UC-NRLF LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Cl(us niui Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/commercialgeogra00o1inrich COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY BY WALTER H. OLIN, M. S., Superintendent of City Schools, Ottawa, Kansas. CRANE & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS TOPEKA, KANSAS 1902 tif .0^ ^TM FRAI Copyrighted by Walter H. Olin, 1901. Copyrighted by Walter H. Olin, 1902. PREFACE This work is designed as a guide to the study of practical facts in Commercial Geography. It is prepared especially for the geography work of grades seven or eight in the common schools of our land. Care has been taken to present facts and definitions in a simple form and in a correlated manner. Each illustration has been selected to teach either a geographical or a commercial fact. The illustrations are new, and will interest the student, fixing the truth they teach. Part I classifies commerce and enumerates the aids to commerce. Each chapter closes with a question summary that will prove helpful to both teacher and pupil. Part II shows the author's plan of presenting a commercial trip. It combines description and information in such a way that the pupil feels he is making the journey himself. It teaches the art of travel and the great value of close observation. This trip is carefully chosen over new routes of travel, and incidentally teaches many important commercial and geographical facts. It shows teach- ers a practical plan for similar trips to our gTeatest manufacturing and commercial centers. Make the work as real and as practical as possible. This develops thoughtful research, strengthens memory, and quickens observation, while it gives general knowledge along valuable geographical lines. Part III presents miscellaneous facts of commerce and geography intended to encourage labora- tory work along practical lines. The author believes it to be one of the most helpful features of the book. Teachers are urged to use this part of the work as their environments would suggest and time will permit. The world map is prepared expressly to show the commercial world in the present condition of trade, with railroad, cable and steamer lines of communication. To simplify the International Date Line problem, the Prime Meridian is made the unit of divi- sion on the Mercator projection plan. The continents are located to give the principal southern trade routes, even though it cuts the north- ern part of Siberia — unknown to commerce — out of the map. Cities are numbered according to their commercial rank in 1900. ISTames are found in an accom- panying index, but do not appear on the map. All cities of 150,000 population or more are located and ranked on this map. Being prepared for constant use, the map is detached from the text and made of sufiicient size to clearly show all elements of the map. Hoping that the youth of our land may be led to carefully study the problems of location, trade and invention, and their intimate relation to products, occupations, and the industries of nations, the author presents this volume to aid in this work. The youth are the hope of any nation. The per- petuity of our institutions, the commercial interests of our nation, and the responsibilities of state, rest with our school children of to-day. Therefore the author dedicates this work to the school boys and girls of America. The Attthoe. (8) 115412 PREFACE. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. I DEBiRE to state that valuable assistance has been given in preparing this work from the following sources : Statesman's Year Book, Consular Reports, Appleton's, Johnson's, Student's and the Manifold Cyclopedias ; ar- ticles in the Forum, Popular Science Monthly, AVorld's Work, Scribner, Review of Reviews, McClure, Cosmopoli- tan, Everybody's, Self-Culture, and National magazines ; Guyot's Physical, Frye's, Redway's, Tarr & McMurray's> Dean & Davis's Inductive, Rand & McNally's, Morton's Political, and Chisholm's and Adams's Commercial Geog- raphies; The Northern Steamship Co., the International Navigation Co., the agents of the N. Y. K. line in Syd- ney, Australia, and Manila, P. I., the Santa Fe R. R., the New York Central R. R., the Boston & Albany R. R., Mo. Pac. R. R., the Canadian Pacific R. R., the Western Union Telegraph Co., Wells & Fargo Express Co., St. Paul and Tacoma Lumber Co. ; publications of the Amer- ican Geographical Society, "The State," The Pathfinder, Western School Journal, Scientific American, Christian Herald ; Departments of State, Navy and Treasury, Wash- ington, D. C. ; Commercial Museum, Philadelphia, Penn. ; Mr. O. P. Austin, chief U. S. Bureau of Statistics; Mr. Wm. P. Wilson ; Mr. S. I. Kimball, Gen'l Supt. Life-Sav- ing Service ; Mr. Arthur McMichael, Chief Clerk Dept. of State; Mr. Geo. H. Daniels; Mr. N. M. Brooks, Supt. Foreign Mails ; Mr. E. C. Leedy ; Mr. S. M. Campbell ; Mr. Jno. F. Scott ; Mr. D. G. Robertson ; Mr. T. E. Fisher ; Mr. J. M. Morrison; Mr. W. M. Stewart; Mr. E. C. Che- noweth ; Mr. F. D. Coburn ; Mr. AV. H. Martin ; Mr. A. B. Johnson, Chief Clerk U.S. Lighthouse Board ; the U. S. Fish Commission ; J. F. Moser, Commander U. S. Navy ; the Armstrong Cork Co. ; Glucose Sugar Refining Co. ; Kellerman's Botany ; American Inventions and Inventors ; Stories of Industry and Cram's Atlas. Also, special ac- knowledgments to Underwood & Underwood, Ottawa, Kansas, for the use of many of their copyrighted views ; Parke, Davis & Co. ; Paris Medicine Co. ; McCormick Harvester Co. ; and Mrs. Winnie C. Olin. A Patriotic Appeal. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Part I. — Aids to Commerce 7 Part II. —A Commercial Trip Around the World 71 Part III. — Facts for Laboratory Work 147 INTRODUCTION In these days of wonderful inventions, great scientific discoveries, and expanding commercial interests, the student of Geography finds a fourth division of the general subject necessary — Com- mercial Geography. The commercial importance and needs of our nation demand that the school children of to-day be led to study this new division. Its information will be of practical benefit, and \yill lead the student to see how close and vital must be our commercial relations with all other commer- cial or trading nations. Therefore, this new division should be given equal importance in study with the other three divisions — Mathematical, Physical, and Political. In pursuing the study of Commercial Geography, both teacher and pupils will find a general scrap- book, railroad and steamer guides interesting and helpful. A very serviceable scrap-book can be made of cloth, the size of this geography. Make as many sheets or pages as you desire, or that can be con- veniently handled. When this book gets full, make others, but have some clear plan of indexing each volume. The railroad and steamer guides can be obtained by addressing the general passenger agents of the various lines. I have always found them courteous, and glad to help along in this work. Through the station or steamer agent in your own city or town, much valuable printed matter can be procured. Many dull or listless students can be energized by this method of study, and set to earnest work when other means fail. It seems fascinating to the boys and girls, ^nd therefore interests them, because it is useful and " up-to-date " in data given. Frequently, many very beautiful, interesting and instnictive pictures can be obtained from the various transportation, companies in this and other countries, simply for the asking. This is the "laboratory method" applied to Geography, and I commend it to the teachers of this important and essential branch of school studies in both city grades and country districts. This work is grouped in chapters, and should therefore be studied by topics and not by pages. The book is but a brief treatise of a very large subject, and is intended only as a manual or outline to direct students in their study of this subject and assist teachers in their assignment and recitation of lessons. The most expensive features in all geographies are the maps, and as a good outline wall map and an authentic atlas should be in each school-room where advanced work in geography is expected, con- tinent and national maps are omitted in this work. In a pocket in back cover of the book will be found a commercial map of the world, showing the greatest trade routes by land and by water, and all great commercial cities, as well as the most influential agencies affecting trade routes. This map is on the Mercator projection plan, but with different division lines from those shown in previous maps, that the question of the International Date Line may be simplified. As this map must be used al- most daily, it is placed on substantial cloth, and should, with careful usage, last as long as the accompanying book. W, H. OLIN. Ottawa, Kansas, October 1, 1901. (6) COT^TEKTS OF PART I. Page. Chapter I. — Commerce 9 Question Summary 13 Chapter II. — Food Commerce 14 Question Summary ^ 19 Chapter III. — Overland Commerce 21 Question Summary 23 Chapter IV. — Railroad Commerce 24 Question Summary .,,.... 32 Chapter V. — Important Aids to Commerce . . • « 33 Question Summary .o ........ .o ..... o. 40 Chapter VI. — Building a Modern Steamer 42 Question Summary , 47 Chapter VII. — An Ocean Voyage in the St. Louis = ....... 48 Question Summary 53 Chapter VIII. — Our Consular Service • 53 Question Summary 55 Chapter IX. — The Light Stations of Our Nation ...,.,., 56 Question Summary 63 Chapter X. — The Life-Saving Service of the United States 64 Question Summary 67 Chapter XI. — Great Canals of Commerce 68 Question Summary 70 d) PART I. AIDS TO COMMERCE (7) School Children of America (8) Christiana's Largest Market, Norway. OLIN'S COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. CHAPTER L Commerce . CoMMEKCE is an interchange of various produc- tions and manufiictures between individuals, com- munities or nations. If the interchange be between individuals or communities in the same nation, it is called domestic commerce; when between indi- viduals or communities in different nations or governments of nations, it is called foreign com- merce. The farmer raises his grain, fruit and stock on his farm and sells the same to the commission merchant, storekeeper and stockman, who in turn sells the grain, fruit or stock either to consumers or large dealers. In this way commerce had its origin. The manufacturer generally gravitates to- ward that locality that furnishes good facilities naturally for power and water-supply. Here cap- ital invests itself and a commercial city springs into being. Because of its abundant water-supply coming from its hills and the vast quantities of building-stone resting within these hills, Xew Eng- land has always been the center of a great manu- facturing industry. This fact, together with its good harbor and proximity to these manufacturing plants, has made Boston the channel through which manufactured goods of 'New England have reachel (9) 10 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. foreign trade; hence Boston early became a stra- tegic seaport and commercial harbor. The ocean harbor, geographical location and the Erie Canal made New York a logical metropolis, led industries to invest themselves and trade routes to center there. Pittsburg's almost inexhaustible coal-beds gave her logical precedence in the iron and steel industries. Chicago through her natural advantages and location gained the trade and in- dustries that make her the greatest inland mart in the world to-day. The vast fields of cotton in the South, with her good fuel and water-supply, are to-day inviting the manufacturer, and millions of dollars are being invested in mills to work up the cotton in fields adjacent to these cotton mills, saving the expense of a long haul. This land is adapted to cotton culture, the climate congenial, and hence cotton has become a staple crop in these Southern States. This, together with the ore and coal in the moun- tains near at hand and an abundant water-supply, is planting large commercial centers all through our South-land. Then we learn that the physiography of a coun- try has much to do in locating trading marts and manufacturing centers. An agricultural region may maintain a thriving town or city, but a city of commercial importance must have good connection by rail or water with the commercial world in order to thrive and pros- per. When an individual sells more than he buys, he is said to prosper. When a nation of individuals in the aggregate sells more than it buys, the bal- ance of trade is said to be in its favor, and it is prosperous. The United States sold more than it purchased, in 1900, and had a net balance of $545,000,000 in its favor. When an individual buys more than he sells, he is said to draw on his credit or go in debt. Such a person is losing money, and therefore not prosper- ing. When a nation of individuals buys in the aggre- gate more than it sells, the balance of trade is said to be against it, and it is not in a prosperous con- dition. In 1873 our nation spent $119,656,000 more than it sold. Our people lost confidence in one another, capital withdrew from investment, and the worst financial panic in forty years fell upon business interests throughout the nation. The balance of trade was against the United States by many millions of dollars again in 1893, and business interests were again seriously crip- pled. These two instances cited above brought hard times, probably intensified from other and complex causes, when men failed in business, families lost homes, farms were mortgaged, debts unpaid, and fewer students attended colleges and universities, as they had to help father and mother " keep the wolf from the door," Profits from a good balance in a nation's favor, with all other interests economically administered in governmental affairs, give money to invest in public and private improvements, that shall quicken, stimulate or attract trade. Good build- ings of fire-proof material in cities, well-paved streets, telephones, railroads, together with many public and private luxuries in home life and in the office, generally follow in the wake of a good trade balance. Our nation's commerce passed the two-billion-dollar limit in 1900. In 1850 it amounted to $378,000,000 I860 687,000,000 1870 829,000,000 1872 1,070,000,000 1880 1,504,000,000 1890 1,647,000,000 1900 2,242,000,000 In 1900 our exports amounted to $1,394,000,- 000 and our imports to $848,000,000. Exports are the goods or merchantable articles shipped from commercial centers to foreign ports or commercial centers. Imports are the merchant- COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 11 able articles brought into a com- mercial center from a foreign port or commercial center. In the markets of Africa and Japan our nation's commerce has increased five hundred per cent. Where France spent forty cents with us in 1890, to-day she spends a dollar. Ten years ago Germany spent fifty-six cents with us, while now she spends one dollar and fifty cents wdth us. Great Britain in 1890 spent $3.62 in the United States, where now she spends $5.40; and all other countries that ten years ago spent one dollar with us, now spend three. Great as is our foreign trade, Ave spend the most of our money at home. Where foreign- ers spend one dollar at our counter, we aggregate sixty dollars. The world's commerce was esti- mated in 1900 to be $14,500,000,- 000. The chief commercial nations of the world are here given, with the amount of each nation's commerce. These data are taken from the statistics sent out by the Philadelphia Commercial Museum, and give the commerce for each country named for year ending December 31, 1900, in millions of dollars. Cheapsi'de, formerly the World's Commercial Center, London, England. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Great Britain . . . . Germany United States.. . . France Netherlands Belgium Austria-Hungary Australia British India Russia Italy Switzerland Canada Imports. Exports. 2,548 1,419 1,888 1,050 829 1,453 882 815 770 636 409 847 387 382 845 360 298 374 302 363 340 267 215 164 172 169 3,967 2,438 2,282 1,697 1,406 756 719 705 667 665 607 379 341 14 15a 156 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 84 35 36 37 38 Spain China Hong Kong Argentina Japan Straits Settlements (Asia), Sweden Brazil Denmark Dutch East Indies Egypt Norway Mexico Algeria New Zealand Cuba Cape Colony Chile Portugal Roumania Ceylon French East Indies . . . British West Indies. . . Uruguay Greece Hawaii Imports. Eicporta. 171 141 158 119 19 • 10 113 155 143 100 117 103 122 92 90 122 111 75 11 100 70 86 89 47 61 72 66 66 53 66 72 45 81 35 39 59 64 33 64 29 37 87 37 81 28 26 24 29 26 20 19 22 Total. 312 277 29 268 243 220 214 212 186 177 156 136 133 132 119 117 116 98 97 93 74 68 54 53 46 41 12 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. COMMEKCE OF CHIEF COMMERCIAX NATIONS — Conmnubd. Rank. 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 Philippine Islands. Persia Venezuela Natal Siam Oolombia Peru Bolivia Portuguese Africa . Servia Bulgaria Porto Rico Turkey Haiti British Guiana Zanzibar Mauritius Senegal (Africa). . Ecuador Guatemala German Africa Madagascar Martinique Imports. Exports. Total. 20 20 40 27 13 40 13 22 35 29 6 35 12 18 30 11 19 30 8 13 21 11 10 21 14 7 21 9 12 21 9 11 20 10 10 20 12 6 18 4 12 16 6 9 15 8 7 15 6 8 14 10 4 14 5 8 13 3 8 11 7 3 10 8 2 10 5 5 10 (The other countries of the world less than ten million dollars each.) have a commerce of The following analysis of the commerce of the United States for the year ending December 31, 1900, tells at what national connters our nation does her trading. (Given in millions of dollars.) EXPORTS AND IMPORTS. Great Britain Germany Canada Netherlands France Belgium Mexico Italy British Australasia. . Cuba Japan British Africa Denmark Spain Sweden and Norway Brazil Argentina China Hong Kong British West Indies. Kussia Austria-Hungary . . . Hawaii Portugal British East Indies. Chile U.S. Exports U.S.Imports to. from. 602.2 151.5 197.6 103.5 104.8 40.7 83.7 17.3 82.5 72.7 46.9 14.6 38.3 28.2 36.7 27.1 28.2 5.3 26.9 31.7 26.5 26.3 19.2 1.1 15.5 .8 15.2 5.5 11.5 4.4 11.5 65.0 11.1 8.1 11.1 22.9 9.2 1.3 8.6 12.4 11.8 7.8 7.6 10.5 7.5 9.3 5.7 3.3 5.2 43.3 4.6 7.5 EXPORTS AND IMPORTS— Continued. U.S. Exports to. U.S.Importt from. Haiti 3.7 3.5 3.0 2.8 2.6 2.3 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.2 1.1 1.1 .9 .8 .8 .7 .6 .6 .6 .6 .5 .5 1.3 Philippine Islands 6.1 Venezuela 6.5 Porto Rico 2.4 Oolombia 3.1 Peru 2.9 Dutch East Indies 20.9 British Guiana 4.6 Santo Domingo 3.2 Nicaragua 1.7 Urueuav 2.1 Costa Rica 2.9 Ecuador 1.6 Effvpt 8.5 Bermuda .5 Guatemala 2.2 Honduras 1.1 French Africa. .... Aden 1.6 Portuguese Africa. Salvador .7 British Honduras .1 Danish West Indies .4 Dutch West Indies .2 Gibraltar Dutch Guiana 1.3 Azores and Madeira Islands The commerce of the United States with the other commercial countries amounts to less than a quarter of a million dollars to each country^ The following table gives the data on our nation's commerce in the world by continents, in millions of dollars ; Rest of North America, South America Africa Asia Oceanica Europe U.S. Exports to. 176.6 38.3 19.5 64.7 42.8 1,028.7 U.S.Imports from. 130.0 93.6 11.2 139.8 34.6 440.5 The United States first ranked all other countries as an exporting nation in 1898. Great Britain regained this place the next year, to be again sup- planted by the United States in 1900. The im- ports from and the exports to Europe constitute more than one-half of the world's trade to-day. Europe purchases three-fourths of our exports and sells us fully half our imports. Machinery has enabled manufacturing nations COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 13 to produce more than they can consume, and to- day these nations seek new avenues of trade for their wares. Our nation, with European countries, is seek- ing trade in Asia, Africa, and Australia. The pos- session of the Philippine group places the United States in a position to secure a greater share of the Asiatic import trade. This will greatly increase our Pacific trade and open new markets for our surplus products. Our exports show a constantly increasing per cent, of manufactured goods, while our imports show an increasing per cent, of raw materials demanded by the rapid development of our manufacturing industries. Our nation's share in the import trade of the continents is shown in the following table:* Continent Per cent, of imports continent. j,^^^ United States. North America 53.0 South America 12.5 Europe 15.2 Asia 6.3 Africa 6.5 Oceanica 7.4 This country has entered the international mar- ket. Her commerce is upon every sea, her goods are in many lands. The nation is maintaining its per cent, of trade in North America and is mate- rially increasing its per cent, in Asia and Oceanica, while it continues to receive a half-billion-dollar balance of trade from Europe. QUESTION SUMMARY. 1. What is the essential difiference between foreign and domestic commerce ? 2. Which is the greater in our nation, foreign or do- mestic commerce ? 3. AVhat generally determines the location of a com- mercial center ? 4. Why has New England for a hundred years ranked the other States in her manufactures, and why does she continue to head the list of manufacturing States of our nation ? 5. Name ten commercial cities, and tell how they be- came great centers of trade. 6. What do we mean by the physiography of a country ? 7. How and in what way does it affect commerce? 8. What reasons can you assign for the present action in planting great manufacturing industries in the South, East and South-Central States, employing millions of dol- lars of capital, making this section a great manufacturing region to-day ? 9. Name some of the locations of these manufacturing plants, and state the character of their manufactures. 10. Which is generally largest — an agricultural, com- mercial, or manufacturing city ? Why ? 11. Explain what is meant by balance of trade. 12. Only a few times within the last thirty years has the balance of trade been against our nation, yet what was the result in 1873 and 1893 ? 13. Can we say that this was wholly the result of the unfavorable trade balance ? 14. What are the general indications of commercial prosperity ? 15. Our commerce always consists of what two ele- ments? 16. Which should be the greater to indicate a profitable trade balance to a nation ? 17. Which should be the greater to indicate a losing trade ? 18. When did our commerce reach the one-billion-dol- lar mark ? 19. Can you account for the great difference between the commerce of 1860 and 1872? 20. How long after 1870 before our commerce was doubled ? How may we account for this ? 21. Where, in the world, has our commerce increased five hundred per cent.? 22. Does this indicate that our Pacific coast commerce is more vigorous than our Atlantic and Gulf commerce ? Ans., No ; but that great development is being shown in this region, and that probably the great accessions to our commerce will come largely through the Pacific ocean commerce. 23. Which nation sells the most to the United States ? 24. Which nation buys the most from the United States? 25. Then what per cent, of our trade goes to this country ? 26. What nation in the world has the greatest com- merce ? Can you account. for this ? 27. How does the United States rank as a commercial nation ? 28. What ocean is the greatest commercial ocean to- day ? Reason for answer. 29. Name the seacoast cities of our nation through which the commercial nations of the world trade with the United States. 14 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 30. Name the seacoast cities of the other com- mercial powers through which the United States trades with them. 31. Which continent sells the most goods to our nation ? 32. Name, in order of purchase, the continents from which our nation buys goods. 33. Name, in order of purchase, the nations on each continent from which the United States buys goods. 34. Name the continents to which the United States sells her goods, in the order of sale. 35. Name the nations on each continent to which the United States sells goods, in the order of sale. 36. What are two kinds of commerce according to trade ? 37. What are two kinds of commerce according to transportation ? Ans., Land and water commerce. 38. What is a pack-train, where used, and what animal is usually its beast of burden ? 39. What is a burro ? 40. What is a llama? 41. What elements have greatly assisted in de- veloping a good home market and a lucrative for- eign trade ? 42. Explain how all industrial classes may be afifected by a good commerce in a nation. 43. Can you name a city in our nation that is largely dependent on the pack-train for its supplies ? 44. Name the ten greatest commercial powers, in order of commerce. 45. Who were the first commercial people of history ? Ans.f The Phoenicians, who were missionaries of com- merce and disseminators of civilization. 46. Fill in amount in thousands of dollars in the fol- lowing table : COMMERCE BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND THE FIFTEEN LEADING OOMMEBOIAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. ( Exports, $ ( Imports, % I Exports, .$ \ Imports, % j Exports, $ \ Imports, $ i Exports, $ \ Imports, $ ^ Exports, $ I Imports, $ j Exports, $ \ Imports, $ I Exports, $ \ Imports, $ ^ Exports, $ I Imports, $ g j Exports, .$ ■ I Imports, $ 1^ j Exports, % ^"- \ Imports, $ j^i \ Exports, $ ■ \ Imports, i ■JO \ Exports, $ ■ \ Imports, $ iq I Exports, $ ^*** 1 Imports, $ ■^4 j Exports, $ / Imports, $ ,g { Exports, % ■ / Imports, $ A Half-Mile of Pork, Armour's Great Packing House, Chicago, U.S. A CHAPTER 11. The Food Commerce of Nations. Food commekce is the greatest commerce of the world. For this reason it will be interesting and instructive to study the production and consump- tion of a variety of foods. The data given in this chapter are drawn from Government sources and from Mr. Geo. W. Waldron's magazine article on " The World's Bill of Fare." The very largest food crop is the potato crop, that at present writing is estimated to be four billions of bushels annually. Seven-eighths of this crop is raised in Europe, and the United States raises one-half of the remaining one-eighth of the crop. The greatest consumers of this crop are named below, the figures indicating the number of pounds per capita per annum. Irish 1,467 Germans 1,300 Dutch 840 Norwegians and Swedes 740 French 700 Austrians 663 Canadians 660 Russians 481 English 238 Americans (U. S.) 200 Italians 48 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 16 While the Irish are the greatest potato-eaters, the Germans are the greatest consumers, using annually one-fourth, of the world's crop. The world's grain crop is laade up as follows : Wheat 2| billion bushels, Oats 3J Corn 2| Rye II " Barley t " This lists the cereal food for man and beast, almost eleven billion bushels, although the millions of pounds of rice used in Western as well as Oriental lands is yet to be added to complete the total amount. The ten great wheat regions of the world are here given, with their product indicated for 1899 in millions of bushels: 1. United States *547 2. Russia 487 3. France 366 4. British India 233 5. Austria 190 6. Italy 138 7. Germany 141 8. Argentina 92 9. Spain 88 Over 87^ per cent, of the world's wheat crop is supplied by these ten regions. Fully one-half of the world's wheat is raised in Europe, jet it imports one-half of all exported wheat from other conti- nents. The most important wheat-consumers are as named below. The numbers indicate the pounds per capita per annum. 1. French 467 2. Canadians 360 3. Italians 307 4. English 250 5. Americans (U. S.). . . 240 6. Dutch 240 7. Austrians 230 8. Germans 180 9. Russians 93 10. Japanese +22 The leading nations using rye flour are : Danish ....320 lbs. Swedes 314 lbs. Russians 307 lbs. Norwegians 224 lbs. French 53 lbs. Italians 29 lbs. Germans 26 lbs. Americans (TJ. S.). . 22 lbs. The oatmeal-eaters are: Norwegians 112 lbs. Germans 97 lbs. Swedes 96 lbs. Dutch 96 lbs. Russians 90 lbs. Belgians 74 lbs. Americans (U. S.). . 70 lbs. Spanish 55 lbs. Italians 46 lbs. Austrians 45 lbs. Canadians 51 lbs. * Nearly 25 per cent, of entire crop, t Increasing rapidly. The Scotch are among the heaviest oatmeal- eaters, but there are no reliable data as to amount consumed apart from the rest of Great Britain, which on the whole consumes but 12 pounds per capita. The cereal rice is most largely used by the Chinese and Japanese, who require 300 pounds per capita ; East-India people, 200 lbs. (the prov- ince of Bombay uses 547' lbs.) ; the Italians, 14 lbs. ; English, 9 lbs. ; Spanish, 5 lbs. ; and Ameri- cans (U. S.), 4 lbs. The New World raises nearly all the world's corn, four-fifths of the crop being produced by the United States. Here, it is largely used to fatten cattle and hogs, although the Yankee " Johnny- cake," Southern "hoecake," and Western "corn bread " are well-known elements in our nation's bill of fare. The people of our nation are the greatest meat- eaters, the per capita per annum being 147 pounds. We annually consume five billion pounds of beef, four billion pounds of pork, four-fifths of a billion pounds of mutton, and one and one-fifth billion pounds of fish, oysters, and fowl. The meat schedule for the other great meat- eating nations is as follows: English 100 lbs. Belgians 61 lbs. Norwegians 80 lbs. Austrians 60 lbs. French 77 lbs. Irish 56 lbs. Spanish 70 lbs. Russians 50 lbs. Germans 64 lbs. Dutch 50 lbs. Swedes and Swiss . . 62 lbs. Italians 24 lbs. The leading beef-producing regions are here named in order of rank : 1. United States *25^ 2. Russia 13^: 3. Argentina 12^ 4. Grermany 10^ The world's cattle, in 1900, numbered 181| million head (in round numbers). The greatest pork-producing regions are : 4. Germany 8^% 5. France 5% 6. Great Britain 3% 5. France 71^ 6. Great Britain 6% 7. Austria 44? 1. United States *56^ 2. Austria 9^ 3. Russia 8*^ * The percentages marked with a * are of the entire amount produced In the world. 16 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Swedes 40 lbs. Dutch 34 lbs. French 30 lbs. Germ(ins 30 lbs. Belgians 23 lbs. Austrians ... 18 lbs. Russians 13 lbs. Norwegians. . 12 lbs. Spanish 8 lbs. Italians 6 lbs. The sugar used comes principally from two sources — from the sugar cane and from sugar beets. The for- mer can be raised only in the warmer portions of southern temperate and tropical regions, with certain agree- able climatic conditions; the latter can be raised in nearly all parts of the temperate zone. Below are given the leading cane- sugar-producing regions, with their output for 1900 in thousands of tons: 1. Java 670 2. Cuba 500 8. Louisiana . . . 340 4. Hawaii 320 5. Mauritius . . 160 6. Brazil 150 output, 2850 Sugar Levee, New Orleans, Louisiana. The world's hogs, in 1900, numbered 122f mill ion head (in round numbers). The most important sheep-producing regions are 1. Australia *27^ 4. Tnited States . . 9^^ 2. Argentina 18^ 5. Great Britain . . 7\% 3. Russia loj^ The world's sheep, in 1900, numbered 410 million head (in round numbers). Sheep are raised more largely for wool than for mutton. The lovers of eggs are given below, the figures indicating the number per capita con- sumed by each nation : 1. Americans (U.S. ),+133 5. Germans 75 Total cane-sugar ■^housand tons. In the beet-sugar-producing regions (principal ones) the output in 1900 in thousand tons was as follows : 1. Germany 1,950 2. Austria 1,075 3. France 1,125 4. Russia 890 2. Canadians 90 3. Danes 80 4. French 78 6. Italians 47 7. English 39 The lovers of sweets are indicated by the follomng large sugar-consumers: English 90 lbs. Swiss 52 lbs. Americans (U. S.) 60 lbs. Danes 48 lbs. •The percentages marked with a ♦ are of the entire amount pro- duced In the world. fOver ten million eggs used In 1900. Picking the Famous Uji Tea, near To^ COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. I .17 5. Belgium 6. Holland , 340 170 7. U. S. *89 Total beet-sugar output, 5950 thou- sand tons. Over 67 per cent, of the world's sugar output to-day is beet sugar, and as the regions for rais- ing cane are circumscribed and there- fore limited to a much smaller area, this per cent, of beet sugar is rapidly increasing. The total sugar consumption in 1900 was 8,200,000 tons. The greatest tea-drinker outside of the Orient to-day is the Englishman, who requires 88 ounces. His son-in- law, the Canadian, needs 70 ounces ; Uncle Sam's children each use 1(5 ounces (one full pound) ; while the Russian uses but 9 ounces. The very heaviest coffee-drinker is the Netherlander, who requires 247 ounces — nearly 15| pounds — each year. The Dane gets along with 176. Each American in our Union requires 168 ounces — 10^ pounds; but our nation is so big that it takes half the world's coffee to supply onal breakfast beverage — 800 The figures for other nations us with this national breakfast beverage — 800 million pounds. are as follows: Swiss 112 ounces. Germans 78 " French 53 " Austrians 32 " Italians 17 ounces. English 3 Russians 3 " The greatest tea regions are found in China, Japan, and the East Indies, although this plant is now being successfully cultivated in the Western World. The great coffee-producing region is Brazil, pro- ducing two-thirds of the world's entire crop. Vene- zuela, Central America and Mexico in the ISTew World, and the East Indies and Arabia in the East- *Bapidljr increasing. Drying Coffee, Porto Rico. ern World supplement Brazil's output. Arabia is the home of Mocha, the most famous and best of coffee brands. A study of the above data will show the reason why the United States is now and will continue to be an increasingly important agent in food com- merce. We see that our nation is a granary for the world as well as the great butcher-shop of the nations, her meats — fresh, salted and canned — being sent in one or all forms to every meat-con- suming nation on the globe. From the published governmental reports for our nation's commerce for the year 1900, we glean the following interesting facts about our nation's food commerce. Most school children know that the leaf of a semi-tropical plant gives us our tea, that the berry of a tropical plant is our coffee, that chocolate is prepared from the roasted bean of the cacao tree, 18 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. while the shell of the cacao berry or bean fur- nishes the cacao or cocoa shells of commerce. But many are surprised to learn that impurities are added between the field where grown and the table where served, to such an extent that a chem- ical analysis has revealed that in some instances only 60 per cent, of the article bought is from na- ture, the rest being the product of that artist who taught the trader (not the Yankee from Connecti- cut) how to make wooden nutmegs that defy detec- tion. We learn that this artist now makes clay coffee berries, colored with tan-bark, and substi- tutes them for some of the genuine, as the coffee passes him on the way to our breakfast-table. Thus we may grind the coffee, and, boiling it, have gen- uine " muddy " coffee. In a similar manner our food artist adulterates chocolate with a preparation of mutton tallow, cheap sugar, shells of the cacao bean, sawdust, and potato meal. When all is ready a rich chocolate brown is given with ochrd, and mixed so thoroughly with that fresh from the roasted bean that most of us are ignorant of the deception. • This trade artist stirs the tea, takes toll out of the flour barrel while he covers the damaged flour with mineral salts, " doctors " our syrups, makes much vinegar, and even leaves his trade-mark in the cheap candies consumed in car-load lots by Uncle Sam's children. These food adulterations have led to the careful inspection of all food shipped out and food sent into a commercial nation. The counterfeiting of money is as nothing compared to this counterfeit- ing of pure wholesome food products. The Celestial trader, the Japanese dealer and the East-Indian merchant employ the food artist quite as much as the proverbial " Yankee grocer," who is reported to sand his sugar, doctor his vinegar, and make his syrups. Although legislation seeks to protect the consumer from this nefarious tampering with the necessaries and luxuries in food commerce, yet the deceptions are often so complete as to de- ceive sight, taste, and smell. Uncle Sam imports the following-named food elements principally from the countries indicated below : ( The names of foods, and the names of countries from which imported, are here given in order of purchase.) 1. Sugar. — Dutch East Indies, Hawaii, Cuba, Germany, British West Indies, British Guiana, Santo Domingo, Porto Rico, Brazil, Peru, and Philippine Islands. 2. Coffee. — Brazil, Venezuela, Mexico, Dutch East Indies, Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Colombia. 3. Fruits and Nuts. — Italy, British West In- dies, Spain, Costa Rica, Colombia, France, and Greece. 4. Tea. — China, Japan, and British East Indies. 5. Fish. — Canada, France, Great Britain, Neth- erlands, Sweden and I^orway, and Portugal. 6. Cacao Shells and Chocolate. — British West Indies, Dutch Guiana, Ecuador, Brazil, and Por- tugal. 7. Spices. — British East Indies, Great Britain, ISTetherlands, Dutch East Indies, China, Hong Kong, and West Indies. 8. Rice. — Germany, Japan, China, and Great Britain. (Many tropical fruits sent from Great Britain, Germany and Netherlands come to them from their tropical colonies, and are by these nations shipped to consumers.) DIAGRAM SHOWING KELATIVE PROPORTION OP POODS IM- PORTED IN 1900. (The figures Indicate value in millions of dollars.) 121 26 60 100 II I I - Tea. Fruits and Nuts. Coffee. Sugar. - Fish. - Cacao and Chocolate. - Spices. Bice. Our nation exports the following foods in order of importance as named, principally to the nations given below. (For year 1900, in million dollars.) COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 19 1. Breadstuff s.— 262f , to Great Britain, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark, Canada, Sweden and Norway, Hong Kong, Portngal,. France, West Indies, and Japan. 2. Meat Products. — 175^, to Great Britain, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium, Cuba, France, British West Indies, Sweden and Norway, British Africa, and Italy. 3. Fruits and Nuts. — llf, to Great Brit- ain, Canada, Germany, Netherlands, France, Belgium, and West Indies. 4. Dairy Products. — 9^, to Great Britain, Cuba, Canada, Brazil, Venezuela, Japan, and Hawaii. 5. Fish, and Oysters. — 54, to Great Brit- ain, West Indies, British Australasia, Can- ada, Brazil, and Mexico. 6. Glucose or Grape , Sugar. — 3 ^/g, to .Great Britain, Canada, British, Australasia, Belgium, Sweden and Norway, and British Africa. 7. Vegetables. — 2^/5, to Cuba, Great Britain, Canada, Hawaii, and Porto Rico. 8. Eggs. — 1, to Cuba, Great Britain, British Columbia, Hawaii, Germany, Mexico, and British Africa. The quantity of our food exports is increasing each year, while the quantity of our food imports is being perceptibly lessened. In a few years our nation can raise all her sugar, and through its island dependencies obtain a great deal of the nation's tea, coffee, cacao, spices, and the million and a half dollars' worth of rice that is now an- nually imported. Our sale of food products is rapidly increasing in the Oriental countries, while European countries continue to use their full quota and increase their orders for meat products. Let us realize that our cereal exports exceed any other nation's cereal exports by many mill- ions ; that our meat exports are second only to our cereals. Fast transportation, refrigeration and improved methods for preserving meats have Blossom and Fiu:t of the Cacao Tree, Hope Gardens, Kingston, W. I. opened up new markets for American pork, beef, mutton, and poultry, as well as American fruits. It is confidently believed that the completion of the Trans-Siberian Railway and the digging of the Panama or Nicaragua Canal will mean millions of dollars to food commerce. Cost of transportation w^ill be lessened, the improved quality of certain foods will multiply the orders, and all food-pro- ducing nations will profit thereby. The two nations that stand ready to derive the greatest benefits from these shortened routes are the two that now very nearly supply all food de- mands at home, lying on opposite sides of the Pacific, — Australia and the United States. QUESTION SUMMARY. 1. What fact shows the importance of food commerce ? 2. What is the greatest food crop, and where is the larger part of it raised ? 3. Name the greatest consumers of this crop. 4. What nation uses one-fourth of the world's potato crop ? 20 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Husking the Crop in & Cocoanut Forest, near Mayaguez, Porto Rico 5. Name the grains that furnish the cereal foods for man. 6. Name the greatest wheat regions of the world, in order of rank. 7. Name the most important wheat consumers, in order of rank. 8. Name the leading nations using rye as a food. 9. Name the world's oatmeal-eaters. 10. What nation in a cold climate heads the list? 11. What nations raise the greatest amount of rice, and by what people is it most largely consumed ? 12. What nation produces four-fifths of the world's corn crop? 13. AVhat nation of people require nearly 150 pounds of meat per capita each year ? 14. Enumerate our nation's meat bill. 15. Name, in rank, the ten greatest meat-eating nations. 16. AVhat proportion of the world's beef does the United States produce ? 17. AVhat proportion of the world's pork does our nation produce ? 18. What nation raises more than one-fourth of the world's sheep ? 19. What nations do you think lead in the pro- duction of wool ? 20. AVhat is the approximate yearly consumption of eggs by the nations named in the text? Ans., Multiply the population of each nation named in the list (seven in all) by the number of eggs per capita, and add the products. 21. Name the ten greatest sugar consumers. 22. Name the five greatest cane-sugar-producing regions. 23. Name the five greatest beet-sugar-producing regions. 24. Why is the quantity of beet sugar greater than the quantity of cane sugar ? 25. AVhat parts of the United States seem best adapted to sugar beets ? 26. Locate some large sugar-beet factories now in operation. 27. Where are the gi'eat tea regions ? 28. Name the greatest tea consumers. 29. Name the coffee regions of the world. 80. Name the greatest coffee-consuming nations. 31. AA^hat nation uses the largest amount of coffee per capita ? 32. What nation consumes half of the world's coffee ? 33. What nation is the greatest factor in food pro- duction? Jns., United States. 34. AA'^hat nations on what continent are the greatest food -buyers ? 35. AA''hy is corn meeting with much favor as a food in thickly settled regions of Europe? Ans., Corn meal can be mixed with rye or wheat flour, giving a cheaper yet very nutritious food for the peasantry of Belgium, Ger- many, Holland, Austria, and France. 36. AVhere are AVestern cereals and meats being intro- duced with gratifying success ? A71S., Japan and China. 37. A\''hat is the tea of commerce ? 38. AVhat is the coffee of commerce ? 39. AVhat is chocolate ? AVhere obtained ? 40. How are tea, coffee and chocolate adulterated ? 41. AVhat is the chief duty of the Government food inspector ? 42. AVhat ten regions send us sugar ? 43. Name five regions from which we import coffee. 44. Name five countries that send us fruits and nuts. 45. Name the eight most important food products im- ported by our nation. 46. Name the eight most important food products ex- ported by our nation. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 21 47. "Where is our nation finding new markets for food products ? How do you account for this? 48. What will be the effect of a Central-American canal upon food commerce ? 49. Why will Australia and the United States lead the commercial nations in the benefits derived from this canal? 50. Name the nations engaged in food commerce with the United States, and indicate the ports of our nation through which this commerce passes. CHAPTER III. Overland Commerce. The pack-train, caravan, stage, and wagon- freighter have been the world's chief means of overland commerce. The pack-trains of Xorth and South America were described in a preceding chapter as now being confined to the inaccessible regions for stage, wagon- freighter, or the railroad. Xo long stage routes at present exist, while a generation or two ago there were stage and " freighter " routes several hundred, and in some instances more than a thousand miles long. To-day a hun- dred-mile stage route can scarcely be found, for the railroad has supplanted the stage all over the world. Only in mountainous districts or thinly populated regions is the stage and wagon-freighter known as an instrument or means of important commercial intercourse. One of the features of Col. Cody's ("Buffalo Bill's") Wild West Show is an old-time stage- coach of the plains. The fact that this very com- mon vehicle of trade and travel forty years ago is to-day a curiosity and carried around in shows, teaches us the development and general adoption of modern and more rapid means of transit. The most important vehicle of overland com- merce is the caravan. A company of merchants, travelers or pilgrims, who for greater security asso- ciate themselves together in travel, is called a " caravan." Robbers lurk in the vicinity of trade routes across deserts and arid areas, and so many China's "Common Carrier" — Her Substitute for Railways — a "Camel Square" in Peking, China. dangers threaten the commercial traveler that so far back as overland commerce existed or authentic history runs, the caravan has been one means of trade intercourse across the arid lands of Africa and Asia. Mohammed, in the seventh century A. D., en- joined his followers to visit Mecca at least once in a lifetime. For this reason, Mecca became the IToly City of the Islam world. During the cen- turies that have followed, adherents to this faith have implicitly obeyed this injunction, and large caravans of pilgrims have at stated times, assem- bled in countries where the Mohammedan faith has been established. The most celebrated of these pil- 'grim caravans assemble at Cairo and Damascus. The latter is the larger caravan, and in the days of the Saracenic Empire frequently consisted of from thirty thousand to fifty thousand pilgrims. The caravan by which the Moslem pilgrims from Persia travel starts from Bagdad, and, we are told. 22 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Lumber for the Gold Belt, Ouray, Colorado. is the vehicle of a very important trade. In former years a very important caravan gathered at Mus- cat and proceeded thence to Mecca. For many cen- turies these fonr caravans made regular pilgrim- ages to the holy city of the Moslem faith, nnder the protection of the Sultan of Turkey. When the caravans arrived bringing goods from all quarters of the Eastern world, Mecca "appeared like a great fair, a rival to the Novgorod of modern days. The Muscat, or " Indian " caravan, as it was called, has long since been abandoned, but the Cairo, Damascus and Bagdad caravans still make pilgrimages to Mecca, forming important means of trade between southwest Asia and northeast Africa. Modern Mecca, like ancient Mecca, de- pends upon the pilgrimages for its existence, al- though the number of pilgrims is now reduced to forty or fifty thousand a year. Trade between Tripoli and central Africa is carried on exclusively by caravans. This route runs across the Sahara desert and through the Soudanese plains. The trade between Darfur and Egypt is a caravan trade. Darfur is rich in cereals, copper, and iron. Tobacco is a staple product here, and is used in every form by both men and women. Quantities of tamarinds, dates and watermelons arc also grown in Darfur. These products are exchanged for the durra, barley, cot- ton and indigo of Egypt. These caravan routes crossing the Sahara seek stations at as many oases as possible. Frequently terrific sand-storms overtake the caravan of this desert, and instances are on record of whole cara- vans being covered up, entombed by the sand. The mirage of the desert is a well-known il- lusion to the experienced trader, but the unwary are frequently deceived, decoyed away and lost. The great trade between Russian Asia and China is largely a caravan trade, one route extending west to Moscow. The Trans-Siberian Railway is now supplanting many of these Siberian caravan routes. The trade caravan has its definite route, regular stations, and stated time limits to " make " each station. It starts at a certain hour and day, and hence runs on schedule time. The leader of a trade caravan is called the Karwan-Baschi, and is usually elected by the mer- chants from their own n-umber. The beast of burden is usually the camel, chosen for its great endurance and ability to go without water for long periods — even five to nine days at a time. Because of its stately and steady tread and its universal use, the camel is frequently called the " ship of the desert." A caravan sometimes has more than a thousand camels following one after another in single file. Such a caravan is more than a mile long. