pardon, the obnoxious word is foreign to this Act and does not once occur in it — that the first practice is in some cases injurious is imquestionable, and that the two latter are so, the one directly and the other indirectly, by depriving the article of its full nutritious properties, is equally certain, but these are just cases in which the opinions of even scientific men will be found to differ, and doubtless those of om^ magistrates and judges also. For our- selves, we should be very sorry to incur the responsibility of advising prosecutions under this clause in the cases named. By clause 6 it is ' Provided, that no person shall be liable to be convicted imder either of the two last foregoing sections of this Act, in respect to the sale of any ai-ticle of food or of any drug, if he shows to the satisfaction of the Justice or Court before whom he is charged that he did not know of the article of food dl* drug sold by him being so mixed, coloured, stained or powdered, as in either of those sections mentioned, and that he could not with reasonable dili- gence have obtained that knowledge,' GENERAL SUMMAHY OF ADULTEKATION. 863- By tliis clause, tlie principle laid down by our Judges in the case& brought before them under the Adulteration Act of 1872, that the- vendor of any known and recognised article of food should be held to have a knowledge of its nature and composition is abolished^ and the prosecutor must prove that the vendor actually knew at the time of the sale that the article was treated in one or other of the- ways described in clause 3, or that he could with reasonable diligence have obtained that knowledge. Again, who is to be the judge of what constitutes ' reasonable- diligence ? ^ Here again is one of those uncertain phrases in which lawyers delight, and which are the fruitful parents of endless legal proceedings. By clause 6 it is enacted that ' No person shall sell to the prejudice- of the purchaser any article of food or any drug which is not of the nature, substance and quality of the article demanded by such piu*- chaser, under a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds. Provided that an offence shall not be deemed to be committed under this section in the following cases.' Mark particularly the words ' to the prejudice of the purchaser.^ It would appear that by this clause articles may be sold not of the substance, natm-e and quality of the article demanded by the pur- chaser, provided the seller can prove that the pm-chaser is not preju- diced thereby, so that it would appear possible that under this clause mixed mustard, coffee, or cocoa might be sold with impunity and without any acknowledgment of its being a mixture, if the seller' could prove that the purchaser was not injured in pocket or in health by being supplied with the mixed article. Here, again, is another- doubt. Who is to determine what will be held by our tribunals to be to the prejudice of the pm'chaser ? The exceptional cases referred to are : — 1. ^ Where any matter or ingTedient not injurious to health has been added to the food or drug*, because the same is required for the production or preparation thereof, as an article of commerce in a state lit for carriage or consiunption, and not fraudulently to increase the bulk, weight or measure of the food or drug, or conceal the inferior quality thereof.' This exception, too, will make more work for the lawyers. Who is t(3 determine what is required for the production or preparation of ^ an article of commerce, in a state fit for carriage or consmnption ? Tho manufacturers of cocoa and mustard assert that sugar and starch in the one case, and wheat flour and turmeric in the other, constitute^ great improvements, and are not added fraudulently to increase the buljr, weight or measure. What will be the decision of om' judges in sucli cases, who can tell ? 4. 'Where the food or drug is unavoidably mixed with some extraneous matter in the process of collection or preparation.' More doubts and difficulties. W^ho is to determine what constitutes -864 GENERAL SUMMARY OF ADULTERATION. "^ unavoidable admixture ? ' Will the eartliy matter found in sucli large quantities in pepper and tea be deemed an unavoidable admixtm^e or not ? Tliat they will be held to be so by the dealers in those articles is unquestionable, and it will not be an easy matter to disprove their allegation, althou^gh the fact really is that such admixture of dirt may, with proper care and precautions in the collection and preparation of these articles, be completely avoided. Carefully-prepared tea and pepper do not contain any extraneous mineral matter whatever, or at all events an infinitesimal amount. This exemption oilers a premium to dirt and uncleanliness, and under it certain kinds of adulteration will grow up and increase. Who is to distinguish whether the dirt found in the pepper and the tea has been purposely added, or is due to the exposure of the pepper benies and the tea leaves to dust and wind ? Again, under this clause, is the presence of copper in preserves and Jams to be deemed an exception ? The manufacturers will urge that they cannot prepare these articles in copper pans without their be- coming more or less contaminated with copper. This is to some extent true, but the amount of contamination depends very much upon the care and skill with which the articles are made. JBut the -consimier might maintain, on the other side, that vessels other than those made of copper should be employed in the preservation of such articles. By clause 7 ^ No person shall sell any compounded article of food or compounded drug, which is not composed of ingredients in ac- cordance with the demand of the purchaser, under a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds.' This clause applies more particularly to the compounding of medicines, and it appears to have but little importance in relation to articles of food. By clause 8 it is enacted ^ That no person shall be guilty of any such offence as aforesaid in respect of the sale of an article of food or a drug mixed with any matter or ingredient not injurious to health and not intended fraudulently to increase its bulk, weight, or measure, ■or conceal its inferior qualit}^, if at the time of delivering such article or drug he shall supply to the person receiving the same a notice by a label distinctly and legibl}- written or printed on or with the article >or drug to the effect that the same is mixed.' This clause is full of uncertainties. Can there be a reasonable doubt or question but that the large quantities of wheat flour met with in mustard and of sugar and starch in cocoa, and oftentimes of chicoiy in coflee, are added to augment the profit, and that the turmeric is .sometimes employed to conceal the inferior quality of the mustard? Yet wdll it not be contended, and we fear successfully, that these additions nre made in accordance with the usages of trade and in obedience to the demands of the public, so that under this clause, provided only -a notice of its being a mixture be given, mustard, cocoa, and coffee -will be sold as heretofore containing but very little of any of the GENERAL SUMMARY OF ADULTERATION. 865 substances under the names of whicli they are supplied to the public ? These mixed articles will still be sold as mustard, cocoa, and coffee respectively. Then again, what protection does the notice or label afford to those who cannot read ? that is to say, to many of the poor, who are the chief sufferers by the admixture and debasement of articles of consumption by the addition of inferior and comparatively valueless substances. Even when the purchaser can read, he will often fail to see, in the hurry of the purchase, whether the package bears the label or not, and if he does look for it he will frequently not find it, ^oecause it is concealed in some fold of the paper in which the arti(ile is enclosed. (Jlause 9 provides that ^ No person shall, vdth the intent that the same may be sold in its altered state without notice, abstract from an article of food any part of it, so as to effect injuriously its quality, substance or nature, and no person shall sell any article so altered witliout making disclosure of the alteration under a penalty in each case not exceeding twenty pounds.' This clause is evidently framed with a view to meet the cases of the abstraction of the fatty matters from milk and cocoa, the Bill of 1S72 not containing any provision for such cases. This clause, which we were disposed to regard as one of considerable value, has already been rendered inoperative. In a case recently tried before one of our Metropolitan Magistrates, for the abstraction of a portion of the cream from milk, the defence set up was that the milk sold was poor in cream in consequence of the richer portions taken from the same pan having been previously sold, the fatty matter of course, in obedience to the law of gravity, having in part gradually risen to the s iirface. This defence was allowed to prevail, the prosecutor having to pay the costs. The Act contains in addition special clauses relating to tea. One of these, clause 30, enacts that all tea imported into Great Britain or Ireland shall be subject to examination by persons to be appointed by the Commissioners of Customs with the approval of the Treasury, and if upon such examination the sample should ^ be found to be mixed with other substances or exhausted tea, the same shall not be delivered unless with the sanction of the said Commissioners and on such terms and conditions as they shall see fit to direct, either for home con- sumption, or for use as ships' stores, or for exportation. But if on such inspection and analysis it shall appear that such tea is in the opinion of the analyst unfit for human food, the same shall be for- feited and destroyed or otherwise disposed of in such manner as the said (Commissioners may direct.' The examination of tea in bond is no doubt a step in the right direction^ but supposing that notwithstanding such examination adulterated samples of tea are yet supplied to the public, the general provisions of the Sale of Food and Drugs Bill ought still to be available. Such a case as this is by no means improbable, 3k 866 GENERAL SUMMARY OF ADULTERATION. and it is even quite conceivable that tea may be subjected to certain admixtures and additions after it lias passed the Customs, and such cases would escape punishment altogether were it not that the other provisions of the Act could be brought to bear upon them. Again, it will be noticed that, in the case of admixture being detected by the analyst appointed by the Commissioners of Customs, the rejection of the article is not to follow, except the tea be ' unfit for human food,' but the Commissioners are to be at liberty to allow of its being used either for home consumption, or as ships' stores or for exportation, so that if these gentlemen think fit the public will have no remedy, but will be obliged to drink those adulterated teas which have passed the Customs examination, or, if this is not allowed, they will find their way to our ships, our sailors being compelled to drink such teas, or lastly our colonies or depend- encies may be made the recipients of the teas which the Commissioners Consider to be too bad for home consumption. We regard this as one of the weakest and worst clauses of the Bill. All teas which are mixed and debased should be rejected, and the Commissioners ought not to recognise and give their sanction to difl:erent deoTees of debasement. Under this clause, if a tea be found to be mixed with lie tea, to contain sand and magnetic oxide of iron, or to be painted, it vnll still be in the power of the Commissioners to allow of its use in one or other of the ways above pointed out, because the analyst will in most cases be unable to declare that such teas, injured and debased as they are, are ^ unfit for human food.' With such provisions as these it is impossible to put a stop to the sophistication of tea, which now prevails to so great an extent and is practised in such a scandalous manner. Clause 22 is as follows :—^ The justices before whom any com- plaint may be made, or the court before whom any appeal may be heard under this Act may, upon the request of either party, in their discretion cause any article of food or drug to be sent to the Commis- sioners of Inland Revenue, who shall thereupon direct the chemical officers of their department at Somerset House to make the analysis, and give a certificate to such justices of the result of the analysis, and the expense of such analysis shall be paid by the complainant or the defendant as the justices may by order direct.' It is not quite clear by this clause whether the plaintiff" or defend- dant is at liberty in disputed cases to send a portion of the article in dispute to any independent analyst either may select, or whether it is incumbent upon them, if another chemical analysis be required, that it should in all cases be made in the laboratory of the Inland Revenue at Somerset House. If so, it appears to us that a monstrous injustice is perpetrated by the clause in question. Hitherto it has been the custom for each party to select their own analyst, and there are some chemists of high repute and unequalled experience in such cases who have hitherto been in the habit of being referred to. Now by this -GENERAL SUMMARY OF ADULTERATION. 867 clause they are deprived of the just fruits of the labour expended in obtaining their reputation in this special department of analysis. The Chemical Department of the Excise. This brings us to make a few remarks on the fitness of the Excise Laboratory at Somerset House as a Court of Reference in such cases. First, the Excise are not in an independent position ; they are in Government employment and pay, and will necessarily regard things from a Governmental point of view, and with an eye to securing the Excise duties imposed. Next, the chemists of the Excise have no enlarged or general ex- perience of the question of adulteration at all. Their duties are limited to the examination of duty-paying articles onlj^, and with all other articles they have nothing whatever to do. They take no notice of those adulterations which are simply frauds upon the consumer, or which are detrimental to the public health. They do not interfere with the adulteration of drugs unless they are liable to a duty, nor do they interdict the use of poisonous pigments in the colouring of sugar confectionery and other articles. Again, they have aiForded but few public proofs, so far as we are aware, of their competence for the duty imposed upon them. They ma}- now be quite capable, but where have they given the evidence of special competence ? It might have been expected that the Chemical Department of the Excise would have furnished the public with much valuable material and information as to the practice of adulteration ; that they would have devised many new and simple processes for its detection, and that they would have from time to time put the public on their guard against certain adulterations coming more particularly under their notice. Some years back, when the author first took up the subject of adul- teration, it was scarcely possible to obtain an article which was not de- based and adulterated, and whether it was a duty-paying article or not, adulteration was everywhere rife, and this in spite of the Excise, with its ^4,000 inspectors and 70 chemists.' In fact, at that period they were notoriously incompetent, and they were wholly unacquainted witli the use of the microscope in the detection of adulteration. Doubtless they are now better informed, but ha^^ng regard to their past history, it is certainly strange that this body should have been selected as a Court of Reference. At one time it was intended that the analyses made in the Laboratory at Somerset House should be final and binding on the litigants, but this last intention, we are glad to see, :ias been abandoned. We pointed out at the time, the absurdity of insisting that any analysis should be accepted as final, because howL'ver competent the analyst might be, mistakes might still be made, and :io person could possibly be condemned on the report of one 3k2 868 GENERAL SUMMARY OF ADULTERATION. analyst, whoever he might be, if his statements could he proved to he erroneous by the testimony of other analysts. Some idea of the manner in which the Excise performed its analy- tical duties at the time to which we have already referred, and how far it then protected the revenue from loss through adulteration, may he gathered from the following few particulars. The article tea was then subject, as it still is, to considerable adul- teration, while the extent to which the public were defrauded in coffee and cocoa is notorious ; they were also largely defrauded in pepper, spirits, and tobacco, as is proved by the following results of analyses of those articles as supplied to the public, and as reported upon in the ' Lancet.' Of numerous samples of black and white pepper analysed, fully one- half were adulterated with ground rice, pea-flour, wheat-flour, linseed meal, and mustard husk. Of thirty-eight samples of gin examined, a very large proportion were adulterated, some of them being reduced in strength one-half, while seven of them contained cayenne pepper. The same was the case with rum and hrandy. Of forty-three different S92t^^s examined, nearly all were adulterated, the adulterating ingredients used being, for the most part, salt, alka- lies, silica, red and yellow ochre, red lead, chromate of lead, and chromate of potash. The Excise, then, at the period alluded to, had most signally failed in its principal duty — namely, the protection of the revenue against adulteration. One reason why the chemists of the Inland Revenue failed, is that they did not sufficiently employ the resources of science for the dis- covery of adulteration: they relied too much upon the informa- tion of Excise inspectors, and too little upon science, upon the resources of chemistry, and more especially upon a knowledge of vegetable structure, as revealed to the competent observer by means of the microscope. From not employing science enough, the Excise has, for the most part, in order to discover evidence of adulteration, been driven to adopt a system of espionage, and to the rude and inquisitorial pro- ceeding of entering forcibly upon suspected premises, and of seizing any adulterated articles or substances employed in adulteration, and which, perchance, they might find in the course of their search. The method adopted by ^The Lancet' Commission was in striking contrast to this. It simply purchased the different articles as sold in the ordinary way of business, and applied to their analyses all the resources of science, especially the microscope. By this proceed- ing it was not necessary, as in the case of the Excise, to maintain an army of ^ 4,000 ' inspectors, neither was it requisite to search the shop, warehouse, manufactory, or even the private dwelling of the occupants. GENERAL SUMMARY OF ADULTERATION. 