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY, 23 When the camels have a load weighing from five hundred to six hundred pounds, we have a heavy caravan that can travel only from fifteen to eighteen miles a day. A light caravan can travel from twenty-two to twenty-five miles per day, as the eamel's load is not over three hundred and fifty pounds. QUESTION SUMMARY. 1. What is meant by overland commerce? 2. What is a pack-train ? What animals are most largely used for this purpose ? Why ? 3. What is a "freighter"? Can you name any place where now in use ? 4. Why are stage routes fewer in number and shorter than in former years ? 5. Name a stage route now in operation. 6. Define a caravan. 7. Why is Mecca an important center of caravan routes ? Locate this city. 8. Who was Mohammed ? 9. Name important commercial cities connected with Mecca by caravan. One of the Typical "Freight Trains" that Carry China's Home Commerce Caravan LeavinrT Pokin. The Mountain Carrier. 10. Which Pilgrim caravan has been the most impor- tant route ? 11. Give some facts about the Indian caravan. 12. Mecca is likened to what city ? Where is this city and what can you say about it? 13. Discuss the Tripoli caravan. 14. A few score years ago, this was one of the greatest slave-trading routes in the world. Why is this not profitably carried on at the present day ? 15. Where and what is Darfur ? 16. With what country does it trade ? 17. What products are exchanged ? 18. What is durra ? 19. On what kind of tree do dates grow ? 20. Tell the comparative area of the Sa- hara desert. 21. What are some of the theories that account for this vast arid waste ? 22. What plans are now being laid to re- claim this arid waste ? Ans. , Plans are be- ing perfected for canals that shall let the sea in, it being believed that this will re- store vegetation, making the desert a great oasis instead of a sandy waste. 23. What can you say of the Siberian caravan routes ? 24. Name the most important caravan routes of to-day. 25. Why is the camel most generally used in caravans ? 24 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. A Mountain "Baby." 26. Who is the Karwan-Baschi ? 27. What is a heavy caravan ? 28. Define a light caravan. 29. What is meant by a caravan schedule ? 30. In what parts of the world is overland commerce now carried on ? CHAPTEK IV. Railroad Coramerce. To-day the chief agent of land commerce is the railroad. It has been well said that railroads have been the greatest civilizing agency of the nineteenth century, for they have stretched their iron bands from town to town, crossed the widest rivers, threaded valleys, climbed mountains, tunneled a way through inaccessible cliffs and peaks, *and shown their great value as a transporting agent in every department of commerce. The railroad has taught dilatory people many wholesome lessons on punctuality, while it has been a great friend of human progress and industrial development. It was James Watt, of Scotland, who made the first application of steam as a motive power, but it was George Stephenson, of northern England, who built the first locomotive. This locomotive was built in 1814, and had a speed of six miles an hour. Stephenson and Booth built the " Rocket " in 1829. This locomotive weighed four and one- quarter tons, and had a speed of thirty-five miles an hour. Tramways — wooden railways for four- wheeled vehicles — had been used in the collier- ies of England since 1672, when Mr. Beaumont constructed a tramway at the Newcastle-upon- Tyne collieries. The first railroad for locomotive service was the Stockton & Darlington Railroad of England, built by Edward Pease and George Stephenson in 1825. The first railroad in America was the Quincy Railroad, built from the Quincy (Mass.) quarries to the nearest tide- water. This Quincy railroad was projected by Gridley Brant, a civil engineer, and in 1826 Col. T. H. Perkins and Mr. Brant completed the road. This first railroad of America was four miles long, and cost fifty thousand dollars. It was supplied with the first turntable ever used, devised by Mr. Brant, and still in use as late as 1880. The second American railroad was laid from the Mauch Chunk (Penn.) mines to the Lehigh river, a distance of thirteen miles. This road was opened for use in 1827. The third American railroad was the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad of to-day, and was the first rail- road authorized to carry on a general transporta- tion business. It was begun July 4th, 1828, and was to extend to Ellicott's Mills, thirteen miles / ^ ^ i HKi Grand Central Stat'on, New York City, N. Y. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 25 Train of Commerce — loo cars on New York Central Railroad. away. It was soon completed to the Potomac, fol- lowing the valley to the Cnmberland coal region, and in a short tim.e was extended across the moun- tains to Wheeling, on the Ohio river. The first locomotive built in America was made in Baltimore, by that grand good man who later in life founded an institute in New York city where poor boys might get an education and learn a trade — Peter Cooper. This locomotive was small, had an upright boiler, and could not have weighed more than a ton, yet it drew an open car carrying the directors of the railroad from Baltimore to Ellicott's Mills. This was in 1830, and we are told that it was the first time a locomotive was used for passenger service, on either side of the Atlantic. Its speed was rated at eighteen miles an hour. Little did Peter Cooper know what a wonderful element of commerce he had started. This same road now links New York, Philadelphia, Balti- more, Washington and Chicago together, where engines from fifty to ninety times larger than Cooper's draw long trains of commerce upon its ribbons of steel. The advent of the railroad was so important to the commercial world that it will be interesting and instructive to study the cost and character of the different cars of freight and passenger traffic. Passenger engines vary greatly in size and weight as well as mechanism, but generally speak- ing weigh from thirty to seventy-five tons. Freight engines weigh from forty to ninety tons. The larger engines are rapidly displacing the lighter engines, as the heavier power will haul greater tonnage. An engine weighing ninety tons, on a level can haul a load of four thousand five hundred tons; but as it is difficult to haul such a tonnage in one train, and as but very short distances of railroad track can be level, the engine is seldom worked to its maximum power. We are told that the life of a locomotive depends upon the conditions of the service. Where water is impregnated with sulphates and other deleterious or corroding matter, the life of a locomotive boiler is short, — sometimes not longer than ten years. In good water the life of a boiler would be twice this period. The number of miles' service and the care given the engine tend also to lengthen or shorten its life ; so you see that oven the approxi- S6 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. mate life of an engine is very hard to determine. The cost of an engine is also quite as varying, de- pendent upon tlie make of engine, weight, quality of material, together with present price. Lighter engines in 1900 cost from $0000 to $12,000, and lieavier engines from $12,000 to $15,000. Cars in the freight service are divided into a number of groups. Cars used for hauling coal, sand, cinders, heavy iron and timbers, with simply a bottom and low sides, are called flat cars, and cost from $250 to $000 and $700, according to capacity and material used. Cars with solid bot- tom and cover, but with slat sides, adapted to haul- ing stock, are called cattle cars, and cost from $600 to $1000. Refrigerator cars are made on the principle of an ice-house, with double sides padded with material impervious to heat. These cars are especially adapted for hauling meats, fruits, and cold-storage merchandise. Their cost varies from $700 to $1250, owing to their dimensions. The ordinary grain or box car costs from $550 to $800. The freight caboose, or trainmen's car, costs from $500 to $1000. Many railroads are now using cars made of steel — block steel being used in place of wood as a building material. That these cars are made of incombustible material renders them longer lived and reduces the chances for damage to freight in a wreck or collision. Let us now look at the passenger service a mo- ment. A mail car ranges in price from $2500 to $0000, according to dimensions and material used. Baggage cars cost from $2500 to $4000 ; chair cars, $3000 to $8000; Pullman, $10,000 to $20,000. From the above figures we can make an approxi- mate estimate of the cost of a train of cars, either freight or passenger. When we realize that the lowest estimated cost of making a mile of railroad track on level ground (fifteen ties per rail-length) is $8000, we can form sonle estimate of the enormous expenditure of money the railroad commerce of the United States of ^to-day represents. Statistics show that the United States has fully 190,000 miles of rail- road, the average cost of which, with bridges, is upward of $59,000 per mile. The estimated cost of tracks and rolling-stock in our nation alone is not less than 10,000 millions of dollars. All this vast outlay is later covered by the revenues of commerce. The auditing department of a great American railroad system rivals a Government department. The earnings of the Pennsylvania System in a year average about 130 millions of dollars; the Vanderbilt System — New York Central, Lake Shore, West Shore, Nickel Plate, Michigan Cen- tral, Boston & Albany, and Pittsburg & Lake Erie railroads — upwards of 137 millions of dollars. The total receipts of the Federal Government for the year 1896 are given as follows: Customs $150,000,000 Internal revenue 146,000,000 Total $296,000,000 This represents the Government receipts for a nation of 75,000,000 people, but the two railroad systems referred to above represent receipts to the amount of $267,000,000. If a third system — the Santa Fe — be added, the Government receipts would be exceeded. When one realizes that there are upwards of forty different railroad cooperations in our nation, he can begin to form a conception of the tons upon tons of freight as well as express handled by our railroads. The trunk lines of the United States are to-day great arteries of commerce, which, with their trib- utary lines, form a complete system of trade circu- lation, reaching to all parts of our great nation. Where it took a good week to travel from Xew York to Buffalo, the Empire Express now trans- ports one from New York to Buffalo in eight hours and fifteen minutes, a distance of 440 miles. One can buy a through ticket from New York to San Francisco, board the train at New York Monday COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. morning, and Thursday night eat supper at San Francisco. The passenger can eat his meals in a jiahice diner, take his bath, read his book, write his letters, read the news, and receive every other con- \enience of a modern home while being transported through the country at from forty to sixty miles an hour. Undoubtedly the greatest railroad in our nation from a commercial standpoint is the Xew York Central, that has four tracks from Buffalo to Xew York, and in the busy season of the year runs from seventy-five to one hundred trains daily. ( Tliree hundred and twenty passenger trains leave the Xew Y^'ork depot daily.) It is no unusual thing for a single locomotive to haul through the Mohawk Valley over this road ninety thousand bushels of grain. This is the pioneer railroad of Xew York, its first train, in 1831, making regular trips from Albany to Schenectady. (See cut below.) The mileage of the New York Central in 1900 was 2294 miles, but it is the only four-track rail- road in our nation, and forms the direct connection between the rail and lake port of Buffalo and the Atlantic seaboard, hence its commercial importance. The greatest railroad in mileage and amount of business is perhaps the Pennsylvania System with its 10,500 miles of track, and connecting the great trade centers of ]*^ew Y^ork, Philadelphia, Balti- more, Pittsburg, Buffalo, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Toledo, Chicago, Indianapolis, and St. Louis. DeWitt Clinton Express. (The first steam railway train In the State of New York.) The ^::.^.:- _;„- L..r.;u„„ ^,,;. .^„2). The first railroad to connect the East and the West was the Union Pacific, completed in 1869. To-day we have five transcontinental lines in our own nation, and with the Canadian Pacific, six transcontinental railroads in America. The most picturesque and remarkable railroad enterprise of recent years is the Alaskan Railway, that extends from Skagway, in the northwest part of Alaska, over the White Pass to Lake Bennett, British Columbia. It is called the White Pass & Y^ukon Railroad. It was built in the winter-time, with the thermometer ranging between thirty and fifty degrees below zero, and its completion is a monument to the untiring energies of Mr. E. G, Hawkins. Although the road is only forty miles long, its construction would scarcely be paid for if the entire road-bed have a layer of fivenlollar bills laid end to end, from Skagway to Lake Bennett. Probably one of the clearest illustrations of en- gineering skill in recent railroad building is shown in the construction of the tunnel through the Cas- cade Mountains on the Great Xorthern Railroad. On Saturday, September 8, 1900, Galveston, Texas, as well as the surrounding country, was overwhelmed by a West-India hurricane. The first aid came to the stricken city from the rail- ways. The Rock Island started a train of supplies from Chicago, while the South Texas lines, the M. K. & T. and the Santa Fe joined in the urgent work 28 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. or reopening means of transportation, bringing in supplies and transporting refugees. In twelve (lajs the tracks that had been swept away for miles had been restored, a two-mile bridge had been built across the bay, and regular communication between Galveston and the world resumed. This shows the power of railroads as rebuilders. Outside of the United States the railway mile- age in 1900 was estimated to be 234,647 miles. Baden, Brazil, Brunswick, Bulgaria, Ceylon, Co- himbia, Finland, Roumania, Russia, South-Afri- can Transvaal, South Australia, Tasmania, Vene- zuela and Victoria own their entire systems of rail- way. Forty-two countries have public railways, aggre- gating 147,000 miles, while twenty-nine have pri- vate lines. The railway mileage b^- continents January 1, 1898, was as follows: 1. North America (United States, 190,000) 211,000 2. Europe 163,000 S.Asia 31,200 4. South America 27,000 5. Australia 14,500 6. Africa 10,0 00 Total 456,700 In North America we find that the United States has the greatest railway mileage ; Canada second, with her great transcontinental line, the Canadian Pacific, and its numerous connecting lines ; and Mexico third, with the Mexican Central, Mexican i^ational and Mexican Southern railroads connect- ing her capital commercially with all parts of the republic, and the Interoceanic Railroad with its tributary lines, connecting Pacific and Atlantic seaboards. In South America, the Argentine Re- public ranks first, with many important lines con- necting the metropolis of the continent — Buenos Ayres — with all parts of the republic. Brazil ranks second, most of its lines connecting Atlantic ports with one another and the coffee districts and diamond fields with the coasts. Germany has more railways than any other Eu- ropean nation, with France, Russia, Great Britain, Austria, Italy, Spain and Sweden following, in the order named. In Asia, India leads, and Siberia, Japan and Turkey in Asia follow, in order given. MiscellaueouB Data on Railroads. It will be interesting to the student to know of some of the most important railroads sur- veyed and now being constructed, or whose con- struction will be entered upon in the near future. We will speak of the five that to-day are looked upon as feats of great engineering skill. First is the Trans-Siberian road, that is expected to re- duce the time for the world trip from sixty-five to less than thirty days. As far back as 1858, that great Russian states- man. General Muraviof, urged the building of a railroad to quicken passage to ports of Tartary. The completion of the Ural Railroad in 1880 from Perm, in Russia, to Tinmen, in Siberia (on the Tobal river), revived the discussion of a trans- continental line. The cost of a Siberian route to the ocean was discussed, different routes surveyed, and finally an imperial order came, March 17th, 1891, for plans for construction of a Trans-Siberian rail- road to be formed and work upon the road to begin as soon as practicable. The first work on this great road was begim at its eastern terminus — Vladivostok, May 12, 1892. The work pro- gressed slowly up to 1895. Two reasons can be assigned for this: lack of general interest in the project, and tardy concessions ; also, lack of mod- ern machinery for carrying on the work. A I^Tew York engineer introduced American construction machinery and American methods, which caused a lively trade in railroad supplies to spring up between the Russian Government and America, and likewise gave impetus to the work. About the same time the concessions made to Russia by China, at the close of the Chinese-Japanese war, COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 29 put new energy into the construction work, and the near future will see the road completed. Eussia entered into a contract with China, in 1800, to build a railroad through the province of Manchuria. The railroad when completed is to have a Chinese president, and after eighty years the entire ownership of the road is to pass to the Chinese Government on payment to the Kussian Government the market value of the railroad. In 1898 Eussia leased Port Arthur and the peninsula — the Liao-tung — upon which it stands. This gives Eussia a very valuable Pacific port, open all the year. This road begins 53 miles east of Chita, and runs southeast 600 miles to Harbin, which station is 500 miles from Vladivostok, and is connected with it by rail. The Chinese Eastern crosses the Sungari at Harbin, and, turning south, continues in a direct course, 650 miles, to Port Arthur. This will be an important part of the main Siberian line. The Trans-Siberian Eailroadi has its official Euro- pean starting-point at Cheliabinsk, within the Ural Mountains. The Eastern Chinese Eailway is the Port Ar- thur route, and is under a separate management. The time from London to Hong Kong via Suez Canal is twenty-five days; via the Canadian Pa- cific Eailroad is thirty-three days ; via the Trans- Siberian Eailroad the time will be still less. The stations on the road are neat and comfortable, no two alike, and compare favorably with the very best depots and station-houses in Europe and America. The traveler soon realizes that a rail- road restaurant along this road is one of the lux- uries of travel, and that a great feast can be en- joyed in handsome dining-rooms at reasonable rates. This road crosses the great rivers of Siberia at or a little below the head of navigation, thus making possible extensive water as well as land commerce. Together these indicate the establish- ing of new and large commercial cities. Second^ we will name the Cape to Cairo Eail- road, of Africa. This is the last continent to be opened to modern civilization aod trade. This road is divided into four great construction sec- tions, as follows: 1st Division — Cape Town to Buluwayo — 1360 miles. This is now completed and in oper- ation. 2d Division — Buluwayo to Abercorn — 960 miles. This section is partially completed. 3d Division — From north end of Lake Tan- ganyika to Khartoum — 1500 miles. Now un- der construction. 4:th Division — Erom Khartoum to Cairo — 1050 miles. This section is completed and being operated. Of the total distance, all but 200 miles passes through British territory. This route is mainly along the "bacb of the central plateau," or through the African river valleys, often fever- infested or filled! with jungle thickets, the home of the largest and most ferocious of African beasts. Eive great bridges must be built over large rivers. When the first section was being built, the engineers were hurrying to get out of the way of the annual floods, and sent a rush order to English manufacturers. Word came back that it would require at least six and probably twelve months to fill the order, which called for the iron framework for the Atbara bridge. An American engineer prevailed upon the management to try an American firm for bridge iron. A Philadel- phia firm sent word that the iron would be ready forty days after the order was placed, — and thus the iron-work for Atbara bridge was made by an American firm and the bridge huilt in less than four months. When the entire Cape to Cairo Eailroad is put in running order, with the lateral branch routes already planned, it wili be the most unique system of railroad connectiofife yet shown in any conti- nent. Besides Cape Town, Cape Colony has ter- 30 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. minal branch lines reaching Port Elizabeth, East London, and Port Alfred. Natal was the fourth branch line running to Durban, the Delagoa Bay Railroad is the fifth, and the Beird Railroad is the sixth one now com- pleted, while the Ujiji & Bagamoyo Railroad, the Uganda & Mombasa and the Berber & Suakin railroads are under construction. The Cape to Cairo Railroad will be the spine of continental commerce, with its lateral branches on either side as ribs of trade, that shall form the basis of a mighty trade and be the means of transmitting to Africa the modern civilization that accompanies transportation. The Sahara Railroad of the French and the West-African Railroad of the Germans will, in the new century, open new avenues of trade and reveal to Africa and the world the greatness of her resources. Third. The Euphrates Valley Railroad de- serves mention. Many years ago the great French engineer, Ferdinand de Lesseps, proposed to the Sultan of Turkey the building of a rail- road, — a railroad that should reach from Con- stantinople to the Persian Gulf. The Sultan could not see the practical value of such an ex- penditure of time and cash, and we see De Lesseps bring the Suez Canal into being instead of the railroad that he the more earnestly desired to construct. England sought permission from the Porte in 18Y8 to build the road, but was refused. Later, Russia tried to gain a similar privilege, but still the Sultan said no. In 1888 a Berlin bank organized a syndicate that secured concessions from the Porte for build- ing a railroad from a point opposite Constanti- nople to Angora, and later to Konieh (ancient Iconium). In 1892 the Antolian Railway was in opera- tion, running trains to Angora. The German cap- italists have now obtained ^hother concession from the Turkish Sultan, permitting the building of the Euphrates Valley Railroad. This road is sur- veyed, and is now being constructed. It is to run from Konieh to the Taurus mountains, where it passes through the historic '" Cicilian Gates" (a pass in the Taurus mountains), turns now to Aleppo, thence to Bagdad, 1000 miles from Konieh, and down the Euphrates to Bassorah, on the Persian Gulf, 400 miles below Bagdad. The Russian Government in the last few years has completed a Trans-Caucasus railway from Batum, on the Black sea, through Tiflis, to Baku, on the Caspian sea, and from the east shores of the Caspian through Bokhara to Samarkand. Russia has gained permission from the Sultan to construct a railway from Kars, a Russian for- tress in the Caucasus, to Erzeroum, a Turkisli stronghold in Armenia. Russia's policy is to push this line on west to meet the Euphrates Val- ley Railroad at Angora, and make rail connec- tions east via Tabris to Teheran, the Persian cap- ital. Thus we see that the building of the Euphrates Valley Railroad will introduce the steam engine to all parts of historic Asia, and either cut off or cause the abandonment of the largest and most important trade caravan routes that are operated to-day. Fourth. The London, Bombay & Hong Kong- Railway is one of the boldest projects now being considered. This road, as projected, starts from London, passes through a tunnel under the Straits of Dover, south through France and Spain to the Strait of Gibraltar, under which the projected road goes into Africa. This road now turns to the east, passes through Algeria, Tripoli, Tunis, and Egypt, crosses the Suez Canal into Asia, crosses the Arabian desert and forms a junction with the Euphrates Valley Railroad near Bassorah. The road now runs through Persia and Beloochis- tan, skirting the Arabian sea to Bombay, and crosses India to Calcutta. The road turns up through Burmah, enters China through a pass in COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 31 St. Louis Union Depot. the Himalaya mountains, and runs through south- east China to the coast. The road is projected to reach the coast in the vicinity of Hong Kong. This road as projected passes through the ruins of ancient Carthage, over ground traversed by Alexander's conquering army, passes by ancient Babylon, through the supposed site of Eden's Garden, and across the land sacred to the memory of all the Oriental nations of antiquity. Fifth. The Pan-American Railway. To us this is the most important of the five named, and in length will almost equal the mileage of both the Cape to Cairo and Trans-Siberian railroads. The Pan-American Congress of 1889 arranged for a commission to investigate the feasibility of an intercontinental railway. Eleven countries are represented in this commission, which has now completed the survey. The survey was di- vided into the following divisions: 1st section — New York city to Laredo, Texas — 2094 miles. 2d section — Laredo through Mexico to Agulta, Guatemala — 1644 miles. 3d section — Agulta to Rio Golfito, Colombia — 1043 miles. 4th section — Rio Golfito to Buenos Ayres, Ar- gentine Republic — 5447 miles. Fifty-four hundred and fifty miles of this road will have to be constructed. Traversing the cof- fee lands of Central America, passing through the great corn-fields of Colombia, the mining re- gions of Ecuador and Peru, and giving quick transportation to Argentine's cattle and wheat, the road will prove a boon to South America and a source of profit to its owners. Thus the agricul- tural resources of South America will be devel- oped as never before, and its soil, adapted to the growth of any crop, will be advantageously worked by this great transporting agency. A great American has said : " This is an age of transportation. Transportation underlies ma- terial prosperity in every department of com- 32 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. merce. Without transportation, commerce would be impossible. Those states and nations are rich, powerful and enlightened whose transportation facilities are best and most extended." We see the importance of these great railroad projects that have taken definite shape, and all will probably be completed within the present decade. These railroads will mark the greatest tri- umphs of the steam railroad vet known, and will open up vast areas to the developing agencies of modern commerce. aUESTION SUMMARY. 1. Who built the first locomotive? 2. Where and when was the first tramway built in Eng- land ? 3. What is a tramway ? 4. When and where was the first railway in America ? 5. What was the first railway authorized to do a gen- eral transportation business ? 6. Name the termini of this railroad to-day. 7. What commercial cities are connected by this rail- road? 8. What can you say of the railroad as a factor in com- merce ? 9. Discuss weight of locomotives of modern railroads. 10. What can you say of hauling capacity or power of locomotives ? 11. Upon what does the life of a locomotive depend ? 12. Name the different kinds of cars used in passenger service, with some facts about each. 13. Discuss cars in the freight service. 14. What is the modern steel car, and what can you say of its use ? 15. What can you say of the auditing department of a railroad system ? 16. What do we mean by the auditing department? 17. Name ten trunk lines of the United States, with termini of each. 18. What cities of commercial importance do each con- nect ? 19. Why is the N. Y. Central Railroad so important commercially ? 20. Compare time in transit from New York to Buffalo in 1800 and in 1900. 21. In 1800 had any one crossed the American conti- nent? .4ns., No. 22. Take train at Boston and reach Pacific coast by six different routes, naming important commercial centers passed through, railways traveled over, and the Pacific port reached. 23. Discuss the AVhite Pass & Yukon Railroad. 24. Tell about the Cascade tunnel, on the Great North- ern Railroad. 25. What incident shows the rebuilding and construc- tive power of railroads ? 26. Where is one of the greatest railway stations in the world, and what can you say of it ? 27. Name the continents in order of railway mileage. 28. The United States in 1900 had 190,000 miles of rail- way ; what proportion was that of th§ world's mileage ? 29. What are the ranking railway countries of South America ? 30. What are the ranking railway countries of Europe? 31. What are the ranking railway countries of Asia? 32. Name five transcontinental railroads, and locate each. 33. Indicate six different railway routes from Boston to the Pacific coast. 34. Name the important commercial centers passed through, important rivers and mountains crossed, and the Pacific port reached by each route. 35. Can you name any large railway tunnels besides the Cascade tunnel? Ans., St. Gothard and Simplon tunnels, in the Alps, of Europe ; Hoosac tunnel, in Mas- sachusetts; Alpine tunnel, in Colorado; and Port Huron tunnel, under Detroit river. 36. Learn the following commercial terms : B. & A. R. R. — Boston & Albany Railroad. Erie Route — Chicago & Erie Railroad. M. C. R. R. — Michigan Central Railroad. Lake Shore Route — Lake Shore & Michigan South- ern Railroad. N. Y. C. R. R.— New York Central Railroad. B. & O.— Baltimore & Ohio Railroad. C. & N. — Chicago & Northwestern Railroad. C. B. & Q. — Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad. C. M. & St. P. R. R.— Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railroad. Rock Island Route — Chicago, Rock Island & Pa- cific Railroad. N. P. R. R. — Northern Pacific Railroad. G. N. R. R. — Great Nortliern Railroad. U. P. R. R. — Union Pacific Railroad. Maple Leaf — Chicago & Great Western Railroad. C. & A. R. R.— Chicago & Alton Railroad. A. T. & S. F., or Santa Fe Route— Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad. Mo. Pac. R. R. — Missouri Pacific Railroad. I. C. Route — Illinois Central Railroad. L. & N, Route —Louisville & Nashville Railroad. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 33 M. & O.— Mobile & Ohio Railroad. Queen & Orescent — Cincinnati, New Orleans & Texas Pacific Railroad. N. & W. R. R.— Norfolk & Western Railroad. C. & O. R. R.- Chesapeake & Ohio Railroad. S. R. — Southern Railway. A. C. L.— Atlantic Coast Line Railroad. S. A. L.— Seaboard Air Line Railroad. Plant Route— Plant System of Railways. M. K. & T., or "Katy" Route— Missouri, Kansas & Texas Railroad. 37. What railroad now has a locomotive 70 feet long, 16 feet high, that weighs 260,000 pounds, and can haul a train carrying the harvest from 5000 acres of wheat? ytns., Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe. CHAPTER V. Remarkable Railway Crossing at Newcastle, England — 1135 Trains V Daily. Important Aids to Commerce. 1. The Postal Service. The fast mail of to-daj is one of the great aids to domestic commerce. The modern postal system is supposed to have had its origin in Great Britain, 600 years ago. Letters were carried at regular intervals on des- ignated routes, the cost of transportation being paid by the one receiving the mail matter. All the mail of that early day was carried by footmen. When the American colonies were established, the English settlers brought their custom of mail transmission with them. Records in Massachu- setts show a definite system of mail transmission and delivery in its provinces as early as 1639. Virginia, by colonial law, provided for a planta- tion post in 1657. A monthly post between Boston and N^ew York was established in 1672. Most of the coast colonies were reached by regular post before the close of the seventeenth century. Regular post-roads and uniform rates were es- tablished by Dr. Franklin, whom the British Crown appointed Postmaster-General in 1753. He improved the overland mail, and arranged for the ocean mail to be carried only on the swift- est sailing vessels plying between Europe and America. He aided navigators to plat new routes across the Atlantic, that should either take ad- vantage of the winds or lessen the distance. In this way the time for a passage to the home-land was shortened several days, increasing the utility of the mail service. One of the early acts of Congress was an act establishing a schedule for lett;er postage. The cost of transmission was based on the distance to be carried. To-day the transmission depends upon the weight and character of the mail transmitted. The advent of the railway in the Eastern States introduced a new messenger for our mail service, and settlements in the West sent the " Pony Ex- press " to those plains and mountains in the path of advancing civilization. The organizing of postoffices and marking out post-roads in new settlements has been a duty the Postal Department has always been prompt to perform. When the gold excitement called gold- seekers to the Pacific coast, and San Francisco became a city of thousands almost immediately,, the Government Postal Department was found prompt in the delivery of its Eastern mail. Across the plains and over the mountains of our Great West were established post-roads that gave a re- liable mail service a generation before the tele- graph and the railroad crossed the continent. The 34 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. mail carrier was a fearless, swift rider, supplied with fresh ponies at regular stations and relieved hy another carrier at division points. This " Pony Express " was established at great cost, and the carriers who served the public were frequently beset by highwaymen, chased by In- dians, and fatigued or benumbed by inclement weather. These efficient messengers took pride in transmitting the mail across their di\nsions in as quick time as running horses could make. The stage-coach in many places served not only to convey passengers but also the United States mails. The establishment of the railway post- office in 1804 gradually supplanted the footman, pony express, and stage-coach. To-day, scarcely a railroad can be found that is not also a post-road for the United States. The railway mail clerks gain their position by examinations that determine their fitness for the work. To-day there are over 8000 employes in this branch of the system, handling upwards of thirteen million pieces of mail annually. The delivery system of the department was established in 1863 for the larger commercial centers, and for the express purpose of facilitating business. To-day the delivery system numbers 14,000 car- riers, who deliver the mail at the residence or store from two to eight times a day in all commercial centers. Another important branch is the money-order division, which Postmaster-General Smith declares to be the greatest of international clearing-houses. Through this division money can be sent to all parts of the commercial world. Over 200 million dollars is annually sent through this department, with a loss of less than fifty dollars a year by fraud. In 18Y4 the leading commercial nations established the Postal Union, which fixed uniform rates and conditions of transmission of mails from one country to another. The Superintendent of Foreign Mails for the United States sends the mails only on the fastest steamers to foreign parts. A list of the designated steamers is sent to each postoffice in the nation on railway connections, each month. In case a letter fails in delivery and the sender's name is not known, it is then sent to the Dead Letter Office, at Washington, D. G., where it is opened, returned to writer of same, or for- warded to the one whom the letter indicates that it should be sent to. This office is reported to re- ceive 20,000 " misdirected, unaddressed or un- claimed " letters daily, and to return to senders one million dollars' worth of drafts, stamps, and commercial paper annually. The Postal Auditing Office employs 500 clerks, and is declared to be the largest accounting office in the world. Here the quarterly reports of the nearly 80,000 postoffices of our nation are exam- ined. The accounts now exceed 500 million dol- lars annually. The entire Postoffice Department through its 200,000 employes handles nearly six and one-quarter billion pieces of mail. Post- master-General Smith declares : " The Postal es- tablishment of the United States is the greatest business concern in the world. It handles more pieces, employs more men, spends more money, brings in more revenue, uses more agencies, reaches more homes, involves more interests, than any other human organization, public or private. The postal service of England, France and Germany includes the telegraph, and yet the postal business in this country surpasses both post and telegraph in any of these lands." 2. The Telegraph. Probably we could scarcely name a greater aid to commerce than the telegraph, which annihi- lates space and is an instantaneous messenger. The business world owes its debt of gratitude to the ability, energy and persistency of Professor S. F. B. Morse, who gave the lightning a language and business this quick errand-boy. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 35 From early boyhood Samuel Morse was es- pecially interested in electricity, and on entering Yale he carried on experiments in electricity in Professor Day's laboratory under the latter's di- rection. Being both a sculptor and a painter, Professor Morse was given the chair of Fine Arts in the University of the City of New York, in 1835. He continued to carry on experiments in his favorite science in his laboratory. While returning in a packet-ship from a Euro- pean trip in 1832, Professor Morse invented his instrument for talking by electricity. Although in mid-ocean, it worked perfectly. In his New York laboratory he made a telegraph line one- half mile long, in 1835. Transmission and regis- tration were perfect. Here he devised his dash alphabet, and made it practical on his laboratory line. Professor Morse in 1837 applied to Congress for aid to build a telegraph line from Washington to Baltimore. Not receiving encouragement from this source, he converted all his property into money, and used it in perfecting his instruments and pushing his enterprise. With little or no encouragement from the business world, unable to interest Congress, reduced to such abject pov- erty that he sometimes had but one meal a day, this inventor, whose telegraph has been the great- est modern agent of commerce, went through a struggle that would have crushed a less persist- ent man. A bill passed Congress in March, 1843, ap- propriating $30,000 for the purpose of " con- structing a line of electric magnetic telegraph " from the capitol at Washington to Baltimore. Professor Morse was given direction of the work, and on May 24, 1844, he told Miss Ells- worth, daughter of the Commissioner of Patents, he was ready for the message he had promised her the privilege of dictating. This first message sent over the wires was, " What hath God wrought ? " In 1847 the telegraph was introduced into Ger- many, and from there throughout the Eastern Continent. The delay in transmitting telegrams from one country to another, and the different scale of rates, led to the establishment of an In- ternational Bureau of Telegraphs in 1865, This Bureau of the world's telegraphs is lo- cated at Berne, Switzerland, and has established a uniform schedule of rates, made possible more rapid transmission of international messages, and so systematized the work of the telegraph that from any telegraph office a message can be sent to any other telegraph office in the world. Prior to the formation of the Bureau the sender of an international message could not know the cost of the telegram to point of destination, and an ap- palling list of charges in many different kinds of money often greeted the receiver at the other end. The Bureau has made the money unit the franc, and has codified the charges so that the sender may now know the exact cost of a telegram from one office to any other telegraph office in the busi- ness world. The Sub-marine Cable. In 1795 a Spaniard named Salva discussed submarine telegraphy before the Barcelona Acad- emy of Sciences. He then presented a plan and recommended submarine connection between Bar- celona and Majorca, an island off the mainland. Dr. O'Shaughnessy, director of the East India Telegraph, laid insulated wires under the Hugli river in 1839, and transmitted telegraphic sig- nals through them. The practicability of sub- marine telegraphy was successfully proven by Professor Morse with his copper wire cable from Castle Garden to Governor's Island, New York harbor, in 1842. The next year he suggested that a cable be laid connecting the United States and Europe. In 1845 Ezra Cornell laid twelve miles of submarine telegraph from New York city to Fort Lee. Cotton was used as an insulator, and 36 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY, the whole was inclosed in a lead pipe. The cable was destroyed by the ice a few months after it was laid, but until its destruction it worked perfectly. A company of English and French laid a cable across the English channel in 1851. This cable was twenty-five miles long, and was laid in water averaging 120 feet deep. Two years afterward, England, Ireland, Scotland and the Continent of Europe were connected by submarine telegraph. There were six cables laid, the longest one being 100 miles, and all worked successfully. The first attempt to lay a cable across the At- lantic ocean was made by Cyrus W. Field, in 1857. It was planned to, lay the cable from New- foundland to Valentia, Ireland, a distance of 2500 miles. After laying some 250 miles of the cable from the Valentia end, the wires broke, and the work had to be abandoned. The next year a new cable was made, and successfully laid. It is re- ported that one message sent across the ocean on this cable saved the business world $250,000. After eighteen days the cable ceased to work. In 1865 Mr. Field made another attempt to lay the cable. The largest vessel then known, the Great Eastern, was used in laying this cable. It started from "Valentia, Ireland, carrying 2500 miles of cable. When a thousand miles at sea the cable parted, in water fully 11,000 feet deep. Although nine days were spent in searching for the lost cable, it could not be found. Undaunted and with tireless devotion to his purpose, Mr. Field organized a new company, with a capital of $3,- 000,000, to make a new cable. This cable consisted of seven copper wires surrounded by a number of coatings of gutta-percha and water-proof coverings. These were protected by ten Bessemer steel wires. Each of these steel wires was wound with pitch- soaked hemp. The shore ends were further pro- tected by thirty-six iron wires wound spirally around the cable, and covered with wrappings of tarred hemp. After the new cable was completed it was stored in the Great Eastern and taken to Valentia. The steamer began paying out the cable July 13, 1866, and successfully completed its task at Newfoundland July 27th. As the United States was connected with Newfoundland by cable, our nation at once entered into telegraphic com- munication with Europe, which proved permanent. The Great Eastern returned to search for the parted cable of the previous year, and after eighteen days' search, grappled the cable, brought it on board, and when it was found to be in good working condition the broken end was spliced, and on September 8th the Newfoundland end was successfully landed at Trinity Bay. The rate of speed over these cables at first was an average of eight words per minute, but was in- creased to fifteen words per minute. In 1869 the French laid a cable from Brest to Nova Scotia, and the British Indian Submarine Telegraph Company completed a line from Suez to Bombay. Although it is less than a half-century since Cyrus W. Field laid the first ocean cable, the wires have crossed every ocean save the Pacific. The total number of submarine telegraphs is given as 1500. The aggregate mileage is seven times the length of the equator, and the messages number upward of six million annually. England has projected a cable from Victoria, British Columbia, to Sidney, Australia ; while the United States contemplates the laying of a cable from San Francisco to Manila, via Honolulu, Wake Island, and Guam. These projected cables will be the longest single cables yet made. In June, 1897, occurred Queen Victoria's Jubi- lee Celebration, marking the Queen's sixty years' prosperous reign. One feature of the jubilee was a great procession, in which every province of the em- pire was represented. Before leaving the palace. Queen Victoria sent this message to every British colony : " From my heart I thank my beloved people. May God bless them. — Victoria R. I." Before the Queen's carriage in that procession COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 37 reached London Bridge, a reply to this telegram had been received from Canada, Australia, Cape Colony, India, and more than thirty other points. This shows the speed with which news can be carried by the telegraph. It enables the press to gather up the happenings of the day from all parts of the earth and present them at our breakfast- tables the next morning. When President McKinley was shot in Buffalo, September 6, 1901, the shot w^as known around the slobe before the swiftest train out of Buffalo reached ^ew York city. The most impressive silent testimony to the greatness and goodness of a man was given on the day the late President William McKinley's body was placed in the tomb, September 14, 1901. At the hour of the funeral services at Canton, Ohio, all business of the United States by cable, telegraph, railroad and steamer lines ceased. Across the prairies, in the moun- tains, on the plains, were thousands of motionless trains, the vessels of our rivers and coasts moved not a wheel, while operators checked the hitherto ceaseless throb of the electric telegraph as the busi- ness world gave its five-minute tribute to the mar- tyred President. Every city of commercial importance has its money-order telegraph office, through which, in a few hours, an order for money can be wired to any other commercial city in the business world. Thus a traveler having money on deposit in San Fran- cisco, who is now traveling in Russia, can " wire " his banker for $300, and the banker in San Fran- cisco, through the telegraph, sends the Russian office an order for the money, so the traveler may have it to use the same day he calls for it. The sum advanced by the Russian telegraph office is sent from the San Francisco office by earliest steamer. The reasonable fee charged for this ac- commodation has made the telegraph a great me- dium of exchange in the financial world. The completion of the projected American cable across the Pacific will be of great service to our nation, shortening the distance a telegram must travel from Washington to Manila by many thou- sand miles. The route of a telegram from Wash- ington to Manila by the two routes is here given: Washington to New York, by land ; New York to Valentia, by cable; Valentia to Brighton, Eng- land, cable and land ; Brighton to Havre, by cable ; Havre to Marseilles, by land ; Marseilles to Alex- andria, by cable ; Alexandria to Suez, by land ; Suez to Aden, by cable ; Aden to Bombay, by cable ; Bombay to Madris, by land ; Madris to Singapore, by cable; Singapore to Saigon, by cable; Saigon to Hong Kong, by cable; Hong Kong to Bolinao (P. I.), by cable; Bolinao to Manila, by land. The total distance being 14,000 miles. Second route : Washington to San Francisco, by land ; San Francisco to Honolulu, by cable ; Hon- olulu to Wake Island, by cable; Wake Island to Guam, by cable ; Guam^ to Manila, by cable and land. The total distance is 9980 miles. With a shortened water route from our eastern shores and European ports to West Asiatic and Australian ports and commercial cities united by cable across the Pacific, the number and capacity of Pacific steamers will be . multiplied and its .commerce will soon rival Atlantic commerce. From a speed of three to eight words per minute the cable has been improved so that to-day the business man in America sends his message to the business man in Europe at an average speed of fifty words per minute. The rate has been so re- duced that the New York merchant can talk to his London agent at 25 cents per word and instruct his Manila representative at $2.50 per word. While A. T. Stewart waited six months for an answer to his business correspondence in East- Indian island commerce fifty years ago, John Wan- amaker, in the same New York house, can to-day transact business with Bombay, Calcutta and Sing- apore by telegraph within six hours. We can see, then, that the electric telegraph, land and submarine, is an indispensable agent of 38 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. "Carpet-Bag Express." news and commerce to-daj. Every hour its wires flash dispatches over the mountains and under the seas that give the press its international news, the business man the world's markets, and make all people of the earth neighbors to one another. 3. The Telephone. The most interesting exhibit at the Centennial Exhibition was the telephone. This apparatus was the invention of Alexander Graham Bell, son of a distinguished educator of Scotland (Professor A. M. Bell). Mr. Bell's father was the author of a system of instruction called " Bell's visible speech." This system proved helpful in teaching deaf-mutes to speak as well as in overcoming impediments in speech. Alexander had thoroughly mastered his father's system, and when he was called to the chair of vocal physiology in Boston Uni- versity in 1871 he began experimenting with an apparatus to aid conversation by means of an electric wire attached to a diaphragm at either end. In 1875 he perfected an instru- ment that successfully stood his tests and carried on conversations at Salem as well as at Boston. To-day the telephone is an indispensable factor in the business world. A merchant in Chicago desires a conference with a dealer in St. Louis. Formerly he would be at the ex- pense of traveling to St. Louis, where now he is saved both time and expense and given a conference with the St. Louis dealer by tele- phone. The telephone business of the United States alone requires over 600,000 miles of tele- phone lines, which is constantly being in- creased. The original plan has been im- proved upon, until now one can talk to a friend 1500 miles away. The telephone brings buyer and seller " ear to ear " if not " face to face." 4. The Express. Mr. W. F. Harnden, in February, 1839, planned to make a business trip from Boston to New York. A book-dealer and some Boston merchants desired him to transact some business for them, and so, when he left Boston, March 4th, Mr. Harnden took their orders and bundles in his carpet-bag (the "grip" of those days) with his own bundles. He journeyed via the Boston & Providence Railroad and Long Island Sound steamer to Xew York. His safe delivery of the parcels and transaction of the New York business for his neighbors gave such satisfaction in Boston that Mr. Harnden resolved to similarly make four trips per week for his Boston friends from Boston to New York, charging a nominal sum for his COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 39 carpet-bag delivery and transaction of business in the nation's metropolis. He entered into con- tract with the railroad and steamer line that took him on his first trip, agreeing, for transportation of himself and his "Carpet-Bag Express," to share with them the profits of the business. Thus originated the Express system of this country, now so indispensable to both buyers and sellers. While European countries have a " parcels post" system, similar to the baggage system of our railways, it is not the aid to commerce that the express system has proven to be. This sys- tem was Yankee in origin, and was established for the sole purpose of insuring safe and prompt delivery of parcels or merchandise of any kind. Mr. Harnden's carpet-bag, in which the express business was bom, is preserved in the Boston office of the Adams Express Company, as an historic souvenir. The first express west of Buffalo was established by Henry Wells, in 1845. In 1849 a California express line was established by Adams & Com- pany. Wells, Eargo & Company was established in 1852. Its lines of express now reach all the principal cities of the United States, Mexico, Can- ada, and British Columbia, and forward express to "• London, Paris, Hamburg, and all parts of Eu- rope, South America, China, Australia, and Japan." It now carries any valuable or mer- chandise, from a diamond ring to an elephant. Its 42,670 miles of service is divided as follows: 35,791 miles of railway routes. 4763 miles of ocean steamer routes.. 1305 miles of stage routes. 811 miles of inland steamer routes. Every night it sends a solid express train out of Jersey City via the Erie Route of eight to ten express cars. At Chicago the cars of express for the Pacific coast are transferred to the Santa Fe Route, and run into San Francisco four and one- half days from time of starting. Saturday night after business hours a San Francisco merchant can, by telegraph, purchase a bill of merchandise in New York city, and relj upon the express getting the merchandise to him in time for the next Saturday's trade. The express company just described illustrates the work of the system so efficiently performed by fully a score of leading lines that have grown into a national business within the last fifty years. Every line of railroad and every steamer route has an operating express company, whose business is entirely separate from the traffic of the transporta- tion line. The express company of to-day enters into cor^tract with the transportation line and pays a definite per cent, of its business over the route for the exclusive privilege of doing that business. It has a place of business on every passenger train or boat on the line. Although express and bag- gage may be carried in the same car, the express messenger cannot take baggage, and the baggage- master will not take unchecked baggage, which must be sent by express or consigned to the freight department of the transportation line. Most of the transcontinental express lines have adopted an interchangeable money-order system. For the same rate charged for a postal money order, an express money order can be obtained. The postal order is payable at one specified post- office, but the express order is payable at any ex- press office. This enables a number of business men to use the same order with the cost of one ex- change, since it is both negotiable and payable at almost any express office in the nation. The express has been a useful factor in in- creasing the vegetable and fruit business of the country. As early vegetables and fruit for market are sent largely by express, the express companies have almost universally adopted the " consignment plan." Any producer along the line who has fruit or vegetables and fails himself to find a buyer, can consign the merchandise to the express agent at any point on the line. This agent will place the fruit or vegetables 40 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. sent liim upon the market as soon as received, collect from sales, and send the cash returns to the producer. The express companies now sell millions of dollars' worth of perishable merchan- dise annually for their customers by the " con- signment" plan. Another accommodating feature of the express business is the " collecting system." If a person desires rent, an overdue bill or note, or any money obligation, settled in any town containing an ex- press office, he -can collect it through the express agent. The person desiring the collection gives the express agent in his city an order for the col- lection. This order is telegraphed to the city named in the order. The express office at that point sends its agent to make a personal demand for the money, showing the telegraphed instruc- tions for the same. If the money is collected it is sent by earliest express, and the party ordering the collection pays expressage on the money and a per cent, for collection. If payment is refused, the party ordering the collection is notified by the express agent in his city, and is simply asked to pay the cost of the telegrams. A large business for the express has grown up under the "Collection on Delivery" (C. O. D.) plan. A shipper selling goods to a stranger, or buyers desiring to examine goods sent on approval, use the C. O. D. system of express. The shipper marks the amount to be collected, and while the buyer has the right to examine the merchandise, the amount named by the shipper must be paid be- fore the goods can be taken. The express company expresses the collections to the shipper. The ex- press messenger supplements telephone, telegraph and transportation line, rendering the service of each more effective in the world of commerce, while he with " speed, security, and economy," like Mr. Ilarnden, does business for his neighbors. His business during the last five years in the United States alone has given him three-quarters of a billion-dollar bank check each year. The following express companies are listed in the official Railway Guide of the United States, Canada, Mexico, and Cuba: Name, Commercial Abbreviation. Adams Ad. American Am. Canadian Can. Denver & Rio Grande D. & R. G. Dominion Dom. Great Northern G. N. Hidalgo Hid. Inter-Oceanic Int. Long Island L. I. Maritime Mar. Merchants Mer. Mexican National Mex. Nat. National Nat. New York and Boston Dispatch N. Y. & B. D. Northern Pacific N. P. Pacific Pac. Southern Sth. United States U.S. Wells, Fargo & Company W. F. West Jersey W.J. Western West. More than 200 short-line or " local " companies share with the above-named companies the great express business of our domestic commerce. QUESTION SUMMARY. 1. Where did the postal system originate ? How many centuries ago ? 2. Explain the origin of the American colonial post system, 3. When was the New York and Boston post estab- lished ? 4. How often was mail carried on this route? 5. What can you say of mail transmission between Bos- ton and New York to-day ? 6. Who established regular post-roads and made uni- form postal rates in the colonies ? 7. What means did he adopt to quicken ocean mails ? 8. What determined the cost of mail transmission then ? 9. Upon what does it now depend ? 10. Describe the " Pony Express." 11. How did the stage-coach become a factor in mail transmission ? 12. Explain the free-delivery system. 13. When was this system established ? 14. How many persons are now employed in the free- delivery division of the Postoffice Department of our na- tion? 15. Explain the postoffice money-order system. 16. What shows the value of this service ? COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 41 17. What is a clearing-house? ^ns., A clearing-house is a bank of banks. A place where representatives of all th^banks of a commercial center meet daily and "clear" th^r bank's account with every other bank in the asso- ciation or clearing-house. 18. When was the Postal Union established, and what are its advantages to commerce ? 19. How does our Superintendent of Foreign Mails quicken foreign mail transmission ? 20. Explain the work of the "Dead Letter" Office. 21. Describe the work of the Auditing Department of the postoffice. 22. Why is the Postal Department considered an im- portant factor of commerce ? 23. Compare our postal service with England, France, and Grermany. 24. Who was Prof. S. F. B. Morse, and what did he do for commerce ? 25. Why did he not bring out his invention before 1844? 26. What was the first message ? By whom dictated ? 27. Between what two cities was the first telegraph line established ? 28. When was the telegraph introduced into Europe? 29. Name the continents in the order of their telegraph lines. Jn«., North America, Europe, Asia, South America, Africa, Australia. 30. When was a bureau of the world's telegraphs estab- lished? 31. Where are the headquarters of this bureau? 32. Why located there? Ans., Nearest the center of commerce. 33. Discuss the work of this bureau. 34. Who first discussed submarine telegraphy? When and where ? 35. Who proved the practicability of submarine teleg- raphy ? How ? 36. Discuss the work of Ezra Cornell. 37. What cables were laid in 1851 and 1853? 38. Who attempted to lay an ocean cable in 1857? 39. Why did he not succeed ? 40. Between what points did Mr. Field seek to lay the cable ? 41. What was the result of his second attempt ? 42. Describe Mr. Field's third attempt to lay a cable. 43. When was permanent telegraphic communication established between Europe and America? 44. Describe the construction of this cable of 1866. 45. What was the rate of speed over the cable when first laid ? What is the present rate of speed ? 46. What incident shows the rapidity of telegraphic news? 47. When and to whom did the telegraph, steamboat and railway service give a five-minute tribute? Describe the incident. 48. Explain the system of sending money by telegraph. 49. Trace a cablegram from Washington to Manila by the present route. What is the total distance? 50. Trace a .telegram from Washington to Manila by the projected route. What is the total distance? 51. Show by illustration the value of the telegraph to a United States merchant doing foreign business. 52. What was the origin of the telephone ? 53. Where and when was the first telephone line ? 54. Illustrate the value of the telephone to the business man. 55. Describe the "Carpet-Bag Express." 56. When was the first express line across the American continent established ? 57. How was express transported on this line at first? Ans., By rail to the Mississippi river and by pony express and the stage-coach from there to the Pacific coast. 58. What is meant by an express train? Illustrate. 59. Explain the interchangeable express money-order system. 60. What is the "consignment" plan of the express system ? 61. Illustrate the " collecting " system of the express ; established for what purpose ? 62. What is meant by C. O. D.? 63. What articles can be sent by telegraph ? 64. Why is the express described as " Yankee" in both origin and growth ? 65. What do you say is the value of the express to com- merce? 66. Name ten important express companies. Locate line of operation. 67. Enumerate the aids to commerce, given in this chapter, as you think they rank in value. Give reasons for your answer. 68. What express company commemorated its fiftieth anniversary by giving every person in its employ a silver medal, February, 1902? Ans., Wells, Fargo & Co. 69. What foreign cities are connected with our nation's express business? Ans., Those ports having steamer connection with our nation's commercial cities. 70. What is the approximate amount of our nation's express business per annum? 42 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. CHAPTEK VI. Building a Modern Steamer. The preceding chapters have told us how steam has facilitated rapid transit on land, and we now will learn how it has also made it possible for stately palaces to cross limitless wastes of water with speed and ease that seem almost incredible. Toward the close of the eighteenth century, de- mand for quicker water travel began to be ex- pressed, and when James Watt proved that steam could be used as a motive power, a number of men began to experiment with steam as a means of propelling boats. Samuel Morey built a steam- boat on the Connecticut river; James Runisey built one for the Potomac; John Fitch, one for the Delaware; William Longstreet, one for tlie Savannah river; John Stevens, one for the Hud- son; and Oliver Evans experimented at Phila- delphia. One tried to make a steam engine ply the oars; another pumped water in at the bow and out at the stern, with steam power; another had a wheel at the stern; and still another had a wheel on each side. Each one worked independ- ently of the other, and succeeded in running his boat against the current of the river ; and so each one claimed to have invented a steamboat. These men were without money ; wealthy men could not be interested in such follies, and the public cared nothing for such " silly inventions." These were all made and forgotten before the nineteenth cen- tury was ushered in. Just as James Watt was beginning his study of the steam engine, a Yankee boy was born in the town of Little Britain, Pennsylvania, who, later, revolutionized the river, lake, and ocean carrying trade, increasing cargo and lessening time of transportation. He painted portraits and land- scapes with ease and rare skill, and at twenty-two West took him to London. Here he heard of Watt's work, and turned his attention wholly to mechanics. He found patrons in the Duke of Bridgewater and Earl of Stanhope, and was en- couraged to perfect several useful inventions. In 1795 he was a civil engineer. In 1796 he vis- ited Paris on invitation of the United States minister. Here, in 1803, he perfected and suc- cessfully launched a small steamboat on the Seine, I^ot satisfied with the way the French received the steamboat, Kobert Fulton returned to the United States in 1806, and perfected and launched on the Hudson his " Clermont." This boat was a side- paddle steamboat, 130 feet long, with wheels 15 feet in diameter and 4 feet wide. The trial trip was made August 7th, 1807, from New York to Albany. The sailing vessels made the trip in four days, a distance of 150 miles. Fulton made the trip with the Clermont in 32 hours. Thus Fulton, while not the first to apply steam to navi- gation, was the first to make a successful and prac- tical demonstration of the problem, and this first long steamboat trip turned indifference to enthu- siasm and capital was invested in steamboats. Thus a new and permanent element of water transportation sprang into being. A river steamer was launched at Pittsburg in 1811, and sent down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers to New Orleans. A lake steamer to run from Buffalo to Detroit was launched in 1814. The first steamer to cross the ocean was the Sa- vannah, in 1819. This steamer crossed the ocean in twenty-five days, using pitch-pine for fuel. Al- though it advertised for passengers, no one ap- plied for transportation. Finally, anthracite coal was found, improve- ments in machinery were made, space for freight was increased, and the time of crossing the At- lantic lessened. In 1840 a comjjany was organ- ized to furnish a freight and passenger line of steamers between America and Europe. This was the Cunard line, the pioneer steamer line of the ocean. Thus dawned the day of steam navigation, when Neptune is overcome, Eolus is baffled, and 'COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 43 The Steamship "Savannah," the deep made the pathway and medium of tran- sit for a mighty and ever-increasing commerce. The description^ of an ocean steamer may prove helpful here, as the vast majority of the American school children live inland. We will describe one of the American liners, which was christened " St. Louis," by Mrs. Cleveland, as it glided down the soaped ways in William Cramps's shipyard, in 1894. This vessel was used by our Government as an auxiliary cruiser in the war with Spain, 1898, and therefore its description will be of special interest. When a ship is to be constructed, very careful construction drawings are made, showing ground plan, elevation, and lateral view of same — three carefully prepared drawings — indicating dimensions of every piece to be used in construc- tion. This set of construction drawings, if a])- proved, is now taken to the mold-loft of the shipyard, and on an immense floor-blackboard is drawn, at full size, every plate, rib and girder just as it is to be, and its relative position accurately shown. This must be carefully checked up and verified, which process is called " fairing the ship." The next step is to make the " scrive-board," a carefully prepared, full-sized chart of the ship, stamped or grooved into the wood, forming the pattern for every one of the infinite number of pieces used in the building of the ship. With the scrive-board before them, the ship's mechanics can 44 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Launching of the Steamship "St. Louis." now begin the construction work. First, long pliable bars of steel issue at white heat from fur- naces. The mechanics with pincers and tongs seize these bars, and, guided by the lines on the scrive-board, fashion the ribs. To get the proper curve, the skilled mechanics do their work on a great metal floor, with countless thousands of per- forations. Pegs, or, as the seamen call them, " dogs," are inserted in these holes, and assist in bending the bars so that, by proper hammering, the exact shape may be obtained. Thus with great care and labor the infinite number of ribs, rib- bands and cross-plates, after months of continuous work, are fashioned into the ship's skeleton. Then this skeleton is covered with the steel plates, cut, curved, smoothed, grooved and trimmed to such a nicety that they can be fitted with exactness. When riveted in place, decks and bulkheads are built, and the vessel is ready for its third epoch — launching. Six thousand tons of the best American steel was utilized in fashioning the great hull of the St. Louis. The launching you have all read about, and fully understand with what pride the ship- builder rides down the soaped ways and sees his creation take its first great plunge, to float off triumphantly. But our ship is not complete. Over 400 work- men — painters, plumbers, cabinetmakers, uphol- sterers, electricians, and decorators — work ener- getically for nearly a year after the launching. Boiler- and engine-makers are also at work, and when all is ready the ship's engines and boilers are lifted into the hull and put in place. This ship, the St. Louis, is given ten boilers, with more than thirteen miles of tubing, and two mighty engines, COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 46 each working six cylinders at a pressure of 200 pounds per square inch, giving an energy equiva- lent to the strength of 20,000 horses or 117,000 Goliaths. Besides these giants, fifty or more lesser engines are used for ventilating, refrigerating, hoisting, lighting, pumping, and other purposes that assist in operating the vessel. To the rear of the engines are placed immense steel trusses, fixed iu a solid structure of cast steel weighing twenty-six tons. These support the great twin screws thi.l: are to propel the vessel. Xow let us stand on the upper deck and see if we can comprehend the magnitude of the steamer. The finest cathedral in England is St. Paul's, Lon- don, and it is no doubt the largest one in the king- dom. If our vessel be placed in a vertical position upon its stern, and we remain r.t the bow, we shall he 189 feet above the cathedral's great dome. If placed by Victoria Tower, House of Parliament, the bow would be 214 feet higher in the air than the tower's topmost point. Placed by the side of our own Washington's monument, we could place our hands on top of the aluminum cap, as the bow would lack but one foot of being as high as the top of this, the highest monument on the Ameri- can continent. Now let us resume the horizontal plane again, as these extreme heights make one dizzy, unless he is a sailor or a skyscraper-builder. We will go to St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York, the largest cathedral in our nation, the pride of all Ameri- cans who appreciate architectural beauty and ad- mire noble projDortions, and we find that although this cathedral would reach almost entirely across a city block or square, yet the St. Louis would ex- tend 248 feet, beyond thir, length. We look do^^'Tl from the deck on which we stand, and we see that the water is forty feet below us. 46 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. First-Cabin Dining-Room, Steamship "St. Louis." The vessel has five decks ; that is, it is five stories high, making it much higher than most school- houses in our nation. As we walk down the promenade deck we pass by the enormous smoke- stacks, each as large as a railway tunnel. Going to the stern we see the rudder, the area of one side of which is more than 250 square feet. With such a helm worked by steam, a comparatively quick turn is easily accomplished. On the hurricane deck a powerful search-light is placed ; and in and out over the vessel are placed more incandescent lights than are used in a well- lighted city of 8000 people. But we have not time to go over the steamer in detail, although as we pass by the first-cabin library, with its luxurious furnishings, easy-chairs, and handsome l>ook-cases containing 1000 volumes of the world's best literature, we pause to admire its equipment. We now pass through the grand dining-room or saloon, the pride of the ship, and the product of America's best decorative art, furnished in white mahogany with decorative panelings of various de- signs in bas-relief. We observe the pipe-organ in the farther end of the saloon, equal in tone and finish to a metropolitan church-organ. This is usually operated by some member of the ship's crew, and is a pleasant feature in the day's program and the Sabbath services. The saloon is so ample that 350 guests may eat at once. The second cabin, on next deck below, has a saloon almost as nice, and very comfortably furnished. As we turn to leave the first-cabin deck, we see the grand stairway, and descending by it, we con- sider it the climax of architectural beauty and design. We now descend to the hold, where the bulk of the ship's cargo is stored. The St. Louis has a COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 47 Grand Staircase, Steamship "St, Louis." gross tonnage of 5900 tons. This means that the steamer can carry 5900 tons cargo. To give yon a conception of tlie capacity of the hold, I will say that if the freight drawn by a freight train described in a preceding chapter were placed in the hold, we wonld have only just begun to load the steamer. I must here speak of the professional dock-men, stevedores as they are called, who load and nnload the cargo. The St. Louis may come into port at noon to-day ; her immense cargo will be unloaded, her coal-bunkers filled (2500 to 3000 tons of coal), and her new cargo will bo stored away ready for lior outward trip by noon to-morrow. We now walk the gang-plank to the dock, and as we gaze with pride and pleasure upon this beauti- ful evolution that Yankee ingenuity has evolved from " Fulton's folly," we realize the possibilities of American genius and can gain a conception of the great problems of transit and transportation that the nineteenth century genius has solved, and the mighty forces that the new century's genius seeks to control and compel to do man's bidding, doubling his commerce and trebling his profit. aUESTION SUMMARY. 1. Who invented the steam engine ? 2. What men sought to propel boats by steam, and with what success ? 3. What circumstances aided Fulton ? 4. Describe his experiment with the Glermont on tlie Hudson river in 1807. 5. When did a steamer first pass from Pittsburg to New Orleans ? 6. When did the first steamer cross the lakes from Buffalo to Detroit? 7. What can you say of the Savannah and its first ocean voyage ? 48 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 8. Name the first line of steamers established across the Atlantic. 9. AVhat is the first step taken in building a steamer? 10. What must these drawings show ? 11. Wliat is the process that is named "fairing the ship"? 12. What is the ^ scrive-board " ? 13. Describe the process of making the ship's hull. 14. When is a vessel ready for the launching? 15. How many tons of steel in the hull of the St. Louis? 16. What is added to the vessell after it is launched ? 17. Show the relative length of the St. Louis ; the rela- tive height. 18. Describe some of the furnishings of the modern steamer. 19. Tell something of the capacity of the hold of a modern steamer. 20. Tell the work of the stevedores. CHAPTER VII. All Ocean Voyage in tlie St. Louis. We watched the building of an American steamer in the last chapter, and now we will take a trip in the completed steamer. The scheduled route for the St. Louis is from iSTew York to Southampton, England. All steamers carry freight. It serves as ballast, occupies space that could not otherwise be utilized, and even with passenger steamers, like the St. Louis, is a source of considerable revenue. In the fall, American apples, peaches, pears, etc., are .shipped in cold storage, and find a ready sale in the English markets — especially the California fruits. To meet this European demand for Cali- fornia fruit our transcontinental lines of railway run special refrigerator trains twice each week from the Pacific coast during the season of fruit transportation. American beef is also taken over at every voy- age (in cold storage), large shipments being sent from the Chicago beef companies. All meat exports must be stamped with the Government inspector's stamp before shipment. Breadstuffs are also carried, with a miscellaneous list of other commodities; but fruits, meats and breadstuifs constitute the bulk of the ship's com- mercial cargo from this port. While the stevedores are storing away the cargo and filling the coal-bunkers, let us stand back from the pier and see the ship receive her passengers for the contemplated voyage. For the winter season of the year there are generally 150 first-class, 100 second class, and from 400 to 500 steerage passengers. The average number of passengers for the summer season is 350 first-cabin, 200 second-cabin, and 700 to 800 steerage. It is to be observed that first-class pas- sengers have state-rooms on upper deck, second- class on second or middle deck, and steerage in the hold or on the first fioor. The cost of the voyage varies with location of state-room as well as the season of the year. In winter, the rate from Xew York to Southampton is approximately: first-class passengers, $60 and upward each way, less ten per cent, on return voy- age ; second-class, $37 each way, less five per cent., return voyage; steerage, about $27 the year around. In summer, first-cabin rates are $100 and upward each way, less the usual ten per cent, on the return trip ; second-cabin, $45 and upward, less five per cent., return trip. Ten minutes before the departure, the ship's mail arrives; the bugle-call announces to all vis- itors that the time for leave-takings is at hand. Promptly at 10 a. m. Wednesday morning the officer of the deck calls " cast off," the deep-toned whistle gives the signal for ropes to drop from pier No. 14, the gang-planks are hoisted, the St. Louis is swung around bow to, and starts down the bay from the North-river pier. (The Hudson is called locally " North river.") Quietly our steamer passes the lower end of Manhattan Island on the left, where is situated Castle Garden, made famous by Jennie Lind, Patti and Nilsson years ago, and where thousands of immigrants have COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 49' Steamship St. Louis. "entered" this country. A great aquarium is now located at this place. Xear Castle Garden, at the extreme end of Man- hattan Island, is the Battery with its fine park and sea-wall promenade. Xow we pass Castle Will- iam, a circular battlement on Governor's Island; see Bedloe's Island, whose Liberty light illumines the upper bay at night. The bay pilot now carefully directs the steamer through the shipping of the harbor down the Xar- rows, with Tompkins Light and Fort Wadsworth (Staten Island) at the right and the grim guns of Fort Hamilton on the left. Xow we enter the widening channel of the lower bay ; see sharply to our left the Coney Light, and far to the north the Sandy Hook Light, toward which our steamer seems pointing. Soon we see ship after ship at anchorage, and, wondering what this means, ask one of the crew, who informs us that we are at Quarantine anchor- age. Just as we round the Romer Shoal Liffht our vessel turns in a graceful curve to the east, the pilot tug receives the harbor pilot, whistles a parting salute, and our steamer stands squarely out to sea. The time from the dock to Sandy Hook was 100 minutes. The waves now come with a long, rolling swell, and break away from the bow in a myriad of wavelets. Great canopies of smoke roll out of the immense smokestacks, and as we watch it curling and roll- ing far astern we observe that the ship's log has been heaved. You ask. What is the log ? Our an- swer is, that it is a careful measure of the ship's distance and speed. Attached to an intricate indi- cator with a dial-plate is a strong quarter-inch rope one thousand feet long, which is attached to the stern end of the vessel between the screw and the rudder. This dial-plate registers for the ship in the same way a speed-indicator registers the bicy- cle's speed. Being so long, the log trails far be- hind the vessel, beyond the reach of the action of 50 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. the twin screws, which, churn the water into a great seething mass of white and sparkling spray, leaving " soapsuds " far to the ship's rear. But look! Down the horizon to the west sink the receding shores of the homeland, while to the north, east and south stretches the limitless ex- panse of rollicking green-tinted waves. Just now the ship's orchestra strikes a patriotic air, that is caught up bj scores of voices. That music on the water ! Surely, " America " was never more feel- ingly sung nor seemed more soul-inspiring. Look down at the water, and see how rapidly it is seeking the rear. Captain Randall, who is on deck, tells us that we are now traveling at the rate of 25 miles an hour. ' We are in the lower route, which is known as the " Southern route," and is followed from January 15th to August 23d. The distance from Sandy Hook to the Needles (off Southampton) is 3184 geographical miles, or " knots " as the sailor calls them. The upper or " Northern route " is used from August 24th to January 14th, and is the shorter one, being 3075 knots from Sandy Hook to Needles. The icebergs, which float down from the north during the late winter and early spring and sum- mer, have caused all steamer lines to establish the routes as above named. All lines have agTeed upon a certain course for east-bound and another course for west-bound steamers, so that the danger from collision is r^vedXXj reduced. Thus thess stately palaces of the sea travel in as definite and regular roads through the ocean as the vehicles of land transit have marked and laid out for them. Hearing the ship's bells, we seek the mate to explain to us the " watches " on shipboard. This is the explanation that we received: The day is divided into seven parts, and each watch is four hours long, save from 4 p. m. to 8 p. m. This is divided into two watches of two hours each, called the first and second dog-watch respectively. The relays of men are known as port and starboard watch respectively, from location of quarters on shipboard. The appetizing odors from the ship's kitchen lead us now to study the scheduled program of meals for a steamer. Breakfast is at 8 a. m., lunch on deck (to an inlander a well-ordered dinner) 11 a. m., dinner 1 p.m ., tea 5 p. m., and supper at 9 p. m. The feast of the day is dinner, and each one served would outwit Delmonico to surpass. At each dinner, twenty bushels of potatoes, one thousand pounds of meat, one hundred and fifty loaves of bread and seventy pounds of coffee are consumed, to say nothing of the pastry and other delectables at dinner. The chief engineer, on learning that we desire to visit the hold and see the furnaces, sends a guide, who pilots us down the hatchway and into the " infernal " region of the ship. The heat is intense, and we see the firemen and " trimmers " bared to the waist, with perspiration coursing down their backs, energetically striving to satisfy the red throats of the sixty-four furnaces with coal and regulate the energy thus imparted. The chief engineer informs us that the average daily con- sumption of coal is 330 tons, requiring the employ- ment of 114 firemen and trimmers. This coal develops an energy equal to the combined strength of 20,000 horses, and sends this " floating- city " through the water at an average speed, in fair weather, of 25 miles per hour. We now follow our guide past the coal-bins, that, though being fast emptied, show tons upon tons remaining of the 2600 tons taken on at New York. When we reach deck again we become in- terested in the ship's log-book. At the companion-way to each dining-room we observe a neat chart of the ship's course, the map being divided by cross-lines into little squares. From New York to Southampton is a map line showing the ship's course, and each day at 10 a. m. the distance of the previous day's voyage is indi- COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 51 cated by a dot (.) on the "course line" of the map, and the distance from the last dot indicates so many knots. In this way each passenger is able to follow the vessel in its course, and also knows its daily speed. So accurately is the " course line " on the map followed by the pilot that a variation to exceed two or three miles is rarely known in the long voyage of over 3000 miles. The pilot's place of business is on the upper or hurricane deck, just behind the captain's bridge. The pilot is a mar- iner of rare skill and intelligence, and has two very unique guides to aid him in his responsible work. The one is the ship's chronometer, a very accurate time-measure, which swings on a pivot, face up. It is placed in a close protecting-case, and is quite indispensable and exceedingly valuable. The other guide is a mariner's compass, which is a careful indicator of direction. It is about eight inches in diameter, and so carefully adjusted that the ship's motion cannot affect the unerring needle. A second compass is placed on the after deck, where the signal-flags are also found. The latitude and longitude of the ship are taken at noon meridian, and at such other regular periods as the captain may deem advisable. This, with the distance indicated by the speed-indicator of the log at the stern, gives the data for the log-book. Here is an abstract from the best voyage the St. Louis log records, and it shows how the log-book is kept : Date, 1896. Distance, Knots. Latitude. Ixyngitude. Remarks. Aug. 1 Aug. 2 Aug. 3 Aug. 4 Aug. 5 Aug. 6 510 477 519 530 520 499 Left Southampton 12:12 p. m.;* 50.31 50.30 48.50 45.18 13.38 27.05 40.28 52.05 passed Needles 2:02 p. m. Light S. W. winds ; hazy ; sea smooth. Light variable winds ; sea smooth. Moderate winds ; light sea. S. W. breeze ; light fogs. To Sandy Hook. Lightship passed at 11:26 a. m.; passen- gers landed 1:56 p. m. Friday. Passage 6 days, 2 hours, 24 minutes : average speed per hour, 20.867 knots. Total . . 3055 * Greenwich mean time. Whi^e copying this we hear a stir, and as we hurry (ieckward we learn that a streak of smoke has been sighted far to the east ; later the funnel- tops appear above the water, and finally a great steamer rises out of the sea. We level our glasses, seek in vain for some identity, and have about concluded it to be a "tramp ship" (a ship that be- longs to no regular line and makes no scheduled points regularly), when the officer of the deck in- forms us it is a North German Lloyd Liner. He then tells us that a regular liner is told at sea by the color of her funnels and the line flag. We find that our black funnels with a clear white band, and our white flag with a blue spread-eagle in the cen- ter, reveal our identity at sea, for these are the marks of the American line, and are found on all its Xew York to Southampton vessels. The Ameri- can line 'New York to Continental ports bears the same funnel-marks, but carries a white swallowtail flag with a red star in the center ; hence it is known as the Eed Star line. The stranger has a cream- colored funnel, and flies a white flag with a blue key-and-anchor crossed in the center of a laurel wreath. Our signal flags are out, and questions asked: "Name? Where from and whither bound ? " The answer is signalled back : " Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse. Bremen to New York." It is one of the swiftest of the transatlantic fleet, and her majestic sweep across the ship's horizon was the event of that day. The Saturday evening entertainment was the feature of the voyage. This consisted of a mixed program, arranged by the ship's passengers and crew. After the program was made up, it was printed on the ship's press, and souvenir copies sold to passengers. The music was excellent, as good musicians are found on nearly every voyage. During the interval between the first and second parts of the program, a collection was taken, which amounted to several hundred dollars. On Staten Island is a Sailors' Home, and at Southampton is 62 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. a Sailors' Orphans' Home. To tlie support of these go all the proceeds of the mid-ocean enter- tainments. Often $600 or $700 is netted, and sent to these homes at either end of the steamer route. The passengers are called to the Sabbath morn- ing service by the ship's bell. This service is held in the first-cabin dining-room, to which the second- cabin passengers are invited. The Episcopal serv- ice is read on the St. Louis, sometimes by the cap- tain and sometimes by the ship's surgeon. The music is a special feature of the morning service, one of the stewards being a master player on the pipe-organ. Frequently a special evening service will be held in the second cabin by some traveling clergyman. The crew are governed by the bells that are rung every half -hour to indicate to them the time. One bell is added each half-hour of the watch, so that the last half-hour of the four-hour watch w^ould be indicated by eight bells, the last half-hour of each dog-watch is indicated by four bells, as they are two hours long, — first dog-watch, 4 to 6 p. m. ; second, 6 to 8 p. m. The first land' sighted proves to be the Scilly Islands, just o:ff Land's End, England. Just as we are filled with rejoicing at once more seeing the welcome land, the islands are passed, and land is again lost to view until the great Lizard's Head juts above the horizon, far to the northw^est. We now enter the most dangerous part of the English Channel, the vicinity of the Eddystone Reef, and our pilot steers to the north to avoid the dangerous rocks. Here are three principal ridges of rocks, about ten miles south of Plymouth Sound entrance, that are covered at high tide. Upon the middle ridge stands the Eddystone lighthouse, built of Portland stone incased in granite, whose foundation is dovetailed into the rocks of the reef. The present lighthouse is the third one built on this site, and though its light is sixty-eight feet above the base, the sea frequently rises so high that it breaks the strong plate-glass that protects the six- teen argand burners of the lantern. We now round the Bolt Head, leave the Bill of Portland far to the north, and make our first stop at the K'eedles, the Sandy Hook of Southampton, from which time is reckoned. We have been six days, twenty-three hours and sixteen minutes crossing the ocean. The channel pilot climbs on board and directs our steamer up the Solent, that separates the Isle of Wight from England, into the harbor of South- ampton. This has all the benefits of a land-locked harbor, owing to the proximity of the Isle of Wight, giving it the advantages of a double tide, or four tides in the twenty-four hours of the day. The city proper is on a peninsula formed by the estuary of the river Itchen and the large estuary of the river Test. The city numbers about 75,000 inhabitants, and is an important commercial port of England. Our pilot now turns our steamer up the Itchen to the Empress dock, the entrance to which is 175 feet w4de. Here we find a frontage of 1900 feet. It is the only dock in Great Britain where deep- water loading and discharging berths can be reached by the largest vessels at any time of the day or night, irrespective of the tide. At this port are located six very large docks, paved with granite, covering an area of 250 acres, lined with good warehouses, with hydraulic cranes and capstans throughout the system. All the docks and their approaches are brilliantly lighted by electricity. Thus we find that Southampton has one of the finest harbors in Europe, where steam- ers can enter and leave at any state of the tide, and all steamers are able to go direct to the piers. Standing on the pier, we observe that while one side is being relieved of her cargo and the passen- gers are going off, the steamer is receiving her re- turn cargo and coaling from the other side. Ma- chinery, cement, glass, rugs, teas and dry-goods shipments constitute the bulk of the return cargo. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 53 Many large dry-goods firms in the United States make weekly shipments from Paris and London via the American line steamers. The steamers of this line carry a light mail on the return voyage, as the English steamers take most of the mail from this port, giving only the ^' left over " mail and some most important " late " mail for the American liners. The American steamers start for the home-land from the Empress dock at noon (Greenwich time) each Saturday. It takes about two hours to reach the Nee'dles on the return trip. A few miles out from this point the channel pilot is dropped and the return trip fairly begun. QUESTION SUMMARY. 1. Discuss the freight traffic of passenger steamers from New York to England. 2. What are the usual differences between cost of transportation and the location on board ship of the classes of passengers from New York to Southampton ? 3. Follow the St. Louis from her North river pier to Sandy Hook, on her outward voyage. 4. Describe a ship's log. 5. When do vessels follow the "southern route" across the Atlantic ? Why ? 6. What is the usual program of meals for a steamer? 7. What are the ship's " watches " ? 8. Tell the coal consumption and the number of fur- naces of our ship. 9. Describe the "course line." 10. What is the business of the pilot? 11. Name and describe the two invaluable instruments that aid the pilot. 12. What is the log-book, and what should it show ? 13. What is a " tramp" ship? 14. How is a regular liner told at sea ? 15. How do vessels communicate at sea? 16. What charitable institutions are supported largely by mid-ocean entertainments on American line steamers ? 17. Where is the most dangerous part of the English Channel? 18. AVhy is the Eddystone Reef so dangerous to navi- gation? 19. Describe the Eddystone lighthouse. 20. Between what two points is time reckoned on a New York-Southampton voyage ? 21. What is the usual time recorded for a voyage be- tween New York and Southampton ? 22. What value does the navigator attach to the loca- tion of the Isle of Wight ? 23. Name the advantages of Southampton as a shipping port. 24. Why do American line steamers bring heavy mail from New York and carry a light mail back ? 25. What constitutes the cargo of vessels from South- ampton to New York ? 26. Describe the location and size of Southampton. CHAPTER VIII. Our Consular Service. A CONSUL is an officer whom the nation stations in commercial centers of foreign countries, to pro- tect its trade, and represent the nation's commercial interests in that port or district. The custom arose during the twelfth century, when the Italian cities appointed officers to represent the trading companies of the home city in the other Italian cities. By the sixteenth century all the commer- cial nations of Europe had adopted this Italian system; and when our government was formed. Congress took steps to empow^er the Secretary of State to form a consular system. The law of 1792 established this system, and Thomas Jefferson, Sec- retary of State, appointed our first consuls, whose compensation was to be obtained from fees received for services performed. The consuls were to be the nation's representatives at certain specified ports, to look after the commercial interests of the nation, and have nothing to do with political affairs, which belonged to the diplomatic service, organ- ized about the- same time by the same officer, the Secretary of State. By this first law the Secre- tary of State had the right to appoint. A number of times, Congress attempted to grade or rank the consular service, but it was not until 1856 that any special change was made. By a statute law of Congress, passed that year, the President was em- powered to appoint consuls, subject to approval of 54 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. the Senate, and the service was divided into the following grades (according to importance) : 1. Consul-General. This officer has charge over a consular district and all consuls within that district. There are thirty-eight U. S. Consuls- General at present. 