869 By the method we adopted we were led to the discovery of a var- iety of chemical adulterations of which the Excise possessed no knowledge ; but it was in respect to the use of the microscope, in particular, as an instrument for the discovery of adulteration, that its knowledge was the most defective. Of this ignorance it has itself furnished a memorable and striking proof. In 1850 repeated remon- strances were addressed to the Government to prohibit the adulteration of coftee with chicory. The Government excused itself from inter- fering on the plea, publicly urged by the then Chancellor of the Exchequer, Sir Charles Wood, in the House of Commons, that, neither by chemistry nor by any other means was the adulteration of coffee with chicory to be detected. This statement was made on the strength of a report, procured at the instance of the Excise, from three of the most distinguished chemists of the day; the real fact at the same time being, that nothing is more easy or certain than the discovery of the adulteration in question by means of the microscope. Further, we have within the last few years brought to light, with the aid of the microscope, hundreds of adulterations, the existence of which was utterly unknown to the Excise. We learn from the Report of the Select Committee on Adulteration, that, ^ in addition to about 4,000 officers scattered over the country, the Board (of Excise) employs about sixty to seventy analytical chemists, whose numbers are recruited by students educated for the purpose at University College, to the number of fourteen in every year.' Why, here is a whole army of inspectors and analysts ! With such huge machinery as this, the wonder is that adulteration should exist in any degree, much less that it should be so prevalent ! The only other point in connection with the Act which it is necessary to notice is, that the form of Certificate prescribed renders it necessary that the analyses of the articles submitted to the analyst should be quantitative. By the Act of 1872 he had simply to make a general or qualitative statement as to their composition. Of course a quantitative analysis is much more difficult, and requires greater skill and occupies longer time ; hence analysts should be more liberally paid under this than the former Act. As was the case with the Act of 1872, which dealt with the subject of adulteration, so it will be with the present Act. The efficacy of the former Act resulted in great part from the interpretation put upon it by the judges, and so it must be with the present measure, which is ob- viously full of uncertainties, and much will therefore depend upon the decision of the tribunals before whom prosecutions under it are heard. It is in our judgment a very feeble measure, framed to a large extent in the interest of traders and manufacturers, and not in those of the public. Taking it altogether, it is inferior to the Act of 1872, which it supersedes. It seems to us that the simplest and best coiu"se to have taken would have been to have modified that Act, and not to 870 GENERAL SUMMARY OF ADULTERATION. have abolished it altogether, and to liave. substituted for it something very much inferior. A reluctance is expressed in some quarters to grapple with the giant evil of adulteration from the fear lest it should interfere with, and impose restrictions on, trade. This fear we believe to be ground- less ; and even if there were some foundation for it, yet it ought not to be allowed to prevail against what our consciences tell us to be right. Trade is one thing, debasing and poisoning our food another. Surely there is no necessary connection between the two ; and if connected, the sooner the connection is severed the better on all grounds, and especially will it be to the advantage of trade itself. We main- tain, however, that the connection which now exists is entirely un- natural, that it has sprung up under a careless and loose state of things, and that it is the duty of the State to interpose its authority for the prevention of adulteration. Now it should be clearly understood that it is not necessary for the suppression of adulteration that restrictive measures should be resorted to, calculated to interfere with trade or to impede the liberty of the subject, beyond those already in existence ; indeed, some of the restrictions now in force, and interference at present practised, might, under a better organisation, be discontinued. Let us recall to mind the powers already conferred for the suppres- sion of the adulteration of excisable articles. The Excise is at liberty to enter, by force, upon any premises where the adulteration of an excise- able article is suspected to be carried on, or where adulterated goods are supposed to be deposited ; the adulterators or sellers of adulterated articles may be apprehended, punished by fines, which are sometimes very heavy, or imprisonment ; all the adulterated articles may be confis- cated, as well as the implements employed in their preparation. The Board may lock up a manufacturer's premises, taking the keys away, even when he is not practising adulteration, and it may control the processes of manufacture therein pursued. Here is interference with the freedom of trade and the liberty of the subject with a vengeance I Again, magistrates or peace officers, by warrant, under the Bread Act, may search any premises and seize any adulterated flour or bread, search for any forbidden ingredient, inflict the penalties of fine and imprisonment ; and lastly, they may publish the names of the ofienders. To prevent smuggling — an offbnce which, in its eiFects upon the revenue, is allied to adulteration — a large force, armed to the teeth, is stationed all around the coasts of these islands: it may seize the smuggler, and, if he resist, kill him ; or it may take his contraband goods from him, and, on conviction, cast him into prison. Here, again, is interference with, the liberty of the subject ; and, remember, in smuggling, the revenue only is defrauded, and but little is thought of public health or morality. Lastly, recall to mind the powers exercised, and properly so, in the GENERAL SUMMARY OF ADULTERATION. 871 cases of bad or diseased meat, and of short weights and measures, which, be it known, often go along with adulteration. In such cases there is the power of entering upon suspected premises, of seizing and confiscating the articles, and of punishing the wrongdoers by fine or imprisooment. It may be inquired, how comes it that, with such powers of re- pression, adulteration so prevails ? The answer is, that the laws in force respecting adulteration are partial only in their operation ; that the}' relate only to certain articles ; that they are for the most part but seldom enforced, and that some of them have even fallen into desuetude. What concerns everybody, what is everybody's business, becomes, in fact, according to the old adage, nobody's business. The cries of ^ freedom of trade ' and ^ the liberty of the subject,' in connection with adulteration, are in reality unmeaning terms, used as bugbears to frighten the timid and to throw the public off their guard. In legislating upon the subject of adidteration, it should be re- membered that the seller is frequently as much a party to adultera- tion as the actual adulterator. This is shown by the fact that he often buys articles at prices at which he knows it is impossible that they can be genuine. Again, it should be recollected that it is often the interest of the seller to screen the adulterating wholesale merchant or manufacturer, he, in many cases, being largely in his debt. In the course of the publication of the reports of ^ The Lancet Sanitary Commission ' we met with several cases in which the seller preferred to iiicur the risk consequent upon the publication of his name, rather than divulge the names of the parties by whom he was supplied. The seller, therefore, must not be let off too easily, especially when he attempts to screen the perpetrator of adulteration. We cannot more appropriately conclude this Summary than in the ibllowing words, taken from a very able article on the author s book entitled ' Food and its Adulterations,' contained in the ^ Quarterly Review': — ^We have now shown enough to convince the public that the grossest fraud reigns throughout the British public commissariat ..... It remains to be seen whether the Government is able and willing to stay this gigantic evil and national dishonour.' THE SALE OF FOOD AND DEUGS ACT. An Act to repeal the Adulteration of Food Acts, and to make better a.d. 1875. provision for the Sale of Food and Drugs in a pure state. [nth August, 1875.] rX'^HEREAS it is desirable that the Acts now in force relating to T T the adulteration of food should be rppealed, and that the law regarding the sale of food and drugs in a pure and genuine condi- tion should be amended: Be it therefore enacted by the Queen's most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Tem- poral, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows: — 1. From the commencement of this Act the statutes of the Repeal of tweuty-third and twenty-fourth Victoria, chapter eighty-four, of the statutes. thirty-first and thirty-second of Victoria, chapter one hundred and twenty-one, section twenty-four, of the thirty-third and thirty-fourth of "^^ictoria, chapter twenty-six, section three, and of the thirty- lifth and thirty-sixth of Victoria, chapter seventy-four, shall be re- pealed, except in regard to any appointment made under them and not then determined, and in regard to any offence committed against them or any prosecution or other act commenced and not concluded or c<^mpleted, and any payment of money then due in respect of any provision thereof. 1:. The term ' food ' shall include every article used for food or Interpreta- drink by man, other than drugs or water : words^ The term ' drug ' shall include medicine for internal or external use : The term 'county' shall include every county, riding, and division, as well as every county of a city or town not being a borough : The term 'justices' shall include any police and stipendiary magistrate invested with the powers of a justice of the peace in England, and any divisional justices in Ireland. 874 THE SALE OF FOOD AND DRL'aS ACT. A.D. 1875. Description of Offences. 3. No person shall mix, colour, stain, or powder, or order or permit any other person to mix, colour, stain, or powder, any article of food with any ingredient or material so as to render the article injurious to health, with intent that the same may be sold in that state, and no person shall sell any such article so mixed, coloured, stained, or powdered, under a penalty in each case not exceeding fifty pounds for the first offence ; every offence, after a conviction for a first offence, shall be a misdemeanour, for which the person, on conviction, shall be imprisoned for a period not exceeding six months with hard labour. 4. No person shall, except for the purpose of compounding as hereinafter described, mix, colour, stain, or powder, or order or permit any other person to mix, colour, stain, or powder, any drug with any ingredient or material so as to affect injuriously the quality or potency of such drug, with intent that the same may be sold in that state, and no person shall sell any such drug so mixed, coloured, stained, or powdered, under the same penalty in each case respectively as in the preceding section for a first and subsequent offence. 5. Provided that no person shall be liable to be convicted under either of the two last foregoing sections of this Act in respect of the sale of any article of food, or of any drug, if he shows to the satis- faction of the justice or court before whom he is charged that he did not know of the article of food or drug sold by him being so mixed, coloured, stained, or powdered as in either of those sections men- tioned, and that he could not with reasonable diligence have obtained that knowledge. 6. No person shall sell to the prejudice of the purchaser any article of food or any drug which is not of the nature, substance, and quality of the article demanded by such purchaser, under a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds ; provided that an offence shall not be deemed to be committed under this section in the following cases ; that is to say, (1.) Where any matter or ingredient not injurious to health has ^ been added to the food or drug because the same is re- quired for the production or preparation thereof as an article of commerce, in a state fit for carriage or consump- tion, and not fraudulently to increase the bulk, weight, or measure of the food or drug, or conceal the inferior quality thereof; (2.) Where the drug or food is a proprietary medicine, or is tie subject of a patent in force, and is supplied in the state required by the specification of the patent ; (3.) Where the food or drug is compounded as in this Act men- tioned ; (4.) Where the food or drug is unavoidably mixed with some extraneous matter in the process of collection or prepa- ration. THE SALE OF FOOT) AND DRUGS ACT. 875 7. No person shall sell any compound article of food or com- pounded drug which is not composed of ingredients in accordance with the demand of the purchaser, under a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds. 8. Provided that no person shall be guilty of any such offence as aforesaid in respect of the sale of an article of food or a drug mixed with any matter or ingredient not injurious to health, and not intended fraudidently to increase its bulk, weight, or measure, or conceal its inferior quality, if at the time of delivering such article or drug he shall supply to the person receiving the same a notice, by a label distinctly and legibly written or printed on or with the article or drug, to the effect that the same is mixed. 9. No person shall, with the intent that the same may be sold in its altered state without notice, abstract from an article of food any part of it so as to affect injuriously its quality, substance, or nature, and no person shall sell any article so altered without making dis- closure of the alteration, under a penalty in each case not exceeding twenty pounds. Provision for the sale of compounded articles of food and compounded drugs. Protection from of- fences by giving of label. Appointment and Duties of Analysts^ and Proceedings to obtain Analysis. H>. In the city of London and the liberties thereof the Commis- sioners of Sewers of the city of London and the liberties thereof, and in all other parts of the metropolis the vestries and district boards acting in execution of the Act for the better local management of the metropolis, the court of quarter sessions of every county, and the town council of every borough having a separate court of quarter sessions, or having under any general or local Act of Parlia- ment or otherwise a separate police establishment^ may, as soon as convenient after the passing of this Act, where no appointment has been hitherto made, and in all cases as and when vacancies in the office occur, or when required so to do by the Local Government Eoard, shall, for their respective city, districts, counties, or boroughs, appoint one or more persons possessing competent knowledge, skill, and experience, as analysts of all articles of food and drugs sold within the said city, metropolitan districts, counties, or boroughs, and shall pay to such analysts such remuneration as shall be mutu- ally agreed upon, and may remove him or them as they shall deem proper ; but such appointments and removals shall at all times be subject to the approval of the Local Government Board, who may require satisfactory proof of competency to be supplied to them, and may give their approval absolutely or with modifications as to the pei-iod of the appointment and removal, or otherwise: Provided, that no person shall hereafter be appointed an analyst for any place under this section who shall be engaged directly or indirectly in any trade or business connected with the sale of food or drugs in such place. In Scotland the like powers shall be conferred and the like duties shall be imposed upon the commissioners of supply at their Appoint- ment 01 analysts. 876 THE SALE OF FOOD AND DEUGS ACT. A.D. 1875. ordinary meetings for counties, and the commissioners or boards of police, or where there are no such commissioners or boards, upon the town councils for boroughs within their several jurisdictions; provided that one of Her Majesty's Principal Secretaries of State in Scotland shall be substituted for the Local Government Board of England. In Ireland the like powers and duties shall be conferred and imposed respectively upon the grand jury of every county and town council of every borough ; provided that the Local Government Board of Ireland shall be substituted for the Local Government Board of England. 1 1 . The town council of any borough may agree that the analyst appointed by any neighbouring borough or for the county in which the borough is situated, shall act for their borough during such time as the said council shall think proper, and shall make due provision for the payment of his remuneration, and if such analyst shall con- sent, he shall during such time be the analyst for such borough for the purposes of this Act. 12. Any purchaser of an article of food or of a drug in any place being a district, county, city, or borough where there is any analyst appointed under this or any Act hereby repealed shall be entitled, on payment to such analyst of a sum not exceeding ten shillings and sixpence, or if there be no such analyst then acting for such place, to the analyst of another place, of such sum as may be agreed upon between such person and the analyst, to have such article analysed by such analyst, and to receive from him a certi- ficate of the result of his analysis. 1 3. Any medical officer of health, inspector of nuisances, or in- spector of weights and measures, or any inspector of a market, or any police constable under the direction and at the cost of the local authority appointing such officer, inspector, or constable, or charged with the execution of this Act, may procure any sample of food or drugs, and if he suspect the same to have been sold to him contrary to any provision of this Act, shall submit the same to be analysed by the analyst of the district or place for which he acts, or if there be no such analyst then acting for such place, to the analyst of another place, and such analyst shall, upon receiving pa3mient as is provided in the last section, with all convenient speed analyse the same and give a certificate to such officer, wherein he shall specify the result of the analysis. 14. The person purchasing any article with the intention of sub- mitting the same to analysis shall, after the purchase shall have been completed, forthwith notify to the seller or his agent selling the article his intention to have the same analysed by the public analyst, and shall offer to divide the article into three parts to be then and there separated, and each part to be marked and sealed or fastened up in such manner as its nature will permit, and shall, if required to do so, proceed accordingly, and shall deliver one of the parts to the seller or his agent. THE SALE OF FOOD AND DRUGS ACT. 877 Provision when samp is not di- vided. Provision for sending article to the analyst through the post oflBce. Person re- fusing to sell any article to any oflBcer liable to penalty. He shall afterwards retain one of the said parts for future com- parison and submit the third part, if he deems it right to have the article analysed, to the analyst. 1 5. If the seller or his agent do not accept the offer of the pur- cha' r to divide the article purchased in his presence, the analyst receiving the article for analysis shall divide the same into two parts, and shall seal or fasten up one of those parts and shall cause it to be delivered, either upon receipt of the sample or when he supplies his certificate to the purchaser, who shall retain the same for pro- duction in case proceedings shall afterwards be taken in the matter. 16. If the analyst do not reside within two miles of the residence of the person requiring the article to be analysed, such article may be forwarded to the analyst through the post ofl&ce as a regis- tered letter, subject to any regulations which the Postmaster G-eneral may make in reference to the carrying and delivery of such article, and the charge for the postage of such article shall be deemed one of the charges of this Act or of the prosecution, as the case may be. 1 7. If any such officer, inspector, or constable, as above de- scribed, shall apply to purchase any article of food or any drug exposed to sale, or on sale by retail on any premises or in any shop or stores, and shall tender the price for the quantity which he shall require for the purpose of analysis, not being more than shall be reasonably requisite, and the person exposing the same for sale shall refuse to sell the same to such officer, inspector, or con- stable, such person shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding ten pounds. 1 8. The certificate of the analysis shall be in the form set forth Form of the in the schedule hereto, or to the like effect. certificate. 19. Every analyst appointed under any Act hereby repealed or Quarterly this Act shall report quarterly to the authority appointing him the report of the numl)er of articles analysed by him under this Act during the fore- ^^^^^ • going quarter, and shall specify the result of each analysis and the sum paid to him in respect thereof, and such report shall be pre- sented at the next meeting of the authority appointing such analyst, and every such authority shall annually transmit to the Local Government Board, at such time and in such form as the Board shall direct, a certified copy of such quarterly report. Proceedings against Offenders. 20. When the analyst having analysed any article shall have Proceedings given his certificate of the result, from which it may appear that an against offence against some one of the provisions of this Act has been committed, the person causing the analysis to be made may take proceedings for the recovery of the penalty herein imposed for such offence, before any justices in petty sessions assembled having juris- diction in the place where the article or drug sold was actually delivered to the purchaser, in a summary manner. 878 THE SALE OF FOOD AND DRUGS ACT. Every penalty imposed by this Act shall be recovered in England in the manner described by the eleventh and twelfth of Victoria, chapter forty-three. In Ireland such penalties and proceedings shall be recoverable, and may be taken with respect to the police district of Dublin metropolis, subject and according to the provi- sions of any Act regulating the powers and duties of justices of the peace for such district, or of the police of such district ; and with respect to other parts of Ireland, before a justice or justices of the peace sitting in petty sessions, and subject and according to the provisions of 'The Petty Sessions (Ireland) Act, 1851,' and any Act amending the same. Every penalty herein imposed may be reduced or mitigated according to the judgment of the justices. 