2. Consul. This officer is sent by his govern- ment to a specified port, and upon arrival at the stated port his first duty is to exhibit his commis- sion to the authorities of the government to which he is accredited, to obtain sanction of appointment. This sanction is a document entitled an " exequa- tur," and secures to him such privileges, immuni- ties and exemptions as his predecessors enjoyed, and that are usually granted to consuls of foreign countries by the government of the nation control- ling the port to which he has been sent. The consul's chief duties are as follows: (a) To register and report arrival and depart- ure of every ship of his nation's flag that visits his port. , (6) To inspect and sign invoices of above- named ships' cargoes. (c) To forward a list of passports signed or "vised" (examined and indorsed). (d) To send the State Department a list of marriages and deaths of his nation's citizens within his jurisdiction. (e) To furnish the State Department with a list of his nation's citizens living within his dis- trict. (/) Must report to his consulate (or State De- partment if no consul-general has jurisdiction), quarterly, his report covering all transactions, re- ceipts, expenditures, etc., of the quarter. (g) Must frequently inform consulate or secre- tary of the sanitary condition of the port, and fur- nish such other statistics as shall be important to his nation. (Under this latter head, statistics on commerce, navigation, manufacturing, emigration, agriculture, tonnage and harbor dues, lighthouse service, and finances of all principal commercial nations of the world, have been obtained through our consulates.) (h) The American consul can be employed by the individual citizen to assist him in the transac- tion of private business. The consul can adminis- ter oaths; take testimony; deeds executed by him are valid; he may administer on the estates of Americans dying abroad, and can send home the proceeds of the estate to be distributed to the legal heirs. (i) In Japan, Turkey, and China, any Ameri- can charged with crime is tried by the American consul of the district in which the crime was com- mitted. (j) The seaman may apply to the consul for the protection of his legal rights, and the destitute mariner of an American vessel is entitled to re- ceive relief from the consul at the expense of the United States Government. (h) The chief duty of a consul is to see that the commercial laws of his nation are complied with at his port. There are at present 250 American con- suls at foreign ports. 3. Commercial Agent. This officer is stationed at a commercial port of minor importance, yet the trade of which justifies the maintaining of a con- sular agent, to do all he can to assist his fellow- citizens in their trade relations, and send reports to the home government pertaining to matters of general commercial interest. At present the United States maintains twenty-five commercial agencies. Until recently, no special qualifications were re- quired for the consular service, and no specified term of office was named. Under these conditions the better positions were frequently looked upon as party " plums," and too frequently the service suffered in the payment of " party debts," " politi- cal rewards," etc. An executive order from the President September 20th, 1895, provided that all vacancies then or thereafter existing in a consulate or commercial agency, when the salary is between $1000 and $2500, shall be filled by (a) transfer or COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 65 promotion of a competent person; (&) by appoint- ment of a person whose ability has been proven by former service in the Department of State; (c) or by appointment by the President of a person who, by examination of a board of three persons selected by the Secretary of State, shall be found qualified for the duties of the office. This order has been quite helpful in strengthening the consular service, as it brings to the service competent men, and does not so frequently deprive the service of men whose experience makes them most valuable consuls. England requires her consuls to pass a test before entering the service. They must be able to read and write fluently in the language of the country to which they desire to be sent, and to be thoroughly familiar with the commercial usages of said coun- try. France educates her consuls especially for the service, and each candidate must receive a di- ploma from a national school before he can enter the service. He then enters the lowest rank, and must have three years' successful service in the lower order before he can gain promotion to a higher rank in the service. The same, or a simi- lar plan, for selection of consuls, is followed in Germany, Belgium, Austria, Italy, and other Eu- ropean commercial nations. SALARIES. The British consul at Xew York receives $12,- 500; French, $12,000; German, $10,000; Rus- sian, $10,000. !N^ew York is the most important commercial port in America, and indicates the maximum salary paid consuls by the above nations. The American Consul-General at London receives $5000; at Paris, $5000; at Berlin, $4000; at St. Petersburg, $3000. This illustrates the maxi- mum salary our nations pays its consuls. If the diplomatic service should make the con- sul the minister resident, the salary is made com- mensurate with the rank. To illustrate: H. ^. Allen, Consul-General at Seoul, Korea, is now minister resident as well, and receives $7500. This is the highest salary paid a consular offi- cer. The consuls-general receive salaries as follows: One receives $1500 per year; three, $2000; one, $2500; thirteen, $3000; two, $3500; seven, $4000; one, $4500; nine, $5000. The consuls receive salaries as follows: One (at Liverpool) receives $5000 per year; five, $3500; twenty-two, $3000; thirty-three, $2500; sixty-three, $2000; seventy-five, $1500. The rest of the consuls receive a salary of $1000, or a salary determined by the fees collected. The salary of the commercial agent is determined by the fees collected, and varies from $800 to $1500, the average being $1000 per year. There are many clerks and agents of the service, besides the officers of rank. These agents generally receive a monthly salary. Besides the above are special con- sular clerks who are members of the consulate in the largest commercial ports. Counting the agents and clerks with the officers of rank, it gives 750 in our nation's consular service. QUESTION SUMMARY. 1. What is a consul? 2. What municipalities in what century appointed the first consuls ? 3. For what purpose ? 4. When, may we say, all commercial Europe had con- suls? 5. When and by whom was our consular system estab- lished ? 6. When was the President empowered to appoint con- suls? 7. Name the grades of the consular service. 8. Name the chief duties of the Consul-General. 9. Name the chief duties of the Consul. 10. What is the essential difference between a Commer- cial Agent and a Consul? 11. Why were consulates long considered significant party offices? Ans., Because no special qualifications were required and no specified term of office was named. 12. When and how was this changed ? 13. What has been the result to the consular service ? 56 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY First Lighthouse built within limits of the United States (Boston Harbor). 14. State some facts in reference to the English con- sular service. 15. What are some requirements in the French con- sular service ? 16. How do the salaries paid American consuls com- pare with salaries paid ranking European consuls ? 17. Who is the highest paid consular officer ? Why ? 18. What are the nature and object of the consular re- ports published by the Government? 19. The Commercial Museum of Philadelphia receives the consular reports of every commercial nation. Its tabulated facts are considered invaluable to American commerce. Can you tell why ? 20. Locate our nation's consuls-general. Answer: Name of City. Where f Antwerp, . Apia, . Bangkok, . Barcelona, . Berlin, Bogota, . Cairo, . Calcutta, . Cape Town, Constantinople, . Dresden, . Frankfort, . Guatemala, . Guayaquil, . Halifax, . Hong Kong, . London , . Melbourne, . Mexico, . Name of City. Where ? Monrovia, . Monterey, . Montreal, . Ottawa, . Panama, . Paris, . Rio de Janeiro, . Rome, . St. Gall, . St. Petersburg, . Santo Domingo, . Seoul, , Shanghai, . Singapore, . Stockholm, . Tangier, . Teheran, . Vienna, . Yokohama, . CHAPTEE IX. The Llglit Stations of Our Nation. Lighthouses are of quite ancient origin. The first one known to authentic history was the Pharos of Alexandria, built about 285 B.C. — over two thousand years ago. The oldest existing light- house is believed to be the one at Corunna, Spain, which was built in the reign of Trajan, in the second century, A. D. ; and was reconstructed in 1634. The lighthouse or light-ship is a great aid to commerce, being located at dangerous places on ocean and lake shores. " With the lighthouse rays, always come the many and the richly laden vessels of commerce," says Mr. A. B. Johnson, chief clerk U. S. Lighthouse Board. Europe is, and for many centuries has been, the great commercial continent of the world. She is well provided with lighthouses, as the following table shows. This table was prepared by Mr. John- son, of our own lighthouse board, in 1890: LIGHT STATIONS BY CONTINENTS. Europe 3,309 North America 1,435 Asia 476 Oceanica 319 Africa 219 South America 167 Total 5,925 Of the total number of stations on this continent, the Dominion of Canada has 443, Newfoundland Shoal Light Station, Virginia Coast. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 57 51, Mexico 15, British Honduras 7, Central America 11, West Indies 106, and the United States the rest, — more than one-half that the con- tinent provides. • The lighthouse system of our nation is said to have practically begun with our commerce. As early as 1673, Xantasket citizens sent a petition to the court of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, asking that the general taxes be reduced on ac- count of the labor and expense in building the beacon-light at Point Allerton. Four hundred boat-loads of stone were used in erecting a base for this beacon. The beacon consisted of an iron bas- ket, in which were burned " fier-balls of pitch and ocum." The first lighthouse on this continent was built on Little Brewster Island, at the entrance of Boston harbor, in 1715-16, at a cost of 2286 pounds sterling, and was supported by light-dues of one penny per ton, levied by the collector of imports of Boston on all incoming and outgoing vessels, except coasters. Other maritime colonies followed the example of Massachusetts in estab- lishing lighthouses, and when the United States, in 1789, accepted the title to and joint jurisdic- tion over the lighthouses of the coast, there were eight in number, located as follows: 1. Portsmouth Harbor Light, X. H. 2. The Boston Light, Little Brewster Island. 3. The Gurnet Light, near Plymouth, Mass. 4. The Brant Point Light, Nantucket, Mass. 5. Beaver Tail Light, on Conanicut Island, in K^arragansett Bay, R. I. 6. Sandy Hook Light, entrance to !New York harbor. 7. Cape Henlopen Light, entrance to Delaware Bay. 8. Charleston Main Light, on Morris Island, Charleston, S. C. The Federal Government placed this depart- ment under the direction and care of the Secre- tary of the Treasury. In 1792 the office of Com- missioner of Revenue was created, and the super- intendence and control of the light stations de- volved upon him. This was a temporary officer; and in 1820 we find the Fifth Auditor of the Treasury Department having supervision of the U. S. Light Service. This officer was Mr. Stephen Pleasanton, and he proved a most efficient officer, having charge of this department until the crea- tion of the Lighthouse Board, in 1852. During Mr. Pleasanton's term as General Superintendent of Lights — thirty-two years — we find the number of lighthouses increased from 55 to more than 325 lighthouses and light-ships, with numerous buoys and monuments as aids to navigation. By act of Congress in 1838, the lighthouse sys- tem was divided into districts by the President, and an officer of the navy was detailed to each dis- trict with a revenue cutter or hired vessel, with in- structions to make a careful examination of the light stations in his district and report to General Superintendent Pleasanton, who in turn was to re- port to Congress. From the general report thus obtained the plan for the present system had its origin. In 1845, Secretary of the Treasury Walker had Lieutenants Thornton A. Jenkins and Richard Bache detailed from, the navy to study the light- house systems of Europe, especially France and Great Britain. They were directed to procure in- formation as to the organization of lighthouse sys- tems, construction of lighthouses, expense, charac- ter and efficiency of lights, and study buoys and lighting apparatus used abroad. These men spent a year in Great Britain and on the Continent ; and severail months, after their return to this country, were spent in inspecting our own lighthouses and their needs. These men sent in a careful and most valuable report, recommending changes in admin- istrative affairs, in arrangement of districts, and lights to be used. In presenting this report to Con- gress, Secretary of the Treasury Walker closed with the following remark : " It is obvious that a very considerable range of practical and theoreti- 58 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY cal knowledge is required for the improvement of the system ; more than can be looked for from one individual, however eminent in science." The proper organization of the system, and planning of its details, require the efficient head of a bureau familiar with the working of a general organization, — a person capable of furnishing in- formation in regard to the coasts and harbors from actual surveys; persons minutely acquainted with the wants of navigation, with the details of location and construction of the lighthouses, and with the chemical and mechanical principles involved in lighting. While this knowledge cannot be obtained from one person, a board may be organized, with- out expense to the Government, by which the sys- tem may be considered in all its particulars and an efficient plan of action recommended. In May, 1851, by authority of Congress the Secretary of the Treasury appointed a board of six to make a detailed report and program to guide legislation in extending and improving the system of construction, illumination, inspection and su- perintendence of the lighthouse system of the Government. Lieutenants Jenkins and Bache were both members of this Board. Congress acted upon their report, and passed an act in 1852 estab- lishing the Lighthouse Board as it at present exists. The Lighthouse Board consists of two officers of the navy, of high rank, two engineer officers of the army, two civilians of high scientific attain- ments, together with an officer from the army en- gineers as secretary. The Board is under the superintendence of the Secretary of the Treasury, and is intrusted with " all administrative duties relating to the construction, illumination, inspec- tion and superintendence of lighthouses, beacons, buoys, sea-marks, and their appendages, and em- bracing the security of foundations of existing works, procuring illuminating and other appa- ratus, supplies, and materials of all kinds for building and keeping in good repair, buildings, vessels and buoys of the United States." The Board has marked the coasts of the nation into lighthouse districts. An inspector, who must be either an army or navy officer, is assigned to each district, as well as an engineer officer of the army. The inspectors are charged witli the maintaining of lights and lighthouses and the discipline of the light-keepers. The district engineers, under direc- tion of the engineer secretary, are charged with the building of lighthouses, with keeping them in re- pair, together with the purchase, setting up and repair of the illuminating apparatus. The present Board has built up a corps of in- telligent light-keepers, who come up from the lowest rank of the service by examination, and in this way receive promotions, with, corresponding increase in pay. The term is practically during good behavior. The average pay of a lighthouse- keeper is $600 per year. The United States em- ploys at the present time 1400 lighthouse- and fog-sign al-keeper s. The lighthouse service is a training-school for young officers. The roll of lighthouse inspectors is said to contain the names of the flower of the navy. The lighthouse engineers enroll many who have established a name for army engineers in solving problems of submarine construction, and whose monuments are world-famous lighthouses which they have constructed. The light districts of the United States, with boundary limits, are as follows : District No. 1, head of navigation St. Croix river, to Hampton Harbor, I^.H., 74 lights in 1900. Ko. 2, Hampton Harbor, IST. H., to Elisha Ledge, off Warren Point, E. I., 90 lights. No. 3, Elisha Ledge to Shrewsbury Bocks, New Jersey coast, 260 lights. No. 4, Shrewsbury Bocks to Metomkin Inlet, Va., 72 lights. No. 5, Metomkin Inlet to New Biver Inlet, N. C, 142 lights. No. 6, New Biver Inlet to Jupiter Inlet, Fla., 59 lights. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 69 Hen and Chickens," Light Vessel No. 2, Massachusetts. "No. 7, Jupiter Inlet to Per dido Entrance, Fla., 197 lights. No. 8, Perdido entrance to southern boundary of Texas, 100 lights. JSTos. 9, 10, 11, region of the Great Lakes, 414 lights. No. 12, southern boundary of California and northern boundary, 46 lights. No. 13, from southern boundary of Oregon to northern boundary of the United States, including Alaska, 139 lights. No. 14, from Pittsburg, Pa., on Ohio river, to Cairo, III, 966 miles, with 300 miles of naviga- tion on tributary rivers, 508 post and floating lights. No. 15, from head of navigation at the Missis- sippi river to Cairo, 111. ; Missouri river to Kan- sas City; Illinois river from LaSalle to mouth, 359 post and floating lights. No. 16, from Cairo, 111., to New Orleans, La., 358 lights. Lighthouses are always placed at that point or place on the coast that is considered dangerous to commerce, and if a lighthouse seems impractica- ble at that point, a light-ship is placed there, or a whistling-buoy. To further aid the mariner in thick or foggy weather, the Lighthouse Board has placed fog signals. With a fog signal on the coast and one in the harbor, the mar- iner can be guided to his an- chorage. Sailors are coming to believe that they can be guided by sound as certainly as by light. About 100 fog signals are now operated by either steam or hot air. It cost $600,000 to establish these signals, and the yearly expense to maintain them is about $100,000. A word should here be said about the river lights. On account of obstructions in channels and the tortuous course of the channels of the rivers, commerce on Western rivers was formerly restricted to daylight motion. As over a thousand steamboats, carrying a yearly commerce of 1,200,000 tons, were employed on the Missis- sippi, Ohio and Missouri rivers, as early as 1873, it was an important question how to protect and foster this commerce of at least $400,000,000 per year. In 1874 a survey for temporary lights and buoys was made, and upon the report of the com- mittee recommending the extension of light service to these rivers, the Lighthouse Board appointed in- spectors and engineers, districted the rivers, and proceeded to establish lights. Detroit River Light Station, Michigan. 60 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Ohio River Post Light, and Lighthouse Steam Tender "Lily." These lights I will here describe. The lens lan- tern is suspended from an arm projecting from a post, or is placed on the post, at an elevation of eight or ten feet from the ground. At points ■where the channel is made dangerous and narrow by permanent obstructions, buoys have been placed as day marks, to which lights are attached as night signals. The post lights are placed at such points as present needs demand, and are changed as the current changes or " blind crossings " appear. Keepers for these lights are selected from among the people living along the river who have been found trustworthy and awake to the demands of the light service. There are on the three rivers mentioned more than twelve hundred of these lights, costing on an average $156.28 each per year for maintenance. So helpful have they been to commerce, that the system has been extended along other rivers; so that more than sixteen hundred post lights are maintained now along 5000 miles of river navi- gation. We will now speak of the construction of the lighthouses. Previous to 1840 all lighthouses on the !N"ew England coast were either conical towers of rubble-stone masonry, or wooden frame towers erected on the roofs of the keepers' dwellings. Since then the construction of the lighthouse has depended on the nature of the ground where erected, the sea exposure, and the amount of Con- gressional appropriation for lighthouse construc- tion. Within twelve years three successive stone tow- ers were demolished at the Black Rock Beacon, on Long Island Sound, four and one-half miles from Bridgeport, Conn. Then the iron-pile bea- con was put in (1847), that is standing to-day. As excavation was made, and six twelve-ton stones were fitted close together, bedded in concrete. Into these stones were set five wrought-iron peri- phery piles and one center pile, measuring three to five and one-half inches in diameter. These piles are solidly joined together, and capped at the top, The stone towers are 31 feet high, and together cost $21,000. The pile beacon is 34 feet above low water, and cost but $4000. The Carysfort Beef Light is another example of the iron-pile system. This stands on a coral reef, below which is a softer mass of calcareous sand. Here large iron foot-plates were used to diffuse the pressure over 130 square feet of surface Carysfort Reef Light Station, Florida. I COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 61 crust. Nine eight-incli piles placed in the form . of an octagon were passed througli center eyes in the iron plates, and driven ten feet into the sand. Cross-ties and braces give rigidity to the structure, and the keeper's house is an elevated one, built in the structure. The light is 112 feet above low water. This tower with its apparatus cost $105,- 000, and was completed in 1852. One of the most important of the iron-pile lighthouses is the Sombrero Key lighthouse, on Florida Eeefs, about 50 miles east of Key West. Its light is 140 feet from the water, and has a range of twenty miles at sea. The frame is pyra- midal in shape, is in six sections, and has a diam- eter of 56 feet at bottom and 15 feet at the top. The keeper's dwelling is in the second section, made of boiler-iron lined with Wood. A circular stairway ascends to the lantern, which is also of boiler-iron lined with wood. This structure cost $120,000, and although built fifty years ago, is still in excellent condition. The iron-plate towers are composed of cast-iron panels weighing 1200 Sombrero Key Light Station, Florida. Rear Beacon, Paris Island Rouge, South Carolina. pounds; the panels in a section are of exactly the same size, so each one may occupy any position in the ring they form when put together. These plates are provided with flanges, so as to connect the several tiers of plates, and the plates of each tier are securely bolted into the succeeding tier. The whole structure rests generally on a concrete foundation, to which the lower section of the tower is fastened by anchor bolts built into the concrete. One value of this system is, that when necessity requires, the lighthouse can be readily taken down and moved. The Hunting Island lighthouse (South Caro- lina) was first built in 1875, a quarter of a mile from the beach. But on account of the erosion of the land by the sea it has had to be taken down and moved a mile and a quarter farther inland. The original cost of this lighthouse was $102,000. Where the soil affords an inadequate support for a masonry foundation, or where great cheap- ness is required, iron skeleton towers are erected. The light at the Southwest Pass of the Mississippi illustrates this form, as does the Paris Island Kouge Light, of Port Royal Sound, S. C. This 62 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Tillamook Rock Light Station, Oregon. latter is a triangular pyramid, 132 feet high, resting on six circular iron disks anchored to a concrete foundation. The plan of this light was born of necessity, as Congress failed to appro- priate a fund sufficient to build the light the Board had planned for. The light used is a loco- motive headlight in the form of a powerful para- bolic reflector. The light is housed by day and run up to the apex of the triangle, by machinery, at night. This is said to be the most economical light station in our nation, the entire structure costing but $12,000. The St. Augustine Light is a good illustration of the substantial brick towers. Its spiral stripes, used to distinguish it from adjacent sea lights by day, are familiar to all geography students. Our' nation has from eight to ten similar brick-tower lights. Minot's Ledge, Massachusetts, is our best rep- resentative of the stone-tower lights. General Bernard, a great civil engineer, says of Minot's Ledge Light : " It ranks, by the engineering diffi- culties surrounding its erection and by the skill of science shown in the details of its construction, among the chief of the great sea-rock lighthouses of the world." This lighthouse was completed in 1860, at a cost of $300,000. Probably the most interesting lighthouse in this country is the Tillamook Bock lighthouse, on the Pacific coast, twenty miles south of the mouth of the Columbia river. The Tillamook rock is ninety-two feet above the sea; is very steep on three sides, and so dangerous to vessels that in 1879 our Government decided to build a lighthouse on the rock. It was with great difficulty that a working party could be landed, and it took more than two years to complete the work. The Pacific rolls and surges about Tillamook in such a manner that it is one of the wildest spots on earth. So terrifying is this place that the keeper has to have a companion, and a piano has been placed in the keeper's house as a healthy diversion for both men. During a storm ten years ago the waves broke off a chunk weighing ninety pounds, and flung this fragment entirely through the lamp, 136 feet above. Often seas dash waves twenty and even thirty feet above the lamp, breaking the glass plates surrounding the light. Just one month before this lighthouse was completed, an English vessel of 1040 tons burden was dashed to pieces on shore one mile from Tillamook, and ship, cargo and crew were lost. Lighthouses receive their supplies from a small vessel called a " tender," that visits the light about once a month. The tender takes supplies, and brings back the keeper's reports to the inspector and letters to relatives and friends. Twenty-two of these vessels are employed on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, three on the lakes, three on rivers, and two on the Pacific coast. The lighthouse lamp is surrounded by a ring of lenses, which revolve by clockwork. Each lens throws a beam like a searchlight, and as each beam rests on the spectator only an instant, the light comes to the sailor in flashes. The number of seconds these flashes are apart, together with the color of the lenses, indicates to the sailor what lighthouse it is. The most of the heavy lamps float in mercury, to make them turn easier. These lamps attract wild ducks and sea birds, and hun- dreds of them dash themselves to death against the plate-glass frame surrounding the lamp. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 63 The Fresnel lenticular apparatus is used in our lighthouses. Mr. Alan Stevenson, the great Scotch lighthouse engineer, sajs of this lamp : " Nothing can be more beautiful than an entire apparatus for a fixed light of the first order. It consists of a central belt of refractors, forming a hollow cylin- der 6 feet in diameter and 30 inches high; be- low it are six triangular rings of glass, ranged in a cylinder form, and above a crown of thirteen rings of glass, forming by their union a hollow cage, composed of polished glass 10 feet high and 6 feet in diameter. I know of no work of art more beautiful or creditable to the boldness, ardor, intelligence and zeal of the artist." The cost of these first-class lights varies from $4250 to $8000. The glass used varies from first order to sixth order, which is llf inches in diameter and costs from $200 to $300. A lighthouse-keeper stands by his light as long as the lighthouse stands, and these brave men will no more desert their posts in time of danger than an American soldier will leave his gun on the ad- vance of an enemy. The heroism of a Grace Dar- ling actuates the entire corps, and the great value of the lighthouse system of our nation in its pro- tection of life and property on the high seas can scarcely be overestimated. QUESTION SUMMARY. 1. State the origin of the lighthouse. 2. Who is believed to have built the oldest lighthouse now in existence ? In what century ? 3. Why is the lighthouse a factor of commerce ? 4. What continent has more than half the lighthouses of the world ? 5. How do you account for this ? 6. Rank the continents by the number of their light stations. 7. Discuss Point Allerton beacon of the seventeenth century. 8. Where and when was the first lighthouse built in America? 9. What American colony led in establishing light- houses ? Why ? 10. How many light stations on the Atlantic coast when our Federal Government was established, in 1789? 11. Name and locate these stations. 12. Discuss the work of Mr. Pleasanton while General Superintendent of Lights. 13. What is a light-ship, and where generally located ? 14. When did an act of Congress establish lighthouse disti'icts, and what can you say of the results? 15. Describe Jenkins and Bache's tour of inspection. 16. What led to the establishment of a lighthouse board ? 17. Explain the personnel of the Lighthouse Board. 18. Name the administrative duties of this board. 19. Who are appointed lighthouse inspectors, and what are their duties? 20. Who are appointed district engineers, and what are their duties ? 21. How many lighthouse districts on the Atlantic coast of our nation ? 22. How many light districts on the Great Lakes ? 23. How many light districts on the navigable rivers of the interior? 24. What rivers in these districts ? 25. Give some conception of the commerce of these rivers. 28. Describe the character of the river lights. 27. How are keepers of these lights obtained ? 28. What is the approximate total cost of maintaining post lights for the 5000 miles of river navigation now in the river districts ? 29. What is the purpose of the fog signal, where placed and how operated ? 30. The 100 fog signals cost what sum in construction ? 31. What does it cost to maintain them? 32. The material used in the construction of a light- house usually depends upon what? 33. Describe the construction of the iron-pile Black Rock beacon of 1847. 34. Describe the Sombrero Key lighthouse on Florida Reefs. 35. What is the best representative of the stone-tower lights? Why? 36. Where is the Tillamook Light? 37. What determined the establishment of a lighthouse on Tillamook Rock? 38. Give facts that demonstrate this to be one of the wildest spots on earth. 39. What is the lighthouse tender ? 40. Describe a lighthouse lamp? 64 - COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Life-Saving Station, near Cliff House, San Francisco, California, U.S. A 41. "Where is a locomotive headlight used for the lamp? 42. Who was Grace Darling? 43. What is the average salary of our lighthouse-keep- ers? 44. What can you say of the character of these men ? 45. How would you estimate the value of lighthouses to commerce ? CHAPTEK X. The Ijife-Savlng Service of tlie United States. The Koyal National Lifeboat Institution of Great Britain is called the honored mother of all existing life-saving organizations among the na- tions of the world. Our present system is of recent origin, but our Government was erecting boat-houses along the Atlantic coast during the second quarter of the nineteenth century, completing its contemplated plan in 1850. It supplied these boat-houses with surf-boats and other life-saving appliances, and acted in conjunction with municipal and State authorities in saving life and property along storm-frequented coasts. It was almost a volun- teer service, but we can form little idea of its effectiveness, as no records were kept of its work. The very efficient organization known as " The Massachusetts Humane Society " was an outgrowth of these volunteer life-sav- ing crews, and while it has since broadened its work, it still carries on a most effective life-saving department, with many stations along the Massachusetts coast. The present system of life-saving service was called into being in 1871, and by act of Congress the system was organized. The first stations were established on the coasts of New Jersey and Long Island. In 1872 the coasts of Cape Cod were added. The re- maining coast of New England and the At- lantic coast from Cape Henry to Cape Hat- teras were added in 1874; the coast from Cape Henlopen to Cape Charles was added in 1875 ; the eastern coast of Elorida and portions of the lake coasts in 1876 ; the Pacific coast in 1877- 78 ; and in 1880 the coast of Texas was included in the territory of operation in the National Life- Saving Service. There are now 10,000 miles of sea and lake coasts under the Service regulations. This area is divided into twelve districts, with life-saving sta- tions as follows: First District (coasts of Maine and New Hampshire), 14 stations. Second District (coast of Massachusetts), 29 stations. Third District (coasts of Rhode Island and Long Island), 41 stations. Fourth District (coast of New Jersey), 42 stations. Fifth District (Atlantic coast from Cape Henlopen to Cape Charles), 18 stations. Sixth District (Atlantic coast from Cape Henry to Cape Fear river), 31 stations. Seventh District (coasts of South Carolina, Georgia, and eastern Florida), 10 stations. Eighth District (Gulf coast), 8 stations. Ninth District (coasts of Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Louisville* Station), 12 stations. Tenth District (coasts of Lakes Huron and Superior), 17 stations. Eleventh District (coast of Lake Michigan), 28 stations. Twelfth District ( Pacific coast), 15 stations. Total number of stations, 265. •At Louisville, Ky., dangerous falls occur In the Ohio river. For this rea- son it has been found advisable to have at this point a floating station. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 65 By act of Congress of June 18, 1878, kn in- vestigation is required to be made, of all the cir- cumstances connected with the shipwrecks occur- ring within the scope of the operations of the Life- Saving Service, involving loss of life, with a view of determining " the cause of the disaster, and whether any of the officers or employes of the Serv- ice have been guilty of neglect or misconduct in the premises." This was a most valuable provi- sion, as it caused a detailed account of each disas- ter to be recorded and gives the Service valuable data of its work. In 1883 a uniform wage system was established, and has proven itself quite an effective element in the success of the Service. The chief or highest officer is the General Su- perintendent, appointed by the President and con- firmed by the Senate. The law places no limit as to his term of office, which is therefore subject to the pleasure of the President. !N'o one is eligi- ble to this position who is not thoroughly familiar with the means employed by the Service to save life and property from shipwreck. This officer has administrative control over the entire serv- ice. His salary is $4000 per year. An Assistant General Superintendent is ap- pointed by the Secretary of the Treasury, and in absence of the General Superintendent performs duties of the same, acting as chief adviser and assistant at all other times. This officer's salary is $2500 per year. The general headquarters of the Superintendent of the Service are at Wash- ington, D. C, where a corps of clerks, a civil engineer, a topographer, a hydrographer and a draughtsman assist in the transaction of business. A board on life-saving appliances, composed of experts obtained from the Life-Saving Service and other sources, is appointed, which examines and reports upon the devices and inventions for the improvement of life-saving apparatus. This ren- ders the Service progressive and provides it with the latest and most effective apparatus. The next ranking officer is the Inspector, de- tailed from the revenue-cutter service, upon re- quest and recommendation of the General Super- intendent. His headquarters are in !J^ew York city. Under him are assistant inspectors, — one for each district, — whose business it is to visit each station in the district at least once a month, during the " active season." This assistant in- spector is to examine and practice the station crews and make the ordinary routine of inspec- tion, and also make a careful examination of all persons who have entered the Service since his last visit, reporting to the Inspector for dismissal any found wanting. In case of a shipwreck where loss of life occurs, it is his duty to carefully in- vestigate all the circumstances, and, if possible, obtain the cause of disaster, reporting to the In- spector; also, whether officers or employes of the Service were guilty of any neglect or misde- meanor. Each one of the twelve districts into which the United States coasts are divided is controlled by a superintendent, who must be not less than twenty-five nor more than fifty-five years old when appointed. He must be a person of good charac- ter, must have a good knowledge of business af- fairs, and be able to read and write English readily. He must not only be a resident of the district for which chosen, but must also be thor- oughly familiar with the line of coast embraced within its limits; and understand the manage- ment of lifeboats and other life-saving appliances. For this reason, to gain the appointment each superintendent must pass a rigid examination as to these qualifications, given by the General Su- perintendent and Inspector. Besides being dis- bursing officers and paymasters for their respect- ive districts, they conduct the general business of the district, visit each station at least once a quar- ter, to pay off the crews and provide station needs. They make requisition on the General Superintendent for station supplies, apparatus, 66 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. and repairs, and also look after the interests of the Government in reference to dutiable property wrecked within district limits, and see that keep- ers of stations perform their duties in reference- to this and all matters in their charge. The salary of the superintendent varies from $1000 to $1800 per year, determined by the extent of duties and measure of responsibility. The most important officer in the entire Service is the keeper of the station, who has control of all its affairs. For this reason he is. selected with the greatest care. The candidate must be not less than twenty-one nor more than forty-five years of age, a person of good character, able-bodied, and must hold a certificate of physical soundness from a surgeon of the Marine Hospital Service. He must also have sufficient education to transact the business of the station, and be a master of boat- craft and surfing. He is generally nominated by the district superintendent and appointed by the General Superintendent. The keeper is required to reside constantly at his station ; has the custody of station property and control of station premises. He is captain of the station crew, leads them and shares their perils on all occasions of rescue, di- recting all operations with the apparatus. The keeper is guardian of all wrecked property until relieved by owner or agent of same, or instructed by superior authority as to its disposition. He is also, ex officio, inspector of customs, under direc- tion of the district superintendent. He is re- quired to keep a log-book or daily journal, sending a transcript each week to the district superintend- ent, who sends a duplicate to the General Super- intendent at Washington. An immediate and complete report of each wreck must be sent by each keeper to his superintendent. A keeper who lives in an isolated and lonely place is permitted to hire an assistant to stay with him during the period of the year the crew are "off duty," and is paid the maximum salary of $800 per year. The customary salary paid is $700 per year. Keepers of houses of refuge receive $400 per year. The houses of refuge are simple dwellings with capacity and conveniences for the residence of a good-sized family, and sufficient to furnish temporary shelter for as many as are likely to need it. These houses are situated on the Florida coasts, and the distance between them averages twenty-six miles; guide-posts are placed at each mile, indicating direction and distance to nearest station. Cots and sufficient provision to keep twenty-five persons ten days are supplied each house of refuge. No apparatus or boats (save a small galvanized iron boat for keeper) are pro- vided for these houses, as they are intended to succor rather than rescue the shipwrecked. The houses of refuge are manned generally by the keeper, with one and sometimes two attendants, but no crew of surfmen is maintained. The stations of the Service usually consist of two-story houses arranged as follows : On first floor a boat-room, a mess-room, a keeper's room, and a storeroom where the life-saving apparatus is kept, — which will later be discussed. The second story generally contains two and frequently four addi- tional rooms, one a sleeping-room for the men, an- other a rescue- and storage-room ; and if two ad- ditional rooms, one is a rescue or spare room and the other a kitchen. Each station-house has an ob- servatory tower or lookout and a sixty-foot flag- staff. The latter is used in signaling vessels. The roof of the station-house is painted a dark-red color, which makes it distinguishable a long way off-shore. The floating station at Louisville is a house of two stories surmounted by a lookout, and is usually moored above the dam which spans the river, at a place easily accessible to boats. It can be towed wherever necessity requires. In 1883-4, the time of the great Ohio floods, it rescued 800 persons, COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 67 and took to places of safety and supplied food and other necessaries to more than 10,000 others. Station buildings upon exposed coasts are built to withstand the tempests that frequent these coasts. Instances are on record where storms have car- ried the station-house from a quarter to a half-mile inland, without material damage. In the terrible storm of February 3, 1880, which lined the coast of IsTew Jersey with wrecks, in the very " teeth of the storm" three station crews, at dead of night, rescued all the passengers and crews of four ves- sels without a single mishap. When we learn that their beach apparatus was set up and worked in almost absolute darkness, the lanterns being so thickly covered with sleet that only the faintest glimmers of light were given out, too dim to re- veal the lines and implements used, we know that these brave men must understand their business thoroughly. To more efficiently guard the coast and prevent shipwrecks and bring quick assistance to the dis- tressed, a careful system of patrol is maintained. During 1900, 182 %vrecks were prevented by the night patrol with his red Coston handlight signal. Gen. Supt. Kimball says that the Service would be made much more effective in its rescue work if all captains of ships' crews were taught how to in- telligently cooperate with the rescue force. When we know that the life-saving appliances are being continually improved, and that the work and limits of the Service are being extended, we can indeed be thankful for its protection to life and property. To gain a conception of the scope of its work, and to show how our Uncle Sam loves his citizens and seeks to afford the greatest protection to their shipping along his shores, permit me to say that he maintains 193 stations on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, 56 on the Great Lakes, 15 on the Pacific coast, and one at the falls of the Ohio, Louisville, Ky. He maintains these stations at an average annual expense of $4000 per station, while the saving to the nation each year approximates six and one-half times the total cost, and over 4000 lives. May we teach our scholars that the men in this service are heroes, whose courage and devotion to duty all Americans should know and appreciate. QUESTION SUMMARY. 1. What was the origin of the modern life-saving or- ganizations ? 2. What life-saving appliances did the United States have prior to 1850 ? 3. When was the National Life-Saving Service of to-day established ? 4. Where were the first stations located ? 5. How many miles of lake and seacoasts now under this Service ? 6. Into how many districts are these coasts divided ? 7. Who is the highest officer of the Service, and how selected ? 8. What are his duties, and where are his headquarters ? 9. Explain the work of the board on life-saving appli- ances. 10. Explain the work of the inspector. 11. Where are his headquarters? 12. Who alone are eligible to the superintendency of a district? 13. Give the duties of this officer. 14. Who is the most important of the entire service ? Why? 15. What qualifications are required of this officer ? 16. What are the duties of the station-keeper? 17. What is the station log-book? 18. AVhat are houses of refuge, and where are they lo- cated ? 19. What supplies and equipment are kept by the keep- ers of these houses ? 20. Describe a station-house in the Life-Saving Service. 21. What can you say of the Louisville station? 22. What can you say of station buildings on exposed coasts ? 23. What incident in the storm of 1880 shows the efficient work of the U. S. Life Saving Service? 24. Explain the work of the coast night patrol. 25. What facts show the extent and value of the Service ? 68 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. CHAPTEK XI. Great Canals of Commerce. The first canals were dug by the ancient Egyp- tians and Chaldeans, for irrigation purposes. Seventeen centuries before Christ the Chaldeans dug the Koyal Canal of Babylon. Later Nebu- chadnezzar reopened this canal, and so enlarged it that merchant ships could sail on it; and six cen- turies before Christ Herodotus considered it one of the wonders of the world. About the seventh century after Christ the Im- perial Canal of China was constructed, connecting the Pei-Ho with the Yang-tse, the boats being raised from lower to higher levels by means of in- clined planes on which capstans were used. In the twelfth century canals were introduced in the ]!^etherlands, where they have become the prin- cipal means of internal communication. In the fourteenth century two Italian engineers invented the modern lift-lock. This opened a new era in canal-building, and to-day nearly every country of commercial importance has increased its natural water-ways or enhanced their commercial value by artificial means. Many cities, like Amsterdam, Manchester and New York, have by ship canals increased their com- mercial value as ports. Amsterdam in the early part of the last cen- tury dug a canal 51 miles long, connecting the river with the North Sea; and near the close of the century Manchester dug her ship canal from tide- water, 35^ miles away, so that ships of 6000 tons burden could steam directly to the city. In 1895 New York dug her canal connecting the Hudson river with Long Island Sound via Spuyten Duyvil creek and Harlem river. Erom their commercial importance, the follow- ing canals deserve special mention: 1. The Erie Canal. — This canal is a memorial to the untiring energy of Governor DeWitt Clinton, of New York. The canal was begun in 1817, and was finished in eight years. The canal was built in sections, each as level as possible, and as the land is higher in some places than it is in others, these sections were connected by locks that raise or lower the boats as may be required. From Brigh- ton to Lockport is a continuous level sixty-five miles long. At Lockport are five large double locks that have a total lift of 56 feet. These locks gave the name to the large commercial center the canal has built up here, and are examples of en- gineering skill. From Lockport to Buffalo is a section-level 31 miles long. The original canal as dug was 363 miles long, extending from Buffalo to Troy and Albany, on the Hudson river. The transfer from one section-level to another is made by means of locks. There are seventy-two of these locks. A boat going west enters the lock and is shut in. Water is allowed to enter until the lock is filled, which raises the boat to the higher level. A boat coming east is let into the lock, the water sent out, and the boat brought down to the lower level, when it continues its journey. This canal reduced freight rates from Buffalo to New York from $100 to $14 per ton, and finally to $3, and enabled people of the Northwest to ob- tain farming tools, clothing and other articles at one-eighth of their former prices. It stimulated settlements along the canal, and made New York city the distributing center for a greatly increased territory of trade. In 1862 this canal was enlarged to 70 feet at sur- face of water, with an average depth of seven feet. 2. The Caledonian Canal. — This canal was being dug at the same time the Americans were con- structing the Erie Canal. It was completed in 1822. This canal crosses Britain from the Loch Linnhe on the west, through the Highlands to the Moray Firth on the east. It makes use of four lakes whose combined length is 37 miles, while the canal proper is 23 miles long, 122 feet wide at surface of water, and 20 feet deep; making the COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. total distance of 60 miles. The canal has its slop- ing banks protected with stone-work, and vessels of 6000 tons burden can pass through the canal. 3. The Suez Canal. — This canal reaches from Port Said to Suez, and is a well-known short route to India. The canal was planned by the French engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps, and the construc- tion was executed by a company under his direc- tion. As first dug, the canal for four-fifths of its length was 327 feet wide at surface of water and 26 feet deep. For the remainder of the distance it was made 196 feet wide and 26 feet deep. The im- mense traffic of recent years has required the chan- nel to be both widened and deepened. The canal proper is 66 miles long, and utilizes 21 miles of lakes, making the full distance 87 miles. The canal cost in construction $16,000,000, is without locks, and was opened for commerce in 1869. A fresh-water canal from the Nile near Cairo parallels the salt-water canal, and, being 40 feet wide and 9 feet deep, is used for both irri- gation and navigation. The Suez Canal reduces the distance from London to Bombay from over 11,000 miles to a little more than 6000 miles, while the trade of the world passes through this channel of commerce. 4. The Baltic and North Sea Canal. — This canal was opened in June, 1891. It runs from Holtman, Bay of Kiel, to Brunsbiittel, at the mouth of the Elbe river. It is 61 miles long, 27f feet deep, and 118 feet wide. This canal is of great strategic value to Germany and of great commer- cial value to Prussia. The time saved steamers from Kiel to Hamburg is two and one-half days, and the largest war and merchant vessels of the ■empire can pass through the canal. The Empire paid two-thirds of the cost of con- struction and the kingdom of Prussia the remain- ing third. The total cost was $7,128,000. 5. The 8auU Ste. Marie Canal.*— The " Soo " canal, as this is popularly called, is but three miles * Pronounced " 800 Saint Marie." Egyptian Beef for the great Ocean Liners anchored in the Suez Canal, Port Said. long, yet its importance commercially is so great, Americans are prone to think it the greatest canal in the world. This canal connects Lake Superior with Lake Huron, avoiding the rapids of the St. Mary's river, and is considered the water gateway of the North- west. Mr. Fawcett, in a descriptive magazine article on the " Soo " canal, states that the Suez canal brought the wheat-fields of India and Aus- tralia closer to European consumers, but the " Soo " canal so cheapened transportation that the granaries of our nation continue to act as store- houses from which a large part of the commercial world draws its food supplies. There are two par- allel locks in this canal, the largest one of sufficient size to lock four lake steamers through at once. This is the largest lock in the world, and cost the Government five millions of dollars. From 100 to 150 steamers pass through this canal every day, and its commercial value is seen when we learn that the sinking of one of the lake steamers in the St. Mary's below the canal, in the fall of 1898, suspended traffic through the canal for a few days. 70 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. and for this five-days delay, vesselmen estimate their loss to have been at least one million dollars. The annual tonnage passing through this canal in its eight months of navigation is greater than that ■which passes through the Suez Canal or enters either the port of London or IsTew York in twelve months. Government reports show the lake craft to be as great as the whole merchandising fleet of the Atlantic, Pacific and Gulf coasts. Then we may truthfully say that the Soo Canal, at least 1000 miles from tide-water, is the greatest ship canal in the world. aUESTION SUMMARY. 1. Who first used canals, and for what purposes? 2. Discuss the Royal Canal of Babylon. 3. When was the Imperial Canal of China constructed? 4. What rivers does it connect ? 5. How did the early Chinese change the boats from one level to another ? 6. AVhen and where were canals first introduced into Europe ? 7. When was the lift-lock invented, and how did it affect canal commerce ? 8. Discuss the Amsterdam ship canal. 9. What can you tell of the ship canal at Manchester? 10. Locate the Erie Canal. 11. Give some facts in reference to its construction. 12. Explain the action of a lock in helping a vessel from one level to another. 13. What city is noted for its double locks ? 14. What were some important commercial effects of the Erie Canal ? 15. What Scottish canal was being dug at the same time the Erie Canal was in process of construction? 16. Locate this canal. 17. Describe this canal. 18. Give some commercial facts about this canal. 19. Who planned and constructed the Suez Canal ? 20. When was the canal completed ? 21. Why was the channel of the canal both widened and deepened in 1886 ? 22. Why has this canal no locks? Ans., The highest point is less than fifty feet above sea-level, and does not prevent an easy current flowing through the canal. 23. Since 1887 the canal has been lighted by electric- ity, and now occupies an important place as a commer- cial highway. Why? 24. What does it cost the average steamer to make the passage, and what time does it take ? Ans., $500 in gold, and requires 24 hours time to make the passage. 25. Locate the Kaiser Wilhelm or Kiel Canal. 26. Why is this canal of such value to the commerce of northern Europe ? 27. What are the dimensions and length of the canal? 28. When was this canal dug? 29. What argument can you advance for Prussia's pay- ing one-third the expense of this canal, while the Ger- man Empire controls it? 30. Locate the " Soo " canal. 31. While this canal avoids the dangerous river rapids, it has what commercial effect on transported goods? 32. What incident reveals the great importance of this canal to commerce ? 33. What can you say of the locks of the " Soo " ? 34. Compare the " Soo " commerce with the Suez com- merce. 35. Compare "Soo" commerce with London or New York commerce. 36. What fact shows the comparative value of the mer- chant marine of the Great Lakes? 37. What canal is now being contemplated that will be of greater commercial value than any other canal of the world, 121 of the 170 miles of proposed canal being a natural waterway by river and lake? Ans., The Nica- ragua Canal. 38. What do you know of the Panama Canal ? 39. Name the most important ship canals. 40. What city built on islands uses canals for streets ? Ans., Venice. 41. Name the "Northern Venice " of Europe. Why so called ? 42. What States in our Union have a number of serv- iceable canals to-day? Ans., New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. 43. What city, at considerable expense, dug a large drainage canal that is navigable from Lake Michigan to the Des Plaines river, ^ns., Chicago. 44. Has this proven of value as a highway of commerce ? Ans., No. PART II. A COMMERCIAL TRIP AROUND THE WORLD, (71) COl^TEKTS OF PAET II. Ave. From Boston to Buffalo 73 A Lake Ride from Buffalo to Duluth 79 From the Lakes to the Pacific 88 A Trip through the Pacific 96 Across the Eastern Continent 122 A Winter Voyage Across the Atlantic 135 172.) South Terminal Station, Boston, Massachusetts. A COMMERCIAL TRIP AROUND THE WORLD. From Boston to Buffalo. We will take a trip and try to gain a conception of the commercial world. We start from historic Boston, the metropolis of !N^ew England. Here we see Old South Church, Faneuil Hall, Bunker Hill Monument, and old North Church, from whose belfry gleamed the sig- nal-lights that sent Paul Revere on his famous ride. We go down to the harbor. We pass the navy yard, a place of special interest, since here are stationed " Old Ironsides," and some of the vessels which gave such a good account of them- selves in the late war with Spain. Before us now lies the beautiful harbor, with its tinted waves roll- ing in one mad frolic to our very feet. The Gov- ernment has just recently authorized the expendi- ture of $8,000,000 to be used in widening and deep- ening the channel for shipping. Here are merchant vessels for thirteen international lines. They ex- port provisions (including animals), breadstuff s, cotton manufactures, leather manufactures, and iron and steel manufactures, in order named. They import wool and manufactures, fibers, sugar. hides and skins, cotton and manufactures, iron and steel manufactures, and leather, in order named. The total foreign tonnage in 1900 was 4^ mill- ion tons. The coast trade of Boston is greater than that of any other city of the United States. The total coast tonnage in and out for Boston in 1900 was 16^ million tons, while New York, the next largest, had 14^ million tons. The total for- eign commerce carried on at the port of Boston is now over 192 million dollars, making it the second port of commerce in our nation. Its water com- merce has made it the terminal of the trunk lines of the North Atlantic States. This has caused Boston to be a channel for a very heavy commerce, reaching from Chicago, Illinois, to Portland, Maine. Boston now leads all ports in the shipment of live cattle. The centering of so many railroads in Boston has led to the erection of two very large union depots. The one known as the South Ter- minal Station is one of the largest railroad stations in the world. The station has a total front of 3100 feet. It is fitted up with all modern conveniences, including apparatus for heating, lighting, ice-mak- (73) 74 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. ing, air-compressing, fire-protection service, pump- ing-plant for disposing of water whicli may find its way into portions of the property situated be- low tide-water; and besides these, centrifugal pumps pump away any possible sewage and storm- water, which, owing to the suburban tracks, would be carried to a lower level. The storm-water of melting ice and snow from the fourteen acres of roofs of this great station are carried away by large conductors, special provision being made to keep them constantly open by suitable hot-water and steam supply. To prevent the basements from dampness and possible leakage from tide-water, a coffer dam was built, at an expense of $75,000, and it has effect- ually done its work. Then,, too, the lower floor is underlaid with ten layers of tarred paper, swabbed together with hot coal-tar pitch on a concrete base. The building covers 13 acres, has 32 terminal tracks, aggregating 15 miles — 4 miles of this being under roof. Nearly T50 trains arrive at and leave this station daily. The station is lighted by 235 arc and 6000 incandescent lights, and has 25 electric elevators, affording easy and ready transit from floor to floor. We purchase a ticket to Buffalo, and enter a Boston & Albany train that is scheduled to leave this station at 2 p. m.. Eastern standard time, June 28th. We soon find ourselves under way, on a road 80 well ballasted that there is no jar. Al- though we are moving at the rate of forty miles an hour, there is absolutely no dust, for the track is thoroughly sprinkled with oil ; so no dust is raised by the rapid motion of the train. Our first stop is at Worcester, 44 miles out from Boston. This city is the second city in Massachu- setts ; is a great manufacturing and railroad center. Its wire and iron goods, boots and shoes and Clark University have made Worcester famous. We passed 23 villages and towns in coming these forty miles, which shows us how thickly populated this State is. Each village has manufacturing plants of some kind. Probably the most noted one is Waltham, near Boston, just off to the right from the B. & A. road. Here are the works of the American Watch Co., employing 2400 workmen and turning out 2100 completed watches daily. As we fly on our way westward we seem to see factory chimneys on every hand, which convinces us that Massachusetts is surely given the head of the column in the list of manufacturing States of our Union. At 4:30 our train pulls into the Springfield station. Here is the home of the Springfield rifle^ the seat of the U. S. Armory, where guns for army and navy are made. It is the center of large car and bicycle plants, as well as jewelry and cutlery industries. We now cross the Connecticut river, and go whirling westward. We notice the preva- lence of the !N"ew England hills, and ask our seat- mate about it. He informs us that we are nearing the Hoosac range of mountains. "Will we pass through the famous tunnel?" we ask. "!N"o," he replies; "that is on the Eitchburg Route, that runs through l^orth Adams, about twenty-five miles north of Pittsfield, the town that is our next stop." Then we ask our Massachusetts friend about the Hoosac tunnel, and he informs us that this tunnel was first proposed in 1819, to be used as a canal tunnel through Elorida mountain for a proposed Hudson river and Boston canal. In 1825 a commission selected by the Massachusetts Legis- lature chose the line via Eitchburg and the Miller and Deerfield rivers, with this projected tunnel through the Hoosac range. Steam roads began now to attract attention, and the canal plan was later supplanted by a plan for a railroad. The tunnel was completed in 1873, and regular trains were started through the tunnel in 1876. The tunnel is 26 feet wide and from 22 to 26 feet high, giving ample room for the double tracks that run through the tunnel. The entrances to the tunnel are granite facades, and these reveal the superior workmanship throughout the entire structure. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 75 The central ventilating shaft is a little west of the middle of the tunnel. It is 15 x 27 feet, and ex- tends from the top of the tunnel bore to the sum- mit of the mountain — 1028 feet. The west shaft is 2400 feet from the west entrance, and is 318 feet to the surface of slope. The tunnel is lighted by 1250 incandescent electric lights. Thus we see the lighting and ventilating of this famous tunnel, four and three-fourths miles long, is nearly perfect. The tunnel has cost its owners 20^ mill- ions of dollars ; part of this expense has been borne by the State of Massachusetts. The B. & A. road now follows the valley of a small tributary stream of the Connecticut river until it reaches the Berkshire Hills, a part of the Hoosac range made famous by Whittier's " Smack in School." From the summit grade to Pittsfield is a most picturesque and delightful scenery, and we can now understand the great advantages of I^ew England life, hills, and water-power. At 6 :08 our train makes its third stop, and we are in Pittsfield, 151 miles from Boston, and but nine miles from the "York State" line. This city was incorporated as a shire town of Berkshire county in 1761, and was named after William Pitt. It has a beautiful park in the very heart of the city. In the center of this park stands a handsome mon- ument in memory of Pittsfield citizens who fell in the Civil War. This city has extensive manu- factories in cotton and woolen goods, paper, silk, and machinery. We now speed onward, and at 7 :30 p. m. reach the capital of the Empire State — Albany, 200 miles west of Boston and 140 miles north of New York city. Our train was the Special Express, which stops only at end of divisions and makes an average of forty miles an hour. There are 66 vil- lages, towns or cities from Boston to Albany, and 39 from Albany to Ifew York, which gives one an idea of the density of population in this, the great manufacturing region of the nation. Let us take one manufacturing plant in this region, employing 2400 workmen. Each year these men and their families consume 8750 barrels of flour, 60,000 bushels of potatoes, 180,000 dozen eggs, 1,000,000 quarts of milk, 325,000 pounds of butter, and 1,000,000 pounds of meat, to say nothing of the sugar, coffee and tea used. Since they must also buy clothing, shoes, etc., this one factory, by fur- nishing the money for all these purchases, helps to support farmers, storekeepers, other factories, gives railroads freight to haul, and renders commercial assistance to very many neighbors. Thus we see manufacturing andf mining Xew England calls upon the agricultural and cattle-raising central States for food and meat supplies, and hence the great east-and-west trunk lines of traffic, which extend the facilities for commerce of both regions. We are now in what Is known as the "Albany Gateway," through which passes the nation's com- merce via the Xew York Central Railroad, the Erie Canal, and the historic Hudson. Besides its im- portant location commercially, the facts that it is the capital of New York, the central city of an agTicultural and dairy country, and the home of many manufacturing plants, tend to make Albany an important business town. We here take the Lake Shore Express, one of the fast train, on the only four-track railway in the world — the New York Central. Two tracks are used for freight traffic and two tracks for pas- senger traffic to and from New York, its terminal point. The regular schedule for this fast train is fifty-five miles per hour, and yet we can scarcely realize that we are moving. We place a glass of water on the window-ledge, and although the glass is filled to the brim we cannot observe the spilling of a drop. We find that the "click" in passing from rail to rail is not heard, and learn that the "continuous rail" that is used over the 10,000 miles of this system entirely removes this unpleas- ant sound. But look ! we are now flying through one of the oldest towns in the State — Schenectady, a village that was sacked and burned by the In- / 76 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. "Rounding the Nose," New York Central Railroad, Mohawk Valley, New York. dians and its inhabitants massacred in a midnight attack in 1690. To-daj it is a most interesting place. Here are located the Schenectady Locomo- tive Works, the second largest locomotive works in the vs^orld, employing 2650 men. Here also we find the General Electric Company, which is one of the greatest manufacturers of electric appliances in the world. It employs 7200 men and its weekly pay-roll exceeds $80,000. Besides these two great plants are numerous other manufacturing estab- lishments, that make this city a very busy place. We are now on one of our nation's greatest ar- teries of commerce, that traverses one of the most beautiful valleys in our nation. Dr. Talmage, a world-traveler, says, " The most beautiful sight I ever witnessed was along the Mohawk Valley." Our next stop is at Utica, 95 miles west of Al- bany. This city is situated at the most favored spot in the Mohawk Valley, at the junction of the Erie and Chenango canals, and is a great railroad center. Its manufacturing plants annually turn out more than ten million dollars' worth, and thou- sands of pounds of New York cream cheese are sent from its agricultural district. The city was developed by the Erie Canal, and within the busi- ness part of the city is the site of old Eort Schuyler of Revolutionary fame. We are now entering the great lake and fruit region of " York State." The importance of the farms in this region leads to the study of the State's farm products, and we find that Illinois is the only State that surpasses K^ew York in the value of her farm products, while this State ranks first in buck- wheat, hops, milk, butter, and cheese. As we leave the valley of the Mohawk for the " Lake Divide," we decide that this view — " rounding the nose in the Mohawk Valley " — is the most striking of the many charming views that the bright moonlight of the evening has revealed to us. After an hour's delightful ride through this rich farming region we reach our second stop — Syracuse, almost half-way between Albany and Buffalo. This city is on a creek of the same name, at the head of Onondaga lake. Here is lo- cated the State armory, and just outside the cor- poration stands the State School for the Feeble- Minded, — a beautiful structure in the Italian style of architecture. Syracuse is a great railroad center, with ten important railroads. The Erie Canal passes through the city, and has been an im- portant factor in its growth. Syracuse is knowTi far and wide for its salt. The salt springs were first visited by the Jesuits in 1787, when a white settlement was established and began the manu- facture of salt. This is now one of the lesser in- dustries of the city, as the city turns out over 25 million dollars' worth of manufactured articles annually. Very extensive iron and steel works, sash, door, blind, table and other furniture fac- tories, factories of musical instruments, glass, matches, agricultural implements, ready-made clothing, are seen in this city of over 100,000 population. As our train continues its westward journey we are impressed with the train after train of heavy freight we see traveling eastward. After a sud- den start caused by the quick passage of an east- \ COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 77 bound fljer, we venture to question the nearest neighbor about the freight traffic of the New York Central. This man, affable and courteous, was an early settler. He told us that he lived in this re- gion when it took a week to travel from Albany to Buffalo. He has seen the development of this road we are riding on, from one track to the six parallel tracks that now stretch from Albany to Buffalo. Said he : " The Erie Canal w^as a great thing for us and for the State, and to-day it transports annually three and one-half million tons of freight. But it has several competitors in the 87 railroads that are now in York State, some five or six being active competitors of the canal for Buffalo freight." " To-day it is no uncommon sight to see a N'ew York Central freight engine pull 75 grain cars, each holding 1000 bushels, ag- gregating the average product of 3750 acres of wheat. That train that we are now passing is a long one, and probably has 85 to 90 cars of wheat." " During the busy season our folks have counted from 75 to 100 daily trains of through freight. I am told that the freight carried over those four tracks yonder amounts to 25^ million tons in a year." " The strangest thing about the whole business," said the K'ew- Yorker, " is that the New York Central now carries a bushel of oats from Buffalo to New York (450 miles) as cheaply as Uncle Sam carries a letter between the same points. This, I am told, includes Buffalo elevator and New York lighterage charges." Thanking our New York friend for his kindness, we now studied the landscape, which was a con- stantly changing panorama, with villages, green fields, dark woods, and silvery water beautifully intermingled. At 1 :15 A. M. we reach Rochester, the " Flower City " of our nation. This city clearly illustrates the effect of commercial connection w4th the world of commerce. In 1822 this city is said to have been a village of half a hundred: through its transportation facilities it has grown to be a city of 170,000. Rochester is situated in the rich Gen- esee valley, and lies on both banks of the Genesee river. Within the city are three falls, one being 96 feet and affords fine water-power. Before the development of the great wheat region of the North- west, this was the " Flour City " of the nation. Although it still has 17 flourishing flouring-mills, it has passed the sobriquet on to its big successor of the Northwest. Here we see the fine aqueduct that conveys the water of the Erie Canal over the river. This aqueduct is 848 feet long, 45 feet wide, and consists of 10 arches. Here originated the kodak camera, and $5,000,000 is now invested in the kodak business at this point. Rochester has a magnificent system of water-works, the Holly system, that pumps the water for city use through 262 miles of mains. Here are located the largest carriage-works in the United States, besides more than a thousand other manufacturing plants, turn- ing out an annual product valued at more than QQ millions of dollars. But the great industry is the flower industry, hundreds of acres surrounding the town-site being entirely given over to the rais- ing of flowers. The Rochester University and a theological sem- inary were established in 1850, and have grown to be strong and important educational attractions for the town. The rapid growth of the city is largely due to its immense water-power, the facilities for transportation, and the remarkable fertility of the surrounding country, being but seven miles from Lake Ontario and in the great vine and nursery region of New York. We now leave the canal, our almost constant companion from Albany, and, turning southwest, have a delightful run across the richest farming region of the State. We reach the city of Pan- American fame at 3 :10 a. m. Eastern standard time. We have been but seven hours, including all stops, in traveling from Albany to Buffalo, a dis- tance of 300 miles. September 14, 1891, the Em- pire State Express, drawn by the famous locomo- 78 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. tive ISTo. 999, made an experimental run from I^ew York to Buffalo, making a 4:36^-mile run in 425^ minutes — the fastest time on record. This ex- press, the pride of all Isevf York, makes its regu- lar daily run between these cities at an average schedule speed of 53-| miles per hour, including four stops, two of them to change engines, and twenty-eight slow-downs through incorporated cities. The regular schedule time on parts of the line is 64.8 miles per hour. (See cuts of the first steam railway train in the State, and the " Empire State Express," the fastest regular train in the world, on page 27.) Let us spend a day at the Pan-American Exposi- tion and Xiagara Falls, before we take our lake ride to Duluth. We entered Buffalo during the period of the Pan-American Exposition, which was destined to bring the three Americas into closer social and commercial relations, and thus promote the well- being of the Western continents. Buffalo, in the vicinity of Niagara Falls and within a day's communication of forty million peo- ple, convinced Congress and the nation at large that she offered peculiar advantages for the expo- sition that was to illustrate the development of the Western World in the arts, industries, manufac- tures, and show the products of the soil, the mine, and the sea. The " Rainbow City " is a memorial to Buffalo enterprise, industry and capital. The color effects, electrical features and the object les- son of the vast resources of North, Central and COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 79 South America was a surprise and delight to the thousands who came from all lands. Many were surprised to find Buffalo a city of almost 400,000 people, the home of more than 3000 great fac- tories — one-twelfth the manufacturing establish- ments of the nation. Buffalo was seen to be a great railway center, with her 26 lines of railway, having a passenger service of 250 trains daily and an im'- mense freight traffic. It is the fourth commercial port of the world, uath 12 steamer lines, repre- senting an annual tonnage of five million tons, be- ing the eastern gateway of the great lake trade. It is reported to be an exchange point for more trade and traffic than any other place in the world. Buffalo has the finest system of interurban trolley railways of any American city. The great i^orthwestern elevator is the largest in the world, and with its numerous companions re- ceives and distributes annually 200 million bushels of grain. Besides this, Buffalo handles 670 thou- sand tons of miscellaneous freight from her lake trade alone. In 1886 citizens of Buffalo offered $100,000 to the genius who would devise means of harnessing Niagara's power. Ten years afterward this en- gineering wonder was accomplished, and to-day the factories of not only Buffalo but many other cities within a radius of profitable transmission are worked by the mechanical or electric energy from the small fraction of Niagara's power that has now been harnessed — 450,000 horse-power. All the machinery of the Pan-American Exposi- tion, the street-cars, the electric-lighting system, the scores of mills and hundreds of factories of Buffalo in 1901 were supplied their energy in units of 5000 horse-power each, transmitted over copper cables of 19 wires each. A Liake Ride from Buffalo to Duluth. But, wearied of sights and wonders, we see the spacious harbor and easily select the pride of the lakes — the steamer " Northwest." This is the one that is to take us on the longest lake ride in the world, and we therefore study it with interest as we ascend the gang-plank and proceed on deck. This is one of two steamers that were built by the Globe Iron Works of Cleveland, Ohio, expressly for passenger service. It impresses us as a verita- ble floating palace as we stand on a promenade deck more than one-eighth of a mile long. Through the kindness of a ship's officer we gain a conception of the size of this creation of steel. " The Northwest is 386 feet long, 44 feet wide, and 34 feet deep," he says. " Its hull is built of steel throughout, the interior being especially constructed to meet the necessary requirements of the 28 Belleville patent water tube boilers with their two quadruple ex- pansive 3500-horse-power engines which are placed amidship, with coal-bunkers extending longitudi- nally through the different boiler spaces, capable of holding 1000 tons of coal. The lower deck for- ward is fitted for emigrant passengers, and the after deck as a baggage-room and crew quarters. Between the two, amidship, is the electric engine and dynamo-room, 120,000 feet of wire being used throughout the boat, furnishing fifteen hundred sixteen-candle-power lights and an electric signal- light of 100,000 candle-power. "A refrigerator plant is also used on the steamer, cooling all compartments carrying perishable pro- visions. The plant is arranged to manufacture 1000 pounds of ice per day for use on shipboard. On the main deck you find our dining-room, seat- ing 150 guests. Please observe that the woodwork is finished in white mahogany, and that the furni- ture has been especially designed and made for this boat. Come with me up the grand staircase to the spar deck and see the grand saloon, which clearly illustrates the 'rococo' style of decorations em- ployed throughout the boat. On the hurricane deck are our staterooms. Those forward are fur- nished with full-sized bedsteads and all modern conveniences. Here we have accommodations for 544 passengers." 80 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. " "What was the cost of this steamer ? " we ask. " Over one and one-half millions of dollars," we are told. " What is her speed ? " " Twenty knots an hour." " What is her crew ? " " One hundred and eighty-five as true sailors of water as salts from the sea," answered the officer. And now we notice that preparations for the voyage are actively in prog- ress. Promptly at 10:15 p.m. we move out from the dock, pass the tall elevators, and with our searchlight lakeward our voyage is begun. As we pass out of the harbor the beautifully illuminated electric tower on the Pan-American grounds stands out boldly, with the night for its background. Its flashlight, more than 400 feet from the ground, illuminates the grounds, and its searchlight is the great " magic lantern of Wonder- land." That tower with its 40,000 radiant lights gave the name " Electric City " to the Exposition grounds. The lights of the city, added to those used at the Pan-American grounds, made a sum total of 500,000, the power for their illumination being a very small fraction of the energy of Niagara, " twenty miles away." As we gaze upon, that beautiful sight, a city of stars, with playing fountains of flashing diamonds, we are reminded of Secretary of State Hay's apt remarks, June 13th, 1901 : " Last night as I looked from my window at this marvelous creation lined in fire upon the evening sky, and to-day as I have walked through the courts and the palaces of this incomparable exhibition, the words of the prophet have been constantly in my mind : ' Your old men shall dream dreams; your young men shall see visions.' It was noble and inspiring, leading to earnest and uplifting labor. This ideal of the brotherhood of nations of the Western World is not a growth of yesterday. It was heralded when the country was young, by the clarion voice of Henry Clay; it was cherished by Seward and Evarts, Douglas and Blaine. Out of a good source evil cannot flow; out of the light darkness cannot be born. The benignant influences that shall emanate from this festival of peace shall not be bounded by oceans nor by continents." The 175 miles from Buffalo to Cleveland is measured in seven hours. We pass the lighthouse, that used to have the upper and lower lights. On siormy nights, unless the .lower lights were burning ships seeking entrance to the harbor were liable to be cast upon the rocks and wrecked. One very stormy night the lower lights went out, and a large steamer was wrecked. That incident led P. P. Bliss to write the beautiful song, " Let the Lower Lights be Burning." We observe that the light- house has been cut down, and has no upper lights at present. We pass the breakwater, and enter a beautiful harbor inclosing two miles of water- front. Besides the lake port, Cleveland has the Cuyahoga river frontage of sixteen miles, five of which are docked. Here is located the largest dry- dock on the lakes, built in 1891. It rests on 2000 piles, surrounded by a five-foot wall of puddle, costing in all $200,000. We find Cleveland to be the leading shipbuilding city of our nation, second only to the Scotch city of Clyde, the most exten- sive shipbuilder in the world. Her lake commerce exceeds 275,000 tons, the largest single item being iron ore. Here is the home of the Standard Oil Co., where until recently more petroleum was refined than at any other place in the commercial world. Cleve- land also leads the world in sewing-machine manu- facture, while her heavy iron castings, bridges, trusses, nails and tacks are well-known articles of trade. Her 2500 manufactories employ more than 50,000 workmen. Her more than thirty banks are ■so economically and prudently administered that she has not had a bank failure for over eighty years. Her Euclid avenue marks the highest type of beautiful and well-lawned streets, and her Garfield Memorial is the observatory of one of the most beautiful cemeteries of the nation, as well as the greatest tribute of the nation to a beloved though martyred son of Ohio. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 81 Moses Cleveland, in July, 1796, sailed up the lake-shore to the mouth of the Cuyahoga with a company of forty-eight men and two women. View- ing the landscape from the plateau near the lake, Mr. Cleveland exclaimed, " This is destined to be the site of a ^eat town and the future gateway to the great West and South." To-day it is the hand- somest of all the lake cities, with more than 380,- 000 people, the largest city in the Buckeye State. Cargo and mail exchanged, we leave Cleveland harbor, to enter, in a few hours, Lake Erie's most famous summer resort — Put-in Bay. This marks a group of small islands about sixty miles north- west of Cleveland ; one island — Put-in Bay — having a small but excellent harbor. Just off the northwest corner of this island occurred the famous naval battle of Lake Erie, where Commodore Oli- ver H. Perry met the British fleet in 1813, and told the story of the battle in the laconic message to the President, " We have met the enemy and they are ours." Some of the brave sailors who lost their lives in the great battle, sleep beneath the Napoleonic willow that marks their grave on the northwest plat of the island. Now we are " at sea " again, and with large ap- petites sit down to luncheon in the dining-room. Out of sight of land, yet in the middle of a great continent. Racing through the waters at a speed of more than twenty-five miles an hour, yet moving so steadily that our coffee does not spill nor the lemon custard lose its form. Words cannot de- scribe that meal, but its last course is just com- pleted when " land " is called, and on reaching deck we find our ship nearing the Canadian shores at the extreme western end of the lake. " What ! do we not stop at Sandusky or Toledo ? " " No, we cannot make all lake cities in this line, which is scheduled, and is the ' Fast Flyer ' of the lakes," said a ship's officer in passing. Asking him about Toledo, he told us that Toledo had one of the best harbors on the lakes. It does the greatest business in soft coal and clover seed of any lake city. It has large manufacturing industries, while the " Wool- son Spice Co." is a household word all over the country. Toledo has about 135,000 inhabitants, and has a great railroad commerce. We now enter the Detroit river and the scenic part of our route begins, for from the lighthouse at the entrance of the river until we pass Mackinac there is not a mile that we do not want to " kodak." Simultaneously, Windsor (Canada) and Detroit are revealed by a bend in the river. These two cities are separated only by the river, about a mile apart, yet commerce is subject to inspection by Government officials that pass between them, for everything must "pass" by custom-house regula- tion. We reach Detroit (French for " The Strait") at 4 p. M., and spend thirty minutes in port. While waiting here we go up where we can see Belle Island, whose horticultural beauty shows the skill of that prince of landscape gardeners, Mr. F. L. Olmstead, the artist who planned the landscape vistas of the Columbian Fair Grounds at Chicago in 1893. We next take a " bird's-eye view " of the only marine postoffice in the world. The tonnage passing Detroit in a season of eight months is more than that received in London, the greatest port on the globe, in twelve months. It is even more than the tonnage received at New York added to that received at Liverpool. Seven-eighths of this tonnage is carried in the holds of " through freighters" that do not touch at Detroit either going or coming. On an average there is a vessel passing the port every four minutes of the day dur- ing the lake season of eight months. To serve these interests, Uncle Sam has established a marine post- office. The tug " Florence B." has three carriers, who classify by lines and boats the mail received from the clerks of the marine office. These carriers work in shifts of eight hours each, and, we are told, so efficient is the work done in this marine office that owners of steamers rely upon it for delivery of 82 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. orders to their captains and crews, and their fami- lies are brought in as close communication as though connected by the best of railroad mail lines. The home of Tecumseh, an historic Indian of "bellum" days, is pointed out to us on Peche Island. Many of these islands, so promiscuously scattered through the river, have costly houses where wealthy Detroiters spend their summer hours. We now notice that Detroit has a nine-mile water frontage, and learn that her lake trade ag- gregates 235,000 tons. We learn that Detroit is a most delightful city of nearly 290,000 people, but do not have time to go " up town." As we leave port we get a beautiful panoramic view of the city. It contains many costly buildings, and has such a good slope that its drainage is well-nigh perfect, and with a large river having a good current wash- ing its shores, sanitation is remarkably good. We round the headland of Belle Island, where is located a rugged stone Government lighthouse, and enter the waters of Lake St. Clair. Just at sunset we reach the Government Ship Canal, at the mouth of the St. Clair river. This canal was built by the U. S. Government, at an expense of $650,000. It is 8200 feet long, 200 feet wide, and 16 feet deep. As the electric lights are turned on, let us go to the library and get an estimate of the Great Lake commerce. We find there the Government treasury reports for 1900, and from these learn that 37 of the main ports show an aggregate of 1,266,000 tons of flour, 53,000,000 bushels of wheat, 71,000,000 of corn, 33,000,000 of oats, 13,- 000,000 bushels of barley and rye, nearly 20,000,- 000 tons of iron ore, 2,000,000 tons of coal, 2,000,- 000 feet of lumber, with three and one-half million tons of unclassified or miscellaneous trade. The freighters that are largely used for this work are built especially for the lake trade, and are termed " whalebacks " from their peculiar shape as shown by the cut on page 87. Many of these "whale- backs " with their barges haul enough doAvn-stream to fill thirty freight trains of thirty-five cars each. As it is now bright moonlight, we again seek the deck, to study that most peculiar river, not more than thirty miles long, that has a mightier commerce than the great " Father of Waters," and yet has so many islands that each one of us is tempted to be a Robinson Crusoe and have an island all to one's self. In the language of another, we give a word-picture of these remarkable St. Clair Flats: "Passing into the entrance of St. Clair river, which is a vast expanse of marshland and clear running water, full of deep and winding channels, the boat enters the famous St. Clair Flats. These consist of thousands of acres of partly sub- merged land, the curious topography of which is a source of constant wonder and delight to the ' land- lubber.' Here nature has blended the beauties of river, lake, meadow-land and trees into a picture of indescribable loveliness. Instead of being a stagnant marsh, full of green slime and disagree- able odors, the waters flow clear as crystal over a sweet-smelling meadow-land, offering a paradise for those who seek piscatorial delights, or love to hear the musical dip of the oars as the rowboat glides over the streets of watery blue that beautify this lovely little Venice." As we approach the source of the river strait, w^e see the tall spires and silent columns of Port Huron on the one side and quaint old Sarnia on the other. Here is located one of the most remark- able tunnels yet projected — the St. Clair tunnel. For a number of years ferry-boats transported the trains of the Grand Trunk Railroad across the river at this point. This at any time was expen- sive, but in the winter, with the river filled with floating ice and a current of six to eight miles an hour, it becomes ofttimes a hazardous undertaking ; and even in summer the time consumed in crossing the river often broke the train's schedule. Then it was decided to tunnel under the river. Opera- tions were begun simultaneously on both sides of COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 83 the river. The river is here from one-half to three- quarters of a mile wide, and forty feet deep. Fif- teen feet was allowed for a " roof," and steel tubes called " shields " were driven through the blue clay below the roof. In these shields the men worked, and on Au^ist 30th, 1890, the shields from the Canadian shore met those from the United States shore in the middle of the river, and the chief engineer had completed his remarkable work in one year's time, surmounted obstacles that at times threatened utter defeat of his plans, when, in spite of all he could do, it seemed as if the tunnel would be flooded. But the air-compressor sent in an added pressure of air, often running up to forty pounds per square inch, holding back the water until the shield was forced through the gravel or loose sand pocket that contained the water, into the blue clay beyond. This remarkable tunnel is 6000 feet long, and by the electric light its night is turned to day. We pass grim Fort Gratiot, and are soon steam- ing through the moonlit waters of Lake Huron. Next to shallow Lake Erie (only 200 feet deep), Huron has had the most furious storms and wrecked more ships than any other of the Great Lakes. It is over 800 feet deep and more than 240 miles long. On its eastern shore is a wide extension known as Georgian bay, and half-way up the United States shore is Saginaw bay, fully 15 miles wide and 40 miles long, with Bay City and Saginaw cities at its head. The Saginaw river is 18 miles long, and on its banks have been produced eighteen billion feet of pine boards. While in the middle of Lake Huron wdth a water- bounded sky we saw the king of day rise up from his water bath. Oh, that sunrise on the water! To fully comprehend it, one must see it; words prove inadequate for a just conception. Just before noon we come to the meeting of the ways, the boats from Lakes Superior and Michi- gan entering the same channel on their way to the far East. We deflect from the direct course to touch at Mackinac Island, rich with early conti- nental history, alternating as it did between In- dian, French, English and American possession. Here La Salle hunted, fished, and traded wdth the Indians ; while Joliet, Marquette and Champlain legends make this a center of Northwestern his- tory and romance. As our boat stops here for one hour and fifteen minutes, we will take an inven- tory of some few of the many delights, to the globe- trotter, found on this island of green hills and typical French landscape. Yonder, commanding the rounded harbor, is that old fort, now crumbling to decay wdth the neglect of peace. Here, high up on the pine-clad bluff that commands a fine lake view, is the Grand Hotel, where most of our passengers are indulg- ing in a clam-bake. Along the hillsides, even to the very '^vater's edge, we see scores of cozy sum- mer cottages built for comfort rather than style, — for here, is the Mecca where many spend their "halcyon days" in rest and recuperation. Up there on the eastern side of that limestone cliff is Arched Rock, a natural bridge 145 feet high and 40 feet wide. Then we go down to a place where the British landed in 1812, take a peep at the Fairy Arch, Devil's Kitchen, Lover's Leap, Chimney Rock, Pontiac's Lookout, Scott's Cave, and stroll through the beautiful grounds of the many hotels and cafes found here. Mackinac is the field elysian to the disciple of Izaak Walton, and as a summer resort ranks second only to Harbor Springs, the greatest one in this Great Lake region. As we return to the boat we see that more than half our number have transferred for passage to Chicago, the famous metropolis of the interior and second city of our Union. We notice a cool summer breeze, and find that our thermometer registers but 60 degrees, — most delightful w-eather for midsummer. We learn that the average tem- perature for June at Mackinac is less than 59° ; July, 64°; August, 62°; September, 56° to 57°. 84 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. MdCKinac is'di'a — 0,d Fort.. At 12 :45 p. M. we contiime our journey, for we are 588 miles from Buffalo. Soon we enter the St. Mary's river, with its 5000 emerald isles and lake-like enlargements all along its length of sixty-two miles, fringed by high protecting walls of hills. We pass by an island that reminds us of " Jam " Island that we visited in Lake Huron, where more raspberry jam is produced than in any other place in the nation. The Indians pick the berries, and jam is made by thousands of gallons every year. "We observe tents alongshore and an occasional motionless and seemingly unoccupied rowboat as we pass along. We also observe that our boat is moving along very leisurely. On inquiring we find that Government watchers are in the tents and rowboats. It is their business to see that no steamer passes through this river at a speed of more than twenty-one miles per hour. Should they report a greater speed than that, owners of the vessel are required to pay a five-hundred-dollar fine. The peculiar nature of navigation in the river renders this precaution necessary, and these Government watchers have learned to spy out from inconspicuous places every passing vessel of more than two thousand five hundred tons burden. No vessel can easily elude their vigilance, and the Government enforces its penalty without "fear or favor." Just before eight o'clock in the evening we reach Sault Ste. Marie. On account of the rapids in the St. Mary's at this point, the river is not navi- gable. To obviate this, the Government at a great cost built the Sault Ste. Marie Canal (popularly called the " Soo " Canal) from this city to the lake, a distance of three miles. Our vessel with three others was " entered " at the new lock, the rear gates shut, and the water COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 85 Enter'Og the Lock, " Soo ' Canai, let in. Ill a very short time we gradually rose to the level of Lake Superior — eighteen feet — and the front gates were cleared for us to "toll out." This lock was opened by the United States Government August 3, 1896. It took nine years Canal Lock Empty, "Soo" Canal. to build it, and it cost five millions of dollars. The lock is 100 feet wide, and is twenty-one feet deeper than the level of the river. As we see, it is long enough to " lock " four large lake steamers through at once. The " Soo " has three large locks — two opened by the United States Government, and one built by the Canadian Government. The latter is 900 feet long, 60 feet wide, and 26f feet deep. As we pass slowly up the ship canal we can but think of the effect of this commercial improve- ment on the Northwest country. In the early days this was the gateway of the fur trade, but to- day a commercial fleet of more than 4000 steam and sail vessels passes through this gateway with nearly $240,000,000 of the nation's varied com- merce, and navigates these great inland seas, con- taining one-third of the fresh water of the globe. 