21. At the hearing of the information in such proceeding the production of the certificate of the analyst shall be sufficient evi- dence of the facts therein stated, unless the defendant shall require that the analyst shall be called as a witness, and the parts of the articles retained by the person who purchased the article shall be produced, and the defendant may, if he think fit, tender himself and his wife to be examined on his behalf, and he or she shall, if he so desire, be examined accordingly. 22. The justices before whom any complaint may be made, or the court before whom any appeal may be heard, under this Act may, upon the request of either party, in their discretion cause any article of food or drug to be sent to the Commissioners of Inland Eevenue, who shall thereupon direct the chemical officers of their department at Somerset House to make the analysis, and give a certificate to such justices of the result of the analysis ; and the expense of such analysis shall be paid by the complainant or the defendant as the justices may by order direct. 23. Any person who has been convicted of any offence punish- able by any Act hereby repealed or by this Act by any justices may appeal in England to the next general or quarter sessions of the peace which shall be held for the city, county, town, or place, wherein such conviction shall have been made, provided that such person enter into a recognizance within three days next after such conviction, with two sufficient sureties, conditioned to try such appeal, and to be forthcoming to abide th© judgment and deter- mination of the court at such general or quarter sessions, and to pay such costs as shall be by such court awarded ; and the justices before whom such conviction shall be had are hereby empowered and required to take such recognizance ; and the court at such general or quarter sessions are hereby required to hear and deter- mine the matter of such appeal, and may award such costs to the party appealing or appealed against as they or he shall think proper. In Ireland any person who has been convicted of any offence punishable by this Act may appeal to the next court of quarter sessions to be held in the same division of the county where the THE SALE OF FOOD AND DRUGS ACT. 879 conviction shall be made by any justice or justices in any petty ses- sions district, or to the recorder at his next sessions where the conviction shall be made by the divisional justices in the police district of Dublin metropolis, or to the recorder of any corporate or borough town when the conviction shall be made by any justice or justices in such corporate or borough town (unless when any such sessions shall commence within ten days from the date of any such conviction, in which case, if the appellant sees fit, the appeal may be made to the next succeeding sessions to be held for such division or town), and it shall be lawful for such court of quarter sessions or recorder (as the case may be) to decide such appeal, if made in such form and manner and with such notices as are re- quired by the said Petty Sessions Acts respectively hereinbefore mentioned as to appeals against orders made by justices at petty ses.^ions, and all the provisions of the said Petty Sessions Acts res]>ectively as to making appeals and as to executing the orders made on appeal, or the original orders where the appeals shall not be duly prosecuted, shall also apply to any appeal made under this Act. 24. In any prosecution under this Act, where the fact of an article having been sold in a mixed state has been proved, if the defendant shall desire to rely upon any exception or provision con- tained in this Act, it shall be incumbent upon him to prove the same. 25. If the defendant in any prosecution under this Act prove to the satisfaction of the justices or court that he had purchased the article in question as the same in nature, substance, and quality as that demanded of him by the prosecutor, and with a written war- ranty to that effect, that he had no reason to believe at the time when he sold it that the article was otherwise, and that he sold it in the same state as when he purchased it, he shall be discharged from the prosecution, but shall be liable to pay the costs incurred by the prosecutor, unless he shall have given due notice to him that he will rely on the above defence. 26. Every penalty imposed and recovered under this Act shall be paid in the case of a prosecution by any officer, inspector, or con- stable of the authority who shall have appointed an analyst or agreed to the acting of an analyst within their district, to such officer, inspector, or constable, and shall be by him paid to the authority for whom he acts, and be applied towards the expenses of executing this Act, any Statute to the contrary notwithstanding ; but in the case of any other prosecution the same shall be paid and applied in England according to the law regulating the application of penalties for offences punishable in a summary manner, and in Ireland in the manner directed by the Pines Act, Ireland, 1851, and the Acts amending the same. 27. Any person who shall forge, or shall utter, knowing it to be forg(3d for the purposes of this Act, any certificate or any writing purporting to contain a warranty, shall be guUty of a misdemeanour 880 THE SALE OF FOOD AND DRUGS ACT, and be punishable on conviction by imprisonment for a term of not exceeding two years with hard labour ; Every person who shall wilfully apply to an article of food, or a drug, in any proceedings under this Act, a certificate or warranty givon in relation to any other article or drug, shall be guilty of an oiFence under this Act, and be liable to a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds ; Every person who shall give a false warranty in writing to any purchaser in respect of an article of food or a drug sold by him as principal or agent, shall be guilty of an offence under this Act, and be liable to a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds ; And every person who shall wilfully give a label with any article sold by him which shall falsely describe the article sold, shall be guilty of an offence under this Act, and be liable to a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds. 28. Nothing in this Act contained shall affect the power of pro- ceeding by indictment, or take away any other remedy against any offender under this Act, or in any way interfere with contracts and bargains between individuals, and the rights and remedies belonging thereto. Provided that in any action brought by any person for a breach of contract on the sale of any article of food or of any drug; such person may recover alone or in addition to any other damages reco- verable by him the amount of any penalty in which he may have been convicted under this Act, together with the costs paid by him upon such conviction and those incurred by him in and about his defence thereto, if he prove that the article or drug the subject of such conviction was sold to him as and for an article or drug of the same nature, substance, and quality as that which was demanded of him, and that he purchased it not knowing it to be otherwise, and afterwards sold it in the same state in which he purchased it ; the defendant in such action being nevertheless at liberty to prove that the conviction was wrongful, or that the amount of costs awarded or claimed was unreasonable. Expenses of executing the Act. 29. The expenses of executing this Act shall be borne, in the city of London and the liberties thereof, by the consolidated rates raised by the Commissioners of Sewers of the city of London and the liberties thereof, and in the rest of the metropolis by any rates or funds applicable to the purposes of the Act for the better local management of the metropolis, and otherwise as jegards England, in counties by the county rate, and in boroughs by the borough fund or rate ; And as regards Ireland, in counties by the grand jury cess, and in boroughs by the borough fund or rate ; all such expenses payable in any county out of grand jury cess shall be paid by the treasurer of such county ; and The grand jury of any such county shall, at any assizes at which it is proved that any such expenses have been incurred or paid THE SALE OF FOOD AND DRUGS ACT. 881 without previous application to presentment sessions, present to be ^•^' ^^'^^• raised off and paid by such county the moneys required to defray the same. Special Provision as to Tea, 30. From and after the first day of January one thousand eight Tea to be hundred and seventy-six all tea imported as merchandise into and +J^^^^ ^^ landed at any port in G-reat Britain or Ireland shall be subject to onimporta- examination by persons to be appointed by the Commissioners of tion. Customs, subject to the approval of the Treasury, for the inspection and analysis thereof, for which purpose samples may, when deemed necessary by such inspectors, be taken and with all convenient speed be examined by the analysts to be so appointed ; and if upon such analysis the same shall be found to be mixed with other sub- stances or exhausted tea, the same shall not be delivered unless with the sanction of the said commissioners, and on such terms and conditions as they shall see fit to direct, either for home consump- tion or for use as ships' stores or for exportation ; but if on such inspection and analysis it shall appear that such tea is in the opinion of th e analyst unfit for human food, the same shall be forfeited and destroyed or otherwise disposed of in such manner as the said com- missioners may direct. 31. Tea to which the term 'exhausted' is applied in this Act Interpreta- shall mean and include any tea which has been deprived of its tion of Act. proper quality, strength, or virtue by steeping, infusion, decoction, or other means. 32. For the purposes of this Act every liberty of a cinque port not comprised within the jurisdiction of a borough shall be part of the ounty in which it is situated, and subject to the jurisdiction of the justices of such county. 33. In the application of this Act to Scotland the following provisions shall have effect: 1. The term ' misdemeanour ' shall mean ' a crime or offence : ' 2. The term 'defendant' shall mean 'defender' and include ' respondent : ' 3. The term ' information ' shall include ' complaint : ' 4. This Act shall be read and construed as if for the term 'jus- tices,' wherever it occurs therein, the term 'sheriff' were substituted : 5. The term ' sheriff' shall include ' sheriff substitute : ' 6. The term ' borough ' shall mean any royal burgh and any burgh returning or contributing to return a member to Parliament : 7. The expenses ®f executing this Act shall be borne in Scotland, in counties, by the county general assessment, and in burghs, by the police assessment : 8. This Act shall be read and construed as if for the expression ' the Local Government Board,' wherever it occurs therein, 8l Provision for the • liberty of a cinque port. Application of the Act to Scotland. 882 THE SALE OF FOOD AND DRUGS ACT. A.D. 1875. the expression * one of Her Majesty's Principal Secre- taries of State ' were substituted : 9. All penalties provided by this Act to be recovered in a sum- mary manner shall be recovered before the sheriff of the county in the sheriff court, or at the option of the person seeking to recover the same in the police court, in any place where a sheriff officiates as a police magistrate under the provisions of 'The Summary Procedure Act, 1864,' or of the Police Act in force for the time in any place in which a sheriff officiates as aforesaid, and all the juris- diction, powers, and authorities necessary for this purpose are hereby conferred on sheriffs : Every such penalty may be recovered at the instance oi the procurator fiscal of the jurisdiction, or of the person who caused the analysis to be made from which it appeared that an offence had been committed against some one of the provisions of this Act: Every penalty imposed and recovered under this Act shall be paid to the clerk of the court, and by him shall be accounted for and paid to the treasurer of tho county general assessment, or the police assessment of the burgh, as the sheriff shall direct : 10. Every penalty imposed by this Act may be reduced or miti- gated according to the judgment of the sheriff: 11. It shall be competent to any person aggrieved by any con- viction by a sheriff in any summary proceeding under this Act to appeal against the same to the next circuit court, or where there are no circuit courts to the High Court of Justiciary at Edinburgh, in the manner prescribed by such of the provisions of the Act of the twentieth year of the reign of King George the Second, chapter forty-three, and any Acts amending the same, as relate to appeals in mat- ters criminal, and by and under the rules, limitations, conditions, and restrictions contained in the said pro- visions. 34. In the application of this Act to Ireland, — The term 'borough' shall mean any borough subject to the Act of the session of the third and fourth years of the reign of Her present Majesty, chapter one hundred and eight, inti- tuled ' An Act for the regulation of Municipal Corporations * in Ireland : ' The term 'county' shall include a county of a city and county of a town not being a borough : The term * assizes ' shall, with respect to the county of Dublii mean ' presenting term : ' The term ' treasurer of the county * shall include any person persons or bank in any county performing duties analogoii to those of the treasurer of the county in counties, and, wit} respect to the county of Dublin, it shall mean the financj committee : Interpreta- tion of terms in applica- tion of Act to Ireland. THE SALE OF FOOD AND DRUGS ACT. 883 The term ' police constable ' shall mean, with respect to the a.d. 1875. police district of Dublin metropolis, constable of the Dublin Metropolitan Police, and with respect to any other part of Ireland, constable of the Eoyal Irish Constabulary. 35. This Act shall commence on the first day of October one Commence- thousand eight hundred and seventy-five. ^^V^ ^^ *^® 36. This Act may be cited as ' The Sale of Food and Drugs Title of the Act, 1875.' -^^*- dL2 884 THE SALE OF FOOD AND DKUGS ACT. A.D. 1875. SCHEDULE. FOEM OF CEKTIFICATE. To* I, the undersigned, public analyst for the do hereby certify that I received on the day of 18 , from t , a sample of for analysis (which then weighed J ), and have analysi the same, and declare the result of my analysis to be as follows :- I am of opinion that the same is a sample of genuine or, I am of opinion that the said sample contained the parts under, or the per-centages of foreign ingredients as under. Observations, § As witness my hand this day of A.B., at * Here insert the name of the person submitting the article analysis. t Here insert the name of the person delivering the sample. X When the article cannot be conveniently weighed, this passagw may be erased, or the blank may be left unfilled. § Here the analyst may insert at his discretion his opinion as to whether the mixture (if any) was for the purpose of rendering the article portable or palatable, or of preserving it, or of improving the appearance, or was unavoidable, and may state whether in excess of what is ordinary, or otherwise, and whether the ingredients or materids mixed are or are not injurious to health. In the case of a certificate regarding milk, butter, or any article liable to decomposition, the analyst shall specially report whether any change had taken place in the constitution of the article that would interfere with the analysis. INDEX. ACABUS Faring, 320 ; A. sacchari, 242 ; A. casei, 454. Acetic Acid, formation and occurrence, C28 ; properties, 634 ; determination, (39. See also 722. Acetone, 227. Ac[D, determination of free, 742. Aerated Waters, 661. AG UE caused by impure water, 64. Albumen, 1, 279. Alcohol, properties, 794. Preparation of absolute alcohol, 795. Physiological action, 797. Estimation, 739, 741, and 798. Al 'OHOL in wine, 719. Alo'Oholojietric Tables, 687, 736, 801. Aldehyde, 227. Aliturometer, 286. Ali^n, Mr. A. H., on the adulteration of tea, 126. Al] .SPICE, 581. Alluvial Waters, 68. Alim, the employment of, in the manufac- ture of bread, 348, 348 ; detection in bread, 830. Alt'MINA, estimation in water, 85. AHLMONIA, method 0F WATER ANALYSIS, 7 L Free and albimiinoid ammonia, 75, 7(). Amontillado, 766. An-lLysis of Water, 68. An'c HoviES, definition of adulteration, 486 ; generic characters, 486, fig. 138. Adul- ti rations of anchovies, 489. Samples tested for lead, 490. Detection of the adulterations of anchovies, 491. Dutch fish, 491. French, 491. Sicilian, 491. DHecti&n of Venetian red and bole arme- n^an, 492. Ani LINE dyes used to colour sugar confec- tionery, 258. An> atto, 615 ; definition of adulteration, 6] 5; derivation and preparation, 615; stmcture of the seed, 616, fig. 201, Composition of annatto, 616 ; adultera- tions, 618, figs. 202, 203. Results of the examination of samples, 618 ; analyses of the ash, 620 ; the presence of lead, 621. Mr. Wakley on the adulterations of, 622. Employment in cheese, 623. Detection ot the adulterations of annatto, 623. Or- ganic adulterations, 623. Inorganic 624. Method for the detection of the mineral adulterations, 624. Warrington's process for the estimation of minute quantities of copper, 626. Apples, composition, 708. Arrowroot, definition of adulteration, 363. Maranta arrowroot, 364 ; prepara- tion, 364 ; character of the starch- corpuscles, 366,^9'. 110. Canna, or Tons les Mois arrowroot, 366 ; preparation, 366 ; characters of the starch corpuscles, 367, fig. 111. Curcuma arrowroot, 367 ; pre- paration, 369 ; characters of the starch corpuscles, 368, fi^. 112. Tacca arrow- root, 369 ; preparation, 369 ; characters of the starch corpuscles, 370, fig. 113. Manihot, Tapioca, or Brazilian arrowroot, 370 and 381 ; characters of the starch corpuscles, 370. Potato arrowroot, 371 ; preparation, 371 ; characters of the starch corpuscles, 371, fi^. 114. Maize arrowroot or cornflour, 372. Rice arrow- root, 372. Arum arrowroot, 372 ; charac- ters of the starch corpuscles, $72, fig. 115. The adulterations of arrowroot, 373. Results of the examination of samples, 374 ; the detection of the adulterations of arrowroot, 374. Arsenic in sugar confectionery, 254 ; in cheese, 453. Arum Arrowroot, 372. Ash, analysis of, 110. ASPARAGLN, 605. ASSAMAR, 228. 886 INDEX. Baking Powder, 345. Bari^y Flour, 292. Bartlett, Mr. H. C, on the adulteration of tea, 126; of cocoa, 219. Beans, composition, 383. Beer. See Malt Beverages and Appendix, 830. Berthelot's formula for the estimation of ethers in wine, 747. Biscuit, value as food, 5. Blendixg op Wixe, 763. Bordeaux Wines, 780. Bouquet of wine, 725. Bran, from wheat, 282. Brandy, 803. Brass, cooking utensils made of, 821. Brazilian Arrowroot, 381. Brkad, composition, 5. Bread, definition of adulteration, 332 ; manufacture, 332 ; fermented or leavened, 332 ; unfermented or unleavened, 332 ; home-made bread, 332 ; leaven, 333. Yeast, or the yeast plant, 334 ; brewers' yeast, 334 ; German, 335 ; patent. 335; fig. 102. Discovery of the development of the yeast plant, 336. First stage, or that of sporules, 340, fig. 103 ; second stage, or that of thallus, 340, figs. 104 and 105 ; third stage, or that of aerial fructification, 340, figs. 106 and 107. Modus operandi of yeast, 342 ; employ- ment of alum, 343 ; the use of lime water, 344 ; sulphate of copper, 344. Unleavened or unfermented bread, 345. Baking, egg and mustard powders, 345. Aerated bread, 346 ; the analysis of bread, 347 ; adulterations, 347 ; with water, 348 ; mashed potatoes, 348 ; boiled rice, 348 ; alum, 348 ; sulphate of copper, 352 ; with other adulterants, 352. Kesults of the examination of nrmaerous samples of bread for alum, 352. Detection of the adulterations of bread, 352. Detection of the organic adulterations, 353, fig. 108 ; of bone dust, 354. The detection of the inorganic adulterations, 354 ; alum, 354 ; sulphate of copper, 357. Buckwheat, 308, 325. Bunt, 310. Burgundy Wine, 780. Butter, value as food, 5. Butter, definition of adulteration, 428 ; methods of preparation, 428 ; composi- tion, 429 ; analysis, 429 ; occurrence of crystals, 429 ; the adulterations, 430 ; with water, 430 ; starch, 430 ; curd, 430 ; animal fat, 431. B^sults of the examina- tion of samples, 431. Table of analyses, 432. Detection of the adulterations, 433 ; estimation of water, 433 ; detection and estimation of starch, 434 ; salt, 434 ; curd, 434 ; foreign fats, 435. Evidence before the Committee on Adulteration in 1874, 435. Separation of stearin and palmitin from olein, 436 ; determina- | tion of the fusing points, 439. Dr. Hassall's method, 441, fig. 133. Tables of points of fusion of butter, &c., 442. Messrs. Angell and Hehner's method of butter analysis, 446. Cabbage, value as food, 5. Cadbury, Mr. S., evidence on the adultera- tion of cocoa, 218. C^NURUS Cerebralis, 480. Caffeine, percentage in coffee, 149. Calculation of results of water analysis,87 Cane Sugar, estimation, 233. Canna, or Tous les Mois Arrowroot, 366. Cape Wine, 776. Capsicin, 544. Capsicum, 541. Carbonic Acid, in water, estimation of combined, 86 ; of free, 667. Cardamom Seeds, 591 ; composition, 591 ; form and structure, 591 , fig. 191. Carrots, value as food, 5. Casein, 279, 390. Cassava, or Tapioca, 379. Cassia, composition and structure, 566, figs. 177, 178, and 179 ; adulterations, 568. Detection of, 569. Cayenne, or Capsicum, 543 ; definition of adulteration, 543. Different kinds of Cayenne, 543 ; composition, 544. Capsi- cin, 544 ; structure of the capsicum berry or fruit, 545, ^^^5. 