86 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. And wliat is tlie cost? Official reports of late years reveal the fact that lake freight is being transported at an average cost of three-quarters of a mill per ton per mile, while the very lowest charge by rail that we can obtain is three mills per ton per mile. Although millions of dollars have already been spent, even greater expendi- tures are planned to make the commercial service of these natural highways still more remunerative and effective. N'ow we are upon Superior, the greatest body of fresh water known to man. It covers more ter- ritory than the States of Delaware, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, j^ew Jersey, and Vermont, with the District of Columbia and our island posses- sions of Wake, Guam and Tutuila thrown in for good measure. This lake, more than a thousand feet deep, is fed by thousands of cold springs, that make the water even in midsummer so cool that overcoats and other winter wraps are none too heavy for deck promenades. Look at those receding shores ! The moonlight reveals the regular layers of rock that are so smooth and straight that one would think them the parts of some carefully laid wall. We are told that it is nature's own handiwork, and that passengers who return view these 'scenes by day- light. They report this the beginning of those miles and miles of pictured rocks that show re- markable colors in the sunlight. The southern shores of this lake give to Michigan her wealth of copper, coal, and iron. Here is mined one-third of the copper of our nation, the richest copper re- gion of the world ; while the iron beds of Superior are well-nigh inexhaustible. A little before noon we pass this busy port on Keweenaw peninsula called Copper Harbor. Here, we learn, is one of the greatest copper ports in our land. Kow we are water-bounded on the bosom of this mighty inland sea. The " I^orthwest " is showing herself a speedy vessel, making her top- rate speed. Seated in our steamer-chair on the hurricane deck, in a place that shelters us from the lake breeze yet gives a commanding view to the left and right, with a good ship's orchestra giving life and pleasure to all on shipboard, with neither dust nor heat to detract or annoy, — surely, this is the acme of travel and this the crowning pleasure of a most delightful voyage. Time forbids telling of the historic and remark- able islands passed on the way, although the Apos- tle group have a very interesting and historic past. Surely, this is well named by the Ojibways, " Git- chee Gumee " — the Big Sea Water. Sunset on Lake Superior can be painted but not described. Have you ever stood before a mighty but silent power and felt its energy thrill your soul ? Did you ever gaze upon a picture that was so beautiful, so impressive, that language for- sook you, and then you would stand speechless, with eyes bringing to the soul the indescribable beauty that the artist had made so realistic ? Then you may know that, as the sun slowly sinks to his rest and stops to admire the roseate beauty of his own tinted clouds and the flashing jewels of Su- perior's rippling waters, the true lover of nature is impressed by the depth of color that darkens in the waning light, and feels the weight of the mighty expanse of water whose gloom is forced in upon his very soul by the slowly deepening twi- light shadows. Mighty as our 5000-ton passenger steamer may seem, when that " Big Sea Water " shows his now hidden force our steamer w^ill be a pigmy in the power of a Samson whose strength has never yet been measured, w^hose power is infinite, whose energy man can never compute. What is that which we see gleaming far over the waters ? We are told this is the Two Harbor Light. Just then our ship's great searchlight is brought to bear on the lighthouse, and we see that it is a square brick tower 78 feet high, rising from the southwest corner of the keeper's house, a two- COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 8T story brick dwelling This marks the headland of Burlington bay, and is fully sixteen miles away. Later we see straight ahead a deep red light shining steady and strong, with a flashing red light that intermits every six seconds. Soon we learn that these are the Duluth harbor lights, that are sig- naled by our vessel's signal light. The fixed red light is a forty-foot light, on a square, brown pyramid, open framework tower that marks the outer end of the south pier, the entrance to Duluth harbor. The flashing red light is the forty- six-foot light that stands on a frame tower on the inner end of the same pier. The pilot care- fully directs the steamer to her place at the dock, the gang-plank is let down, and we enter the " Zenith City of the unsalted seas " — Du- luth, 1066 miles from Buffalo. We started from the last-named city Tuesday, at 10:15 p. m., and we entered Du- luth at 10:30 p. m. the following Friday. We flnd Duluth such an interesting commercial city that here we spend several days. The city is situated at the junction of the rail and lake trade and is one of the great commercial centers of the Northwest that cleans, stores and ships grain from " the world's great bread-basket." On the lake- shore we find" great docks running out into the lake from two to four thousand feet, from 50 to 75 feet high and 50 to 60 feet wide. Looking across to Duluth's sister city, Superior, we see that great ore dock where 20,000 tons of ore is daily loaded in the freighters of the lake. Duluth, Two Harbors, Ashland, Gladstone, Superior and Es- canaba are the great shipping points for iron ore. The freighters transport this ore (in 1901 it Loading the Great Whaleback Boat at the famous Grain Elevators, Chicago, U.S.A. amounted to twenty million tons) to Conneaut, Cleveland, Ashtabula, Lorain and Fairport on Lake Erie, and South Chicago on Lake Michigan. We are surprised to see how the " gravity dumps " load vessels at the rate of scores of tons per hour, but we are told that by bridge tramways and trol- ley " vessels at the ports of Chicago and Cleveland one may see 50,000 tons unloaded or stored in a single day. There being little or no coal in this region, it is found that it is much, cheaper to trans- port the ore to the coal to smelt, than it would be to bring the coal to the ore. This in a measure explains why the great coal center of Pittsburg has become the great iron and steel center of our nation. The view from the docks looking up the streets of Duluth is very impressive, as th^ city ig situ- 88 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. ated on a side-hill facing the lake. Thus we gain a panorama of our great grain and ore port that has been brought into existence by our iSTorthwest commerce. In 1873 this city had a population of only 3000; to-day it has more than twenty times that number. Less than 150 miles south- west of this city are the twin cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul. These two cities form one of the ten great commercial and manufacturing centers of our nation. Lying as they do, near the head- waters of the navigation of the Mississippi, in the vicinity of St. Anthony's Falls (a great source of mechanical power to-day), with the vast ^ain belt of the !N'orthwest at their very doors, they are destined to enjoy great commercial advantages. The Pillsbury Mills are famous, and grind out daily 25,000 barrels of flour. The annual output of all the mills of Minneapolis is approximately 15^ million barrels, thirty per cent, of which is ex- ported. Xearly 400,000 tons of feed is also pro- duced in these mills. The exported products, if laid in a line, would reach from Xew York to Den- ver, and if the entire output Avere placed in line it would reach from Kew York to Honolulu. If loaded on cars, it would make a solid train of freight cars 1620 miles long. Truly, then, Minne- apolis may be called the " flour city " of our nation and of the world. Minnesota makes over 118,000 barrels of flour daily, sending much of it to the newly developed fields of South Africa and the Orient, as well as to England and Turkey. All the world's mills are supposed to grind out on an average 361 million barrels of wheaten flour an- nually, to support the more than 510 millions of bread-eaters. The amount of lumber shipped from St. Paul and rafted down the river makes it one of the great lumber centers of our Union. Now we leave the Duluth docks and pass the great mill, that has a storage capacity of 650,000 bushels and grinds annually 6,750,000 bushels of wheat into 1,500,000 barrels of flour. Yes, Duluth has one of the three greatest mills in the world. If the annual product of this one mill were placed on cars, it would make 321 full freight trains. We now pass in full view of its beautiful high- school building, a testimonial of the educational interests of the city, and built at a cost of $400,- 000. From the Iiakes to tlie Pacific. We decide to travel westward by the "Great ]^orthern Flyer," that leaves Duluth at 7:55 a. m. We are pleased to see that this northwestern train has all the conveniences of a modern vestibuled train. Seated in the observatory car, we are delighted with the panorama of field, meadow, wood, and lake. From our fellow-travelers we learn that this State of Minnesota has 80 counties, yet only two of these has less tlian 1000 acres of water sur- face. It is the Lake State of the iN'orthwest, with more than 5000 lakes of area sufficient to be named on maps, while many more bear local names. Her fields of famous Xo. 1 wheat of nearly three mill- ion acres, with her barley, oats, flax and potato crops, make Minnesota a very important State for agricultural products as well as for her dairy, lum- ber, mineral and manufacturing interests. We see the track of that other great transconti- nental railway — the !N^orthern Pacific — that has done so much to develop tlie resources of this re- gion. Both roads link the lake region with the Xorth Pacific trade centers of our Union, and re- veal the important agency of railroads in estab- lishing settlements and awakening trade. At noon we passed through the fisherman's paradise, the lake region reaching from Millehacs to Red lake, our line crossing it at Cass lake. At 5 :30 we reach the Red river of the Ts'orth, the valley of which is the greatest wheat belt on the globe. Here wheat farms of thousands of acres each can be seen. A manager of one of these farms boarded the train at Grand Forks, COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 89 A Moaeri". Harvestur. bound for Portland. From him we learn some interesting facts concerning the plowing, seeding and harvesting of a crop on a " bonanza " wheat farm. The farm under his management consisted of 7000 acres. Under him were three division superintendents. At each division headquarters were a dining-hall, dormitory, kitchen, stable and implement barns, and a blacksmith's shop. Two elevators are situated on opposite sides of the farm along the line of railroad that runs through the farm. These elevators have a capacity of 100,000 bushels of grain. !N^ear the center of the estate is the manager's office, connected with the divi- sion headquarters by telephone. The plowing is generally done in the fall, be- ginning in October. Each plow turns two furrows, and there are between twenty-five and thirty plows in each of the three gangs used on the farm. As early in April as weather permits, the ground is harrowed. Each man runs a twenty- to twenty- five-foot harrow, and can cover from 55 to 65 acres per day. As soon after harrowing as possible, seeding is begun. Each man runs an eleven-foot seeder drawn by four horses, and often travels more than twenty-five miles per day. Harvesting usually begins about July 20th to 25th. This often calls for new machinery. Fargo is reported to sell nearly three million dollars' worth annually. Until recently, harvesters that cut, bind and bunch the wheat have been used ; then the threshers followed. But this year our Dakota friend tried the use of a California har- vester. This machine is run by a traction engine. It cuts, threshes and sacks grain from 50 to 100 acres in a day. This usually averages from 1200 to 1800 sacks per day. 90 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. We ask him about the sale of his wheat. He says he has a wire from his office to both Duluth and Minneapolis, and is in constant touch with the world's prices. Thus he keeps himself in- formed, and knows when and where is the best market. "Most of my wheat I sell Duluth at fifty cents to seventy-five cents per bushel, F.O.B. farm." The best Avheat each year is reserved for seed, so that a wheat well adapted to the climate has been obtained. Some fall wheat is so^vn, but the majority of wheat raised in the Red river valley is spring wheat. From Grand Forks westward beyond the valley 200 miles, we see oceans of waving grain, stretch- ing like the limitless sea from horizon to horizon. We reach the largest body of water on the plains at 8 :20. This is known as Devil's lake, 90 miles west of the Red river. This lake is fifty miles long and three miles wide. Here we find the Chautau- qua grounds of Xorth Dakota, Ft. Totten, and a Sioux Indian reservation. We reach Minot at 11 :30 p. m. We are told at this station to set our watches back for mountain time, and we go out nearly an hour before we came in. Minot is a division headquarters, and marks the line between the grazing and farming lands. We have climbed nearly one thousand feet nearer the sky since we left Duluth, 500 miles eastward. Settlements are now less frequent, while sheep, cattle and horses feed on the buffalo- grass that everywhere abounds. For many years here was the home of the buffalo, and it is esti- mated that the hunter in two years slaughtered at least half a million. But the buffalo has been driven from his native haunts, and a few hundred in the upper British Columbia country count all that now remain of the vast herds of the American bison. Just at daybreak we reach Milk river station. We follow Milk river, an important tributary of the "Big Muddy," for 180 miles. Just a little after ten o'clock we reach Chinook. This is the center of the Milk river valley irriga- tion, and the ditches can be seen from the car win- dows. To the south we can see the Bear Paw mountains, marking the southern limit of this irrigated region, that has more farm-houses than any other section of Montana that our railroad crosses. Twenty miles west of this point is Havre, where we renew food supplies. While this is be- ing done we learn from an old miner that the train on the siding runs to the largest mining camp in the world, 300 miles away. "Where is that?" " Butte City. There is enough ore now visible to keep mills and smelters at work for half a century, while no man knows how much more the earth holds. Here, sir, we beat the world on silver, lead, and copper. We have a city of 12,000 of the busiest, heartiest, noisiest, sauciest, brightest, most hospitable people in the Rockies. We have the Paris of mining towns, the metropolis of hustle- dom, the capital of hullabaloo, the Athens of Mon- tana." The city is on a mountain that is fairly honeycombed with mines, and is netted every- where with railroad tracks. On account of its mills and smelters, scarcely a green thing can be found in the town. This branch connects with the IN^orthem Pacific at Helena, the capital of the State. The ^Northern Pacific and the Great !Morthern with their tribu- tary lines comprise the Morgan-Hill system of rail- roads, covering more than 20,000 miles, — the greatest railway system in point of mileage on the American continent. Helena has an altitude of more than 3000 feet, is mountain-bound, and the center of the rich gold and silver mining district. This city, founded in 1864, has grown to be a very important center for mining commerce of this, the greatest copper State in the Union, while it annually yields millions of tons of gold, silver, lead, and coal. Our train bears us now steadily upward. Xo steep ascents, few sharp curves, yet at 7 p. m. we COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 91 find ourselves on the Continental divide, in the midst of towering peaks with immense drifts of lodged snow. The train halts for ten minutes so its passengers can take a glimpse of this delightful spot — Summit Station. We are in a meadow of several hundred acres. Just north of us is "Di- vide Mountain," the waters from its melting snows going on the east into the Gulf, and thence to the Atlantic; and on the west, by the Columbia, is transported to the Pacific ocean. This meadow is the highest point reacted by our railroad — 5200 feet above sea-level ; yet we realize that we are in one of Nature's amphitheaters, with peaks that catch the sun's gleam from 2500 to 3000 feet above us. In this backbone of the continent, less than fifty miles from where Ave are now standing, lies that " loveliest of mountain «nirrors," Lake MacDonald. In this Lake MacDonald region, such glaciers, cascades and avalanche basins have been found, that it is not inaptly termed " The Northern Yo- semite." Here then is the " Crown of the Conti- nent," which tourists tell us is unsurpassed by the scenic Alps ; and its wild regions have not yet been fully explored. Xorth of us Chief Mountain lifts its ice-clad crest 10,800 feet in air. Xestling in a valley near this mountain, we are told, is to be found the Geneva of America — the St. Mary's lakes. Great glaciers keep these supplied with water, while ex- perienced travelers tell us that it truly is a region more wild and awe-inspiring than far-famed Swit- zerland. Few hunters have found this region ; so elk, moose, deer and grizzly bears abound in the pine forests, while among the mountain-peaks are found more Rocky Mountain goats and "big- horns" than in any other region. We are now 1125 miles west of Duluth, in the celebrated Blackfoot region of the Rockies. Our train begins the downward descent. We pass through dense forests of coniferous trees; round rugged peaks whose hoary summits are lost to sight from the observatory car, but whose sides bear great ledges of solid rock or rich robes of vel- yet green. Frequently we see cascades of water silvered by the moonlight. About two o'clock in the morning our train reaches Jennings. This is a good site for a large commercial city, as the fertile tobacco plains are adjacent, while the Kootenca river flows by the town. This river is larger than the Hudson ; rises within one mile of the Columbia, and is fully 600 miles long, flowing through rich mineral lands. Its boats have a heavy traffic in ore. From Jen- nings for more than sixty miles we follow the can- yon of this river, that finally bends abruptly to the north to flow into the lake of the same name in British Columbia. Through the night our train takes us over tres- tles, plunges through forests, threads canyons, crosses divides, and at eight o'clock next morning we find ourselves in Spokane, that some geogra- phers have sought to give to Idaho, but we find to be sure and safe by more than forty miles in the gieat State of Washington. Here we set our watches back to agree with Pacific time. In the very center of the city is found the falls that named the towTi. Here is located a great water-power station that transmits power for heat, light and mechanical purposes. Spokane is the center of a rich mineral, timber, and agricultural section of many thousand square miles in extent. This has made it a great shipping point, and has developed a railway center here. It is a city of more than 40,000, noted for its substantial buildings, mod- ern conveniences, and general thrift and industry of its citizens, and is the metropolis of east Wash- ington. We now pass through the great areas of pasture and grain lands in the famous " Big Bend Coun- try " of the Columbia river, covering an area of more than 7000 square miles. Grains, fruits, tubers, sorghum and tobacco are grown in this region. Wheat ripens here without rust, and a 92 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Profile of Mountains crossed by Switchback, showing Route of Tunnel. harvester drawn by more than a score of horses is used to cut, thresh, clean and sack the grain. A little after noon we reach the Wenatchee val- ley. Situated at the junction of the river (after which the station is named) and the Columbia, is the half-way village between Spokane and Seattle — Wenatchee, surrounded with orchards and vine- yards. Many tourists go from tliis point up the Columbia to the Lake Chelan region. This lake is sixty miles long; is the second deepest body of fresh w^ater on the globe; and with Castle Moun- tain to the west, Goat Mountain on the east, a- can- yon at its foot thousands of feet in depth, and at its head 400 mountain-peaks, ranging from 900 to 11,000 feet high, embracing icy glaciers, in full view, surely this lake is a gem of the Cascade mountains, a Washington natural wonder. We soon reach Leavenworth, at the foot of the Cascades, where an extra engine is attached to take us through the Tumwater (Talking Water) can- yon. This is ten. miles long, and follows the roar- ing, rollicking Wenatchee, that plays a rollicking game with boulders and cascades all the way. At four o'clock in the afternoon we reach Cascade Tunnel. Until January, 1901, trains were taken over the mountains by means of the " switchback." A large twelve-wheeled engine was attached to the rear of the train, and the zigzagging up the sides of the mountain commenced. At the end of the first short length of track, called a " leg," the train stopped, switches were thrown, and the rear of the train became the head end until the next "leg" was reached, when switches were turned and the front end again became the head end, going up the mountain. In this way three legs on the east side, with an average rise of three and one-half feet to every hundred feet, brought the train to Cas- cade Summit, 4027 feet. The descent down the west slope was a four per cent, grade (four feet descent to each 100 feet), with four legs. This switchback was considered a unique feature in railroading, but the Cascade tun- nel, opened to travel in 1901, is a marvel of engi- neering skill. It was begun in January, 1897. When the originator of the plan, Pres. J. J. Hill, spoke of it to railroad men, many laughed, and de- clared it would bankrupt the road. President Hill said that it would save twelve miles of track and several hours to the coast, and that the surplus rev- enue of the road should build it. Experienced railroad engineers w^ith compressed air-drills and a thousand workmen went to work on the tunnel on both sides of the mountain. The excavated work was delivered by electric cars to large crushers hav- ing a capacity of forty tons an hour. The crushed fragments were mixed with sand and Portland ce- ment and returned by the electric car line, to line the inside of the tunnel with a concrete wall four feet thick. In December, 1900, the two gangs of workmen met in the middle of the mountain, the two openings meeting without the variation of an inch. January 1, 1901, traffic was begun through this tunnel, which is two and one-half miles long, sixteen feet wide, and twenty-three feet high, — a memorial to the skill of American engineers. We now prepare to go through the tunnel. Our coal-burning engines are removed, and an electric locomotive is attached to take us through the tun- nel; so neither smoke nor gas will cause annoy- ance. A pumping-machine at the entrance runs huge exhaust fans, which, together with a system of pipes, keeps the air in the tunnel pure and whole- some. This ride through the tunnel is a pleasant one, for its white walls reflect the light from the COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 93 double chain of electric lights, and make " daylight " all the time. At Wellington station, the west entrance to the tunnel, steam locomotives are substi- tuted for the electric, and we are soon winding down into the wonderfully productive Puget Sound region. At six o'clock in the even- ing we reach Everett, and catch our first view of Puget Sound. Webster, in Con- gress, in 1845, spoke thus of this Northwest region: " What do we want of this worthless area of shifting sands and whirlwinds of dust; of cactus and prairie- dogs; a coast of 3000 miles, rockbound, cheer- less and uninviting, without a harbor in it ? " At Everett, a to^\^l less than twelve years old, yet with more than 12,000 citizens living in a modern city of substantial brick buildings, we are told that this Puget Sound region has as many good harbors as half the Atlantic seaboard. View of Seattle, Washington. Twenty M'llion feet of Lumber in one yard, Taconna, Washington. At half-past six we reach the great commercial metropolis of the !N^orthwest — Seattle, 1800 miles west of Duluth. We find that settlers came to Se- attle in 1852 to found a saw-mill. In 1869 the town of Seattle (named after an Indian chief of a friendly tribe) was incorporated as a city. Soon came railroads, industrial works, foreign trade, and in 1880 it was a city of 35,- 000. To-day it is a city of 100,000, with more than 4000 business firms, representing 250 lines of commercial interests. Her manufacturing interests show 19,000 men employed, with an out- put of fifty million dollars' worth in 1900, j^Tineteen miles from the city are the Snoqualmie Falls, 286 feet high, the source of Se- attle's light and electric power. The second largest iron foundry on the Pacific coast is here. 94 . COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. A Washington Saw-log. Captain Reuton some years ago established a lumber mill on Blakely harbor, across Elliott bay from Seattle. It runs day and night, and is now one of the largest lumber mills in the world, owning its ships and sending lumber to all parts of the world. It turned out 125 million feet of lumber in 1900. At her long sweep of wharves, vessels are loaded for the Alas- kan ports and cities of the Ori- ental seaboard, as well as for Australia. Two new Oriental freighters, with a thousand-car capacity each, have just been put in commission, to sail from t^liis port to Japanese ports. < aptain Healy, in February, 1901, said that in twenty-five years Alaska and the Klondike would produce more actual min- eral wealth than the entire world has contributed during the last quarter of a century. Seattle to-day has two- thirds of the Alaskan trade. At Tacoma, a " Sound city " north of Seattle, The Longest Wheat Warehouse in the World, at Tacoma. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 95 A Salmon Catch — Puget Sound. are located great lumber mills, box factories, and more than 240 industries, employing so many hands that it has the largest factory pay-roll on the coast, save San Francisco alone. Here we find the -wheat port of Washington, with splendid wharves for her greatly growing ocean commerce. Lately the " Glen " line of merchant steamers to London via Suez Canal has been added, making over twenty steamers that ply between Tacoma and the Orient alone. We find that her chamber of commerce reports her imports and exports for quarter ending March 31st, 1901, to exceed four million dollars. She ships more flour to the Orient than all China imported five years ago. Twenty years ago this city had barely 1000 inhabitants; to-day it is a city of nearly 50,000. We spend three days in this Puget Sound region, and find that its 1600 miles of shore-line affords facilities for the safe handling of a commerce equal to the whole Atlantic coast commerce of our nation. The fisheries include oysters, clams, crabs, smelts, herring, cod, sturgeon, halibut, and mack- erel, w^hile more than 6000 men and boys are em- ployed in the salmon industry, over a million cases of salmon being shipped from a single season's catch. Xinety-five varieties of food fish are found in this sound. Fringing these shores are the great- est forests of fir, cedar, hemlock and spruce in the world. This State of Washington contains thir- teen millions of acres of valuable timber, that stat- isticians tell us will furnish one billion feet of lumber per annum for twelve centuries. Many of these trees are from 200 to 300 feet high, and measure from 10 to Y5 feet in circumference. Washington's mineral wealth has scarcely yet been realized ; her tide lands have been known to yield 96 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. from 40 to 50 bushels of wlieat per acre, 140 bush- els of oats, and average 1500 pounds of hops, while some places yield 3000 pounds per acre ; and the average yield of potatoes is 160 bushels per acre. Seattle being 950 miles north of San Francisco, makes this city 500 miles nearer the Orient trade and a thousand miles nearer Alaska. Her location and natural advantages mark Seattle as a fair rival with San Francisco for the growing trade of the Pacific lands. As the Sound steamer bears us back to Seattle, the lowering sun reddens the crest of Mt. Rainer, the white-headed sentinel whose summit is 14,529 feet above the sound's level, and then " Old Sol " sinks into the Sound. As we pass up to our boat's pier we catch a glimpse of the " Nebraska," a battle-ship built at Seattle, whose bows are twenty feet higher than the three-story buildings, just behind, in the city. Fair, beautiful land, where the industrious, inventive Yankee is destined to multiply your riches and enhance your present splendor and wonder. Here we steam past Japan and Port Arthur steamers this July night, taking a cargo for their Oriental ports in sight of ice-clad and snow-cov- ered mountains, silvery cold, in the moonlight. Thus we enter the Empress City of the j^orth- west, and prepare for our long-distanced Pacific voyage. A Trip through the Pacific. We desire to visit our mid-Pacific neighbors. How can we go? We will take one of the new commercial freighters ; it was put into commis- sion in 1901, and plies between Honolulu and Seattle. The steamer we select has a measure- ment capacity of 28,000 tons, and will carry 20,- 000 tons of freight. Its deck room is for freight purposes, and covers five acres in extent, while it carries the load of fifty ordinary freight trains of thirty cars each. This vessel is larger than both the St. Louis and her sister ship St. Paul, two transatlantic passenger liners described in a pre- ceding chapter. Our ticket to Honolulu costs us $75, for our port is 2364 miles away. This is what it cost us from Boston to Seattle, the route we took covering 3425 miles. We purchase our ticket, and find our stateroom amidships on upper deck. Leaving our belong- ings here, we hasten out to see what the stevedores are loading our liner with. We find that they are giving her a cargo of lumber, flour, and miscella- neous merchandise. The steamers from this port in 1900 took fifty million feet of lumber, flour, and wheat, and thousands of dollars' worth of miscel- laneous products. Slowly we move down the bay, past the West Point Light, five miles northwest of Seattle, and, entering Admiralty Inlet, steam along the shore of Whitby Island until we reach Port Townsend's wharves. We touch here to take on additional cargo. Just a few feet from end of Port Hudson, on the wharf, we see the Government post light established here in 1887, and rebuilt in 1894. This is a white lantern, while two miles northwest, where the inlet enters the Juan de Fuca strait, the dark lantern on top of a low conical tower, above a white dwelling, indicates to our pilot. Point Wilson Light. On the east side, at the en- trance of the inlet, is the Admiralty Head Light. This is at Red Bluff, "Whitby Island, and also has a dark lantern, but is on a square wooden tower rising from the south end of a white dwelling. Here we swing to the west as we pass out between the two lights and enter the strait. Eleven miles to the northwest flashes the Smith Island Light, and directly ahead gleams the new Dungeness Light. Across the strait at the west entrance of Esqui- mault Harbor, Vancouver's Island, shines the Brit- ish Fishguard Light. Far beyond all these lights, in the strait near the national boundary-line, is the Race Rocks Light, flashing white every five seconds; and in case a fog is prevalent, it blows COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 97 a five-second fog signal every seventy-two seconds. If the northern portion of Juan de Fuca is free from fog, its four-blast sig- nals tell this comforting fact to any fog-en- veloped steamer. Carefully our pilot directs our course toward the Ediz Hook Light, which is the beacon that guards the entrance to Port Angelus harbor. Here, in October, 1895, the United States !N^avy Department established a naval station for the United States Pacific squadron. Speaking of this harbor, Eear Admiral L. A. Beardslie said: " This is a marvelous work of nature. There are no sandbars to interfere w^ith the movements of the ships. Once the ships are here, I have no anxiety about any accidents. No rocks, no shifting sands to be continually watched. Smooth sailing right into port, and perfect anchorage anywhere you drop your anchor. It is indeed a 'harbor of refuge.' The wonder is that the harbor has never been dis- covered by the I^^aval Department before." Here is Port Angelus, the " Gateway City " of the straits, seventy-five miles northwest of Seattle.. This city is the county seat of the forest county of Clallam, that shows 1,000,000 acres of timber land. Clallam county lumber-men claim 84,100 feet of lumber has been obtained from one fir tree seventy-five feet around. The cover of darkness prevents our seeing the picturesque scenery that surrounds this " Gate City " of the Northwest, and with our vessel headed westward we know no more until the call to break- fast brings us from our stateroom to the dining- room. After breakfast we seek the deck. We are now nearing the ocean, whose rolling waves are just ahead. To the north, at the most south- ern extremity of Bonilla Point, Vancouver, is the white square wooden tower whose red lantern tells the sailor its name is Carmanah Point. Herfi ves- sels can, by the International Code signals, com- municate with Victoria by telegraph. At the very entrance of the strait on Tatoosh Cape Flattery Light Station, Washington. Island, one-half mile northwest of Cape Flattery, is Cape Flattery Lighthouse, a gray stone dwelling surmounted by a white conical tower that bears the lantern. Here is located a signal display sta- tion connected with Port Townsend by telegraph. Thus we see our Government has provided for the protection of life and property at points of danger on sea and sound, as not only lighthouse service but life-saving stations are also found here. In another chapter it is shown that like giant sentinels, flashing their long pencilings of light, stand the coast lighthouses, to direct the intrepid mariner in his commercial voyage along dangerous coasts where the tumultuous waves of jagged reefs render navigation hazardous. The lights known as " sector lights " are the harbor lights that point out the channel to the vessel pilots. At other places, beacons, spindles, fog-horns and whistle- ing-buoys help to divide the ocean up into high- ways which all sailors understand and all commer- cial nations agree in maintaining. Then we see the ocean has its sign-posts and its signals to understand, which is the first duty of the sailor. We now feel the "ground swell," revealing be- neath us the power of a mighty force, and causing many of our number to grow strangely weak, faint, and sick. They seek their staterooms, and do not again appear on deck until the third day out. But our trip across the Atlantic has " immuned " us from seasickness,- and we enjoy the sight of the dancing waves in the morning sunlight. Cape Flattery, 140 miles from Seattle, slowly shades into the eastern blue, and our ocean voyage has really begun. 98 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Sea-Gulls on the Pacific Oceaa What are these large white birds flying seaward just ahead? They are the most active scavengers of the ocean, the bird monarchs of the Pacific — the sea-gulls. It is no uncommon, thing for a score or more of these birds to accompany a vessel in its voyage, feeding on the refuse which is thrown overboard. Some years ago one of these birds was caught by the passengers of a steamship just as it left San Francisco harbor on its voyage to Japan. A piece of red tape, with date and loca- tion, was tied fast to one of its legs, and the bird set at liberty. That bird was one of many gulls which followed the steamer into Yokohama har- bor, over 4500 miles away. At noon our vessel takes her bearings, and from these data makes up her log. How is this done? Every ship is provided with a chronometer which registers Greenwich time, the focal time for longi- tude and time reckoning. At exactly the noon in- stant by the captain's watch, registering Pacific time, the difference is noted between the captain's watch and the ship's chronometer to the very sec- ond. This was found to be 38 hours and two sec- onds, which, reduced to longitude, equals 129° 30' 30". Each ship is provided with an instru- ment called a sextant, which measures the height of the sun above the horizon in degrees, minutes, and seconds. The captain of the ship, knowing over what parallel the sun is vertical each day of the year, sees by the sextant how far from the vertical he is, and in this way com- putes his latitude, which on this occasion proves to be 47° 30' north latitude. We see, then, that by use of accurate time-pieces, one to measure Greenwich and the other Pacific time, the exact location at sea can be de- termined. Distance in miles requires another factor, as degrees of longitude are not of the same length at all places on the earth's surface, for the length of a degree decreases toward the poles, where the meridians all meet, and re- duces a degree of longitude to zero. Below is a schedule in sailor's miles, which, we must bear in mind, is the unit adopted by the United States Coast Survey. By this authority the value of nautical miles is declared " as equal to one-six- teenth part of the length of a degree on the great circle of a sphere whose surface is equal to the surface of the earth." This gives the nautical mile a length of 6,080.27 feet — practically 800 feet longer than our land or statute mile. Then a nautical mile covers 1.1515 statute miles, and a common land mile equals .869 of a geographic or nautical mile. The following table helps us to understand the mathematics that the sailor uses to determine his distance from shore where location is recorded: LENGTH OP A DEGREE OF LONGITUDE. (In nautical miles.) At degrees latitude (equator) 60. miles. At 5 degrees latitude 59.875 miles. At 10 degrees latitude , 59.193 miles. At 20 degrees latitude 56.487 miles. At 30 degrees latitude 52.093 miles. At 40 degrees latitude 46.088 miles. At 50 degrees latitude 38.609 miles. At 60 degrees latitude 30. 127 miles. At 70 degrees latitude 20.608 miles. At 80 degi'ees latitude 10.461 miles. At 90 degrees latitude 0. miles. That night, as we saw the sun overcome by the seemingly boundless stretch of water and his dying COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 9^ light tinted the waves with variegated and ever- changing hues, we tried to comprehend the full meaning of the statistician who states that two- thirds of the people of the globe live in lands whose shores are washed by this ocean. That more than one-third of all the earth's surface is covered by this ocean. That the Pacific is not only more than twice as large as the Atlantic, but into its great basin you can place Asia, Africa, Europe, Aus- tralia, North America, South America, and all the islands of all seas, and still have a body of water left that would be larger than both the Arc- tic and the Antarctic oceans. When Balboa waded out into its depths in 1513, off the Central- Ameri- can shore, and took possession pf that sea and the shores that it washed in the name of Spain, he little knew the extent of the empire of land and water that he had seized. Bearing to the southwest for ten days, we early one morning, like Roderigo Triana, " sight land." The first land sighted coming from the north in this ocean highway is Oahu. Showers become of frequent occurrence, and we here behold our first perfect rainbow, every part of the arch clearly visible in bright prismatic hues. We later learn that the islands are so noted for these beautiful rainbows that this mid-Pacific group has been nicknamed the " Islands of Rainbows." We now pass along the northwest shores of Mo- lokai. This is the island that has a leper settle- ment, the colony being situated upon the peninsula in the central part of the northern coast. There are two villages, Kalawao on the one side and Ka- laupapa on the other side of the peninsula. This settlement comprises about 3000 acres, and was set apart for the lepers in 1865. From all the islands, lepers are sent to this colony, where skilled physicians and modern hospital service give the best medical aid to the unfortunates, afflicted with this incurable disease. Our steamer rounds the Koko head, the most southern point of Oahu, and we now catch a glimpse of the cocoanut groves, sugar plantations and pasture-lands that fleck the shore-land, while the wealth of foliage and flower bedecks the en- tire landscape with a richness of color freighted with perfume as morning breezes waft the dewy fragrance seaward. After doubling Diamond Head or Leahi, whose precipitous sides lift its crest 700 feet in air, we receive the harbor pilot. With him came the health officer, whose business it is to see that all on board are well. Should he find any sick with a contagious disease, our ship would be anchored at quarantine island until there was no danger to those on shore. These native Hawaiians catch contagious diseases quite easily, and every pre- caution is used to keep out contagion. Our pilot leads us at half-speed through a nar- row channel made by a large coral reef offshore, which forms a natural breakwater to the harbor. The channel is carefully buoyed on either side, to aid the ship's pilot. At night, with their safety- lamps, these become floating beacons to direct steamers entering after nightfall. Just on the other side of the coral reef is a thirty-foot light- house, to make the passage still more secure. We found the Honolulu harbor a spacious one, with room for at least 100 large steamers like our own, with an average depth of 90 to 100 feet. The wharves are ample and very substantial, with high coverings to shield the laborers from the tropical As our steamer moves up the dock to her sun. pier, numbers of Hawaiian lads swim around the bows, crying, " A-lo'ha, aloha." (My love to you.) The passengers please the boys by throwing coins overboard for them to dive after. The boys show themselves true " water babies " by their remarka- ble skill in both diving and swimming. The gang-planks are let down, and we stand on the dock of the commercial port of the whole group of islands — Honolulu. We find this city to be modern in every respect, with 30,000 inhabitants. Being a mid-Pacific port, steamers of all commer- 100 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Group of Natives Eating Poi, Hawaiian Islands. cial nations stop here, and hence it has become quite a cosmopolitan city. We find twelve islands in the group, but only eight are inhabited. Their area is about equal to the State of Kew Jersey, with approximately four million acres of land. When Capt. Cook discovered the islands, in 1778, he estimated the natives to number 300,000. To- day- the census reports but 31,000 native Hawaiians, while half-castes, Chinese, Americans, Japanese, British, Portuguese, Germans, French and Norwegians make up the rest of the 110,000 people on the islands. Prior to 1819 these Hawaiians were only barbarians, victims of the very worst super- stitions. It was American missionaries from !N^ew England who Christianized and civi- lized these island people ; and for this reason, probably, they look to our nation as their great benefactor. In the early days each island had its own king, but King Kamehameha succeeded in making the conquest of all the islands, and established the government that existed until the republic was formed, July 4th, 1894. The Pali of the ]^6ffi«tn- Valley marks the spot where the Oahu natives made their last stand against Kamehameha, over which precipice they were driven to their death. We take a Hawaiian coast steamer, and make a hurried trip around the islands. The Hawaiians grow the taro, a root cultivated as the Chinese do rice. From this tuber is obtained the flour from which the principal native food is made, " poi " — their staff of life. We find sugar the chief product of the islands ; the average yield upwards of 300,- 000 tons annually. While rice, bananas and cocoa- nuts are marketed, and coffee is now being success- fully raised, delicious fruits abound and apples grow wild here. The climate is so nearly ideal that the native language has no word for "weather." Beautiful ferns, — green, pink, red and purple, — palms and flowering plants are seen on every side. The group is named from Hawaii, the largest island, that has two large volcanoes.. One, Mauna Loa, celebrated the Fourth of July, 1899, by starting a prolonged pyrotechnic display. Avenue of Royal Palnns, Queen's Hospital Grounds, Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 101 Its streams of lava often flow down the sides of the volcano for many miles. There are three railroads on the islands: a 73- mile railway on Maui, a, 20-mile railway on Ha- waii, and a 39-mile railroad on Oahu. The rail- roads are chiefly used to transport freight to the coasts for the steamer trade. This coast traffic employs sixty vessels, that have direct or indirect connection with the trans-Pacific liners at Hono- lulu. The rugged shores of many of the islands, deep valleys like the la'o of Maui, walled in by cliffs from 3000 to 6000 feet high, and precipices like the Pali of Oahu, together with many craters of extinct volcanoes, mark the islands as volcanic in origin, with many fringing coral reefs. The high- est point in the whole Pacific region is Mauna Loa, over two miles high, and the largest active volcano on the globe is Kalama, whose crater is nine miles in circumference. Its fiery lake of lava we find the natives had long ago named Ha-le-mau-mau (the house of everlasting fire). Hilo, thirty-two miles from this volcano, is the second city of the island group. Hawaii, on which these volcanoes are sit- uated, is about the size of Connecticut. We now take the steamer from Hilo to Honolulu, where we purchase tickets for Sydney over the Oceanic steamer line via Apia. As we leave these beautiful islands, rich with commercial products, the center of a commerce fast nearing 200 millions of dollars annually, a land where illiteracy is well- nigh unknown, where the most valued elements of tropic and temperate climes seem sifted from the objectionable, a land devoid of reptile life, and where sunshine seems perpetual, we realize that this is destined to be a mecca to travelers and a most valuable commercial exchange for our nation. We are now under the British flag, and steaming nearly south. As we cross the 160th meridian we deflect to the right, and for 2000 miles through the trackless waste of waters we pass without a glimpse of land or an incident of interest save one — when we cross the Pacific " Doldrums " and the equator. At longitude 161° 30' we reach the region where the northeast trade wind, that has been our con- stant companion for more than twenty degrees of latitude, gradually loses its force, until, from blow- ing at a rate of sixteen to eighteen miles a day, it does not blow two miles. At four degrees north latitude we enter the region that the Spanish have named " The Doldrums " from their word " dolor- osa," meaning tormenting. Here the southeast and northeast trades meet, and for a distance of 300 to 500 miles they neutralize each other. This is tormenting to sailing vessels, but little impediment to the modern steamer. In some places in the ocean there is no dividing-line, and vessels can run from the northeast trade at once into the southeast trade wind. This region has been called the equa- torial calms, lying on or near the equator. The width of this calm belt on our voyage was but 150 miles ; then we came into the region of the south- east trade, that gentle wind that wafted Magellan's vessel across the ocean in 1521, and led him to call it Pacific, as he had a stormless voyage. These trades being constant, gales rarely occur, while fogs are almost unknown. Hence these regions are a source of delight to the mariner, giving him little anxiety and his crew a measure of relaxation. We now experience the fun-sparring time of crossing the equator. It is the custom on this vessel to initiate the inexperienced as the boat passes from north to south latitude. So, blind- folded, we "rode the goat," "fell over the preci- pice " into the seething billows, to finally receive a shower bath — Neptune's blessing on his newly christened son. For two hours K'eptune with his trident ruled our ship, being received by a row- boat off the bows at 11 a. m., and with garlanded trident waving in the air he disappeared off the stern at 1 p. m. " Neptune's christening " oc- curred at 165° 30' W. long., 0° latitude. After an eight-days run we reach Apia, the Sa- moan port of entry for our steamer. Here oc- 102 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. curred that terrible storm that destroyed some valued warships, but settled an international wran- gle, March 16, 1889. These islands are 2400 miles northeast of Australia, consisting of thirteen in- habited islands and several islets. The natives are superior to most Pacific islanders, many having be- come both civilized and Christianized. England, Germany and the United States drew up a tri- partite treaty in 1890, establishing a joint protec- torate over these islands. The new treaty of 1899 granted to Germany, Upolu, Savaii, and the islands of the group west of 171° west longitude, and to the United States all the islands east of 171°. The old geographies called this group Navigator's Isl- ands. The poet Stevenson found this land the " Summer isle of Eden, lying in dark purple spheres of sea," that Tennyson describes in his dream of Lotusland. In the hills north of Apia, Stevenson had his home. This city is on Upolu island, and is one of the most prosperous towns in the south seas. -- While the " Alameda " is delivering her agricul- tural implements and miscellaneous dry-goods and taking on cocoanuts, we take a detour into the island. We learn that none of the islands have railways, canals, navigable rivers, or even so much as a wagon route or a caravan trail. Here nature provides food, and the natives "toil not, neither do they spin." They seem to -be content to " eat, drink, and be merry." While not industrious as a class, the Samoans are almost a perfect type of physical manhood and womanhood. They are a simple and lovable people, yet bright, and quick to learn. We arc unable to find a Samoan who can- not read and write. We find the island supplies itself with corn, coffee, and sugar, and raises for its export trade, coffee, cotton, and bread-fruit. We return to our steamer under a canopy of flower- clad trees filled with singing birds and freighted with perfume. We have been told : " When a man goes to any of these favored islands to live, no in- ducement beyond the glitter of gold will ever lure him away. Life there is a dream. Sunshine and flowers and birds are ever in the air; summer is the only season ; contentment is the one great senti- ment that seems to blossom in the evergreen trees and plants, and to spread its fragrance every- where." We found it even so. Twenty-five miles southeast of Upolu we cross the 171st degree of longitude, and enter the waters controlled by the United States. A few miles further on we sight the island of Tutuila. Here we enter a land-locked harbor, approximately four miles long, and from one-half to a mile wide, and from 100 to 200 feet deep. Naval experts state that the whole American navy could find safe anchorage here, while the Kearsarge and Kentucky at the entrance, with a fleet of three submarine boats, could keep out the -world's combined navies. It is Pago-Pago, the finest harbor of this ocean of good harbors. At the head of the harbor is the native hamlet of Pago-Pago. The island is almost divided by the harbor, being from three to eight miles wide. It is twenty-one miles long, and contains about sixty sugar mills. It is volcanic in origin, as are most of the mid- Pacific islands. The tallest summit rises 3000 feet, but it has been wasted considerably in the centuries the volcano has been extinct. Between the sea and the mountains is a fine slope where the natives have their farms. Here they raise cocoanuts, yams, sugar cane, and many tropical fruits. There are excellent fish found in the harbor, and the canal formed around the island by the coral reefs has five openings which afford five good reef harbors. While 4000 natives live here, Robert Mackay declares 100,000 would find a fruitful dwelling- place on the Island. Notwithstanding its tropical situation, Tutuila has a healthful climate for Americans as well as Samoans. A system of schools has recently been established by the United States, and steps taken to fully develop the island. The islands of Manna, Oloosinga, Ofoo and Rose lie eastward from Tutuila, only one affording an- COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 103 chorage for ships — northwest coast of Manna, about ten miles steaming from Pago-Pago. The United States flag was raised at Tutuila April 17th, 1900, bj Commander Tilly, com- mandant of the United States naval station here. The natives signed an agreement which acknowl- edges United States authority over the islands, and contains a promise to obey American laws. We visited a grove of bread-fruit trees while on the island. The tree is of medium height and size, and has large leaves, glossy green in color. The fruit is shaped something like a Hubbard squash, and about the size of a medium squash. Many eat it raw, but the Samoans roast it as our grand- mothers used to roast potatoes — in the ashes. It tastes something like bread witli a small amount of sugar in it. We are told that the tree has fruit every year and all the year round. It constitutes the staple food of the South Sea Islanders. The timber is used for boats, and from the fiber of the inner bark of the bread-fruit tree a cloth is made ; hence the tree is a valuable one to the natives. Had they the rain tree of Africa and the cow tree of South America, they would have food, drink (water and milk), shelter, and clothing, — satisfy- ing the chief wants of mankind. As our steamer moves out of the harbor we are reminded of what an essayist has said: "As the traveler sails away from the island on which the white moon is shining down so peacefully, a feeling akin to homesickness seizes upon him, as if he could not bear to go away from this fairy-land of nature, back to the hurry and noise and bustle of civilized lands." At noon the next day we reach the International Date Line. Theoretically this line is on the 180th meridian, but practically it coincides with this meridian for about half its distance across the Pa- cific — 40° K to about 5° S. latitude. As marine time is usually reckoned by the meridian of Green- wich, commercial nations have tacitly agreed to reconcile dates at sea on this 180th meridian, just half-way round. Hence it is called the Interna- tional Date Line. One other reason why mariners selected this longitude for adjusting dates, could be, that this meridian is nearly in the central part of the Pacific and passes through but few bodies of land. When Alaska was ceded to the United States it had Asiatic time, but now the date line passes west of the Aleutian Islands; hence it de- flects to the west of the ISOtli -meridian, so all the islands may have the same time. The Fiji Island group is crossed by the 180th meridian, but so all the islands may have the same time as the rest of the British possessions in Polynesia, the international date line is made to deflect to the east of the 180th meridian, as shown on the world map of this text. The Spanish traveled west from America to dis- cover the Philippine Islands, and took their Span- ish-American date with them. Although there was a day's difference between Manila time and that of its nearest commercial neighbors, — Japan, Borneo, Java, and China, — the Spanish persistently re- fused to change and conform with Manila's neigh- bors for over three hundred years. Thus the inter- national date line was made to bend to the west 60°, to place Manila east of the line. When nearly all Spain's American colonies gained their inde- pendence, in the early part of the nineteenth cen- tury, the Filipinos had to look to their neighboring coasts for trade. Their time was now twenty-four hours behind their commercial neighbors. Sabbath in Manila meant a work-day in adjacent East In- dies, and this confusion of dates led Manila mer- chants to demand the same time as their neighbors. Spain, in answer to this request, struck December 31st, 1844, out of the Philippine calendar. Thus, on January 1st, 1845, Manila caught up with Asiatic time. As there is no international legislation defining the exact location of the international date line, the position is not given exactly the same by all geographers. All the possessions of the United 104 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. States except the Philippines have the same day. Manila time is about eleven hours earlier than "Washington time. When the steamer's chronome- ter indicates the noon instant, the whistle blows and all watches are set forward. Members of our party could not understand just why and how this change corrected the commercial time. We made an appointment after dinner with a ship's officer to explain this to us, and below is the explanation that he gave us in the ship's saloon or parlor that evening : " The earth in one rotation passes through 360 degrees — an entire circle. It requires twenty- four hours to do this; hence it passes through fifteen -degrees each hour. Then for every fifteen degrees that we sail west we find local time one hour earlier. While people say they have lost an hour, remember this is a relative statement, for of course we have neither gained nor lost time. Our day seems one hour longer, and we find our watch one hour fast for every fifteen degrees traveled. Going east, the watch, will be one hour slow for every fifteen degrees traveled. Now let us consider a concrete illustration by way of application. " There w-ere three brothers in St. Louis who resolved to practically test the international date line problem in the following manner : One was to travel around the world, going east via New York ; one travel around the world, going west via San Francisco, and so time his. journey that he would meet his brother on the 180th meridian ; the third brother was to remain at home, and be prepared to compare notes at the close of year with the globe- trotters. On January 1st, 1897, the first brother started for London. When his steamer reached that port, the second brother started for the 180th meridian via San Francisco. When brother 'No. 1 reached the line it was Monday, and the log of his steamer showed the double record, like the one ours made to-day. Their Monday at once became Sunday, marking American time. Brother No. 2 reached the line, coming from America, with a log bearing Sunday date, which was made to date ahead to Monday to agree with Asiatic time. Thus one steamer had two Sundays and the other had practically no recorded Sunday that week. On the evening of December 31st, the three brothers met in their St. Louis home and compared years. Brother No. 1 had a record of 366 days; brother No. 2, 364 days; and brother No. 3 a record of 36.5 days for the year. " Custom has made the law that when a ship crosses the international date line from east to west its log shall register the double record we recorded to-day, as we find just that much differ- ence between American and Asiatic Australian time. Ships crossing the international date line from west to east (from Australia and Asia, Amer- ica-bound) register the same day twice in succes- sion, as brother No. 1 in the illustration counted his Sunday twice, his Monday being turned back to Sunday. By doing this, Asiatic and Australian time is at once converted into American time. Thus you see when we change from west longitude to east longitude we also change from the time of the western to the time of the eastern hemisphere." We thanked the officer for his concise explana- tion ; and while all agreed that it was plainly pre- sented, the international date line problem was the theme of discussion for several days. At most any hour of the day we could see a group gathered in earnest discussion, and we knew at once the topic was the " lost day " problem. It has been agreed that the application of the United States system of standard time to the commercial world, with Greenwich time belt as the unit of the time belts, divided like ours into hour divisions, would be more convenient and much less perplexing to the world at large. We are now in the very central portion of Poly- nesia, that "milky way" of islands that spreads out for thousands of miles east and west and hun- dreds of miles north and south in the south Pa- cific. Because the islands vary in size and largely COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 105 lie in groups owned by many nations, they truly are "Poly" or many lands. Stretching many thousand miles east of the southern portion of the Philippine group on the other side of the equator from Polynesia, are the much smaller and more isolated islands of Micronesia. In this archipelago may he found Wake Island. This is a small island taken possession of by Commander Taussig, for the United States, in January, 1899. It is 2000 miles west of Hawaii, in the direct line of trade with Hong Kong. Miles west of Wake is a group of fifteen small islands known as the Ladrone group. The largest and most southern of this group is Guam. This island was ceded to the United States by Spain in 1899. it is being fitted up for a naval and coaling station, and will be a station on the new Pacific cable now being projected. The island produces cocoanuts, rice, sugar, bread-fruit, and bananas. Its one export is copra (dried cocoanut). The island is about 100 miles in circumference. We pass to the east of the Fiji islands, that were the last of the South Sea islands to give up cannibalism. Many of the natives of this group have substituted dirt for human flesh &» an article of food. As we — who might be served up fried, broiled, or baked — think of it, we can but be glad of the change. The dirt chosen for food is supposed to have been a volcanic ash. The women of the islands seem to especially like this new arti- cle of food, and the coolies imported by the Eng- lish for laborers are said to eat this dirt food greedily. The largest island of this group is Vita Leon (Big Fiji), 100 miles long and 60 miles wide. On this island is the harbor of Suva, said to be one of the largest and best harbors in any ocean. Here is logically the central point for gov- ernment control, and at no distant day the Fiji capital will be located at this point. Freed from malaria, without reptiles or vermin, and with de- lightful southeast breezes and a mean temperature of 80 to 82 degrees, these islands are capable of great agricultural and commercial development. The islands were annexed to England in 1874, and that nation is developing a diversified crop, es- tablishing mills, building roads, and giving the islands all the elements of modern civilization. After we cross Capricorn we find the monotony of sea and sky forgotten as we study the move- ments and gracefulness of that bird of nautical romance that is now seen to frequent the waters — the albatross. It seems to literally sail upon the wind in any direction, as scarcely a movement of its wings can be discerned, though it may fly with, across or against the wind. So swift and powerful is its flight that it has been jocosely re- marked that "the albatross can breakfast at the Cape of Good Hope and dine at New York." It ofttimes flies so near the water that shipwi*ecked sailors have been able to reach up, catch its legs, and be dragged to a floating spar or place of safety. Hence the albatross has been named the "sailor's friend." After six days frqm Samoa we reach the beauti- ful harbor of the "]^aples" of New Zealand — Auckland. This is the metropolis of northern New Zealand, and the former capital of the country. This region, an isthmus in the northern part of North Island, is rich in legends, as it was the " fighting-ground " for centuries for the natives. When the missionaries came here in 1814, human flesh was the main subsistence. We find that this is the most remarkable vol- canic region in the world. One hundred and sixty miles southeast of Auckland, in the central part of North Island, are the geysers, known as the Hot Lake District of New Zealand. Merchants on Queen street, Auckland, told us that earthquakes in 1855 raised their coast-line four feet for miles up and down the coast. They also said that a chain of supposedly extinct volcanoes along the backbone of the islands suddenly became active in 106 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 1886, and buried many entire villages, destroying all the villagers. We learn tliat this city is the center of a large timber belt, rich in trees of commercial value. The kauri tree is the pine of New Zealand, bear- ing somber green leaves instead of needles. It is slow of growth, requiring 800 years to mature, but while it is easily worked, it has a close grain, is exceedingly durable, and will not easily split nor ' readily warp. Its average height is 100 feet and diameter 15 feet. The tree yields a gum that is an important article of export. It is found five ' or six feet under ground, in a fossilized form. It is the process of years that causes this change, which makes it of commercial value, as the fresh gum has no market. The fossil gum is used in the manufacture of varnish. Fern trees thirty feet high are seen beside de- ciduous trees and plants that have been planted by the English since !N"ew Zealand became a recog- nized colony in 1840, three-quarters of a century after Cook discovered the islands. Here, too, we find the "sweet-scented" manuaka, the fragrant veronica, and the lofty rimu tree, about whose lofty trunk the gigantic rata, a veritable boa con- strictor, twines the Gordian knots nothing can untie- and often saps the very life of the tree. The pride of the Maoris (the natives) is the karaka, with its rich glossy leaves. In the hills of both North and South Island are rich deposits of not only coal, but gold, silver, iron, manganese, and tin. Our geographies tell us the exports of these islands are wool, gold, and frozen meats. While our steamer is unloading a gas plant, rifles, shotguns, revolvers, and " ammuni- tion sufficient for a brigade," to say nothing of lawn-mowers, reapers, wagon-wheels, coffee-mills, patent medicines and kerosene, all brought from San Francisco, we go over to the American con- sulate and ask our consul about New Zealand's exports. He says: While New Zealand is in ap- proximately the same latitude south that Italy is north, yet the climate is like England's, and all crops of the temperate zone will grow here, with many tropical plants, — for the islands are well watered and have an abundance of rain. The offi- cial reports for recent years show the New Zealand exports to consist of twenty different articles, with an average total of 45 millions of dollars annually. The highest amounts for single articles are wool, $21,000,000; frozen meats, $6,500,000; gold, $5,500,000; kauri gum, $2,250,000; butter, $1,- 500,000; oats, $1,250,000; tallow, $1,250,000; and sheep, $900,000, annually. Over Y7 per cent, of the exports go to Great Britain, less than 2 per cent, to the rest of Europe, 15 per cent, to the rest of Polynesia, Australia, Hong Kong and China, and 5 or 6 per cent, to the United States. At pres- ent New Zealand is exporting or selling 25 per cent, more than she imports or buys. She imports 24 million dollars' worth annually from Great Britain and two and one-half million from the United States. A little more than Y per cent, of this country's imports come now from our nation, a large part of our sales being manufactured goods, as you see from your steamer's cargo now being unloaded. "Places where New Zealand buys her goods at present rank as follows: Great Britain^ New South Wales, Victoria, United States, Fiji, Queensland, Germany, China (including Hong Kong), Tasmania, South Australia, and France. You will see our nation stands fourth, and we are increasing the sale of American goods in this quarter rapidly. " New Zealand is a great country, comprising more than 100,000 square miles with forty million acres of good tillable land, and she has 4000 miles of coast, with many good harbors. There is more land in New Zealand than in all our New England States, with New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland and District of Columbia thrown in to make good measure. All this land is found in North, South and Stewart islands, separated only by narrow COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. lOT straits. Auckland, with her 60,000 people, is but one of several ports fast coming into close touch with the world's trade. Port Nicholson, port of entry for Wellington, the capital ; Ljttelton, port of entry for Christ Church, on South Island, from which it is separated by a tunneled hill ; Donedin, the port of the country's most important gold fields ; Greymouth and Westport, the coal ports of South Island, and Invercargill with its port of entry, Bluff Harbor, — these are the leading com- mercial centers of I^ew Zealand. Here, 1000 miles from Australia, 45 days from London, 25 days from San Francisco and 21 days from Hono- lulu, is the country that would be greatly benefitted by the opening of the Nicaragua or Panama canal. Auckland would be the first port of call and the last of departure between Europe and the South Pacific colonies, and freight rates would be greatly reduced." The steamer's whistle told us her cargo was ready, and that in one hour we would depart. Thanking our consul for his information, we hurry on board and seek the hurricane deck while our vessel leaves harbor. We see not only stately steamers of many na- tions, but steam ferries gliding this way and that, screaming tugs flying hither and thither, tall- masted sailing-vessels in line at the piers, and tiny rowboats darting in and out amidst the ship- ping of the bay. It is always a busy place, we are told, for Auckland is not only the port of call for the Oceanic line steamers, b,ut it is the headquar- ters of the Northern Steamship Company, is con- stantly visited by boats of the Union Steamship Company and the New Zealand Shipping Com- pany. Being the terminus of the steam'ers engaged in the Piji trade and South Pacific island trade Tinder the Union Steamship Company's flag, there are vessels of this line coming and going most of the time. The dock facilities and spacious harbor of more than 110 acres we see fully taxed with all this shipping. While we stand looking at the lofty green-clad hill across the harbor that is known as Marine-Signal Hill, a friend calls our attention to the neat trim, liner now crossing the bay toward the " swelling bosom of the great Southern ocean." We learn that it is the Moana, especially built for the San Francisco mail service. She is contracted to deliver the mails from San Francisco to Sydney in twenty days. We learn that her route is Syd- ney, Apia, Pago-Pago, Honolulu, San Francisco, — 5938 miles. On her trial trip in June, 1896, she made seventeen knots an hour with light draft, and she delivers mail both ways two days under con- tract time. " Cast off " is now our call, and with an energy felt in every part of the ship our engines send our vessel steadily, smoothly through the harbor, past the breakwater, out into the ocean's rolling waves again. We steam up the coast, and as we round the north capes of land our vessel turns to the west and enters the New Zealand sea, which separates these islands from Australia. Her good harbors, clean estuaries, and navigable rivers, induce com- merce, while Ker position, in easy reach of Austra- lia, India, East India Islands, China and Japan on the one side and the United States, Mexico and South-American republics on the other, with the hundreds of fertile islands of Polynesia under her commercial sway, are destined to bring New Zealand into prominence in the world's commerce. When the American Yankee harnesses her Suth- erland Falls, near the Milford Sound, it will sur- pass our own Niagara in generating power. These falls are found in a stream that springs from a glacier on Mount Jutoko, and the flow is very great at all seasons of the year. It is already a Mecca for travelers, as the wild country with such a rugged landscape forms a fitting background for this, the highest fall in the world, — 2000 feet capable of furnishing mechanical and electric power for all New Zealand. We are now steaming through phosphorescent 108 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. water. When drawn up on deck and placed in a dark corner, agitation of the water produces scin- tillations of light. We are told that south of the fortieth parallel the waters of New Zealand sea are at night surpassingly beautiful. Vessels from Wellington to Hobart Town, Tasmania, pass through this region. On moonless nights the water seems to have given place to liquid fire. A shower- bath with this water sends scintillating particles all around one, making him feel warmer, whether he is or not. The microscope shows a drop of this water teeming with living and exceedingly active animalculie, — so small, that were it not for the magnifying-glass we should never know of their existence. After a journey of 1284 miles through this trackless sea, we reach Sydney, the metropolis of New South Wales, and the terminus of more than a dozen steamer lines, giving it commercial con- nection with leading seaports of the world. Bot- any bay, with its lake-like basin defended by the Sydney Heads,- — two sentinel cliffs on either side of the entrance, — and with emerald islets luxu- riant with semi-tropical vegetation here and there in the bay, is the pride of the city, and, together with Farm Cove, — an indentation around which semicircle liefe the city's forty-acre botanical gar- den, — excites the admiration of all visitors. Sydney we find has a first-class naval station, the headquarters of the British fleet in Australia. We pass near the trim, swift cruiser Mildura as we enter Port Jackson, and at the floating light turn south. There are usually from nine to eleveji imperial war vessels on the station. The great stone quays and large substantial piers that now appear, mark the near approach to the city's water- front. We find Sydney to be a modern city about the size of Cleveland, Ohio. The city was founded in 1788, and named after the colonial secretary of state — Viscount Sydney. It became an incorpo- rated city in 1842, and in 1855 a branch of the royal mint was established here. The University of Sydney is admirably situated, and has many fine buildings. It was the first university founded in the southern hemisphere. Here are also four large denominational colleges, a normal school, many public and private schools, besides a free museum, an art gallery, and a public library with more than 100,000 volumes. The city has always held high rank as a colonial city of Great Britain, on account of its complete system of charitable and educational organizations, substantial public buildings, and its enterprising, public-spirited cit- izens. As w^e stand on the wharf watching the stevedores unload the cargo that our steamer brought from San Francisco, we are surprised to see 400 tons of sewing-machines, 1000 barrels of kerosene, 1000 tons of wire, 800 tons of steel rails, 400 tons of roll paper, with hundreds of pianos and organs and miscellaneous articles taken from the hold and loaded on drays to transfer to the wholesate houses. The hotels of Sydney are all run on the Euro- pean plan, and are thoroughly modern in their equipment. The next morning after our arrival we took train for Melbourne, where the present capital of the new Federal Government is located. At the head of a prolonged inlet of Port Jackson, here called the Parramatta river, we find the most noted orange district of New S.outh Wales. The city that gathers this orange trade is Parramatta. Our railway now divides, one branch going northwest through Bathhurst, the center of a great wheat region, to Fort Bourke on the Darling river ; the other runs southwest to Melbourne. The direct distance between Sydney and Melbourne is 450 miles, but as the railway must cross the Blue Mountains and make a detour around the Aus- tralian Alps of Victoria, the distance by rail is nearly 600 miles. It is a double track all the way. As we near the foothills of the Blue Moun- tains, we observe ragged cliffs of considerable height, but crowned with forests ; breaks in these COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 109 Alpine features form ragged valleys, well watered and quite fertile. The summits of the Blue Moun- tains rarely attain 4000 feet, and our railroad leads us through one of these valley passes to the interior, that is pictured in most geographies as a desert waste of sand and salty marches. We ride through this region many miles, and find that wherever the land has been cleared and irri- gated it is remarkably fertile. The mountains of this continent skirt the coast; and the vast in- terior, not receiving the moisture that adapts it to agriculture, has scarcely been explored. Here are millions of acres covered with a low-growing bush, and termed " scrub." Kussia has its steppes, America its prairies, and Australia its scrub — treeless tracts of upland. The vast western prairie region of our own country used to be called a des- ert. Now, this same region raises as good grain, fruit and vegetables as almost any other section of our country. So it may be with central Aus- tralia, now given up largely to the Negroid na- tives, who here live in their wild free state. The soil is fertile, irrigated farms along the border growing a great variety of temperate and semi- tropical plants. When it has been fully explored and occupied, central Australia may prove to be a great bread-basket for all this South Pacific region. As we cross the line from New South Wales into Victoria land, we observe a complete change of train crew. At this division point. Prof. E. M. Shelton, an American educator who was called to this country by the British Government to estab- lish agricultural colleges, enters our car. We ask him the significance of the change, and he says: " Unlike our own country, the provinces or states own and operate their railroads. Before the Federal Government was organized, each state ran its line largely independent of all others. One might have standard gauge, another a narrow gauge. This prevented interchange of cars, and necessitated unloading and reloading freight, les- sening profits to dealers and increasing the cost to consumers. New South Wales, the province you are just leaving, has nearly 3000 miles of rail- way and 50,000 miles of graveled, ballasted or corduroyed or bushed roads. She also has, to aid her commercial needs, nearly 14,000 miles of telegraph and many miles of tramway. All of these are under the direct supervision and man- agement of the State Government. The revenues of this region come largely through its agricultural and mining resources, as but little manufacturing is done. " New South Wales has 310,700 square miles of land. One-fourth of this is under forest, while in 1899 less than two per cent, was under crop. Yet this state has an overland trade of nearly fifty million dollars. " The first effect of the Federal Government, which leaves the railways still under state con- trol, will tend to make most of the railways in the continent a uniform gauge. Then you can load a car at Sydney and ship it over the entire mileage of the continent — 14,500 miles. " Each state has officers and equips its own railways, and you see now the Victoria crew are taking charge of our train and will run us into Melbourne." We here cross the river that forms the boundary between New South Wales and Victoria — the Murray. This river drains an area of half a mill- ion square miles, and is a thousand miles long. It overflows its banks periodically, at which time it rises from twenty-five to forty feet above its usual level. During its overflow period it is nav- igable within ninety miles of its source. It has many important tributaries, the most interesting one being the Darling river. At the point where our railway crosses the river, it is not more than 100 yards wide, and shows a tortuous channel which is characteristic of the river throughout its course. The scenic part of Australia lies just before us. 110 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. It is the region of mountains whose rugged peaks and deep valleys make the European think of the Alps; hence they are called the Australian Alps. They contain the loftiest peaks in the continent; Kosciusko, 7176 feet, and Mt. Hotham, 6414 feet, being the highest summits in the range. Here are the very richest gold mines in Australia. While gold vs^as first discovered in New South Wales in 1851, that same year this province was organized, and named for the queen. It has produced six times as much gold as any other colony. While mining engineers estimate that one-third of Vic- toria's twenty-three million acres are underlain with gold-bearing rock, less than one-tenth of this estimate has been developed. Victoria's wealth in minerals is remarkable, as not only gold, but silver, copper, tin, zinc, iron, lead, antimony, co- balt, bismuth, manganese, coal, sulphur, kaolin and bitumen are found in paying quantities, while rubies, sapphires, topaz, garnet and agate stones, to the value of many pounds sterling, have been ob- tained here. Her granite rivals the best granite found anywhere. Our railway now threads a mountain-pass, and again we are on the coast plain which encircles the island continent, making 8000 miles of sea- front, whose retreating plain bears few indigenous plants ; yet these few are peculiar in habit as well as in form, and grow in great quantities. The soil is adapted to cultivation, and, like our own nation, Australia is capable of growing all food crops re- quired by man or beast. It is said that this island continent, with one-half its area in the torrid zone and one-half in the south temperate zone, can grow any plant in the world. We now pass through the Gippsland, the name given the region south of the Australian Alps. While in the northern part of Victoria a quar- ter of a million acres are farmed by irrigation, here the breezes from the ocean supply an average rainfall of thirty inches. It is winter here, but the thermometer at the station just passed regis- tered 45 degrees. The train porter tells us that July is their coldest month, but even then the temperature rarely falls below freezing, and the snow-plow is not used on their whole line of road, save in the mountain-pass through which we have just come. We reach Melbourne too late for business hours, so we take a trolley-ride through its ten miles of suburbs. While Sydney is the oldest city, Mel- bourne is the largest city in Australia. In 1835 a small colonizing party from Tas- mania looked over the swamp and uncleared forest that fringed the Yarra, a short distance above its mouth, seeking a site for a commercial city. Some merchants in the company believed this river, navi- gable for large vessels, would afford good water transit, while the port harbor, afterwards called Port Phillip, would afford safe anchorage for ocean shipping, thus marking out the natural ad- vantages for a commercial center. New South Wales in 1873 recognized the hamlet located by the Tasmanian colonists, and named the citj' Mel- bourne, in honor of Lord Melbourne, the British prime minister of that time. When gold was dis- covered in Australia, in 1851, the city numbered 23,000. In less than ten years (1857) our town of 23,000 became a great commercial port of 100,- 000, and known throughout the world. It has be- come the Chicago of Australia, unsurpassed by any colonial capital throughout the British possessions, for its palatial dwellings, broad avenues, public buildings, colossal warehouses, banks, theaters, schools, churches, and pleasure-grounds. For many years one-fifth of the revenue raised by tax- ation was expended for educational purposes. The University of Melbourne, mth other uni- versities, together with libraries, museums, and art galleries, speak of the culture and refinement of this far-away capital, so freighted with commercial possibilities, so stirring with business life. Here we find a Chinese quarter, similar to the one in San Francisco. Yonder is Baseball Park, not COMMERCIAL OEOGRAPHY. Ill surpassed for utility and beauty by any in Amer- ica, the home of baseball. Over there in a block by itself, 400 feet back from the avenue, is the public library building, whose interior arrange- ments are not surpassed by either the Boston Pub- lic Library or the Carnegie Library of Pittsburg, Pa. We find Collins Street to be the Michigan Avenue of this Australian Chicago, although Burke is a close second, with its well-paved streets and buildings of brick and stone, of modern de- sign. Melbourne has rail and coast connection with the rest of the continent, and steamer connection with nearly all lands. The city now has a half- million people. We find a very serviceable ship railway that conveys ocean vessels from the Head of Port Phillip to an anchorage in Hobson's bay. This has been rendered necessary from the fact that sandbars obstruct the channel, so that ships draw- ing more than nine feet of water cannot get over the bars, while vessels drawing twenty-four feet of water can come up Port Phillip as far as Hobson's bay. We learn at the custom-house that through this port of Victoria, seventy million dollars' worth is exported, and 1800 vessels, representing com- merce from twenty-five countries, carrying nearly two and one-half million tons, enter port each year. A large part of the commerce is with Oceanica, and over one-third of the rest is with Great Britain. Our nation imported from Vic- toria 67f thousand pounds sterling and exported to Victoria 883| thousand pounds sterling in 1898. The following morning we visit the foreign office of the Federal Government on matters of state, and find the minister a most affable, cour- teous officer, who thoroughly believes his country has a great future. From him we learn the fol- lowing facts about the continent of Australia : " This is the only continent lying wholly in the southern temperate zone, and its geographical position, surrounded by the Polynesian Islands, w^ithin access to both Oriental and Occidental ports of commerce upon the Pacific, it has a world com- merce at its very doors. "Australia is four-fifths the size of all Europe, while it has only one-seventh of the population of England alone, although its commercial activity is attracting merchants, miners, manufacturers, and farmers, thus rapidly increasing its population. " I^ature has given the continent a climate that is almost unequalled in any other continent, and any plant of temperate or tropical zone soon is acclimated and thrives here. " The interior receives little moisture, but a nutritious grass covers the eastern part of this vast plateau region. Here is the great pasture- land of the continent. Australian wool has made Liverpool the largest woolen mart of commerce. While nearly one-fourth of the world's gold supply comes from this continent, yet the mineral products are but one-fifth as valuable as the agricultural and pastoral products. " Railways, telegraphs and telephones are bind- ing us more closely together as a people, and our new government, established January 1st, 1901, has brought ' The Commonwealth of Australia ' into existence and given us a national life. On the above-mentioned date England yielded up all authority over our household matters, only reserv- ing such maternal supervision as we are all glad to enjoy. Our Commonwealth consists of the six States of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Westralia (a new name for West Australia), and Tasmania. Some conception of their size may be gained when you know that Wes- tralia is larger than all the United States east of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers. New South Wales equals the area of the States bordering your Great Lakes. Victoria would cover Minnesota, and Tasmania, West Virginia. Australia's popu- lation is not equal to the population of the United States in 1790. 112 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. " The features of the government consist of three departments, like your own — executive, legisla- tive, and judicial. The executive is vested in the Governor-General, appointed by the British sov- ereign (who has, however, no active part in the administration), and cabinet. The cabinet, un- like the American, is chosen from Parliament to represent the majority sentiment in that body in the ministry. Whenever this policy is voted down they give place to a new cabinet, a successful prin- ciple long tried in English politics. The legisla- tive department is vested in a Parliament, which consists of a Senate and a Chamber. The Senate consists of six members from each State, chosen by popular vote, to serve for a term of six years. The Chamber consists of seventy-two members, elected in the same way you elect Representatives to Congress, on the basis of population, for a term of three years. The Judiciary Department is sim- ilar to that of the former colonial courts, with power similar to your own federal courts. " The federal capital is to be located in a tract ten miles square, under exclusive jurisdiction of the Federal Government, like your District of Co- lumbia. This territory will be within 'Eew South Wales, but must be selected at least 100 miles from Sydney. Until the permanent capital shall be es- tablished. Parliament will sit at Melbourne. Each State controls the unoccupied public domain within its borders, and its legislature will also control and manage the lines of railroad within its borders, while the Federal Government operates the post- offices and the telegraph and telephone service of the republic." We thank the minister for his courtesy, and return to Sydney by coast steamer, 560 miles. English, French, German, Japanese and Ameri- can steamer lines connect Melbourne with the rest of the commercial centers of the world. Across Bass Strait lies the State of Tasmania, the Van Diemen's Land of the old-time geography. Its capital, Hobart Town, is on a bay in the southern part of the island, 450 miles south of Melbourne. Near this capital city, twenty miles inland, we are told, is a forest of remarkable gum-trees, simi- lar in size to the big gum-trees of the Fernshaw mountain district of the Australian continent. Statistics tell us the largest tree known to man is a chestnut tree near the base of Mt. -i:Etna, Sicily. It measures 190 feet in circumference. The cy- press tree near Oaxaca, Mexico, that Humboldt measured in 1855, is believed to be the oldest tree. He recorded a measurement of 126 feet in circum- ference and 382 feet between the outspread branches. The largest tree in the United States is found near Bear Creek, California. This tree measures 140 feet in circumference. One of the gum-trees of the Fernshaw district that had fallen was measured by a government survey, and its length was found to be 474 feet. The Tasmania gum-trees are fully as large, averaging from 300 to 400 feet in height throughout the forest, and many are found 80 feet in circumference. Fern trees are often found, with American native fruit trees, while fragrant yellow gorse and scarlet ger- aniums fringe the roads of Tasmania with almost impenetrable hedges. We steam up the coast to Sydney, where we collect our gathered relics and select the steamer that shall take us on our journey northward to Asia. After consulting sailing-cards, prices, etc., we decide that the Nippon Yusen Kaisha, of the Japan Mail Steamship line, gives us just the route we want, and purchase a ticket to Kobe, first class, for £37 10s. The second cabin on the same steamer costs £26 10s. This steamer does not leave Melbourne until August 20th; arrives at Sydney on the 23d, and clears for Asia on the 29 th. As it will be several days before we sail, we divide our time between the American consul- ate and the botanical gardens. At the gardens we see types of all the principal plants of the world ; but the 10,000 native species of plants found in Australia, many of this number found nowhere COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 113 else, are of special interest to us. We notice that few fruits and edible roots and almost no cereals are found among these native plants. To see the leaves hanging vertically and trees shedding their bark instead of their leaves, seems as odd to us as it does to see stone-fruits with the stone on the outside instead of in the center of the fruit. The bottle tree with its "junk-bottle" trunk contain- ing good water, the South Sea myrtle with its star- spangled blooms, the styphelia with its green flow- ers, the musk tree exhaling from leaf and bark a peculiar sweet odor, and the she-oak tree emitting a shrill wailing sound, though not a breath of wind stirs twig or leaf, are as peculiar to the plant world as the kangaroo, emu, bower bird and orni- thorhynchus are to the animal world. More than 100 species of eucalypti (a member of the myrtle family) are found in the native plants. The acacias constitute the next largest family in the Australian plant list. This garden shows the kangaroo grass, that is so tall that it easily con- ceals a man on horseback. It also has an innu- merable number of brilliant flowering plants, the giant lily being an object of great beauty. Consul Bell informs us that for the twelve months closing June 30th, 1901, the United States exported to Oceanica 35^ million dollars' worth and imported 11^ million dollars' worth of mer- chandise; our commerce with Australia being 12^ million dollars greater than with the continent of Africa for the same period. He told us that stat- isticians declare the commerce of Great Britain and Ireland to be equal to about 20 pounds ster- ling per capita per annum. He has determined the commerce of Australia to be fully 40 pounds sterling per capita per annum, with almost unlim- ited resources before her. He told us that Australia is to-day the greatest sheep- and wool-producing country in the world, having more than 100 million head of sheep. Nine-tenths of the wool is sent to Liverpool. The flocks can live in the open air the year round; the amount of rainfall alone determining the limit of pasturage. Within the last ten years Aus- tralia has developed meat refrigeration, and now (1901) surpasses all competitors in this industry. Ranchmen state that the cost of killing the sheep, freezing, shipping and selling the mutton in Lon- don does not exceed three to four cents per pound. South Australia and Victoria raise the wheat for the continent, while they provide it also with grapes, raisins, and wine. Victoria leads in gold exports, having mined more than six times as much as any other colony since its discovery in 1851. New South Wales leads in silver, copper, iron, and coal. (The coal-fields are twice the area of the coal-beds of the British Isles.) Tasmania leads in the production of tin. The mineral wealth is very great, the agricultural and animal products quite large, but the manufacturing industries are yet in their infancy. Hence Australian exports are the products of her mines, farms, and pastures. She sends coal even to our Pacific coast, although the rich beds of coal lately opened in Washington will tend to lessen the sale of Australian coal in our Pacific States. The imports of the continent are largely the industrial articles manufactured in other lands, 80 per cent, being from Great Britain. Our consul tells us that while the coast and foreign trade of the Australian colonies was two and one-half million dollars in 1825, for the last few years it has amounted to more than one- half billion of dollars annually. On the evening of the 28th we make ourselves at home in our staterooms, directly amidships in the N. Y. K. Australian liner Yawata Maru. We find that this liner is a new steel steamer that was built on the Clyde, under special survey to Lloyd's highest class, and fitted in accordance with the Japanese Government rules especially for the Aus- tralian service. Her commodious staterooms for first-class passengers have all the modern improve- ments, and are placed amidships on the upper deck, which admits of perfect ventilation, so essential in 114 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. tropical climates. Above, on the bridge deck, is the handsome dining-saloon, fitted with electric fans and lights. This steamer is a 4000-ton vessel, fitted with triple-expansion engines, and has a recorded average speed of fifteen knots an hour. At 10 o'clock in the forenoon of the 31st we reach Moreton bay, the harbor of Brisbane, 500 miles north of Sydney. This bay is a sheet of water thirty miles long and six to eight miles wide, inclosed between two long sandy islands and the mainland. Hidden by the mangrove swamps skirt- ing the coast is the mouth of the Brisbane river, and twenty-four miles up