162, 163,. 164, 165, 166, and 167 ; the 'adulterations of Cayenne, 5i7,fig. 168. Eesults of the examination of samples, 547 ; red lead and mercury in, 548 ; case of poisoning with adulterated Cayenne, 550. Detection of the adultera- tions, 551 ; of lead, 651 ; bisulphuret of mercury, 552. Cellulose, estimation, 110. Cerealia, 280. Chalk, \A?aters from, 67. Champagne, 781. Charlock, 625. Cheese, value as food, 5 ; definition of adulteration, 448 ; manufacture of, 448 ; modus operandi of rennet, 449 ; compo- sition, 450 ; analyses, 450 ; ash, 451 ; analysis, 451 ; estimation of water, 451 ; fat, 451 ; casein, 451 ; sugar, 451 ; ash, 451 ; ammonia, 452 ; volatile acids, 452. The adulterations of cheese, 452; colouring with annatto, 452 ; flavouring with herbs, 452 ; adulteration with potatoes, 452 ; bean meal, 453 ; Venetian red and reddle, 453 ; contamination with sulphate of copper and arsenic, 453. Results of the examination of samples, 453 ; the cheese acarus, 454, figs. 134 and 135 ; cheese fly, 454 ; cheese maggot, or jumpers, 456. Detection of the adulterations, 456 ; of potato, 456 ; bean meal, 457 ; animal fats, 457 ; Venetian red, 457 ; sulphate of cop- per and arsenic, 457. Chicory, definition of adulteration, 173 ; I J INDEX. 887 the chicory plant, 173 ; composition of chicory, 174 ; analyses, 174 ; composition of the ash, 175 ; structure of chicory root, 176, Jigs. 43, 44, and 45 ; properties of chicory, 178 ; chicory and cofEee con- trasted, 181 ; adulterations of chicory, 182, Jigs. 46 and 47 ; with Hambro' pow- der, coffee flights, and all the articles found in adulterated coffee, 182. Results of the examination of samples, 185. Detection of the adulterations of chicory, 186; ignorance of the Excise, 186. Detection of adulterations by the colour and specific gravity of the infusion, 187 ; by the presence of glucose or grape sugar, 187 ; by the quantity of silica in the ash, 187 ; nitrogen in coffee and chicory, 189. De- tection of the adulterations of chicory, 189 ; by the microscope, 189. Detection and estimation of starch, 189 ; of Venetian red or reddle, 190. Chillies, 543. CiiLoiiiDE OP Sodium, use of, 3. CiLLORiNE, determination in water, 83 ; in Nvine, 751. Chocolate, 210. CiiOLEiiA, caused by impure water, 64. CioER and Perry, 708 ; definition of adul- teration, 708 ; varieties and composition of the apple, 708 ; specific gravity and amount of sugar in the juice, 709 ; com- position of the ash, 709 ; manufacture of cider, 710 ; perry, 712 ; adulterations of cider, 712 ; occurrence of lead in, 712. Results of the analyses of samples, 713 ; analysis of cider, 714. CiNNA^nc Acid, 562. CiXNAMOX, method of gathering, 561 ; composition of cinnamon, 562 ; structure, 563, Jigs. 175. 176, and 177 ; adulterations, 568. Detection of the adulterations, 569. Citric AcrD,preparation and properties,650. Classification oj? Adulteration, 839 Clay Waters, 68. Cloves and their adulterations, 574 ; deri- ^ ation of the name, 574 ; composition of the clove, 575 ; light oil of cloves, 576 ; heavy oil, 577 ; structure of the clove, 577, Jigs. 182, 183, and 184 ; adulterations, 580. Results of the examination of samples, 580. Detection of the adultera- tions, 580. Coi30A, soluble, 207. Co<:)OA, definition of adulteration, 191 ; the cocoa-tree, 191; cocoa beans, 191; composition of cocoa, 192. The author's analyses, 193 ; volatile oil and theobro- mine,193; bitter and astringent principles, 194 ; fatty matter, 194 ; starch, 194 ; cocoa red, 194 ; the shells or husks of cocoa, 194; percentage of husk, 195; amount of mineral matter in husks and beans, 1 95 ; composition of the ash of the bean, 1 96 ; analyses of cocoa, 197 ; estima- tion of gum, 197 ; starch, 197 ; fatty matter, 197 ; theobromine, 197 ; the albuminous substances, 198 ; cocoa red, 198 ; of mineral matters, 198 ; structure of the cocoa-bean, 19S, Jigs. 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, and 54 ; properties of cocoa, 204 ; adulterations, 205. Do sugar and starch render cocoa soluble ? 207 ; kinds of starch employed, 208 ; quality of sugar employed, 208 ; adulteration with animal fat, 208 ; chicory, 208 ; cocoa husks, 208 ; Venetian red and other ferruginous earths, 209 ; chalk, 209. Results of the examination of samples, 209 ; chocolate, 210. Results of the examination of samples, 210. Detection of the adultera- tions of cocoa, 211 ; of starch by the microscope, 211 ; wheat flour, potato flour, sago meal, 212, Jigs. 55, 56, and 57. Indian corn, East Indian and West Indian arrowroots and tapioca, 213, Jig. 59. Tons les Mois, 214,^7. 58 ; estimation of starch, 214. Detection and estimation of sugar, 215. Detection of foreign fat, 216 ; mineral substances, 217. Ignorance of the Excise as regards cocoa, 217 ; evidence before the ParUamentary com- mittee in 1874, 218. COCCULUS INDICUS, 690. Coffee, definition of adulteration, 145 ; description of the coffee tree, 145 ; com- position of coffee, 146 ; fatty matter, 147 ; caffeine, 147 ; cane sugar, 147 ; per- centages of nitrogen, 148 ; caffeic acid, 148 ; caffeine, 148 ; quantity of caffeine, 149 ; comparative analyses of tea and coffee, 149 ; proportion of soluble matter in coffee, 150 ; the leaves of coffee, 150 ; composition of the ash of coffee, 150 ; analyses of ash, 151 ; properties of coffee, 151 ; ditto of volatile oil, 152 ; caffeic acid, 152 ; caffeine, 152 ; the analysis of coffee, 153 ; estimation of fixed oil, 153 ; sugar, 153 ; structure of tbe coffee seed, 154, ^gs. 32, 33, 34, and 35 ; ' coffee flights,' 154 ; adulterations of coffee, 155, fig. 36 ; with chicory, 155, Jig. 37. Coffee and chicory contrasted, 158 ; adulteration with roasted grain, 159, Jigs. 40, 41, and 42 ; roasted roots, 159, jfigs. 38 and 39 ; baked liver, 159 ; burnt sugar, 160 ; Venetian red, 160. Results of the exam- ination of samples, 160 ; grand names of adulterated coffees, 161 ; other adultera- tions of coffee,* 162. Detection of the adulterations, 162 ; by the physical characters, 162 ; by the specific gravity of the infusion, 163 ; table of specific gravities, 164 ; by the quantity of sugar, 164 ; by the composition of the ash, 165. Detection of chicory, 166 ; mangold wur- zel, 167 ; carrot and parsnip, 167 ; wheat flour, &c., 167 ; bean flour, 169 ; roasted and ground acorn, 170 ; sawdust, 170 ; caramel or burnt sugar, 171 ; Venetian red, 171 ; silica, 171. Coffee and Chicory contrasted, 158, 181. Coffee Leaves, 150. 888 INDEX. Coffee Seed, structure, 154 Cognac, 803. Collection of Samples of Water, 68. Colostrum, 410. Colouring Matter of Wine, detection, 787. Cones Flour, 322. Copper, in bread, 344 ; in cheese, 453 ; in liquorice, 609 ; in sugar confectionery, 263 ; in preserves and jellies, 504 ; in walnut catsup, 660 ; in tea, 131 ; in pickles, 645. Detection and estimation, 647 ; estimation of copper in water, 90 ; copper derived from the vessels used in cooking, 821. Coriander Seeds, 589 ; composition and structure, b^Q,fig. 190. Corn Flour, 302. Corrosive Sublimate in vinegar, 636. Cow-wheat, 325. Cream, 395. Creamometer, 414. Creatine and Creatinine, 2. Cumin Seeds, 593 ; structure, 594, fig. 192. Curcuma Arrowroot, 367. curcumin, 599. Curry Powder, 589 ; definition of adul- teration, 589; composition, 589. Coriander seeds, 589 ; cardamom seeds or grains of paradise, 591 ; cumin seeds, 593 ; fenu- greek seeds, 594 ; adulteration of curry powder, 596. Eesults of examination of samples, 596 ; lead in curry powder, 597. Detection of the adulterations, 598. Cysticercus Cellulosus, 480. Darnel, 316. Definition of Adulteration in general, 830. Deplastering of wine, 759. Dextrose, or Dextroglugose, 220, 292. Diarrhoea, caused by impure water, 63. Diastase, properties and preparation, 672. Diets, table for calculating, 5. Dilatometer, alcoholometric, 800. Distilled Water, 17. Distoma Hepaticum, 481. DURRA, 328, 382. Dysentery, caused by impure water, 63. Dyspepsia, caused by impure water, 63. Bar Coccle, Purples or Pepper Corn, 318. Ebullioscope, 800. Eggs, value as food, 5. Entozoa, derived from impure water, 65. Ergot, 311 ; ergotin, 312. Ervalenta, 382. Essences, artificial, 255. Essentia Bina, 689. Ethers in Wine, estimation, 746. Eugenic Acid, 577. Excise, the chemical department of, 867, Extenuation of Adulteration, excuses urged in, 834. Fat , composition, 3, Fenugreek Seeds, 594 ; structure, 594, figs. 193 and 194. FiBiiiN, 1, 279. FiLTJiATiON, the purification of water by means of, 35. Finings, 678. Flour, value as food, 5. Flour, definition of adulteration, 276; com- position, 276 ; wheat flour, 276 ; composi- tion of wheat flour, 277; crude gluten, 277; gluten, 278; fibrin, 279; casein, 279; albu- men, 279 ; cereahn, 280 ; starch, 280 ; per- centage composition of wheat and wheat flour, 281 ; wheat bran, 282 ; ash of wheat, 283 ; analj^sis of flour, 285 ; determination of gluten, glutin, and fibrin, 285 ; albumen and casein or mucin, 286 ; estimation of total nitrogen, 286 ; starch, sugar, and dextrin, 286 ; oil, water, and mineral matters, 286 ; struc- ture of the grain of wheat, 287, figs. 72 and 73 ; baked wheat flour, 290, fig. 74 ; British gum or dextrin, 292 ; barley flour, 292 ; chemical composition, 293 ; hordein, 293 ; analyses of barley, 293 ; ashes, 293 ; the analysis of barley, 294 ; structure of the grain, 294, figs. 75 and 76 ; rye flour, 294 ; analyses of rye, 295 ; of rye flour, 295 ; ash of rye, 296 ; structure of the grain of rye, 296, Ugs. 11 and 78 ; oat flour, 297 ; groats, 297 ; analyses of oats, 298 ; Scotch oat, 299, ash of oats, 299 ; structure of the grain, 299, figs. 79 and 80 ; Indian corn flour, 302 ; analyses of maize, 303 ; ash, 303 ; structure of the grain, 304, fi^s. 81 and 82 ; rice flour, 305 ; composition and value, 305 ; analy- ses, 306 ; ash, 306 ; structure of the grain, 306, Ugs. 83 and 84 ; composition of the chief cereal grains, mean analyses of the grains and their ashes, 308 ; parasitic diseases of the cereal grains, 310 ; bunt, smut bolls, or pepper brand, 310, fig. 85 ; ergot, 311, fi^. 86 ; structure of ergot, 311 ; ergotin, 312 ; test for ergot, 312 ; rust, red rag, red robin, or red gum, 313, fi^. 87 ; puccinia graminis, 313, figs. 88 and 89 ; smut, or dust brand, 314 ; mil- dew, 314 ; penicillium glaucum, 315 ; P. citophilum, P. roseum, 315 ; fermentum cerevisii, 316, fig. 90 ; oidium aurantia- cum, 316, ^g. 91 ; vibriones, 316, fig. 93 ; the bearded or poisonous darnel, 316, fi^. 92 ; effects on man, 316 ; microscopic examination of, 318 ; test for, 318 ; the weevil, 318 ; ear coccle, purples or pepper corn, 318 ; wheat midge, 319 ; acarus faringe, 320, fi^s, 94 and 95 ; the adulter- ations of flour, 320 ; with bean meal, 320 ; rice flour, 321 ; barley, rye, Indian corn, and potato flours, 322 ; peas and dari, 322 ; the adulterations of cones flour, 322,^^. 96 ; other adulterations and con- taminations of wheat flour, 325 ; mineral adulterations, 325. Detection of the adul- INDEX. 889 terations, 326. Detection of the organic adulterations, 327, figs. 99 and 100 ; of bean flour, 327, figs. 97 and 98 ; barley flour, 327 ; durra, 328 ; structure of dun-a, 328, fig. 101 ; bone dust, 329. De- tection of the inorganic adulterations, 329 ; carbonate of soda, 331 ; alum, 331 ; sulphate of copper, 331. Food, its functions and quantity, 1 ; com- position of animal substances, 1 ; quan- tities required, 4 ; table for calculating diets, 5 ; relative digestibility, 6. Formic Acid, detection, 746. Fortification of Wine, 761. Fraxkland's Method of water analysis,77. Frankland's and Wanklyn's Method of water analysis compared, 80. Fruits and Vegetables, bottled, 493 ; definition of adulteration, 493 ; unnatural green colour of many samples, 493. Results of the analyses of samples, 493 ; sulphate of copper or blue stone, 494. Detection of the adulterations, 496. FCTNGUS, THE ViNEGAR, 631. FURFUROL, 228. Fusel Oil, 795. Detection, 803. Galactometer, 411. Galactose, 221, 392. Gall's treatment of the must of wine, 754. Gaseous constituents of water, 19 ; esti- mation, 84. Gelatin, 1. Gelatin, definition of adulteration, 470 ; preparation, 470 ; properties, 472 ; de- compositions, 473 ; the adulterations, 473. Detection of the adulterations, 473 ; of sugar, 473. Geological formation, influence on the composition of water, 67. Gin. See Spirituous Liquors, 809. Ginger, the ginger plant, 554 ; composition of ginger, 555 ; structure, 555, figs. 169, 170, and 171 ; the adulterations, 558, figs. 172, 173, and 174. Detection of the adul- terations, 659. Ginger, on the bleaching of, Appendix, 828. Ginger Beer, 664. Globulin, 1. Glucose, composition, 3 ; estimation, 232. Gluten, 277. Glutin, 278. Glycerin, 719 ; determination, 739. Glycyrrhetin, 605. Glycyrrhizin, 604. Goitre, caused by the use of impure water, 65. Gram, 308. GR-kNiTic Waters, 67. Gr-VPES, composition, 716. Graveyards, water from, 68. Groats, 297. Grocers' Itch, 244. Gu:i, estimation, llO. Hambro' Powder, 183. Hardness op Water, 20 ; estimation, 88. HiPPURic Acid, 2. Hock, sparkling, 782. Honey, definition of adulteration, 26^; composition, 266 ; analyses, 266 ; poisonous honey, 267 ; crystals of honey, with pollen granules, 268, figs. 69 and 70 ; the analysis, 270 ; bees' wax, 271 ; other kinds of wax, 271 ; the composition of wax, 272 ; the adul- terations of honey and wax, 272. Detec- tion of the adulterations of honey, 272 ; honey adulterated, with loaf sugar, 273, Ag. 71. Detection of the adulterations of wax, 275. Hops, derivation and preparation, 673; structure of* seed, figs. 205 and 206; composition, 676 ; composition of lupulinic grains, 676 ; analyses of ash of hops, 678 ; properties of hops, 678. Detec- tion of the adulterations, 707. HORDEIN, 293. Hydrocyanic Acid, detection, 815. Importance of the subject of adulteration, 848. Impure Water, analyses, 59 ; a source of disease, 61. Indian Corn Flour, 302. Indigo, detection of, in tea, 142. Iron, use of, in blood, 3. Iron, estimation in water, 85 ; in tea. 111. Iron, sulphate, in tea, 132. Isinglass, definition of adulteration, 464 ; different kinds of isinglass, 464 ; manu- facture, 465 ; adulterations, 466. Re- sults of the examination of samples, 466. Detection of the adulterations, 466, fig. 137 ; the ash, 468. Brazilian isinglass, 469. Blanc-mange, 469. Jellies and Preserves, 500. Jerupiga, 776. Jumpers, in cheese, 456. Koumiss, 396. Lactic Acid, in the gastric juice, 3 Lactose, 372. L^VULOSE, or L^aiVOGLUCOSE, 220. Lard, definition of adulteration, 459 ; pre- paration of lard, 459 ; the adulterations, 460; with water and starch, 460, fig. 136 ; alum, 460. Results of the examina- tion of samples, 461. Detection of the adulterations of lard, 462 ; water, 462 ; starch, 462 ; determination of saline matter, 463. Lead, in water, 65 ; action of water on, 66 ; estimation in water, 90 ; Detection, 551 ; lead in annatto, 621 ; in curry powder, 697 ; in cider, 712 ; in 890 INDEX. wine, 764; in rum, 808, in gin, 810. Detection of lead in gin, 810. Leaven, 333. Legumin, 383. Lemonade, 663. Lemon and Lime Juices, 649 ; definition of adulteration, 649 ; sources and com- I)osition, 649. Citric acid, preparation of, 650 ; properties of, 651 ; the adulterations of lemon juice, 652 ; with water, sugar, tartaric acid, sulphuric acid, 652 ; hydrochloric and nitric acids, 653 ; facti- tious lemon juice, 653. Detection of the adulterations of lime and lemon juices, 653 ; determination of acidity, 654. Detec- tion of citric and maUc acids, 654 ; total soUds, 654 ; mineral matter, 654 ; sugar, alcohol, tartaric acid, 655; sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, 655 ; nitric acid, 656. Results of the examination of samples of lemon and lime juices, QbQ. Lentils, composition, 383. Lias Clay, waters from, 67. Lie Tea, 114. Lime, estimation in water, 85. Lime Juice, 649. Limestone, waters from, 67. Linseed Meal, structure, 540. LiQUEUiUNG op Champagne, 783. LiQUOincE, 603 ; definition of adulteration, 603 ; forms and names under which it is met with, 603 ; constituents of the root, 603 ; composition, 604 ; glycyrrhizin, 604 ; asparagin, 605 ; structure of liquor- ice, 605, figs. 197, 198, and 199 ; adultera- tions, 607 ; contamination with copper, 609. Results of the examination of samples, 609. Detection of the adultera- tions, 613, fi^. 200; separation of cane sugar and glycyrrhizin, 614. Liver, baked, adulteration of coffee with, 159. Living Organisms in potable water, 37. Logwood, 777 ; logwood test for alum, 830. LuPULiN, 677. LuPfe'LiNic Grains, composition, 676. Mace and its adulterations, 673 ; true and false mace, 573 ; composition, 574 ; struc- ture, 574, fig. 181 ; the adulterations, 674. Results of the examination of samples, 574. Madeira, 774 ; manufacture and adultera- tion, 775. Magnesia, estimation, 85. Maize, value as food, 5. Maize Arrowroot, 372. Malarious Fever, caused by impure water, 64. Malic Acid, detection, 654, 744 ; occurrence in wine, 721. Malt Beverages and their adulterations, 669 ; definition of adulteration, 669 malt, 670 ; the process of malting, 670 pale, amber, and brown or black malt. 671 ; diastase, 672 ; preparation, 672 ; maltose, 672 ; hops, 673 ; preparation for use, 673 ; analyses of hops, 676 ; of Inpulinic grains, 676 ; lupuUte or true lupuUn, 677 ; analyses of ash of hops, 678 ; properties of hops, 678 ; finings, 678 ; the brewing of beer, 679 ; prepara- tion and fermentation of the wort, 679 ; top and bottom fermentation, 680 ; quality of the water used, 680 ; analyses of the water used by Messrs. Allsopp and Co., and Messrs. Bass and Co., 681 , analyses of the beer brewed by these brewers, 682 ; the analysis of beer, 682 determination of the specific gravity, 682 of the sugar, dextrin, and gum, 683 bitter extractive, 683 ; total soUds, 683 table of specific gravity, and strength of malt extract, 684. Observations of Messrs. G-raliam, Hofmann, and Redwood, 685. Tables to ascertain the original gravity of the wort, 686 ; de- termination of mineral matter, 687 ; of alcohol, 687 ; table of specific gravity and strength of spirits, 687 ; carbonic acid, 688 ; the adulterations of malt beverages, 688 ; with water, 689 ; cane sugar, 689 ; liquorice, 689 ; burnt sugar, caramel, or essentia bina, 689 ; vegetable bitters, 689 ; picric acid, 690 ; cocculus indicus, 690 ; strychnin, 691 ; extraction and properties of strychnin, 691 ; analy- ses of beer for strychnin, 692 ; narcotics, 693 ; carminatives, 693 ; mineral adul- terants, 693 ; addition of salt and sulphate of iron, 694 ; evidence as to the adulteration of beer, 694. Mr. Child's receipt for making porter, 696 ; the adulteration of malt and hops, 698. Results of the examinations of porter and stout, 698 ; ignorance of the Excise, 700. Detection of the adulterations of malt beverages, 700 ; determination of added water, 700. Detection of cane sugar, 700 ; liquorice, 701 ; burnt sugar, 701 ; vege- table bitters, 702. Mr. Sorby on the detection of calumba root, 702. Detection of picric acid, 702 ; picrotoxin, 703 ; nux vomica and strychnin, opium and mor- phin, and tobacco and nicotin, 704. Mr. Rodgers' process for the detection of strychnin, 705. Detection of carmin- atives, 705 ; estimation of sulphate of iron, 705 ; of alum, 705 ; salt, 706 ; lime, soda, potash, and sulphuric acid, 706. Detection of cream of tartar, 706 ; analy- ses of the ash of beer, 706. Detection of the adulterations of hops, 707. Maltose, 672. Manihot Arrowroot, 370, 381. Manna, 221. Manzanilla, 770. Maranta Arrowroot, 364. Marsh Water, 68. Marsala, 770. McAdam, Dr., on the adulteration of tea, 127. INDEX. 891 Mi:Ar, analyses, 5. -''l-.AT, unwholesome and diseased, 474; composition of fresh meat, 474 ; com- position of the ash of meat, 474 ; general characters and examination of meat, 475 ; psorospermia, 476 ; poison- ous but not diseased meat, 476 ; poison- ous fish, oysters, mussels, &c., 477 ; putrid meat, 477 ; sausage poison, 477 ; diseased meat, 478. The diseases of cattle, 478 ; parasitic diseases, 480 ; cysticercus cellu- losus, 480 ; taenia solium, T. mediocanel- lata, T. echinococcus, 480 ; ccenurus cere- Ijrahs, 480 ; trichina spiralis, 480 ; the rot, fluke, distoma hepaticum, 481 ; stron- gylus filaria, 482. M]:ats, potted and fish, 483 ; definition of jidulteration, 483 ; adulterations, 483. llesults of the examination of samples, 483. Detection of the adulterations of ]X)tted meats and fish, 485. Mi:rcury, detection, 552. Microscope, importance of, to detect adulteration, 855. Mi<3R0ZYMES in water, 54. Mildew, 314. Milk, value as food, 5. Milk, definition, 388 ; composition of milk, 388 ; skim milk, 389 ; butter milk, 389 ; cream, 389 ; butter, 389 ; curds and ■whey, 389 ; cream cheese, 389 ; ordinary cheese, 389 ; analyses of cow's and human milk, 390 ; casein, 390 ; albu- men or lacto-protein, 391 ; milk sugar cr lactose, 392 ; galactose, 392 ; pre- paration of milk sugar, 392 ; compo- sition of fat of milk, 393 ; mineral matter, 393 ; analyses of the ash of milk, S93 ; total solids, 394 ; composition of cream, 395 ; analyses, 395 ; preserved and condensed milk, 395 ; analyses, 396 ; milk powder, 396 ; koumiss, 396 ; analy- ses of milk, 397 ; estimation of total solids, 398 ; fat, 398 ; sugar, 398 ; casein, 399 ; albumen, 399 ; the specific gravity of genuine milk, 399 ; table showing the variations in the specific gravity of genuine milk, 400 ; gravity of skim milk, 401 ; ditto of the serum of milk, tables, 402 ; variations in the composition of milk, 403 ; influence of age, 403 ; con- dition, 403 ; food, 403 ; temperature, 404 ; tlie time and frequency of milking, 405 ; tl le housing of cows, 407 ; characteristics oi: good milk, 407, figs. 124, 125, 126, and 127 ; blue milk, 409 ; colostrum, 410, fig. 128 ; the apparatus employed to deter- nune the purity and quality of milk, 411, fig. 129 ; centesimal galactometer, 411, fi(j. 130 ; method of determining the cream, 414 ; creamometer, 414, fi^. 131. Donne's lactoscope, 417 ; the adultera- tions of milk, 418. Results of the exami- nation of samples, 419 ; the adulterations of cream, 420. Detection of the adultera- tions of milk, 420. Detection of added water, 420. Horsley's method of analysis, 424. Detection of sugar, 425 ; starch, 425 ; gum arable and gum tragacanth, 425, cerebral matter, 426, /ig^. 132 ; chalk, 426 ; carbonate of magnesia, 427 ; salt, 427 ; lead, copper, and zinc, 427 ; annatto, 427 ; tm-meric, 427. Detection of the adultera- tions of cream, 427. Milk Sug.^, 392. Millet, 308, 325. Millstone Grit, waters from, 67. Mineral Constituents of the animal body, 3 ; of water, 18. Molasses, 222, 225. Moral bearings of adulteration, 853. Morphin, detection in beer, 704. Moselle Wine, 784. Must, composition, 716. Mustard, definition of adulteration, 510 preparation, 510 ; composition, 510 original analyses of mustard, 511 myronic acid, 512 ; oil of mustard, 512 myrosin, 512 ; sulphocyanide of sinapin, 512 ; the analysis of mustard, 513 estimation of myronic acid, 513 myrosin and of sulphocyanide of sinapin. 513 ; analyses of samples of genuine mustard of different qualit'es, 514 ; analyses of mixed or adulterated mus- tard, 515 ; turmeric in mustard, 517 : structure of mustard seed, .517 ; white mustard seed, 517, fi^s. 146, 147, and 148 black mustard seed, 519, fig. 149 ; the adulterations of mustard, 519, figs. 150 and 151. Detection of the adulterations of mustard, 523 ; of the organic adultera- tions, 523 ; structure of sinapis arvensis or charlock, 525, fi^. 152 ; of rape seed, 626, ngs. 153, 155, and 156. Detection of the inorganic adulterations, 528. Myronic Acid, 512. Myrosin, 512. NicoTDf, detection in beer, 704. Nitrates and Nitrttes, estimation in water, 77, 80. Nitric Acm in water, 33. Nitrogen, estimation in tea, 106. Nitrogenous Substances, composition, 1. Nitrous Acid, estimation in water, 84. Nutmegs, plant from which they are ob- tained, 570 ; kinds of nutmegs met with in commerce, 570 ; nutmeg insect, 570 ; composition of nutmegs, 570. Bonastre's analysis, 571 ; structure of nutmegs, 571,^.180; adulterations, 572. Detec- tion of the adulterations, 573. Nux Vomica, detection in beer, 704. Oat Flour, 297. Oatmeal, value as food, 5. Oatmeal, definition of adulteration, 358 ; analyses, 298 ; composition, varieties and qualities of oatmeal, 358 ; the adul- 892 INDEX. terations of oatmeal, 358. Resnlts of the examination of samples, 359. Properties of oatmeal and barley meal, 360. Detec- tkm of the adulterations of oatmeal, 361 ; with rubble, 361 ; with barley meal, ZQl,fig. 109 ; with rice and maize, 362. CEnanthic Acid, 723. CEnanthic Ether, 724. Opium, detection in beer, 704. Organic Acids in water, 62. Organic Constituents of water, 19. Paradise, grains of, 591. Parties guilty of adulteration, 838. Patents for the preservation of food, 10. Peas, value as food, 5 ; composition, 385. Pecuniary Bearings of adulteration. Penicillium Glaucum, 315. Pepper, definition of adulteration, 629 ; plants .which yield pepper, 529 ; varie- ties of pepper, 530; composition, 530; piperine, 531 ; structure of pepper, 531, figs. 156, 157, 158, 159, and 160 ; adultera- tions, 637. Results of the examination of samples, 537 ; pepper dust, 538 ; artificial peppercorns, 538 ; the presence of mineral matter in pepper, 638 ; table of analyses of pepper ash, 539. Detection of the adulterations of pepper, 540 ; structure of linseed meal, 540, fig. 161 ; pea flour, 542. Detection of pepper husks, 542 ; of factitious pepper berries, 642 ; of sulphate of lime and ' bone dust, 642. Permanganate Test, danger of reliance on, 71. Perry, 708, 712. Petiotised Wine, 753. Phosphoric Acid, estimation in water, 87 ; in tea, 110 ; in wine, 750. Pickles and their adulterations, 644 ; definition of adulteration, 644; the greening of pickles, 645. Results of analysis of samples, 645 ; the addition of copper, 646 ; of pyroligneous acid, 646. Detection of the adulterations of pickles, 647. Detection and estimation of copper, 647. Picric Acid, 690 ; detection, 702. PiCROTOXiN, 690 ; detection, 703. Pimento, or Allspice, 581 ; composition, 581 ; light oil of pimento, 681 ; heavy oil of pimento, 681. Bonastre's analyses of pimento berries, 682 ; structure of aUspice, 582,^^5. 185, 186,187, and 188 ; the adulterations of allspice, 585. Detec- tion of the adulterations, 585. Piperine, 531. Plastering op Wine, 756. PoLARiscoPE, estimation of sugar by means of the, 234. Polenta, 302. Pollen in honey, 269. Porter. See Malt Beverages, 669. Port Wine and its adulterations, 776 ; jerupiga, 776 ; table of analyses of port wine, 777 ; Catalan, 778 ; receipts for the manufacture of spurious port, 779. Potash, estimation, 111, Potash water, 663. Potatoes, value as food, 5. Potato Arrowroot, 371. Potato Spirit, preparation, 818. Potato Sugar, 223. Precipitation, purification of water by, 36. Preservation op Food, 7 ; by elevation of temperature, 7 ; reduction of temperature, 8 ; exclusion of air, 8 ; employment of sugar, 8 ; compression, 8 ; removal of water, 8 ; extraction with water and subsequent inspissation, 9 ; by alcohol, 9 ; acetic acid, 9 ; creosote, 9 ; charcoal, 10 ; sulphurous acid, 10 ; patents for the preservation of food, 10. Preserves and Jellies, 500 ; definition of adulteration, 500 ; adulterations, 500, fig. 139 ; Orris root, 502, Jig. 140. Results of analyses of samples, 603 ; copper in jams and jeUies, 504. Detection of the adulterations of jams, 505, Jig, 141 ; of apple and turnip, 508, Jigs. 142, 143, 144, and 145 ; fuchsin, 508. Prevalence op Adulteration, causeso 837. Proprietary Alimentary Preparations, ervalenta, 382, Jig. 121 ; dari or durra, 382 ; revalenta, 383, fig. 122. Butler and McCuUoch's prepared lentil powder, 383 ; Arabian revalenta, 383 ; patent flour of lentils, 383 ; legumin, 383 ; composition of peas, beans, and lentils, 383 ; farina- ceous foods, 38(),Jig. 123. Detection of the composition of proprietary alimentary preparations, 387. Prussian Blue, in tea, 142. PSOROSPERMIA, 476. PucciNiA Graminis, 313 and 314. Pure Water, analyses, 58. Purification op Water, 26. Purity op Drinking Water, standard of, 57. Pyroligneous Acid, 634. Racemic Acid, 745. Ragee, or Rakki, 308. Rain Water, 16. Rape Seed, 526. Remedies for Adulteration, 854. Rennet, modus operandi, 449. Respiration, 2. Revalenta, 383. Rice, value as food, 5. Rice Flour, 305 and 372. RoDGERS' method for the detection of strychnin, 705. RoussiLLON Wines, 780. Rubble, 361. Rum, 807. Rust, 313. Rye Flour, 294. INDEX. 893 Saccharimetry, 234. Saccharose, 221 and 225. Sago, definition of adulteration, 375 ; the different plants from which sago is obtained, 375 ; raw sago meal, 375 ; sago flour, 375 ; characters of the starch corpuscles, 375, Jigs. 116 and 117; the adulterations of sago, 376 ; factitious sago, 376, fig. 118. Eesults of the exami- nation of samples, 377. Detection of the adulterations, 378. Sainfoin, or Yellow Rattle, 325. Sale of Food and Drugs Act, 873 . Sand and G-ravel, waters from, 67. Sand Rock, waters from, 67. Sanderson, Dr. Burdon, on microzymes in water, 54. Sanitary Bearings of Adulteration, 850. Sauces and their adulterations, 658 ; definition of adulteration, 658 ; composi- tion of sauces, 658. Results of the exami- nation of samples, 658 ; walnut catsup, 660. Sausage Poison, 477. Scarlet Fever, caused by impure water, 64. Selenitic waters, 68. Sewage, collection of samples for analysis, 69. S SWAGE Contamination, 30. Sherry audits adulterations, 766 ; cultiva- tion and preparation, 766 ; Amontil- lado, 766 ; genuine, fortified, and adul- terated sherries, 766 ; Dr. Thudichum on the maniifacture and adulteration of sherry, 768 ; mixing stations, 769 ; Manzanilla, 770 ; Marsala, 770 ; table of analyses of sherry, 771. SiFTiNGS of tea, 133, Silica, estimation. 85, 111. Sjnapin, Sulphocyanide, 512. Smut, or Dust Brand, 314. Soda, estimation in water, 86. Soda Water, 663. Softening op Water, 24. Soleras, 792. Solids in Water, determination, 83. SoRBY on the detection of the adulteration of beer, 702. Specefic Gravity Bottle, 800. S]'ECTRUM Analysis applied to the detec- tion of adulterations in beer, 702; in wine, 790. S]'ICES, 554 ; definition of adulteration, 554 ; enumeration of spices as ginger, cinnamon, cassia, nutm^s, mace, cloves, allspice or pimento. See the separate headings. SiTCE, mixed, 586, fig. 189 ; composition, 586 ; adulteration, 588, Detection of the adulterations, 588. Spirituous Liquors and their adultera- tions, 793 ; the formation of alcohol, 793 ; preparation of absolute alcohol, 795 ; fusel oil, 795 ; properties, 796. Detection, 796; defuselation of alcohol, 797; physio- logical action, 797 ; methods of estima- ting the quantity of alcohol present in any spirituous liquid, 798; saccharometers, 798 ; Sykes's hydrometer, 799 ; centesimal alcoholometer, 799 ; ebullioscope, 800 ; alcoholometric dilatometer, 800 ; specific gravity bottle, 800 ; alcoholometrical table of Tralles, 801. Detection of fusel oil, 803. Brandy, definition of adultera- tion, 803 ; preparation, 803 ; cognac, 803 ; strength of brandy, 804 ; adulterations, 804 ; British brandy, 804. Results of the examination of samples, 800. Detection of the adulterations, 806 ; water, 806 ; extraneous spirit, 807 ; sugar, 807 ; Cayenne pepper and grains of paradise, 807. Rmi, definition of adulteration, 807 ; preparation, 807 ; adulterations, 808 ; lead in rum, 808. Results of the ex- amination of samples, 809. Detection of the adulterations, 809. Gin, definition of adulteration, 809 ; preparation and com- position, 810 ; adulterations, 810 ; with alum, carbonate of potash, and acetate of lead, 810 ; gin flavourings, 811 ; to pre- pare and sweeten British gin, 812. Results of the analysis of samples, 813. Detection of the adulterations, 814 ; estimation of water, 814 ; alcohol, 814 ; sugar, 815. Detection of carminatives and flavouring substances, 815 ; cherry laurel water, or spirit of almond cake, 815 ; estimation of combined and free sulphuric acid, 816. Detection of alum, 816 ; lead, 817 ; sulphate of zinc, 817 ; ignorance of Excise, 817 ; preparation of potato spirit, 818. Standard of Purity of drinking water, 57. Starch, composition, 3. Stout. See Malt Beverages, Q&Q. Strongylus Filaria, 482. Strychnin, 691. Detection, 704. Succinic Acid, 721. Detection, 746. Sugar, value as food, 5 ; composition, 3. Sugar of Wine, 718 ; estimation, 734. Sugar-Cane, composition, 229. SUGAR-MlTE, 242. Sugar, definition of adulteration, 220 ; various kinds of sugar, 220 ; dextrose and lasvulose, 220 ; galactose, 221 ; sac- charose or cane sugar, 221 ; preparation of sugar, 221 ; from the cane, 221 ; raw or Muscovado sugar, 222 ; treacle or molasses, 222 ; preparation from beet root, 222 ; from the sugar maple, 223 ; preparation of glucose from potatoes, 223 ; the refining of sugar, 224 ; crushed sugar, 225 ; molasses, 225 ; properties of cane sugar, 225 ; crystals, 22%, fig. 60 ; table of specific gravities of solutions, 227 ; decompositions, 227 ; composition of the sugar cane, 229 ; analyses of cane juice, 230 ; of raw sugars, 230 ; compo- sition of the tuber of the sugar beet, 231 ; of the ash of the sugar cane, 231 ; 894 INDEX. ash of raw sugar and molasses, 231 ; the analysis of sugar, 232 ; estimation of water, 232 ; ash, 232 ; suspended matter, 232 ; glucose, 232 ; cane sugar, 233 ; saccharimetry, 234 ; the estimation of sugar by means of the polariscope, 234 ; angles of rotation of different sugars, 235 ; separation of cane from fruit sugar, 236 ; structure of the sugar cane, 286, ; ■ figs. 61, 62, and 63 ; physiological action and properties of cane sugar, 240 ; the impurities of unrefined or brown sugar, 240 ; the fungus in sugar, '2Al,fig. 67 ; the sugar mite, 242, fi^s. 64, 65, and 66 ; the grocers' itch, 244; fibre of fir, fig. 68. Results of the examination of samples, 246 ; the adulterations of cane sugar, 247. Detection of the adulterations, 248. Detection of gum, 249 ; of farinaceous substances, 249 ; starch sugar, 249 ; car- bonate of lime or chalk, 249 ; sulphate of lime or gypsum, 249 ; bone earth or phosphate of lime, 249; chloride of sodium, 249 ; sand, 249. Sugar Confectionery, coloured, 251 ; definition of adulteration, 251 ; adultera- tions, 251. Eesults of the examination of samples, 251; poisonous substances used to colour sugar confectionery, 254; flavouring with essences, 255 ; poisonous papers used as wrappers, 256 ; lists of colours, the use of which may be i)ermitted and prohibited, 256 ; aniUne dyes, 258. De- tection of the adulterations of sugar con- fectionery, 259 ; vegetable, animal, and mineral reds, 260. Detection of yellow colours, 261 ; of blue colours, 262 ; green colours, 263 ; brown and purple colours, 264 ; of bronze powders, 264 ; chalk, plaster of Paris, and clay, 265. Detection of different kinds of starch, 265. Sulphuric Acid, estimation, 85, 639, and 751. SULPHimETTED HYDROGEN in Water, esti- mation, 84. Supply op "Water per head, 61. Surface and Subsoil waters, 68. Suspended Matters, estimation in water, 91. Sutton, Mr., on the adulteration of tea, 127. Sykes' Hydrometer, 799. Tacca Arrowroot, 369. T^aENiA Solium, T. mediocanellata, T. echi- nococcus, 480. Tannin, estimation, 108, 744, 723, Tapioca, definition of adulteration, 379 ; plants from which it is obtained, 379; characters of the starch corpuscles, 380, figs. 119 and 120. Manihot or BraziUan arrowroot, 381 ; the adulterations of tapioca, 381. Results of the examination of samples, 381. Detection of the adultera- tions, 381. Tartaric Acid, 720. Detection and estima- tion, 655, 743. Tartaric Ether, 724. Tartrate of Potash, estimation, 743. Tea, definition of adulteration, 92 ; growth and preparation, 92 ; gathering, 92 ; black and green tea, 92 ; scenting, 93 ; principal kinds of black tea, 93 ; of green tea, 93 ; form of tea leaves, 95, figs. 18 and 19 ; minute structure, 95, figs. 20, 21, and 22 ; composition of tea, 97 ; extractive matter, 98 ; analyses, 99 ; theine, 100 ; volatile oil, 101 ; mineral matter, 101 ; composition of ash, 103 ; properties of tea, 104 ; analysis of tea, 106 ; soluble and insoluble constituents, 106 ; estima- tion of nitrogenous matter, 106 ; water and ash, 106 ; volatile oil, 107 ; theine, 107 ; tannin, 108 ; gum, 110 ; cellulose, 110 ; analysis of ash, 110 ; estimation of phosphoric acid, 110 ; potash. 111 ; sihca, 111 ; iron. 111 ; adulteration of tea, 112 ; with foreign leaves, 112, figs, 25, 2Q, and 27 ; with lie tea, 114, figs. 23, 24, and 28 ; mineral matter in he tea, 117 ; adulteration with mineral matter, 118 ; quantities of magnetic oxide of iron extracted by the magnet, 119 ; no iron filings in tea, 120 ; artificial coloration and adulteration, 122 ; percentage of ash in artificially-coloured green tea, 123 ; ash, silica, and iron in faced green teas, 124 ; evidence of travellers on the facing of tea, 124 ; evidence before the Parlia- mentary committee on adulteration, 126 ; results of the examination of caper, gun- powder, and other teas, 129 ; table of adulterated caper teas, 130; table of adulterated gunpowder teas, 131 ; copper in tea, 131 ; sulphate of iron, 132 ; tea sif tings,133 ; percentage of extractive mat- ter and of theine in adulterated teas, 133; Birmingham tea prosecutions, 134; the adulteration of tea as practised in this country, 134, j^gf5. 29, 30, and 31. Detec- tion of the adulterations, 138 ; of foreign leaves, 138 ; exhausted tea leaves, 139 ; lie tea, 140 ; quartz, sand, and magnetic oxide of iron, 141 ; the facing of tea, 141 ; ferrocyanide of iron or Prussian blue, 142 ; indigo, 142 ; turmeric, 143 ; black lead, 143 ; china clay, 143 ; silicate of magnesia or soap stone, 143 ; sulphate of lime or gypsum, 144 ; other substances used for the facing of tea, 144. Theine, properties and composition, 100; estimation, 107. Thudichum, Dr. on the manufacture and adulteration of sherry, 768. Tidy, Dr. C. M., on the adulteration of tea, 128. Tobacco, detection in beer, 704. Treacle, 222. Trichina spiralis, 480. Trifoil, 325. Turmeric, 599 ; definition of adulteration, INDEX. 895 599 ; composition, 599 ; structure, 600, figs. 195 and 196 ; adulterations of ter- meric, 601. Detection of the adulterations, 601. Typhoid Fever caused by impure water, 64. Trea, 2. Tredo, 310 and 313. Uric Acm, 2. ITTEXsrLS employed in the preparation and storage of food, 819 ; action of the food on the vessels, 819 ; copper vessels, 820 ; iron, brass, and tin vessels, 820 ; brass, 821 ; glazed vessels, 822 ; lead, 823 ; zinc, 828 ; pewter, 823 ; metal pipes and taps, 824. Vegetables and Fruits, bottled, 493. YsGETABLES, tinned, 498 ; definition of adulteration, 498 ; adulteration with sulphate of copper or bluestone, 498. ViBRIOXES, 316. Vinegar and its adulterations, 628 ; defi- nition of adulteration, 628 ; formation and occurrence of acetic acid, 629 ; different kinds of vinegar, 629 ; malt vinegar, 630 ; wine vinegar, 630 ; sugar, beet, and cider vinegars, 631 ; distilled vinegar, 631 ; the vinegar fungus, 631 ; the quick vinegar process, 632, f^. 204 ; manufacture of acetic acid from wood, 633 ; pyroligneous acid, 634 ; properties of acetic acid, 634 ; different quahties ^of vinegar, 634 ; the adulterations of vinegar, 635 ; evidence in regard to the use of corrosive subhmate, 636. Results of the analyses of samples, 637 ; contami- nation with metals, 638. Detection of the adulterations and impurities, 638 ; determination of acetic acid, 639 ; of sulphuric acid, 639 ; estimation of mineral acids, 641. Detection of ohilHes and other acrid substances, 642 ; burnt sugar, 642 ; pyroligneous acid, 642 ; bitar- trate of potash, 642 ; malic acid, 642. Detection of metallic impurities, 642 ; iron and zinc, 643. VciELCKER, Dr., on the adulteration of tea, 128. "Wakley's evidence on the adulteration of annatto, 622. "Wanklyn on the adulteration of tea, 128 ; of cocoa, 219. Wanklyn's and Frankland's methods of water analysis compared, 80. Warrington's Method for the detection of minute quantities of copper, 626. Water from ice, 15 ; from snow, 16 : rain, 16 ; distilled, 17 ; constituents, mineral, 18 ; gaseous, 19 ; organic, 19; injuricus properties of some waters, on what do they depend, 20 ; hardness. 20; softening, 24; quality of water, 25 ; purification, 26 ; by decomposition, 26 ; by oxidation, 27 ; skeleton of sew- age, 30; organic matter, ammonia, nitric acid, significance, 32 ; nitric acid the representative of decayed organic matter in water, 33 ; previous sewage contamination, 33 ; purification by filtration, 35 ; by precipitation, 36?; living organisms in potable water, 37, Jigs. 1 — 17 ; f cecal matter in water, 52 ; importance of the microscope in the examination of water, 53 ; microzymes 54 ; standard of purity of drinking water, 57 ; analyses of pure drinking waters, 58 ; of impure waters, 59 ; supply of water per head, 61 ; impure water a source of disease, 61 ; organic acids in water, 62 ; affections of the stomach, dyspepsia, by the use of impure water, 63 ; diarrhoea, 63 ; dysentery, 63 ; cholera, 64 ; typhoid fever, 64 ; scarlet fever, 64 ; malarious fever and ague, 64 ; goitre, 65 ; entozoa, 65 ; lead in water, 65 ; action of water on lead, zinc, &c., 66 ; effect of geological formation on the composition of water, 67 ; analysis of water, 68 ; collection of samples, 68 ; collection of sewage, 69 ; microscopical examination, 69 ; physical characters and appearance, 69 ; colour and clear- ness, 69 ; smell of water, 69 ; taste, 70 ; qualitative chemical tests ; 70 ; danger of reliance on the permanganate t^t, 71 ; quantitative analysis, 73 ; estima- tion of organic matter, 73 ; ammonia, method of water analysis, 74 ; estimation of free ammonia, 75 ; albuminoid ammo- nia, 76 ; estimation of nitrogen present as nitrates and nitrites, 77. Frankland's method of water analysis, 77, figs, 15 and 17 ; Frankland's method for estimating the nitric and nitrous acids, SO, fig. 16; mineral constituents of water, determi- nation, 83.; solid residue, 83 ; chlorine, 83 ; nitrous acid, 84 ; estimation of dissolved gases, 84 ; sulphuretted hydro- gen, 84 ; sulphuric acid, 85 ; silica, iron and alumina, lime and magnesia, 84 ; soda, 86 ; combined carbonic acid, 86 ; phosphoric acid, 87 ; calculation of results, 87; determination of hardness, 88; total permanent and temporary hardness, determination, 90 ; lead and copper, detection and estimation, 90 ; suspended matters, 91. Waters, Aerated, and their adulterations, 661 ; definition of adulteration, 661 ; manufacture, 661 ; soda water, 663 ; potash water, 663 ; lemonade, 663 ; ginger beer, 664; the adulterations of aerated waters, 665 ; metallic contamina- tions, 666 ; the analysis of aerated bever- ages, 666; estimation of the carbonic acid, 667. Wax, 271. 896 INDEX. Weevil, 318. Wheat Flour, 276. Wheat Midge, 319. Wines, Australian, 785 ; analyses, 785. Wines, French, 779 ; wines of the Roussil- lon district, 780 ; Perpignan, Languedoc, and St. Grilles, 780 ; Bordeaux wines, 780 ; Burgundy, 780 ; champagne, 781, preparation, 782 ; sparkling hock, 782 ; liqueiu'ing of champagne, 783 ; goose- berry, apple, pear, and rhubarb cham- pagnes, 783. Wines, G-erman, 784 ; Moselle wine, 784. Wines, Greek, 784. Wine and its adulterations, 715 ; definition of adulteration, 715 ; the manufacture of wine, 715 ; composition of the grape, 716 ; of the juice or must, 716 ; of wine, 718 ; sugar of wine, 718 ; glycerin, 719 ; alcohol, 719 ; acids, 720 ; tartaric acid, 720 ; malic, 721 ; succinic, 721 ; acetic, 722 ; the fatty acids, 723 ; oenanthic acid, 723 ; tannic, 723 ; ethers of wine, 724 ; oenanthic ether, 724 ; tartaric, 724 ; bouquet of wine, 725 ; colouriDg matters, 726 ; of white wines, 726 ; of red wines, 726 ; ammonia, 728 ; albumi- nous matter, 728 ; mineral constituents, of the grape, 729 ; ash of grapes, 729 ; mineral constituents of wine, 731 ; table of averages of the analyses of wine, 732 ; the extractives, 734 ; total solids, 734 ; the analysis of wine, 734 ; estimation of sugar, 734 ; alcohol tables, 736 ; deter- mination of glycerin, 739 ; estimation of alcohol, 739 ; by conversion into acetic acid, 741 ; by specific gravity of de- alcoholised wine, 741 ; estimation of total free acids, 742 ; volatile acids, 743 ; bitartrate of potash, 743 ; total tartaric acid, 743 ; malic acid, 744 ; tannic acid, 744 ; detection of racemic acid, 745 ; succinic acid, 746 ; formic acid, 746; estimation of ethers in wine, 746 ; Berthelot's formula, 747 ; determination of the albuminous matter, 747 ; of ammonia, 749 ; the colouring matters of red wine, 749 ; estimation of the mineral matter, 750 ; phosphoric acid, 750 ; sul- phuric acid, 751 ; chlorine, 751 ; the total solids, 751 ; sugar table, 752 ; the adulterations of wine, 753 ; dilution and sweetening of the must, 753 ; regu- lation of its acidity, 755 ; the colouring of wine, 755 ; plastering, 756 ; deplaster- ing, 759; fortification, 761; flavouring, 763 ; blending, 763 ; factitious wines, 763; lead in wine, 764; sherry, 766; Madeira, 774 ; Cape wines, 776 ; port, 776 ; French wines, 779 ; German, 784 ; Greek, 784; Australian, 785. Detection oi the adulterations of wine, 785 ; of cane sugar, 785 ; extraneous spirit, 786 ; juice other than that of the grape, 786 ; colouring matters, 787 ; spectroscopic discrimination, 790. Detection of sul- phuric acid, 792 ; of carbonate of soda or potash, 792 ; lead, 792 ; soleras, 792. Yeast, 334. Zinc, action of water on, 66. Detection, 643, 817. Zeine, 302. LONDON : PRINT KD BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE AND PARLIAMENT STREET ADVEETISEMENTS. 3 M INDEX OF ADYERTISEMENTS. Angostura Bitters Atkins & Co.'s Household Filters &c Aylesbury Dairy Co. . Bailey (W.) & Son, Chemicals for Photography, &c. Barry & Co.'s Chicory, Cocoa, and Mustard ..... Batger & Co.'s Confectionery Boize's Pure Cognac Brown & Poison's Corn Flour Cadbury's Cocoa Essence Cassell's Dictionary of Cookery . Colman's Corn-Flour . Colman's Genuine Mustard . Compressed Tea Company . Crosse & Blackwell's Pickles, Sauces, Soups, &c. . Dairy Keform Company Dakin & Co.'s Teas &c. Daukes & Co.'s Bottled Ales and Stout Dinneford's Fluid Magnesia . Erkenbrecher's ' Cornena ' . Farina Vitse .... Feltoe & Sons* Specialite Sherry . Freeman's Digestive Baking Powder Fry's Cocoa and Chocolate . Fullwood & Co.'s Annatto . Geyelin's Concentrated Food «Glenfield' Starch Goodall's Specialities . . , Hards' Farinaceous Food Harvest's Genuine Pickles . Hassall's Food for Infants &c. Hedges & Butler's Wines and Spirits Hicks Brothers' Baking Powder . Hill & Son's Bread and Biscuits . Hooper's Brighton Seltzer . PAGE . 10 49 33 46 . 16 . 20 . 6 Cover . 17 . 52 . 30 . 41 . 12 19 34 46 31 27 1 40 14 36 45 43 21 24 22 28 39 37 48 Horniman & Co.'s Black and Green Teas Johnson & Co.'s Canterbury Pale Ale . . . Keen's Mustard . Kingsford's Oswego Corn Lazenby's Pickles Liebig Company's Extract of Meat Medlock & Bailey's Patent Bisul phite of Lime . Neave's Food for Infants North British & Mercantile In surance Company Norwegian Condensed Milk . Phillips & Co.'s Pure Tea and Coffee .... Pink's Pickles and Marmalade Pooley's Malt Bread Potts' Vinegar Pownceby's Pure Wines and Brandies Pure Wine Association Kaggett's Nourishing Stout and Golden Hop Ale Richmond & Clarke's Pure Malt Vinegar . Ridge's Food Sarson's Virgin Vinegar Savory & Moore's Food for Infants Schweitzer's Cocoatina, Guaranteed Fure Soluble Cocoa . Ditto Cocoatina a la Vanille Smithdale's Norwich Mustard Sovereign Life Office . Stapleton & Co.'s Wine Tariff Towle's Chlorodyne Town son & Mercer's Chemical Apparatus Van Houten's Pure Cocoa Whybrow's Pickles Yardley & Co.'s Toilet Soaps Cover 35 18 , 18 38 23 i 13 II 32 32 28 44 47 43 29 7 26 15 15 42 42 4 Cover 50 Cover n 6% Advertisements. The Rev. Sir EDWARD REPPS JODRELL, Bart., To Messrs. Felio cf Sms, 27 Alhe^narle Sired, W, * When at Sail I received an Analytical Report of your SPECIALIT:^ SHERRT, ■and you must forgive me for saying that at first I regarded the whole matter as ■.n. most egregious piece of humbug. Having, however, tasted tbe wine in question, ami found it agreeable to the palate, I determined on my own responsibility, to have it analysed for myself, having fully also determined previously to expose any hoax ^^/-o hono publico, or to give you the benefit of the Analysis should it turn out in your favour. I have the pleasure to forward you Professor Redwood's (of the Phamaceutical Society of Great Britain) Analysis, which says more than I can express. I am very particular as to the wine I drink, and as I have been hitherto buying every-day Sherry at 60s. a dozen, I am rejoiced to find now that I can purchase wine of equal strength and superior bouquet at half that price. This should be known to the general public, and you can make any use you deem proper of this letter, and also of Professor Redwood's most elaborate Analysis.— Yours faithfully, (Signed) Edv/ard Repps Jodjjell.' FELTOE & SONS Are Sole Proprietors and Importers of the 'SPECIALIT'E' SHERRY (registered). It has "been exhibited as a Dietetic by special permission in the Museum of the BRITISH MEDICAL ASSOCIATION. Is now Adopted and Recommended by nearly 3,000 Physicians and Surgeons for its valuable Dietetic Qualities. * Free from acidity and heat.' — The British Mtdkal Journal. * Valuable for Gouty or Uric Acid tendencies.' — Dr. Hardwicke, Meiropolitait Aiali/st^ and Coroner for Central Middlesex. * Has a great medical reputation.' — Medical Record. * Contains nothing foreign to tlie grape.' — Professor Redwood's Analysis . CASH ONLY.— Carriage Paid» Chief Establishment~27 ALBEMARLE STREET, W. City Oflaces— 8 Union Court, Old Broad Street, E.C. Branch OfSces -Manchester and Brighton. 3 M 2 "^^ » f< A ^^ '^^ «•« ^ Advertisemeiits, THE PURE WINE ASSOCIATION, LIMITED, 22 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, W.C. Supply the onl^ Sherries certified by competent Analysts to be free front Plaster of Paris and its effects. SHERRIES. strength Price jjer dozei> ^''*" ris"^'°r' .!'"'!.!'!°"!.^!!!!!!" °^} ^"'^^^ ^6% proof 30/- to 36/- i'inest Old "Wines, shipped free from ") -c, ^^ . ^-^, oa/ 4. t-; Plaster of Paris......:. / ^^°^ ^^ ^^ ^^'/^ ,^^/- *^ ^'^- RED WINES. Consumo, Portuguese Claret, from Oporto Under 26% proof 24/- Collares, Portuguese Claret, from Lisbon Ditto 26 1- I'inest Alto Douro Ports, from Oporto Prom 30 to 34% 30/- to 45/- :Bucellas, Old 36/- The Alto Doupo Port, 1869, is characterised in Drs. TnuDiCHr^f nnd Dupkk's * Treatise on Wines,' page 681, as * fine, full, pure, and of the lowest alcoholicity of any Port Wine we have met "with in this country,' Consumo, in the same Treatise, as * perfectly pure, quite dry, and as free from adventitious alcohol as the fullest Burgundies.' Extracts from Analysis of Tt\^lve Samples Selected. ' It thus appears that the average amount of sulphuric acid is below that obtained bj/ us from grapes themselves. . . . We have met with nothing comparable with them. ... In conclusion, it may be said of the AVines of the Pure Wine Association, that they are remarkable for their freedom from added spirit and from plaster, and, of course, from their effects.' — Arthur Hill Hassall, M.D., Author of ' Food, and its Adulterations/ * Adulterations Detected,' and late Editor of ' Food, Water, and Air.' Extracts from Dr. Bartlett's Analysis, l^th October 1874. * After the most minute examination of two samples of Sherry, selected and drawn by myself from the general bulk of the Company's bins, I find them to be exactly as professed, free from Plaster and its effects. . . . "The sulphuric acid actually present in these wines is less in quantity than that found in water certified to be exceptionally pure for drinking.' Advej^tisements. HEDOES <& BXJTLER INVITE ATTENTION TO THE FOLLOWING WINES AND SPIRITS. Good Sherry, Pale or Gold 2Qs. 245. 305. 365. 425. per doz. Very Choice Sherry ... 485. 545. 605. 725. Port, of various ages 245. 305. 365. 425, 485. jVIarsala 205. 245. Good Claret 145. I85. 205. 245. „ Choice Dessert Claret 305. 365. 425. 485. 605. White Bordeaux 245. 305. 365. 485. „ Biu'gundy (Ked) 245. 305. 365. 485. 6t)5. Chablis ... 245. 305. 365. 485. ^pirkling Champagne 865. 425. 485. 605. 785, Hock and >Ioselle 245. 305. 365. 425. 485. 6O5. i'lDc Pale Brandy 445. 485. 605. 725, 845, WINES IN WOOD • Per Impl. Gall. Per Octave . Per Qr. Cast . PerHM. Per Butt. s. d. £, s. d. £ 5. d. £ «. £ s. Pale Sherry 9 6 ... 6 5 ... 12 ... 23 10 ... 46 Good Dinner Sherry ... 11 6 ... 8 ... 15 10 ... 30 10 ... 60 Pme Sherry 14 6 ... 9 15 ... 19 ... 37 10 ... 74 Superior Sherry 17 6 ... 11 10 ... 22 10 .... 44 10 ... 88 Ohoiee Dessert Sherry ... 20 6 ... 13 5 ... 26 ... 51 ... 100 Old Sherry 23 6 ... 14 15 ... 29 ... 57 ,,. 112 Old Solera's £114 £125 £13/ ' to £150 per Butt, Per Impl. Gall. Per Octave . Per Qr. Cask . Per Hhd. Per Butt. s. d, £ s, d. & *. d. & s, £ s. Good Port 11 6 ... 8 15 ... 17 ... 33 10 ... 65 Fine Port 14 6 ... 10 5 ... 20 ... 39 10 .,. 76 Fine Old Port 17 6 ... 12 ... 23 10 ... 46 10 ... 90 Choice Old Port 20 6 ... 13 15 ... 27 ... 53 ... 102 Curious Old Port ^^120 £135 £148 per Pipe. Claret £14 £17 £20 £25 £30 £40 £50 £63 per Hhd. Burgundy (Red and White) £20 £30 £35 £40 £50 £63 Old Pale Brandy ... 2l5. 245. 305. 365. per Imperial Gallon. Old Irish and Scotch Whiskey 21 5. per Imperial Gallon, 3Ies?rs. HEDGES & BUTLER iiivite attention to their extensive stock of CHOICE ♦OLD POKT, selected and bottled with the utmost care, and now in the highest state of perfection, embracing the famed vintages of 1840, 1847, 1858, 1861, and 1863 — ranging in. prices from 48^. to VlOs. per dozen. FOREIGN LIQUEURS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION. i^' On receipt of a Post-Office Order, or reference, any quantity (with a Price List of all other Wines) will be forwarded immediately by HEDGES & BUTLER, LONDON : 155 REGENT ST., W. I BRIGHTON : 30 & 74 KING'S Ra (ORIGINALLY ESTABLISHED A.D. 1667). Advertisements. T. W. STAPLETON & GO.'S WINE TARIFF (For the Present Season). IBy Custom House Report, tlie largest Importers in England (not supplying the trade) , duty paid in 1874 being 76,834 gallons. Address 203 REGENT STREET, Corner of Conduit Street, W. Established 1833. 1870 CLAEETS.— Pure, sound Bordeaux, Us. per dozen, or £6. bs. per half hhd. ; £12 per hhd., duty paid. 1868 VINTAGE EPERNAY CHAMPAGNE. — Magnificent in quality^ brilliant in condition, ripe for drinking, 365. per dozen quarts ; 21s. pints. 1868 CREME DE BOUZY.— Pale, delicate, and dry, 425. per dozen quarts, 245. pints. 1868 L'EMPEREUR CHAMPAGNE, Premiere Qualite— a superb dry wine ; the cream of the vintage ; quarts, 62.s. ; pints, 345. And all other brands, 1860 VINTAGE PORT.— Mature and fit for immediate use, 345. per dozen. 1864 NATURAL SHERRY— This elegant, pure, dry Xeres, 205. per dozen. £5. 5.-?. per octave ; £10. IO5. per quarter-cask ; or the Star brand, 24*., or £6. 65. per octave, £12. 12«. per quarter-cask. 1861 MANZANILLAS.— -Very delicate, at 305., or £15. 10s. per quarter-cask; and the driest and finest that can be shipped, 365. i)er dozen. Specially recom- mended for invalids, being free from acidity. T. W. STAPLETOiSr & CO. invite attention to then- choice selection of Old Brandies and superior mellow Whiskies, at 405. per dozen. IMPORTANT NOTICE. MANZANILLA— T. W. STAPLETON & CO., of 203 Regent Street, W., beg to call particular attention at this time, when Sherry Wine is so calumniated, to the following correspondence between Dr. Bartlett, the well-known and highly-talented analyst, and themselves. No. 203 Regent Street, "\V., comer of Conduit Street. H. C. Bartlett, Esq., Ph.D., F.C.S. .July 11. 1874. Dear Sir,— In answer to question 4,292, before the Select Committee of tlie House ot Commons on the Adulteration of Food Act, you allude to Manzanilla, which you had tasted and pronounced excellent «,nfl MARK BOIZE'S LIQUEUR GRAPE ' BLUE LABEL' COGNAC BRANDY ( I2.DE] C3-ISTE I2,E 33) . GEORGE BOIZE & CO. of Cognac, are the sole shippers of this celebrated old Brandy, which they have been advised tointrodnce by influential members of the medical profession, as a true remedy for the various complaints for which people in this country generally consume French Brandy. The shippers having been aware for many years past of the inferior spirits offered to the consumer, under the names of French and British Brandy (so called British Brandy is not pure Brandy, not being produced from the juice of the grape), now bring this unequalled Liqueur before the notice of Connoisseurs and Invalids. Be^ort by Arthur Hell Hassall, Esq., M.D. * This Brandy possesses a fine and delicate aroma and flavour, which are in themselves characteristic of superior quality. Although it contains a large quantity of absolute alcohol it is yet soft to the palate, indicating that it has been kept for some years, and has thus become mellowed by age. Altogether it may be said of this Brandy, that it is very pure and of unusual excellence.* The Wine Trade Review, July 1875. ' Apparently with a desire of founding a reputation upon quality rather than upon low prices, Messrs. GjSo. Boize & Co. of Cognac are, we understand bottling for their "Liqueur Grape" only Brandies of 1848 vintage.' The Grocer, July 3, 1875. * A new brand has been introduced into the spirit market by Messrs. Geo. Boize & Co. of Cognac, under the title of the Liqueur Gra'pe Blue Label Cognac Brandy, This firm is determined to found its reputation upon quality rather than upon low prices, and therefore is shipping only 1848 Brandy.' BOIZE'S 'LIQUEUR GRAPE' BRANDY Is to be had of all Wine Merchants and Grocers in the Kingdom, or Wholesale of MESSRS. GEO. BOIZE & CO., 61 MARK LANE, LONDON, E.C. r j Advertisements* RAGGETT'S NOURISHING STOUT AND GOLDEN HOP PALE ALE. *I have carefully analysed Raggett's well-known Nourishing Stout, as obtained from 21 Duke Street, St. James's, and find it to be a genuine, most wholesome, and highly nourishing beverage, less heavy and consequently more digestible than London Stout in general.' (Signed) Arthur Hill Hassall, M.D, • The Golden Hop Pale Ale will no doubt become as popular as the well- known Nourishing Stout, it being scarcely possible to produce anything finer of its kind.' (Signed) Arthur Hill Hassall, M.D. . CAUTIOW. — The Public are requested to note that the words 'Raggett late Blockey ' are upon the Labels of each Cask and Bottle of the genuine. Tliis Caution is the more necessary as Brewers as well as Bottlers are adopting the word * Nourishing ' upon Labels of their own in imitation of our well- known Trade Title. SARSON'S VIRGIN VINEGAR. Messrs. S ARSON & SON have appointed Special Agents in all Towns in the United Kingdom for the sale of their Virgin Vinegar in Pint and Quart Capsuled Bottles, the object being to ensure to the Public a Vinegar pure as first drawn. This Vinegar will be found very superior to the ordinary vinegar of commerce, the price is the same, namely, ^d. per* I^int. lOcl. pex* C^uax^. OBSERVE.— Sold only in Capsuled Bottles bearing our Name and Trade Mark. Advertisements. DAUKES & CO. EOTTLED ALE & STODT MERCHANTS, FOR HOME USB AND EXPORTATION, EXETER HALL VAULTS, STRAND, W.C. GUINNESS'S EXTRA STOUT AND BASS'S & ALLSOPPS PALE AND BURTON ALES. THE SAME AS SUPPLIED TO INTEENATIOML EXHIBITIONS 1871 TO 1874. '! Advertisements. &♦ NUMBER ONE ^T. PAUL'S CHURCHYARD, E.C. I AND OXFORD CIRCUS, W. LONDON, December 1875. We daily issue, gratis, a Price Current, which contains prices and^ descriptions of Black and Green Teas, Coffees, Cocoas and Chocolates, Arrowroots, Condiments, Farinaceous Food, Spices, &c.. and the arrangements for the free delivery of orders &c. We extract from it the foUow^ing : — ' At the end of the year 1860, we took advantage of the passing of the Aot — 23rd and 24th Victoria, cap. 84 — " for Preventing the Adulteration of Articles of Food or Drink," to organise a system of warranting all our goods. • Another Act for the same purpose was passed in 1872 — 35th and 36th Vict., Ciip. 74. * These Acts, and some others, have been repealed, and another Act. passed, called "The Sale of Food and Drugs Act, 1875," but the system of warranty we adopted in 1860 appears to have anticipated so fully the principle and requirements of this Act that we continue to follow it, together with what improvements are possible.' DAKIN & COMPANY, T E A - 3X E R^ O H -A. ISr T S , AND PATENTEES FOR ROASTING COFFEE &c. IN SILVER CYLINDERS. NUMBER ONE ST. PAUL'S CHURCHYARD, E.C. AND OXFORD CIRCUS, W. TERMS, Net Cash. — The prices from the lowest to the highest- axG the most moderate possible for the qualities supplied. 10 Advertisements. DR. SIEGERT'S ANGOSTURA BITTERS, So justly celebrated for upwards of Forty Years for their exquisite Aromatic Flavour, were awarded * Honour- able Mention for Goodness of Quality' at the Inter- national Exhibition 1862, and Medal of Merit at the Vienna Exhibition 1873 (the highest distinction obtain- able). Used as ordinary Bitters with Wine or Spirits, or takv.n in Sugared Water, they are invaluable as an Appetiser and Tonic. They are most efficient in the cure of, and are also an excellent preservative against, Fever, Diarrhoea, Cholera, Liver Com- j)laints, &c. The following is a Copy of Dr. HASSALL'S Report on these Bitters. ^ I have carefully analysed a sample of the well-known Angostura Bitters of Messrs. Siegert e hijos. * I find that they consist of a mixture of certain bitter, aromatic, and carminative substances, together with alcohol, added as a preservative and solvent, and that they are altogether free from admixture with any dangerous or deleterious compound, as strychnine, for example, so commonly present in what are termed '*' pick-me-ups." ^ These Bitters constitute, in fact, a very useful and whole- some Tonic when employed in suitable cases. (Signed) 'ARTHUR HILL HASSALL, M.D/ Author of * Food and its Adulterations,'' ' Adidteratioits Detected^' and late Editor of ' Food, Water, and Air* Advertisements, II JOHNSON & OO.'S CANTERBURY ;^^ PALE ALE. Brewed and Fermented U^fSJiN&^T/ ^^ ^ special process for VA \ BREWERS / rm Exportation in Bottle \^S^^^dJ to Hot Climates. Dry Cooperage Casks, containing 4 doz. quarts, 8/- per doz.. 8 „ pints, 5/6 „ Cases containing 1 doz. quarts 8/6 „ 3 „ pints 5/9 The Cases of 2 dozen pints are prepared for the .Spanish Colonies, South America, West Indies, &e., and are an exact weight of 27 kilogrammes^ — 21 of these cases go to the ton measurement. The prices are for quantities over 20 dozen quarts or 40 dozen pints, in less quantity ^d. per dozen quarts and 2d. per dozen pints extra. Johnson & Co. take the Customs' drawback. Free on board in the docks in London, Southampton, Dover, or New- haven, less 0% for cash on delivery of bills of lading. JOHNSON & CO.'S CANTERBURY PALE ALE (In Bulk). Draught Ale, in hogsheads, £>20 per ton of 4 hogsheads^ „ „ barrels ... £,22 „ 6 barrels. „ „ kilderkins £24 ,, 12 kilderkins^ Free on board in the docks in London, Southampton, Dover, or New- haven, less 2\% for cash on delivery of bills of lading. The season for exporting Draught A\q commences on November 1st, and terminates on March 30th for distant markets, European ports can be shipped to every month except August and September. JOHNSON & CO., Brewers, CANTERBURY; AND 64 Basinghall Street, LONDON, E.C, Agencies in Sydney^ Melbournej Shanghai, Gibraltar, ^-c, ^'C. 1 2 Advertisements. THE COMPRESSED TEA COMPANY (LIMITED), 36 SOUTHWARK STREET, LONDON, SI. "HTHE Leaf of the Tea Plant is a structure consisting entirely ■^ of cells ; each cell is a closed sac, composed of an imperforate memhraiie, containing the soluble ingredients that form the infusion. The ' making ' of Tea, from the leaves as imported, ruptures only a portion of these cells ; but if the leaf be submitted to a very high pressure, the entire mass of cells is hroken open, admitting the hot water to all alike, thus causing a considerable saving in the quantity required to be used, it being easy of demonstration that one found of Compressed Tea produces a liquor about equal in quantity, equality, and strength to that produced by two pounds uncompressed. Each Packet contains half-a-pound, which is sub-divided into half-ounces, thus enabling the Consumer to regulate his requirements with certainty. The Company only selects Tea of undoubted purity, and the process it undergoes prevents the possibility of adulteration, in proof of which the Public is referred to the following extract from the Analytical Report of Dr. Arthur Hill Hassall, M.D. :— * I have subjected samples both Compressed and Uncompressed of the Tea of the Compressed Tea Company (Limited) to full chemical analysis and microscopical examination, and find them to be of good quality and perfectly genuine, ' The Compressed Tea is more fragrant than the Uncompressed, and, •owing to the rupture of many of their component cells, yields a larger propor- tion of the extractive matter and of the active constituents of the Tea than "the Uncompressed. * The compression of Tea into Cakes constitutes, in ?iny opinion, a REAL and IMPORTANT improvement ±a the treatment of Tea. (Signed) ' AETHUR HILL HASSALL, M.D.' Author of * Food and its Adulterations* * Adulterations Detected^' late Eiitor of ' Food^ Water, and Air,* Advertisements. 13 I^EPORT OIV THE BLACK AND GREEN TEAS IMPOHTED BY MESSRS. HORNIMAN & CO. The Analytical Saxitary Institution, 2 Adelphi Terrace, Strand, London. Nearly twenty-five years have passed away since I first drew attention to tlie fact, that all the China Green Teas and many of the Black sorts imported into this country were artificially coloured, painted, or faced with various organic and inorganic pigmentary matters. This practice I then denounced, and I have never lost an opportunity' of continuing to do so since that period. In fact, from more extended knowledge and experience of the subject, I am of opinion that the practice is one which ought, in the interest of consumers, ta be condemned in the strongest possible terms. In 1859 I visited some of the Bonded Tea Warehouses containing consign- ments of Tea to the Messrs. Horniman, and I secured samples therefrom, which I subsequently submitted to analysis. I likewise then visited and inspected Messrs. Horniman's Warehouse in Wormwood Street, securing samples there in like manner, as well as from some of the appointed Agents of ]\ressrs. Horniman, and I subjected the whole of the samples thuS obtained to full examination and analysis. I have again, after a lapse of fifteen years, instituted a similar inquiry. I have obtained a variety of samples of Black and Green Tea from Messrs. Horniman's stock in the Bonded Warehouses, from their London Warehouse, and from some of their Agents. The whole of the Teas thus obtained have been subjected to full examina- tion and analysis with the following results : — 1st. That the whole of the Teas examined were genuine, that is to say, they consisted wholly of the leaf of the Tea-plant — not a single foreign leaf being in any one of the samples. 2nd. That the whole of the Green Teas were entirely free from foreign colouring matters — the turmeric, the Prussian blue, and the silicate of magnesia, or soap, stone, &c. — witli which the China Green Teas are so constantly faced, ord. That the whole of the Teas from Messrs. Horniman's stock in the Bonded Warehouses, from their London Warehouse, and from their appointed Agents, were of good quality as well as genuine, and that they furnished the full proportion of extractive matters characteristic of good Tea. (Signed) ARTHUR HILL HASSALL, M.D. Author of the Reports of the Analj'tical Sanitar}- Commisssion of the * Lancet,' now published under the title of ' FoodNand Its Adulterations ; • of * Adulterations Detected ; ' and Editor of ' Food, Water, and Air,' &c. SOLD IN PACKETS BY 8,538 AGENTS, CHEMISTS, CONFECTIONERS, &G. 14 Advertisements. NINE EXHIBITION MEDALS A WARDED TO J. S. FRY d SONS. FRY'S CARACAS COCOA, This Cocoa owes its Delicious Flavour to tlie use of the celebrated Caracas Nut, combined with other choice descriptions, specially- selected for their peculiar excellence, and invigorating qualities. ' Caracas Cocoa has ever been considered the best of all that is produced upon the American soil.' — ^R. T, C. Middletox, Consul- General, Caracas. — Journal of Applied Science, * No more delicious, refreshing, nourishing, and wholesome beverage has ever been manufactured.' — Morning Post. ' A packet can easily be obtained, and its delicate flavour and fine aroma ensure its adoption sis a beverage for breakfast or supper.' — Standardy ' The Caracas Cocoa of such choice quality.' — Food, Water, and Air, edited by Dr. Hassall. * A most delicious and yaluable article.* — Standard. FRY'S EXTRACT OF COCOA. In 6d, Packets f Is. and 2s. Tins, A perfectly pure and delicious beverage, prepared exclusively from choice Cocoa Nibs deprived of the superfluous oil, and of great value to invalids who wish to avoid rich articles of diet. Purchasers of this class of Cocoa should ask for * Fry's Extract of Cocoa.* • The " Extract of Cocoa," which really consists of Cocoa Nibs deprived of superfluous oil, than which, if properly prepared, there is no nicer or more wholesome preparation of Cocoa.' — Food^ Water, and Air, Dr. Hassall. FRY'S CARACAS CHOCOUTE. In 4 Ih. and J lb. Calces. Yellow Wrai^pers. This really excellent and delicious Chocolate is also prepared with Caracas and other choice Cocoas, long adopted in the manufacture of the finest Chocolates of Europe. It is offered at a very moderate price, and the Manufacturers confidently challenge for it, competition with any other Chocolate, whether of English or Foreign Manufacture, at a similar price, ' Fry's Caracas Cocoa and Chocolate fulfil every possible requirement for convenience, f(n* flavour, and for purity.' — CoKrt Circtdar, Advertisetnents. 15 SCHW^EITZER'S COCOATINA. ANTI-DYSPEPTIC COCOA OE CHOCOLATE POWDER. GUARANTEED PURE ^^S% STRONGLY RECOMMENDED SOLUBLE COCOA, llJ^BJ ^^ ^"^ FACULTY WITHOUT ADMIXTURE. ^^3^ FOR FAMILY USE. CocoATiNA is the highest class of Soluble CocorARK. YORKSHIRE RELISH. The most Delicious Sauce in the World, Tliis cheap and excellent Sauce makes the plainest viands palatable, and the daintiest dishes more delicious. To Chops, Steaks, Fish, &c., it is incomparable. Sold by Grocers, Oilmen, Chemists, &c. in Bottles, 6d., Is., and 2s. 6d, each. Prepared by GOODALL, BACKHOUSE, & CO., LEEDS. GOODALUS QUININE WINE. The best, cheapest, and most agreeable tonic yet introduced. The best remedy known for Indigestion, Loss of Appetite, Greneral Debility, &c. &c. Restores delicate invalids to health and vigour. Sold by Chemists, Grocers, &c., at Is., Is. 1^., 25., and 25. 3c?. each Bottle. Prepared by GOODALL, BACKHOUSE, & CO., LEEDS. 22 Advertisements. INFi PI GENU CKLES, PREPARED SOLELY BY W. & D. HARVEST, IDOV/GATE DOCK, LONDON May be obtained from all the leading Grocers in Areedare DONCASTER J^^'ottingham Abergavenny Dudley Newport Alford Ely Northampton Alnwick Exeter Oldbury Ampthill Falmouth Oxford Aylesbury Folkestone Peterborough Banbltiy Gloucester Portsmouth Bedford Grantham Plymouth Brighton Great Bridge Penzance Berwick Grimsby E.YDE Bewdley GOOLE Ramsgate BiLSTON Guernsey Retford Birmingham Hastings Southampton Bristol Hull Spalding Cambridge HORNCASTLE Sheffield Cardiff Ipswich Scarborough Canterbury Jersey TONBRIDGE Cheltenham Kidderminster Taunton Colchester Lincoln Tavistock Coventry Lowestoft Wolverhampton Croydon Landport Whitby Darlington Margate Winchester Derby Mansfield WiSBEACH ^ Dorchester Middlesborough York r.^^ Dover Yarmouth ^SJi^B AND NEARLY EVEBY TO'W'N IN THE^KINGDOM. ALSO HARVEST'S GENUINE ESSENCE OF ANCHOVIES, HARVEST'S BENGAL PICKLE. ¥. & B. HARDEST, DO¥&ATE DOCK,. lOEDOI Advertisements. 28 CO tn m Piq <^ QC 1-^ QQ '^/ r/ - CO a FOR % TABLE V PICKLING, ^ AND \. \/ EXPORT 24 Advertisements, FARINACEOUS FOOD Has been extensively used by the Public for upward of BO YEARS, And well-known as superior to all descriptions of Food FOR INFANTS AND INVALIDS. JONATHAlSr PEREIRA, M.D. AND ARTHUR HILL HASSALL, M.D. Give the following Reports: — * I have carefully examined and repeatedly prescribed "Hards' Farinaceous Food" (see Pereira's " Treatise on Food and Diet,*' pages 801) and 473, &c.) which is prepared from the most nutritious of the Cereal grains. It combines botli nitrogenised and non-nitrogenised alimentary principles, and for a very valuable Food for Children and Invalids. 'JONATHAl^r PEREIRA, M.D., F.R.S. ' 47 Finsburv Square, ' Physician to the London Hospital. ' July 1, 1843.' ' I have recently examined with much care, both microscopically and chemically, the article known as " Hards' Farinaceous Food," which has now been before the public foi so many years. ' I find it to be carefully prepared, to be perfectly genuine, and highly nutritious ; ll:ose results being corroborated by manj' previous examinations of the article made at vaiious times, during the past few years, and entirely without the knowledge of the proprietor. ' It possesses certain iniportant advantages over the majority of Food sold for Infanfcj and Invalids, it being more digestible, and in the large proportion of gluten which it contains, and which is the blood and flesh-producing constituent of the Food. The greater number of Farinaceous Foods sold, consist wholly of arrowroot or starch, which do not contain gluten or nitrogen in any form, and such articles are therefore wholly destitute of any principle from wliich blood and flesh can be formed, so that infants fed exclusively upon them would be in danger of dying from actual starvation. This fact cannot be too generally impressed upon Mothers, and all persons engaged in the rearing of Children. * ARTHUR Hllili HASSALIi, M.D. ' Analyst of the Lancet Sanitary Commission, ' Author of " Food and its Adulterations," &c. * Wimpole Street, Cavendish Square, W.' * Feb. 1, I860.' Sold in all parts of the world by Chemists, Patent Medicine Vendors, aiid Italian Warehousemen, in Is. and 2s. FacJcets, and Tin Cases 7**. &d, each; ami WHOLESALE AT THE T ROYAL VICTORIA MILL, DARTFORD, Advertisements. N EAVES FOOD INFANTS AND INVALIDS, Is a preparation from the finest description TRADE^J^ MARK. of Cereal Grains. It is rich in albiiraenoids, starch, phosphates, cellulose, &c., and is highly recommended by medical men and others, who have brought up their own children upon it. Dr. C. A. Ca^heron, of Dublin, says of this food— 'This is an excellent Food, admirably adapted to the wants of infants and young persons. It c< mtains a small though sufficient quantity of very fine bran, which being rich in phos- phates and potash, is of the greatest utility in supplying the bone-forming and other indis- pensable elements of food. The albumenoids, or flesh-forming ingredients of this food are XQxy abundant ; and its large percentages of fat-producing materials will effectually contri- butti to the maintenance of the heat and work of the animal mechanism. Although pecu- liarly adapted to the wants of the young, this food may be used with advantage by persons of all ages.' The late Dr. Laxkester, F.R.S., Coroner for Middlesex, said — ' I have examined specimens of Nea^t^'s Fauixaceous Food for Infants and Invalids, and find it to consist of carefully prepared flour from cereal grains, and to be free from any impiirities or substances of an injurious character. I have also tested dietetically the Food' prepared according to the directions for use, and have found it to be a very agreeable article of diet. I have pleasure in recommending it, especially for children, as containing, in due proportion, the flesh-forming and heat-giving elements of food.* From Dr. Hassall, Author of ' Food and its Adulterations,' and other "Works. * The chemical analysis of a sample of Neaye's Food, recently made by me, furnishes the- following results : — Moisture 5*77 per cent. Xitrogen, 3*07 per cent., equal to gluten (the flesh-forming element) 18'98 „ Fatty Matter 9-30 „ Starch, gum, cellulose, &c 71*51 „ Saline matter, chiefly phosphates, . . 1-35 „ * These results are remarkable in several respects ; as for the small quantity of moisture- contained in the article, the large amount of the flesh-forming material, of fatty matter, and of phosphates. Further they demonstrate that this Food is of a higlily nourishing character, find admirably suited for the sustenance of Infant Children and of Invalids.* Many other medical and private testimonials might he added, but they are unne- cessary, as a trial will he a most satisfactory proof of excellence. Keave's Food is sold in Shilling Tins by Chemists and Grocers at home and abroad. J. R. NEAVE & CO., MANUFACTURERS, FORDINGBRIDGE. 26 Advertisements. SILVER MEDAL, n PARIS EXHIBITION, 1S67 Jl^j SAVORY & MOORE'S TRADE ^MARK. TRADE ^MAfllO '%tst iaaii fax Infants, AS SUPPLIED TO THE ROYAL NURSERIES. Specially prepared on the principles recoiiimended by BARON LIEBIG. "The Infant Prince has taken this Food for some months past, and thrives upon it as a Prince should." — Dr. Richardson. MEDICAL AND SCIENTIFIC TESTIMONY. " In the preparation of an infant's food, required at all hours of the day and night, ■the saving 0/ time and trouble is of the titmost importance. 'The Infants' Food of Messrs. Savory & Moorb is a real improvement on the ordinary preparations." — The Lancet. *• We can tell from our own experience that this Food once tried, becomes a favor- ite in the nursery, and that children thrive well on it."— Medical Times and Gazette, " Savory & Moore have saved mothers and nurses much time and trouble by supplying them with a Food for Infants in a very convenient form, and of a composition that can always be relied on. It can be taken when nothing else can. It has been anal3'sed and examined by Drs. Lankkster and Richardson and has been practically tested on no less a person than a Royal Prince." — The Medical Press. " Dr. HASSALL, reports, "This Food is eminently adapted to the food of infants, being highly nourishing, and what is of the greatest consequence, of easy digestibility." Dr. T. HERBERT BARKER, f r.s., Aitthor of Right Foods for Infan ts and Ch ildren . ' ' "The Liebig's Food of Messrs. Savory & Moore is the Best Preparation, all the ■crude products contained therein being made, by scientific manipulation, more susceptible of the transformation necessary for their easy assimilation, while other valuable nutritive ingredients are added, which give it a closer resemblance to the natural food, and so make it far superior in promoting the healthful growth of children. This resembles mother's miLK as closely as possible." 143, SAVORY & MOORE, IJ). ilyt 3W^^^ ^f %S^t, Sic, NEW BOND STREET, LONDON. ♦ AND 86, KING'S ROAD, BRIGHTON, Sold in Tins, 1/-, 2/-, 5/-, and 10/- eaehu Advertisements. 27 THE NEW FOOD. FARINA V I TJB. Patented in Great Britain, the United States, France^ and Belgium, Pronounced by the Faculty and the Medical Press— 'UNQUESTIONABLY THE BEST DIET FOR CHILDREN & INVALIDS.' The peculiarity of Farina Vit^t; consists in the near assimilation of tlre^ elements and principles of certain flours and meals, in such proportions as ■will render the mixture chemically identical with the constituents of the human body itself. It is therefore obvious that the use of Farina Vit^^ will effect a vast economy of the vital forces of the body. It is very agreeable to the palate, and can be prepared in many delicious forms for the- table. It relieves indigestion, constipation, and disorders of the stomach, and maintains the body in sound health. More nutritious than meat ; exceptionally- ricli in phosphates ; most excellent for puddings, custards, omelettes, soups, &c.. SOIiD EVERYWHEKE. 1 lb. Packets, Is. 6d. Manufactured by :eix:)^vV"^:e^x)S, ^XiXiEist, & K:xTCH:i2sr& Holland Street, Blackfeiars, London. •28 Advertisements. DR.A.H.HA88ALUSF00D POE, IIFMTS, CHILDREI, & IIYALIDS. THE BEST FOOD FOR INFANTS AND INVALIDS. T"\R. ARTHUR HILL HASSALL, M.D., recommends this as the best and JLJ most nourishing of all Infants' and Invalids' Food which has hitherto been brought before the public. It contains every requisite for the full and healthy support and development of the human body, and is, to a considerable extent, self-digestive. MEDICAL TESTIMONY. Extract from the Lancet, February 20, 1875. 'One of the best Foods that has yet been devised, * Extract from the Medical Times and Gazette, April] 0, 1875. — 'Like the two most per- fect types of Food, Milk and Bread, this Food contains all the necessary elements for sustenance and growth.' -Extract from C. Estcourt, Public Food Analyst for Manchester. — * Invaluable Food for Infants, or persons of delicate digestive power.' Extract from Alfred Hill,'M.D., Medical Officer of Health, Birmingham.— ' A nu- tritious, readily digestible, and very agree- able Food, adapted for Infants, Children, and Invalids.' 'Extract from W. Trench, M.D., Medical Officer of Health, Liverpool.—* Your Food is a valuable addition to the dietetics of the sick room.' Extract from I. Campbell Brown, M.D., Public Pood Analyst for Liverix>ol. — ' Far more desirable as a Food for young Children than the numerous starchy foods which are so much in use.' Extract from British Medical Journal. — * It assimilates in its nutritive value closely to milk, the natural Food for Infants.* From John Horsley, F.C.S., Public Ana- lyst for the county and city of Gloucester. Sold by Druggists, Grocers, Oilmen, &c., in Tins, 6d., Is., 2s., 3s. Gd., * Analyst's Laboratory, Police Station, Cheltenham, county of Gloucester, July 31 , 1875.- -Closely allied to the composition of human milk, I have no doubt it will, par excellence, take the first place in the dietary of any household where there are children and invalids.' From Francis Su'rrox, F.C.S., Public Ana- lyst for Norwich. — * Country Analyst's Office, Norwich, July 31,1875.— One of the most perfect Foods for infants and weak persons that has ever come under n\j notice.' From W. Walton Stoddart, F.C.S. and C, Analytical Chemist, Analyst for the city of Bristol, August 3, 1875.— 'A valuable and appropriate Food for Infants and Invalids, on account of its nutritive qua- lities, and the ease with which it is assi- milated.' From Edward Moore, Public Analyst for Brighton, August 7, 1875. — ' From prac- tical experience of the Food, its careful constitution fits it for just those cases where, as in infants prematurely weaned, an artificial aliment is unavoidable.' From Henry Johnson, M.D., Shrewsbury, August 7, 1875. — ' A great boon to the nursery and sick room. Easy of diges- tion, very sustaining as well as palatable.* es., 15s., and 28s. each. A short Treatise by Dr. ARTHUR HILL HASSALL, M.D., on the * Alimentation of Infants, Children, and Invalids,' can be had for distribution free, on application to the Hanufactnrers: Messrs. GOOBALL, BACKHOUSE & Co. LEEDS. ■ Ad/oertisemenis. 29 CAN BE USED WITH OR VyiTHOUT MILK iDrRidoes PATENT COOKED FOR INFANTS INVALIDS, &c ^T In a letter to the Times, April 1, 187o, W. DOMETT STONE, Esq. M.D., referring to fhe two deaths of children at Taunton, says : — * Death in both instances clearly resulted 1 rom partaking of this preparation '—viz. Com Flour— and says, ' It cannot be too widely known that Corn Flour, per se, is not food, but Pure Starch, prepared by %cashmg < M^the nutritive portion of maize flour.' He further warns people to be on their guard as to these ' foods,' and adjures them to refuse all white preparations, as in these nutriment has l>een sacrificed for the sake of appearance. Dr. BARTLETT, the celebrated Analyst, writes to Dr. Ridge & Co. :— ' Your Food proves perfectly genuine ; while, for infants and invalids, the lightness must be a most valuable quality.' Dr. HASSALL, after a full analysis, says :— ' These results show that this Food contains c onstituents belonging to each of the four classes into which foods have been divided, viz. amylaceous, oleaginous, nitrogenous, and mineral. It is therefore a very nutritions article cf diet, weU adapted for the use of infants, children, and invalids.' SOXilD BIT J^Xili CHEHyLISTS- Maxupactory : ROYAL PATENT FOOD MILLS, KINGSLAND, LONDON, N. E. LAZENBY & SON'S PICKLES, SAUCES, AND CONDIMENTS. E. LAZENBY & SON, sole proprietors of the celebrated Keceipts and nmnufactui'ers of the Pickles, Sauces, and Condiments so long and favourably distinguished by their name, beg to remind the public that every article pre- pared by them is guaranteed as entirely unadulterated. $2 WIGMORE STREET, CAVENDISH SQUARE (Late 6 Edwauds Stbeet, Pobtman Sqcabb) ; ,-.' and 18 TRINITY STREET, LONDON, S.E. HARVEY'S SAUCE. CAUTION. — The admirers of this celebrated Sauce are particularly requested to observe that each bottle prepared by E. LAZENBY & SON bears the label, used so many years, signed * Elizabeth Lazenby.' 30 Advertisements. COLMAN'S BRITISH (PREPARED FROM RICE.) Is especially adapted for Bianc-Mangey Custards, Puddings, Cakes, SoupSj &c., and is a most wholesome food and easily digested by Children and Invalids when prepared with milk. Extract from the Report of the Committee presented to ther House of Commons on ^rd jfuly, 1874; — The attention of your Committee has been called to the Article known as Corn-flour, in reference to which important evidence as to its purity and its useful dietetic equalities has been given by some eminent and chemical authorities, which, however, is denied by one witness. Your Committee are fully convinced that the manufacture is quite legitimate, and that like Arrowroot, Sago, and other starch foods. Corn-flour is perfectly wholesome, but that it should not in any case be given to infants without a considerable admixture of milk. MUSTARD AND CORN-FLOUR MANUFACTURERS, 108 Cannon Street, London. Advertisements. 31 THE BEST CORN FLOUR IS ANDREW ERKENBRECHER'S TRADE Wll^H^ MARK ST. BERNHARD. "CORN EN A" AWARDED TWO MEDALS OF PROGRESS (THE HIGHEST PREMIUMS), J^T -VIEIsri^-A., 0.873, I'or Process of Manufacture and Quality of Goods AGAINST 149 COMPETITORS from all parts of the world, after a thorough] and searching test by a Jury of skilled Experts in^Chemistry. Highest Awards at CINCINNATI INDUSTRIAL EXPOSITION, 1870 and 1871. FIRST GOLD MEDAL, BREMEN, 1874. Vide *THE GEOCER,' July Z, 1875. * As the cost of this com flour brings it within the reach of all classes, and as it is an article of undeniably good quality, we have little doubt that it will become popular in this coimtry.' SOLE AGENT FOR THE UNITED KINGDOM:— I>. I*.ilJ>X]>XlL:K, 59 MARK LAISTE, LONDON, EC. 3 o 32 Advertisements. ACADEMIE NATIONALE. ACADEMIE NATIONALE. TWO GOLD MEDALS. ^'^^ THREE ROYAL WARRANTS. PARIS. Never be without KEEN'S % MUSTARD. The Manufacturers publicly guarantee that all Canisters covered with their well-known Bed and Yellow Labels contain nothing but the pure Floiir of Mustard, of a quality calcul^'t^i to maintain the reputation acquired by their firm during the past 130 years. Oswego Prepared Corn, FOR PUDDINGS, CUSTARDS, BLANC MANGE, ETC. The Original and Best of all Similar Preparations. Dr. Hassall reports—' THE OSWEGO PEEPARED CORN has been known to me for many years ; it is very pure, and may be regarded chemically and dietetically as an arrowroot ; taken in conjunction with Milk or Beef Tea it constitutes a valuable article of diet for Infants and Young Children.' Advertisements. 3S THE AYLESBURY DAIRY COMPANY, LIMITED, AV. T. CHAKLEY, Esq., M.P., 5 Crown Office Kow, Temple. THOMAS HUGHES, Esq., Q.C., 80 Park Street, Grosvenor Square, W. NASSAU J. SENIOK, Esq., Elm House, Lavender Hill, S.W. (lEOKGE SMITH, Esq. (Messrs. Smith, Elder, & Co.) 15 Waterloo Place, Pall MaU, S.W. ■O. MANDER ALLENDER, Esq., Managing Director, Eelgrave Mansions, Grosvenor Gardens, S.W. ERNEST HART, Esq., 59 Queen Anne Street, Cavendish Square, W. ^ttftcal 380arlf. E. H. SIEVEKING, Esq., M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician Extraordinary to Her Majesty the Queen ; Phypician in Ordinary to H.R.H. the Prince of Wales ; Physician to St. Mary's Hospital. CHAS. MURCHISON, Esq., MH., LL.D., E.R.S., Physician to St. Thomas's Hospital. JOHN WHITMORE, Esq., M.D., Medical Officer of Health and Public Analyst. WILLIAM HARD WICK, Esq., M.D., Medical Officer of Health and Public Analyst. ST. PETERSBURGH PLACE, BAYSWATER, W. ^tZXttKX\}, Mr. HENRY WHELAN. The Aylesbury Dairy Company are now supplying Milk to a large number of X>rivate families. Their carts visit all parts of the W., S.W., and ]^.W. districts two and three times daily. By arrangements lately completed, they are in a position to supply an increased number of customers with pure Milk from carefully-selected farms, and from their own cows in. London. The Directors, having regard to the alarming disclosures made during the last few years with Tespect to the conveyance of disease by means of milk, have initiated a system of inspection, examination, and analysis by skilled and responsible persons, to which they deeire to call attention, and by which they feel that the Company is in a position to give €vc ry possible assurance of safety to their customers. The names of the Gentlemen forming the Directory and Medical Boards, with their Sanitary Inspector, Mr. Ernest Hart, are a sufficient guarantee that the efficiency of the working of the Company is thoroughly attended to. All orders to be addressed to Mr. HENRY WHELAN, 3 o 2 S4 Advertisements. THE DAIRY REFORM CO.. 29 Orchard Street, Portman Square. LIMITED. MILK, CRBAM,^ BUTTER, EGGS.. 151 & 153 Ebury Street, BELGRAVIA. The Foot and Mouth Disease appears now to have become 'an annual visitation, and, in the absence of any Grovernment control, there is a risk of some milk from the diseased cows being sent to London for sale. The small Dairymen who purchase their supplies from the large wholesale dealers hare no knowledge whatever of the Farms on which their milk is pro- duced, and consequently, however excellent their intentions, have no security as to its absolute freedom'from taint. Immunity can only be secured by such an Establishment as The Dairy Keform Company, whose extensive business and high organisation embraces a complete system of professional inspection. In addition to this, the Farms supplying them are carefully inspected by the Directors personally, who are experienced and practical men, exercising a daily control over the business, and not, as in some other Companies, gentle- men of well-known names living in London, whose extensive professional engagements preclude the possibility of any real supervision. The Dairy Eeform Coimpany was the first to organise a complete system of Sanitary Inspection of their Farms, and they are now carefully watched by professional gentlemen residing on the spot, and thus absolute safety is secured. Besides their usual deliveries of Milk and Cream, The Dairy Eeform Company have lately made arrangements to supply their Customers with the very best Fresh Butter and New Laid Eggs. For particulars, apply at either of the Company's Branches. Tlie Farm Inspection Certificates are open for the examination of Customers, at 29 Orchard Street. 29 ORCHARD STREET, W. ESTABD 1867. J51& 153 EBURY STREET S.W. THIEF OFFICE: 29 Orchard Street, Portman Square, W. Advertisements, 35 NORWEGIAN CONDENSED MILK BEAR s m^^^^m nvc^iE^i^ R. J. FULLWOOD & CO. ORIGINAL INVENTORS OF THE CELEBRATED FLUID EXTRACT OF The superiority of this truly excellent, pure, and unadulterated Annatto consists in its producing in Cheese and Butter that rich, permanent brigllt golden cowslip tint so much desired by all Cheese and Butter Factors, and so universally approved in the London and other great markets. Messrs. R. J. Fullwood & Co.'s Fluid Extract of Annatto now stands- unrivalled and triumphant all ever the world. It is purely vegetable, can always be relied upon, uniform in strength and quality, and cheaper than any other article. The great celebrity of, and increasing demand for, FuUwood's make has led to spurious imitations. To protect the consumers from fraud Messrs. R. J. Fullwood & Co., after using the ' Cow ' stamp for 80 years, now stamp all their preparations with their new Trade Mark as above — ' A Stag with Olive Branch ' — to counterfeit which is felony. To be had only Genuine from the Annatto Works of E. J. FULLWOOD & CO., 24 SOMERSET PLACE, BEVENDEN STREET, HOXTON, LONDON. Established 1785. Bottles Full Imperial Measure. JSdd throiighout England and the. Colonies by Chemists, Drtig gists, and Grocers;, but see you get R. J. Full wood's, tvith ' Stag ' Trade Mark. Advertisements. 37 Messrs. HILL & SON, BAKEES BY APPOINTMENT TO THE QUEEN {Dated April I9tk, 1842), 60 BISHOPSGATE STREET WITHIN, AND 3 ALBERT MANSIONS, VICTORIA STREET, S.W., Beg to solicit a trial of their 'HART'S WHOLE MEAL UNFERMENTED BREAD AND BISCUITS.' This Bread, ^hich is -made from the finest Whole or undressed Meal, con- tains, in perfect purity, the whole constituents of the grain ; tlie phosphates and other inorganic salts so necessary for the proper growth and formation of the bones and teeth, and which are generally resident in the husk, not being removed. For children, and for persons who, from leading a sedentary life, sulfer from dyspepsia, it is invaluable. BEPOKT FBOM DR. HASSALL. ' The Analytical Sanitary iNSTirunox, 2 Adelphi Terrace, W.C, LoNDOX : 7ih November, 1870. ' I have made a full and careful analysis of a sample of " The Whole Meal Unfer- MENTED Bread," as manufactured by Messrs. Hill & Son. ' It possesses several advantages over ordinary white bread. ' In addition to its more agreeable flavour, and greater keeping properties, these advan- tages are— ' That it contains a larger proportion of Nitrogen, and is hence more nourishing. * That the quantity of oily or fatty matter present is greater. ' That it contains the peculiar, natural, fermentive, or digestive principle termed " Cerealin." ' That it is richer in phosphates. ' That it is not so prone to generate acid products as is ordinary bread made with yeast. ' For the above reasons this Bread is to be regarded as a highly valuable article of diet, suii^ed alike for the healthy and the sick, but especially for the young and the dyspeptic. ♦ AETHUR HILL HaSSALL, M.D.' Auflior of ' Food and its Adulterations,* ' Adulterations Detected, Jsc, WHOLE MEAL FLOUR, lOd. per Quartern. WHOLE MEAL GRITS for Making Porridge, 10c?. per Quartern. WHOLE MEAL SCONES, strongly Recommended by many Medical Men. (The Whole Meal Scones being soft and easily masticated, are admirably adapted for use by elderly people.) For convenience of persons residing in the Country, Hill & Son mil forward Whol Meal or Grits, with Instructions for manufacturing either Bread or Porridge. List of Whole Meal Biscuits /orwartUd on ajpplication. 38 Advertisements, POOLEY'S ^^^^ PATENT MALT BREAD. rmay be stated as an axiom, that other things being equal, the measure of a man's strength will be in proportion to the amount of nutritive food he can take and assimilate. Bread being universally consumed, in larger quantity than any other food, it is of »the utmost importance that it should contain the largest amount of nutriment in the most readily assimilative form. It is well known that Invalids, and those whose digestion has become impaired, cannot take sufficient ordinary Baker's Bread to supply the need of nourishment to the wasted body ; hence the rise of so many attempts to supply concentrated nourishment in such cases, with but very imperfect results. By the addition of Malt to Wheat- Flour, in the process of making, it has been found that the resulting Bread is much more readily digested, the stomach being saved a portion of the preliminary process of preparing it for assimilation. The advantage of this, in so many cases familiar to the Medical Prac- titioner, will be self-evident ; and it is confidently anticipated that the Patent Malt Bread, will speedily become the standard Bread for persons with feeble powers of digestion. DR. HASSALL^S REPORT On a Sample of PATENT MALT BREAD received from Mr. JOHN C. POOLEY. j * This bread is of a sweet and very pleasant odour and taste, and possesses a malt-like flavour. Subjected to analysis it was found that it contained less than the usual per- centage of moisture, that it was free from alum, and in all other respects genuine and of good quality. * The flavour and other peculiar characteristics of this bread are no doubt due to the presence of the malt-flour, the diastase contained in which, promotes greatly the conversion of the starch into sugar, and thus renders the subsequent digestion more easy and rapid. 'ARTHUR HILL HASSALL, M.D. * 14 John Street, Adelphi, June \2tk, 1875.' POOLEY'S PATENT MALT BREAD Is not only more readily digested, but is more nutritious, more agreeable to the palate, and will keep sweet and moist much longer than ordinary Bread. Licenses granted to Bakers, on easy terms, in Districts not yet occupied. JOHN 0. POOLEY, Chemist, Bath, Patentee. Advertisements, 3» HICKS'S BAKING POWDER -""'''^ WITH Less SUPERXOE TO YEAST . FOR MAKING BREAD, AND CAKES. LIGHT, WHOLESOME,Brugs Act,i% & '^(^Vict,,ch,^l.) ^ttj:Btar& anir C0rn-fl0ur ^anufartur^rs* 108 Cannon Street, London. 42 A dvertisements. SMITHDALE'S GENUINE Unrivalled for Purity and Excellence. Ask ^your Grocer for it. NORWICH IS thiie: MUSTARD BEST. SOVEREIGN LIFE OFFICE, . 48 ST. JAMES STREET, S.^V. ^ ^City Branch— 122 CANNON STREET, LONDON. Dr. ASHBUKNEE. Col. J. P. BATHURST. JOHN GARDINEE, Esq. SiR J. R. CARMICHAEL, Bart. CHAS. W. REYNOLDS, Esq. Sir J. E. EARDLEY WILMOT, Bart., M.P. The last Report, copies of which, with the statements of accounts, can be •obtained on application, shows that a sum equal to 40 per cent, of the premium income was added to the funds, while the general income was increased. 349 Policies, averaging £535 each, were issued. The Directors continue to make advances to assurers in the office on liberal terms. H. D. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Advertisements. GLENFIELD THE QUEEN'S LAUNDKESS SAYS THIS STARCH IS THE BEST SHE EVER USED. GLENFIELD. RICHIOND & CLARKE, FROME. PURE MALT VINEGAR (Made entirely from Grain) In CASKS of 12i, 25, 30, 50, and 60 Gallons. Delivered free to any Railway Station within 120 miles of Frome. Casks alloiued for as charged^ if returned in good condition^ PRICE LISTS ON APPLICATION AS ABOVE. 44 Advertisements » EIGHT GOLD MEDALS AND GRAND DIPLOMAS OF HONOUR For BEST QUALITY, and as FOUNDERS of a NEW BRANCH of INDUSTRY. IIEBIG COMPANY'S EXTRACT OF MEAT. Manufactured by Liebig's Extract of Meat Company, Limited. No. 43 MARK LANE, LONDON, AT THEIR MAXUFACTORIES IN SOUTH AMERICA. This Extract is supplied to the British, German, French, Russian^ Dutch, Italian, and other Governments, in prefei-ence to all other Extracts. One Pound of the Extract contains the soluble parts of 34 lbs. of Fine Beef, free from fat and gelatine. It is not only used for medical, but much more extensively used for household purposes and is the cheapest and finest flavoured stock for soups, entrees, sauces, &c. DECLARATION. We the undersigned, hereby declare that LIEBIG COMPANY'S EXTRACT OF MEAT, from FRAY-BENTOS, as hitherto, must be examined and approved by us, before it can be •delivered to consumers ; and that consequently, The Extract, prepared strictly according to the instructions o! the inventor, will also in 'future always be of the same acknowledged uniform excellence and perfection as hitherto. Munich, May 1873. CAUTION. Every genuine Jar bears on the Certificate Label round the Capsule, the above- mentioned two Signatures of PROFESSOR DR. MAX VOX PETTENKOFER and BAROX HERMANN VOX LIEBIG, and across the Trade Mark Label the fac-simile ot the inventor, BAROlf JUSTUS v. LIEBIG, in blue. Sold by all Grocers, Italian Warehousemen, Chemists, Provision Merchants, and Ship Chandlers. Advertisements. 45 GEYELIN'S CONCENTEATED TOOD FOR THE MILLION. 10 PRIZES. 10 PRIZES. ^SIFJ- /''^\\ ^^ILK FOOD, These Soups are used / W :^ g^W \ Which is manufactured nil the year round, and / ^ ^^^m \ ^^ ^^^® ^^"^® principle as C m >-. s S o o ftg^: 9 Ph S*^'S 2 c 5 « ^S o S fc^"? sJ o o-^tS o :-2iii.s|il o ^ «|.i|i=l§l «-"r ^^ o ^ > «a •S i tn."^ 3 > *^ 1.22 o42 o"S 8 g^5 '^ u ^t> h t. ° I- rh « ss 4) «s *^ "^ ^„^ -tJ ^ ■" l§: 3§: '-^s .2 f5 3 p p5 Or--- M« ;- M,w-Mr- S'a, ej 2 a V.T1 3 g" , Si|S|||H|3.||.80|Hs£|S 4:8 A dvei^tisements . Advertisements, 49 SANITARY WATER SUPPLY S'or Town and Country Residences, Large Buildings, Villages, &c. MESSRS. ATKINS & CO. Invite attention to their new Improved System, recently patented. The most perfect method of insuring abundance of pure water yet introduced. Advice, Drawings, and Estimates for Filtration of Water upon any scale and for any purpose. PROSPECTUS FREE. c-:^ The Only System in use at the Royal College of Surgeons, Royal Navy, Lighthouses, Indian Army, State Railways, dc. MOXISEHOLD FILTEI^S FR.OM: Os. ATKINS & CO. Hydraulic & Sanitary Engineers, 62 FLEET STREET ]L.01VI>0]V, EJ.O. 3 p 2 50 Advertisements. TOWISON & lEECEE, 89 Bishopsgate Street Within, LONDON, WHOLESALE AND EXPORT DEALERS IN CHEMICAL AND SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS. I 4 Manufacturers and Importers of Pure Chemicals and Graduated Instruments for Analysis and the Laboratory Use of Manu- facturers, Mines, Universities, Colleges, Medical Officers of Health, &c. Manufacturers of Electrical, Galvanic, and Philosophical In- struments. ILLUSTEATED CATALOGUES, Price 3d. The Instruments and Apparatus used In Dr. HASSALL'S Laboratories are obtained, for the most part, from Messrs. TOWN SON & MERCER. Advertisements, 51 PRIZE MEr)A.L TOILET SOAPS & PERFUMERY. YARDLEY & CO., ESTABLISHED UPWARDS OF 100 YEARS, FANCY SOAP MAKERS AND PERFUMERS, 7 VINE ST., BLOOMSBURY, LONDON, W.C. And 5 RUE DU GRAND CHANTIER, PARIS, MANUFACTURE HIGH-GLASS SOAPS ONLY. And respectfully direct the attention of the Public to the fol- lowing Specialities, which have for many years borne the highest reputation for exquisite fragrance, healthy action on the skin, and improvement to the complexion :— Choice Old Brown Windsor Musk Scented Windsor Pure Glycerine Soap White Glycerine Soap Patent Sunflower Oil Soap Elder Flower Soap Turtle Oil Soap Oatmeal Soap Otto of Rose Soap Genuine Honey Soap Cold Cream Soap Medicinal Carbolic Acid Soap „ Stockholm Tar Soap Sulphur Soap Kaolin and Myxodine, especially adapted for Children and Ladies' use. ALSO EVERY DESCRIPTION OF ESSEITCES, LAVEISTDBE, WATER, WASHES AND POMADES FOR THE HAIR. CHERRY TOOTH PASTE, TIOLET POWDER, &c. &c. 52 Advertisements. Jtjst Commenced, In Monthly Parts, price 7d. and Sid. BICTIOMEToHoOKEET. Illustrated with PULL-PAGE COLOURED PLATES and nume- rous ENGRAVINGS, and containing nearly Ten Thousand Eeceipts in every Department of British, Continental, and American Cookery, being severax thousand mobe than are contained in any existing work. * Cassell's Dictionary of Cookery begins excellently well, and when completed should be a true household treasure.' — Illustrated London News. ' Of all the things in the army that go wrong, cooking goes most wrong. "We commend Cassell's Dictionary of Cookery to all sergeant- cooks and all sensible officers' wives.' — Naval and Military Gazette. * " Meg Dods." and " Francatelli " are all very well, but for households of all classes commend us to Cassell's Dictionary of Cookery.' Edinburgh Daily Beview. * Those who study Cassell's Dictionary of Cookery, which contains instructions suited to all classes, and yet are unable to produce appetising, wholesome, and elegant repasts, must be stupid indeed.' — Northampton Mercv/ry. V Order PART I. {including Coloured Plate), price 8Jd. CASSELL, FETTER, & GALPIN, Ludgate HiU, London. In Monthly Parts, price 7d. and 8^d. CASSELL'S ILLUSTRATED HIST ORY OF IN DIA. NOTICE.— With Part I. of CASSELL'S ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF INDIA, price SJd., is issued, as a PRESENTATION PLATE, a life-like PORTRAIT of HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS the PRINCE OF WALES, produced in the best form of Art, and uniform, in size, style, and quality, with the valuable Portrait of HER MAJESTY, issued with Part I. of ^Cassell's History of England,' to which it is intended that the Portrait of the Prince shall form a COMPANION PICTURE. CASSELL, PETTEE, & GALPIN, Ludgate Hill, London and all Booksellers. tpTTTo -Di^rwr tg ■nTTT» nxr »pxt"P TAotp rkAnir* RETURN TO the circulation desk of any University of California Library or to the NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY BIdg. 400, Richmond Field Station University of California Richmond, CA 94804-4698 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS • 2-month loans may be renewed by calling (510)642-6753 • 1-year loans may be recharged by bringing books to NRLF • Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date DUE AS STAMPED BELOW MAR 2 ^QO^ DD20 15M 4-02 ID 0/07U Advertisements. COIV.POSITION KNOWN & APPROVED BY THE MEDICAL PROFESSION TOWLE'S CHLORODYNE KENOWNED FOR OIVINd SPEEDY RELIEF IN COUGHS, CONSUMPTION, . .STHMA, BRONCHITIS, DIARRHCEA, CF LERA, SPASMS, SEA-SICKNESS. AND MOST AFFECTIONS OF THF JS SYSTEM. ''pHE value of Chlorodyne depends upp^ L and, to prevent disappointment, it, ■ sk for TOWLES CHLORODYNE ' iferior and cheap Preparations are in th The Original and Grenuine bears . rovernment Stamp. ^ The Proprietor is cons' ani/// ?^e^ / )\ ^ Cs7^^»3 of its Manufacture ; lution the Public to get it, as numerous ietor's Signature on 'tracts only can he From a Gentleman, in - ears a sufferer from Asthma, 1 Vheii I saw her first )?he wa^ ' Vhen I saw hsr aga' *t(^ tair?, and make^ From a Cl- ears . and \w , uadt d us f ose,— the result was perfectly astonishing ; Price la^d., 2s. 9d., and ^ years of age, for many 'ttle Of your Chlorodyne. carried up-stairs to bed. - to go to market, get up- oled her life." ' . . . . a with^a severe Cough for five to no use. A Lady friend per- X have our warmest thanks for the jid Cough.' .... ,iy ERADICATED a severe Cold on my ere seriously attacked -with Griping Pains jt a bottle of your Chlorodyne. gave each a after the second dose, it e itirely disappeared.' . . 4s, 6d., with full Directions. TOWLE'S CHLORODYNE LOZENGES Of superior Quality and Strength. EACH LOZENGE STAMPED ' TOWLE'S CHLORODYNE.' ^OWLE'S CHLORODYNE JUJUBES, ^ell adapted for CLEEGYMEN, PUBLIC SPEAKERS, and for all THROAT and CHEST AFFECTIONS. )hould any difficulty arise in procuring either the Lozenge-; o ■ Jujube? of Chemists, a M. or 1^. Packet will be sent, Post Free, for 7 or 14 Stamps, from the Proprietor, Uhlorodyne Manufacturer, 75 Back Piccadilly, Manchester.