this river is the capital city of Queensland, surrounded by banana groves, cotton-fields, orange orchards and sugar planta- tions. The tulip tree, rosewood, sandalwood and satinwood trees adorn the streets of the capital city, while the palm supplants the eucalyptus tree. Queensland practically supplies Australia with her bananas, while her great sugar plantations, which are mostly north of the tropic, yield more than 100,000 tons of sugar annually, and the in- creasing acreage of cane promises a much greater yield for the future. After an exchange of cargo we steam up the east coast to our next port of call — Townsville, 750 miles northwest of Brisbane. This city is the coast terminus of a railway connecting the pastoral settlements of the better parts of the tableland in- terior with the foreign and coast markets through Townsville. Back from the coast a short dis- tance, between Brisbane and Townsville, is a moun- tain of almost solid gold ore. This is Mt. Morgan mine, and is reported to be one of the very richest mines in the world. We have been passing through the coral sea for several hundred miles. From near Great Sandy Island wending northward stretch the Great Bar- rier Beefs of Australia. This is said to be the greatest extent of coral reefs known to man. The passage between the reefs is dangerous at places, and at Cape Tribulation there is scarcely room for the safe passage of a vessel between the reef and the mainland. Farther north the reef stretches out again to sea, extending north across the east portion of Terres Strait. After three days' sailing we reach Thursday Island, off the northern point of the Cape York peninsula. While our ship is preparing for its eight days' run to Manila, we take a stroll over the island. To the south is the continent we have just left To the north lies the second largest island on the globe — New Guinea, which is larger than Texas, our country's largest State, by many thousand square miles. Seventy thousand square miles in the northern section of the southeastern part of the island is now called Kaiser Wilhelm's Land, and has been a colony of Germany since 1884. The southern section of the southeastern part — 90,000 square miles — was declared under British protection in 1885, and became a colony of Great Britain in 1888. The rest of the island is a colony of Holland. The island is about 360 miles wide and 1300 miles lang. Its natives are Papuans, the most barbarous savages in the Pacific. This island, together with the groups of small islands that lie to the southeast and east of New Guinea inhabited by Papuans, marks Malanesia, a name meaning ^- islands of the blacks." A growing commerce with the mother countries and with Queensland and New South Wales is developing prosperous trading stations and estab- lishing plantations which are worked by the Ori- ental laborers acclimated to the heat of the tropics. On our stroll we were fortunate enough to get acquaintc 1 with Mr. James Clark, who owns and operates a pearl farm of 5089 square miles, sit- uated on the strait at the northern extremity of the York peninsula. In the Orient he is known as " the king of the pearl-fishers." In answer to our questions he said that he had been engaged in pearl- fishing for ten years. With proper intelligence in the selection of a place, Mr. Clark said one can raise pearls and pearl-shells as easily as he can COMMERCIAL QEO GRAPH Y. 115 common oysters. In 1897 he stocked his farm with 150,000 pearl oysters, obtained in many in- stances far out at sea. His experience has taught him that shells attain the greatest size in shallow water. He ships his pearls to London in his own vessels. He employs 1500 men (250 Leing divers) and 250 vessels to harvest his crop of pearls. Each year's catch runs from $250,000 worth to five times that amount. Surely, we said, this is the queerest " farming " we have yet heard of. Mr. Clark smiled, and told us that quite a number of smaller but successful farms were being " worked " across in New Guinea. The long blast of our whistle calls us aboard, and, bidding the pearl-king good-by, we hurry on deck. We now enter the East-Indian Archipelago, that wonderful system of islands, the home of volcanoes, earthquakes, typhoons and monsoons, — yet a great storehouse of spices, tropical fruits, vegetable drugs and minerals for all nations. Here is the home of the Malay, that peculiar brown people who work only enough to keep them from starving, get along with as little clothing as possi- ble, and take their food largely as nature provides it for them. This region has been their home for more than 2000 years. We steam through the group of islands in the Banda sea, and notice their shores fringed with cocoanut palms and dense jungles of luxuriant tropical vegetation. Here the nutmeg and mace of commerce grow in abundance. The kernel of the fruit is the nutmeg and the outside covering of the fruit forms the mace. As our vessel goes through the Molucca Pass we fee what seem to be great hop-yards on the islands. Our friend informs us that these are pepper vine- yards. The vines are planted beside stumps or trained upon poles stuck upright in the ground. The vines begin to bear during the third year, and sometimes yield two crops a year, a single plant often producing a pound of pepper at each crop. Some of the berries are picked while green. and when drying turn black. This constitutes the black pepper of commerce. When the fruit is ripe the white pepper is obtained. When picked the berry is fiery red in color, but when soaked in water this red skin falls off and leaves the white pepper of commerce. Hence black pepper and white pepper can both be obtained from the same plant. We now leave the land of the Southern Cross, pass through the phosphorescent waters of the Archipelago " across the line " into the !N'orthern Hemisphere, ruled by the ISTorth Star and its circumpolar constellations. Here at the equator, in the " summer seas," the sun rises and sets at the same hour each day, all the year round; the trees are always green, and filled with thousands of birds of many different hues and carols of song. Flowers are ever in bloom, and it is Foutth-of- July weather the whole year through. Commercial statistics show us that we have but a small portion of the East India supplies, yet in 1900 they sent us seventy-three million dollars' worth of imports; thirty million dollars' worth of food products; tin, ten million; drugs, chemicals and dyes, six million ; and the rest con- stituted a miscellaneous cargo. On September 12th we reach the pearl fisheries of the Sulu Islands, the southern part of the largest island group in the Archipelago, — the Philippines. These islands extend in a long line through twenty degrees of longitude, and comprise 2000 islands, great and small. The islands are of volcanic origin, and vary from a few miles to 41,000 square miles in area, while the total for the group approximates the area of New England, Delaware, New Jersey, and Ohio. On the morning of the 14th we steam past Cor- regidor and enter the bay of Manila, famous as the scene of the greatest naval victory of modern times. As we pass over the placid waters of the bay whose shipping now brings to its capital city the commerce of many lands, we instinctively re- 116 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. A Public Laundry and Bath, Manila, P. I. peat the lines of the prairie poet of our Central States, dedicated to the battle of Manila: " O Dewey was the morning Upon the first of May, And Dewey was the Admiral /^ Down in Manila Bay ; And Dewey were the Regent's eyes, Those heavenly orbs of blue. And do we feel discouraged ? We do not think we ' dew.' " Our steamer is to stay twenty-four hours at the port of Manila, and we go on shore to hear our national hymn sung by the Fili- pino school-children in their native tongue, as well as in English, and, best of all, to again walk under the Stars and Stripes. The city of Manila is becoming a great commer- cial center, with a rapidly growing com- merce. It has just come through the Span- ish-American and insurgents' wars, of which it was the center, well-nigh destroying its commerce; yet this city in 1900 exported to the United States alone, five million dollars' worth of hemp and fifty million pounds of sugar. Iloilo and Cebu are important sea- port to"wns. We find that in the Philippines, as in nearly all other points of the Malay Archipelago, Chinese traders do a large share of the wholesale, retail and banking business. While the whites numbered in 1900 but 25,000, exclusive of American sol- diers, the Chinese numbered 50,000, the ma- jority of whom were in mercantile business of some kind. The natives are divided into eighty tribes, speaking as many dialects, and number between eight and ten million souls. They are quick to learn, are generally more energetic than their Malay cousins of the other island groups, and are proving them- selves desirous of acquiring the advantages of modern civilization. Manila, as the me- tropolis of the islands, has an advantageous location, and is now a city of 200,000. At the custom-house we learn that the exports are chiefly Manila hemp, sugar, copra (dried co- Looking toward the City from the Lighthouse, — Pasig River Entrance, Manila, P. I. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 117 coanut), tobacco, and rice. The first- named article comprises nearly one- third the value of all the exports, Great Britain and the United States purchasing the entire exported crop. The most important imports are ginghams, fruits, yarns, ironware, coal, and petroleum. The bulk of the trade is with Great Britain, Germany, Spain, America, and Japan, Manu- facturing plants are being established to work up the hemp, silk and cotton fabrics, and make furniture and ag- ricultural implements. Manila is a port of call for many American, Asiatic and European transpacific steamer lines, and is con- nected with Hong Kong by cable. Telegraphs and railways are being built to facilitate commerce in all parts of the larger islands. The chief occupation is agriculture, yet less Drying Hemp on the Island of Cebu, — the principal export of the Philippines. Making the famous "Manila" Rope, in Manila, P. I. than one-tenth of the land is under cultiva- tion, and that very imperfectly tilled. Forests of the finest cabinet woods are found on the islands. Very little is known of its mineral wealth, although gold is re- ported in Luzon, and coal, petroleum, lead, copper and sulphur have been found on the other islands. The custom-house officials at Manila predict a fifty-million-dollar commerce for 1901 in the Philippines, with good pros- pects to soon double that amount. The strife in the islands has given way to peaceful pursuits, while the establishment of American schools and a stable govern- ment gives promise of protection to busi- ness interests; hence capital is being in- vested in industries and institutions that promise good to our far-away island friends. 118 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. DePghts of Oriental Farm'ng. — Prepar'ng ground for Rice, the Filipinos' "Staff of L''fe." At ten o'clock next morning tlie Yawata is under way again. We go out past the old fort of Cavite, whose Spanish guns tried in vain to wreck the American fleet in the battle on the bay. We enter the China sea, and on the 18th reach the great English center of Chinese commerce — Hong Kong, 650 miles north- east of Manila. Hong Kong is an island eight miles long, lying off the south China coast. It was acquired by Great Britain from the Chinese in 1841, and in 1842 the present port of Victoria was estab- lished and made an English military and naval station. It has since become the great clearing-house of Oriental and Oc- cidental trade. Our consul tells us that the annual tonnage of commerce often sur- passes 14f million tons. So great has this commerce become that England in 1898 was forced to lease of China 400 square miles of land and water territory sur- rounding Hong Kong, to provide anchor- age, dockage, and proper defense to the port's expanding commerce. Through this port China sends one-fourth of her exports and receives one-third of her imports. Our ]Sr. Y. K. steamer now heads north- ward, toward the island empire of Japan. On the morning of the 24th we reach the "gate through which the Western civili- zation first flowed into Japan" — Nagasaki. This is the first port of entry for vessels coming to, and the last port of call for vessels going from, Japan. It lies at the head of an inlet three miles long and from one-half to a mile wide. We see the process of coaling a vessel in the harbor, which to Americans is a very interesting sight, as our people use labor- saving machinery largely for this work. The vessel coaled was the " Gaelic," of Maru I the O. &: O. line, plying between Japan and San The right way to Filipino Freedom. — Boys in Normal High School, Manila, P. I. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 119 Francisco. The ship we see sur- rounded by boats of many kinds, shapes and sizes, called lighters. These ari*e loaded with coal and workmen. Staging is extended from the lighters to the ship's deck. Now men go below in the hold of the steamer to "trim" or compactly store the coal; women form lines and pass it up in baskets which hold from ten to twelve pounds, throwing the empty baskets into the lighter boats to be gathered up by children, who also assist in filling them up. In this way these Japanese men, women and children constitute a human elevator, and in the course of six or eight hours store 1200 tons in the coal-bins of the Gaelic. We learn that for this work the women are paid at the rate of nine cents and the men thirteen cents a day. We find at Xagasaki a dry-dock cut out of the solid rock, costing more than a million dollars and available for Japan's largest ships. Here also we find large engineering works and shipbuilding yards. It is here that Siberian and Korean pas- sengers from the west and south generally change steamer. Our ticket reads to Kobe, and, as good steamer connections can there be made, we will continue our voyage on the X. Y. K. steamer to that point. After leaving Nagasaki our steamer moves up the western coast of the Kiushu island to the Straits of Shimonoseki, 148 miles. This is the opening to the inland sea. The seven forts of Shimonoseki guard this passage with the most powerful modem artillery. Here was concluded the treaty of peace that closed the China-Japanese war of 1894-5, giving Japan the island of Formosa, noted as the camphor island of the world. Rafts of Cocoanuts on one of the Waterways of Manila. We have seen many beautiful places on this Pa- cific voyage, but as we sail through this inland sea, from eight to forty miles wide and 240 miles long, it impresses us as surprisingly like a fairy land. The sea seems studded with islands of almost every conceivable shape, from the barren rocky islet to the island of emerald green, artificially terraced to its summit. It is not definitely known how many of these little islands break the con- tinuity of this watery blue, but surely they number in the thousands. The islands are not generally wooded, and many are mountainous. The intri- cate channel often passes within a stone's-throw of the shore, and between some of the islands has a current of four to six knots an hour. September 26th we reach Kobe, our destination, " the brightest and healthiest of all the foreign set- tlements in the empire," we are told. As we come down the gang-plank from the 120 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Looking northeast over the Bay, from the New Market, Hong Kong, China. Yawata Maru we notice the funny two-wheeled carts in a line, each with an almond-eyed Japanese wearing a stiff round hat covered with blue cotton, about the shape and size of a small butter-bowl upside down. He also wears a loose-fitting shirt fastened with a knotted sash, and a pair of tights. This is the jinrikisha man waiting to be hired. We observe that each man stands by his vehicle and motions to his legs and then to his jinrikisha, as much as to say, " Try my speed." These are the cabs of Japan, and after going through the custom-house we hire our human steeds for ten cents an hour, and see the sights of this Japanese city of 160,000 people. We learn that this port was open to foreign trade in 1868, and ten years later its imports and exports aggregated 12^ million yen as against 40^ million yen for Yokohama, the chief commercial port of the empire. In 1897 Yokohama's com- merce was ITY^ million yen, with Kobe a close second — 162 million yen. This port is the center of the tea trade, and is connected by rail with the many commercial cities on the island of Hondo. Just a little to the south and east lies the ancient military capital of the sixteenth century, now the second city of the empire in population, but the ranking city in man- ufactures, where 60,000 hands are em- ployed. The detail plan of harbor construc- tion now being carried on involves the ex- penditure of twenty million yen, and will probably make Osaka the shipping as well as commercial capital of Japan. To the north, thirty miles inland, . is Kyoto (meaning capital). This city was founded in 793, A. D., and for many cen- turies was the imperial, intellectual, polit- ical, religious and artistic metropolis of the empire. The city is the third city of Japan, and its people make the fine porcelain and weave and dye the beautiful silk fabrics that find such a ready market in Europe and America. To the northwest is the treaty port, with its ex- pansive harbor, that Perry opened to the world in 1854 — Yokohama, in the center of the empire's most extensive silk district. Fifty minutes ride from the latter place is the present capital — Tokyo (west capital), a city about the size of our own Chicago. These facts we learn from an American tourist who accompanied us on our trip around Kobe and vicinity. He wanted us to ascend the sacred moun- tain, an extinct volcano — Fusiyama {foo-zi-a-ma)y situated near the central part of Hondo, and more than two miles high. But we feel that we cannot spare the time, and, returning to the consulate, he aids us to get our necessary passports for crossing Asia. We find a steamer of the N. Y. K. line will clear port in two hours for Vladivostok. We pay 54 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 121 yen ($27) for our ticket, and at the wharf seek our steamer for Siberia. We find at their respective piers on the water-front, vessels carrying the flags of twenty-one steamer lines, but the white flag with two parallel red stripes across the center marks the location of the ]^. Y. K. steam- ers. Here we find the vessel that is to take us across the sea of Japan to the mainland. It is a modern vessel in all its equipments, heated by steam and lighted by electricity. The " clack ! clack ! " on the wharf causes us to determine what makes the noise. We find that the Japanese have blocks of wood about three inches high fastened to the bottoms of their sandals, to keep their feet dry. Their rain-coats are made of rice straw and their umbrellas of paper. On a rainy day like this one, the natives of the whole city are three inches taller. We now Bamboo Avenue, Kyoto, Japan. A SemicTCuIar Bridge in quaint old Japan. thread our way back through " Fairyland," and, after coaling at Moji, cross the sea to the mainland. Our steamer first stops at Fusan, to de- liver a cargo of cotton yarn to the Koreans and take on food products. The eggs were brought in crates of so many " sticks " in- stead of so many dozen. Ten eggs are placed in a long row, and straw is put all around them. Then the straw is securely tied between the eggs, making the egg-stick. These Koreans formerly constituted a very secluded people, and were known in the commercial world as "The Hermit Nation." Since the Chinese-Japanese war, Korea is developing a very extensive commerce with her neighbors, Japan, China, and Siberia. American machinery is developing her gold mines, and railroads connect her seaport towns with the interior so her agricultural products can reach the seacoast. 122 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Fusiyama, the great Sacred Mountain of Japan. Across the peninsula from Gensan — our next port of call — is the principal seaport of Korea, Chemulpo. Into the harbor of this city our own Commodore Stenfeldt brought his vessel in 1882, and succeeded in negotiating a treaty with the King of Korea that opened his land to the com- merce of the world. The land of Korea is about the shape of Florida and the size of Kansas. The harbor of Gensan is a commodious one, and we ob- serve that the city is composed of one-story houses, mostly built of mud and covered with straw- thatched roofs. The principal business of the citizens, as Mr. Carpenter has well said of the Seoul natives, " seems to be to smoke, to squat, and to eat." We now steam northward, cross the fortieth de- gree north latitude, and after two days of boister- ous seas enter the Gulf of St. Peter the Great, lu a few hours we reach the wharf, and, saying " Sayouara " (farewell) to our Japanese sailors and friends of the Yawata Maru, descend the gang-plank. Our Pacific voyage of nearly 14,400 miles is ended, and we are in the great seaport of Russian Asia, one of the most strongly fortified cities of the globe — Vladivostok. Across tlie Eastern Continent by Rail. OuK last chapter left us at Vladivostok. We reached this port October 5, and went at once to police headquarters. Here our passports were critically examined and we were asked many questions. The result of the conference was that we were all pro- vided with permits from the chief of police, giving us the privilege of purchasing tickets for St. Petersburg via the Trans-Siberian Railroad. We now go out to find the rail- way station, purchase our tickets, get a time table, and to plan for the long ride. After zigzagging over the city we at last reach a building that looks like an American rail- road depot, and here we learn, through a Russian soldier who speaks English, how to proceed. After considerable trouble we all secure our tickets, buying through tickets to St. Petersburg, for which we pay 250 rubles ($125) for first- class tickets. Here are sold three classes of tick- ets; the second class costs 170 rubles, and the third class 90 rubles. At Russian points along the railroad a fourth-class or land-seeker's ticket is sold to any Siberian points. Por all places west of Tobolsk the fare is but two rubles. For any station east of that, even to Vladivostok, the fourth-class passenger pays but four and a half rubles. The Government of Russia in this way is inducing peasant farmers to enter Siberia and help develop her agricultural resources. Within three years from the date upon which these tickets were first put on sale, 600,000 peasant families entered Siberia's great agricultural region, that COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. UNi]/^ 123 comprises more than 425,000 square miles of tilla- ble land, at least 25 per cent, of whicli is a ricii black loam, well adapted to wheat. The station-master tells us the Chabarovska ex- press, with mail and passengers for Moscow and St. Petersburg, leaves at 9 :25 each morning. We receipt our baggage, secure a drosky (the Russian carriage), and explore the city. Our driver fortunately can understand Eng- lish, and though speaking our tongue in a very broken manner, yet it is intelligible. The long beards, fur caps, and thick fur coats reaching to the tops of high boots, mark the Russian citizens. The streets and houses are similar to those of an American town. The houses are substantial buildings of wood, stone, and brick. The city is built on hills sloping toward the harbor. At the top of one hill we alight and observe the picture spread out before us. On the slopes of the hills is Vladivostok — a bit of Russia let down by the Pacific, a city of nearly 30,000 people. To the right and left are the harbor forts in whose bar- racks are thousands of soldiers. At anchor in the bay are Japanese, German, Norwegian, English, and American merchantmen, as well as Russian. We later learn that since the completion of the Ussuri Railway the government has made such rates for merchandise from this port to the Amur river that commerce has been attracted, and the port is now doing a good commercial business. Formerly the port was closed to navigation five months of the year by the ice in the harbor. The government has fitted up powerful ice-breaking steamers to keep her ports free from ice. Our driver informed us that one of these steamers, the Ermack, is now in the shipyard being repaired and made ready for her winter's work. At our request he drives us to the American consulate. Our commercial agent, Mr, R. T. Greener, secures the necessary permit and takes us through the Russian dockyards to where the Ermack is being fitted for her energetic work. He informed us that this vessel was made by shipbuilders at Newcastle - on - Tyne, and was launched in 1898. The vessel is 305 feet long, 71 feet wide, and 42^ feet deep. It has a displace- ment of 8000 tons; its propelling machinery is divided into four sets, and has a combined force of 10,000 horse-power. The hull has 48 water-tight compartments, that have been subjected to the se- verest test. Mr. Greener called our attention to the fact that the bow is cut away, and the exceed- ingly low overhang serves the double purpose of breaking the ice with which it comes in contact and of protecting the forward propeller. This ice- breaker by its forward propeller disturbs the water under the ice, which deprives it of its support, and then the force of the heavy vessel breaks through it, oftentimes with a roar like the bursting of an ice-gorge. Admiral Makaroff, who designed this vessel, arranged for its powerful screw to point upward and to revolve rapidly in a horizontal plane ahead of the cutwater and under the ice. This is the secret of her great success as an ice- breaker. The upward pressure of the water from the rapidly rotating wheels cracks the ice, which the large steel bows then force asunder. In March, 1899, the Ermack forced her way through 200 miles of ice. The last fifty miles of the trip the ice was ten feet thick. She hurled huge blocks of ice to the right and left as easily as the modern locomotive plow hurls the snow. The Ermack cut through the last nine miles of that ice wall in one hour. By use of these ice-breakers Russia can keep her Baltic, White, and Kara seas, as well as Vladivostok, open to commerce twelve months in- stead of seven months in the year. As we returned to the consulate Mr. Greener told us that the United States has direct com- munication with this port through New York, San Francisco, Portland (Ore.), and the Puget Sound ports. Most of the ties for the Manchurian Railway came from our Pacific coast, while a large per cent, of the steel rails and the rolling-stock 124 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Sacred to the "Son of Heaven." — Grand Throne in the Ennperor's Palace, Forbidden City, Peking, China. of tlie Trans-Siberian are from American steel- works, car- and locomotive-shops, sent via New York. You will find American track-laying machinery, American civil engineers, and, on many trains, American locomotive engineers. We find no one at the hotel who can speak English, so we are forced to use the " sign lan- guage " to make our wants known. We resolve to conquer Russian before we leave the bounds of the empire. The next morning we start on our trip across the Euro -Asia continent. Our train is similar to American trains, with library, sleeping, dining and observatory cars. We find the dining-car service good and charges very reasonable. Our route lies along the Ussuri river from Xikolskoe to the Amur, at Chabarov- ska. This is 482 miles from Vladi- vostok, and the road is locally known as the Ussuri Railway. We are told that this division of the transconti- nental line was completed in 1897. At Nikolskoe we observe a division of the road running off to the north- east. This we learn to be a branch of the Eastern Chinese Railway, connecting with the main line at Har- bin, on the Sungaria. The main line of the Eastern Chi- nese Railway is now being built from the Onon Station, near Stretenska, on the central division of the Siberian Railway, to Port Arthur. From Niuchwang, a station north of Port Arthur, a branch runs around the Gulf of Pechili, connecting Tientsin, Taku and Peking with the Eastern Railway. The section from Tientsin to Peking was destroyed by the Box- ers in 1900. The main line of the Eastern Railway through Manchuria was begun at the Port Arthur end, and more than 500 miles of the 945 miles of the road wdthin Chinese territory was completed before the Boxer troubles of 1900 stopped progress on this road. The road from Tsitsika to Onon is yet to be built. The total length of this division, Onon to Port Arthur, is 1920 versts (1273 miles). When completed, this Manchurian road will shorten the Siberian Rail- way 514 versts (341 miles). We notice that each station-house on this line of road is different either in shape or color from its immediate predecessor, and is a neat, trim building, ornamental as well as useful. This is a characteristic feature of the entire line of road. The business on the Ussuri division has in- creased remarkably since the line was opened, and COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 126 is now doing a heavy freight as well as a satisfac- tory passenger traffic. We reach Chabarovska twenty-eight hours after starting, and are transferred to the Marine depart- ment of the Siberian road. This route of the main line from Stretenska to Chabarovska involves so much expense, and build- ing the road means so many technical difficulties, the construction of this section has been deferred. The Chinese Eastern Kailway Company has been organized, and encouraged to immediately con- struct the Manchurian branch line heretofore spoken of. In the meantime the government has made use of the Amur and Shilka rivers as the transporting link between the two sections of com- pleted railway. We are fortunate in getting passage on the "Amgoon." This is a side-wheel steamer, 160 feet long, with compound surface condensing en- gines of 600 horse-power with two locomotive wood-burning boilers. It is one of the best of the 108 steamers used by the Marine department of the road. Huge steel barges over 200 feet long, having a capacity of 400 tons and a draught of 3^ feet of water, are drawn by the steamers, which increases their freight-carrying capacity at a minimum of expense. These vessels convey construction mate- rial for the road as well as miscellaneous freight. The steamers now have regular runs on schedule time from Chabarovska to Stretenska, the east-end terminus of the middle section of the road and head of navigation on the Shilka river, a distance of 1423 English miles. As we pass along we notice buoys, and learn that the river Amur has been buoyed as far as navigable, to indicate to the pilot the best channel. To further assist navigation, stations have been established along the river, where daily records are kept of the depth of water, and placarded so the pilot can read them as he passes along. Though we reach the Amur more than 500 miles from its mouth, we notice that the river is wider than our great Father of Waters at any place in its entire course. The Amur here is a mile and a half wide. As we go up the river we find its current is so strong that the trip up requires nearly twice as many days as it does to come down. An English traveler who passed over the route in the spring told us that his boat came down in eight days, while our schedule reads fourteen days for the run up-stream. This river for hundreds of miles has not a cul- tivated field, and the only objects that show the presence of man are the piles of wood on the bank, fuel for the steamers. When we reach one of these piles our steamer loads, and most of the passengers go on shore, ex- ploring the deep and lonely woods. So long does it take the Russian crew to load the fuel that sometimes the steamer-women wash and dry their clothes before the whistle calls "All aboard." We find that commerce on the river is estab- lishing hamlets at the " woodpiles," and these are sending colonial settlements into the interior. In this way, this immense river basin, apparently fertile and seemingly habitable, will eventually know the plow and the harvest. This river is navigable for more than 1500 miles, and drains a greater territory than any river in Europe or iti^orth America save the Missis- sippi alone. We find the port of Blagovestchensk to be a commercial city of nearly 50,000, whose river-front extends from six to seven miles. It has large general wholesale and retail shops, built of brick, with ample rooms, lighted with elec- tricity. N'ot only Russian but German and French merchants are doing a profitable business at this large trade center, whose trade territory reaches nearly to the Sea of Okhotsk. Eleven hundred miles from the Ussuri Railway station the " Amgoon " pilot turns our vessel to the right, up the Shilka, a navigable tributary of the Amur. We follow this river to its head of 126 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. navigation, where we find Stretenska, a city of many thousands. We reach this eastern terminus of the Central Siberian road October 25, and en- tering the train are soon whirling westward. This part of the road is 750 miles long, terminating at Muissov, on the eastern shore of Lake Baikal. We find Onon an important commercial point, destined to be a railroad center when the Man- ehurian road is completed. ^Nerchinsk is in a rich mining district, which makes it an important trade center. At Chita one of the party learns that our en- gineer is an American, and is invited to ride over the Yablonoi mountain range in the cab. From the engineer he learns that the rails have been found too light for quick traveling, and engineers are forbidden more than twenty miles speed per hour; the average time being from twelve to fifteen miles. From him it is learned that the Government intends to replace all wooden bridges (over 1400 in number) with iron or steel struc- tures, to replace the light rails with heavy steel rails, and thoroughly ballast the entire system of road. Then, the schedule for passenger trains is to be raised from thirteen to thirty-three miles per hour. The road was begun in 1891 and contracted to be open to the Pacific by 1905. Through the boat service on the Amur, the road has been doing a through transcontinental business for some time, but at the present rate of construction, all-rail connection will be made by January 1, 1903, save the Lake Baikal cut-off. Here the mountains come so close to the shore of the lake that this short stretch of road would cost at least twelve and one-half million dollars. For this reason, train ferries run us across the lake. At Mussiov our entire train is run upon large steam ferries like those so common at Detroit, and we follow the path cut by the large ice-breaking steamer, similar in design and action to the one we saw at Vladivostok. We find Lake Baikal is a very large body of water, with extensive and profitable fishing indus- tries. This is one of the few lakes of the world with fresh-water seals. Sturgeon and salmon are found in paying quantities, the principal salmon fisheries being located on the Angora river and sturgeon fisheries on the Selenga river, that en- ters the lake from the southeast. The fishing in- dustry is valued at 300,000 rubles per annum. This lake is the center of an earthquake region, and the sudden and fearful storms that occur on the lake force its navigators to always be on the alert. The lake is drained by a tributary of the Yenisei, is about 375 miles long, and where our ferry crosses it is forty miles wide. The lake would cover all of Maryland, with Rhode Island thrown in. From the ferry we can see sledges on the caravan route crossing the ice. This route brings down the choice squirrels, sable, otter, and ermine skins from northern Siberia to the Irkutsk exchange. The very choicest of the world's furs come from Siberia, and this is one of the greatest fur-trade routes in central Siberia. Away to the south lies snow-clad Khar-ma- Davan, whose summit rises more than a mile above the level of this lake, which is nearly twice the altitude of Lake Superior. Although it is only October 29, we are sure no winter weather in New England has a greater per cent, of cold to the square inch than that which we experience in our trip across the lake. Spirit thermometers are the only kind used in this re- gion in winter. We are told that even the ice- breaker, which was transported in sections and put together on the lake for the purpose of keep- ing the lake open to ferries, was forced to remain at the Irkutsk dock two months of the last winter's season. The cold storms made it impossible for the men to be at their post long at a time. The uncertainty of the weather on the lake is a serious obstacle to winter transportation. Although the Tnnka Alps reach to the very lake-shore on the COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 127 south, the uninterrupted transportation demands the building of the fifty miles of railway around the southern shore of the lake to Muissov. This is locally called the Kroogo-Baikal line. (Kroogo means circuit.) Aft-er four hours on the stormy inland sea, we run into the station at Irkutsk. Here is the end of the western division, and we find the city a great industrial and caravan center as well as the center of a rich mining district. Here are rich mines of jasper, graphite, serpentine, lead, silver, and gold. Rich layers of coal and iron are found at more than fifty places along this trans- continental road. While Siberia furnishes two-thirds of Russia's output of gold, very little but placer mining for gold has been attempted, on account of lack of machinery for quartz mining. Yakutsk province, lying to the northeast, with its intense cold, covers an area very nearly equal to all the mining area of our nation (exclusive of Alaska), and is reported exceedingly rich in min- eral wealth. The Stanovoi mountains, that mark its eastern boundary, have already revealed its rich ores of silver and lead. This city of Irkutsk is the second city of Siberia, and is now the commercial emporium between the Chinese Empire and Russia. Some years ago the city of Kiakhta was the center of a very large caravan trade. It is 100 miles to the southeast, on the border, less than a half-mile from the Chinese village of Maimachin. Free interchange of goods was established between China and Rus- sia at this point in 1727. Before the treaty of 1860 opened the whole Siberian frontier, the trade of this caravan center often amounted to sixteen million rubles per year. Irkutsk, on the lake-and- rail routes, is now the terminus of the caravan tea trade from China, and Kiakhta has lost its pres- tige, — although it still is an important trade cen- ter. Each year Irkutsk holds a June fair, where Chinese merchants barter their tea, fruits, porce- lain, silk, etc., for furs, metals, and European goods. The Siberian Railway is rapidly displacing one of the greatest caravan routes in the world, that reaches from Moscow through Tomsk, Irkutsk, Kiakhta, Maimachin to Peking. This route in its palmiest days employed from 15,000 to 16,000 men, 75,000 to 80,000 beasts of burden, and trans- ported over 60,000 tons of freight. It required six months to make one trip. Now, Irkutsk in- stead of Moscow is the terminus of the greater part of the trade. The caravans at this time of year consist of sledges drawn by dogs, while the northern caravans use reindeer with the sledges. Irkutsk is now connected with St. Petersburg by the Siberian Railway, that runs daily trains with three classes of carriages. Besides the daily trains, each Friday a limited express train leaves Irkutsk for Moscow. We were fortunate in reach- ing the city in time to take this express. This train is equal to an American palace train, with parlor, library, sleeping- and dining-coaches, lighted by electricity and heated with steam. This express saves several days over the regular train. As we pass out of this mid-continent metropo- lis, an American engineer is seen boarding the train. We press his hand warmly, and secure him a seat on the left hand near a window. How good it seems to see a fellow-citizen of the homeland ! Although we had never met before, homeland ties make us friends at once. He tells us he is a civil engineer working on the Tiumen Irkutsk canal. " While Siberia has a large number of navigable rivers, with the exception of the one connected with the transportation traffic of this road all run north, emptying into the Arctic ocean, precluding the possibility of successful navigation their en- tire length. The Siberian Railway crosses the Obi and Yenisei at the navigation head. This has stimulated a canal scheme for river naviga- tion in western Siberia. 128 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. "Instead of lessening the importance of river commerce, the completed railways have greatly in- creased their efficiency. Before the completion of the Ural Eailway, freight on the Toora and Tobolsk rivers did not exceed 45,000 tons. After the completion of this railway the freight traffic increased eight times that amount. Now, a regu- lar line of river communication along the Obi- Irtysh system is kept up through a length of 10,000 miles of river navigation, reaching to the most eastern rivers of Russia. " We are now connecting this great river system with the Yenisei and Lake Baikal river systems at Irkutsk. Do you see that river to the right? That is the Angora river. This is a navigable tributary of the Yenisei. We have found a west- ern tributary of the Yenisei below the entrance of the Angora that runs within five miles of a lake contiguous to the Kiete, a navigable tributary of the Obi. We have cut a canal across to connect through the lake to the Kiete. We can then fol- low the Kiete river 310 miles to the Obi, and our canal-and-river route is complete. Through the many navigable rivers running north and south we have a perfect river communication with all northern and western Siberia, from Kiakhta on the Senegal. One can then go by water from the Mongolian frontier to the Ural range, connecting Tiomen and Kiakhta (3600 miles apart) by water. Most of the route is now open, and we hope to open the whole canal in the near future." Thus our American friend explained to us Russia's plan of the Siberian canal-and-river sys- tem of transportation. Just before we reach the rich mining center of Krasnoyarsk, we cross the main stream of the Yenisei on a fine modern bridge 3500 feet long. The Yenisei is the largest river in Siberia, and its valley is sure to be the scene of great agricultural development. The city of Krasnoyarsk is a good illustration of the numerous cities that have been located along this line of road at its junction with good water routes of tradCj with the interior. At this city we saw sticks of milk for sale. Our American engineer told us that this is the common method of selling milk for seven months of the year. The purchaser puts a stick in his milk brick and carries it home over his shoulder. At the next station our friend transferred to the branch line that runs to Tomsk. This city is the greatest manufacturing center in Siberia, and is one of the oldest cities, having been founded in 1610. The engineer told us that this city is also the trade center of one of the oldest and richest of Siberia's great mining regions. Mining was started here as early as 1726. Many convict mines, worked by the exiles sent by the govern- ment to Siberia, are located here. Gold, silver, lead and iron are stored in unknown quantities in the mountains. More than 500 kinds of colored stones are obtained, with rich quarries of granite, porphyry and other good building-stone. Two springs of hot mineral water have been discovered in this neighborhood, and within seventy-five miles of Tomsk an immense field of bituminous coal has lately been discovered. Besides mining and manufacture, 15,000 men are employed in agri- culture, and the fishing industry is profitably car- ried on. To Americans it seems strange that the largest and greatest industrial city of Siberia should be reached only by a " stub switch." When we cross the Obi we enter a great lake re- gion fully 300 miles wide, and reaching through the Kirghiz steppe region to Lake Bal-Kash on the south. To the north of us, reaching through the north- east region, lies the great forest area, — the home of the panther, lynx, wolf, fox, ermine, glutton, badger, bear, and other wild animals hunted by the nomadic tribes inhabiting this region. This forest zone is estimated to contain two million square miles. All this vast timber is practically untouched. Wood for fuel and timber for build- COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 129 ing are here in well-nigh inexhaustible quantities. The navigable streams crossed by the railroad will furnish avenues to bring lumber to market. In the library car we find an English transla- tion of "Industries of Eussia," published by the government ; and the work gives us some remarka- bly interesting statistics. Speaking of the forest region, we find the following : " There are many localities where for tens and hundreds of versts in every direction stand clean plantations of pine, which, with their interlaced summits, hide the sky. The absolutely naked trunks, rising perfectly straight to an enormous height, are so monotonous that a man who once chances into such a part of the Siberian taiga, or even a wild beast, cannot find his way out again. Experienced native trap- pers are afraid to penetrate into one of these, in their opinion, enchanted spots, and they record every step they take by scoring the trees." We here learn that north of this forest zone is the polar or northern zone, lying north of the Arctic Circle. This is a treeless plain, sloping toward the Arctic ocean, a frozen, swampy region called the " tundra." Here deep snow covers the ground nine to ten months in the year, and the ground is perpetually frozen in some places from 80 to 100 feet deep. The coldest inhabited place is Verk-hoyansk, in the far northeastern part. All its inhabitants are the Russian officials, and the Yakuts, fur-trading Jews. This town registers an average winter temperature of 53 degrees below zero, with days on record when the thermometer reached 85 degrees below zero. Here rivers are frozen to the very bottom, and trees have been known to snap and split with the mere force of the frost. In the alluvial deposits of the river valleys, fossil remains of extinct spe- cies of elephants and other animals furnish the large quantities of ivory exported from this re- gion. This part is of little commercial value out- side of its ivory deposits. To the south and west extends the agricultural zone, reaching from the Ural mountains at about 60° north latitude, through the northern part of Lake Baikal, and eastward along the line of 50° north latitude. It comprises about one-fourth of Siberia proper. But how large is Siberia in its entirety? you ask. An American, Mr. George Kennan, after trav- eling over the inhabited portion of this vast re- gion, gave his conception of the relative size in the following graphic picture : " If it were possi- ble to move entire countries from one part of the globe to another, you could take the whole of the United States and set it down in the middle of Siberia without touching anywhere the boundaries of the latter territory. You could then take Alaska and all the States of Europe, with the single exception of Russia, and fit them into the remaining margin like the pieces of a dissected map; and after having thus accommodated all of the United States, including Alaska and all of Eu- rope except Russia, you would still have 300,000 square miles of Siberian territory to spare; or, in other words, you would still have unoccupied in Siberia an area half as large again as the Empire of Germany." Our train is now passing through the wheat-belt that stretches westward through European Russia to the Black sea. This is the region that is now calling on America for millions of dollars' worth of agricultural implements. Counting Russia's demand for cotton-gins and presses for her Cen- tral Asia provinces and machinery for her mining interests, with the agricultural implements pur- chased, the empire imports fully forty million dol- lars' worth of American machinery annually. To encourage raising of cereals, Russia has not only experimental farms, but has built large barges to show her farmers a model farm. These barges are built late in the fall. On the deck is laid out a comfortable area for the farm garden ; an extensive house is built for the professor in 130 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Wheat for export, at South Russia's Great Seaport, Oaessa. charge, and a smaller house for the crew. Beside the grain and garden beds are located models of beehives. With the spring freshet the barge is seeded and started down the rivers from the dense forest regions of the North. These barges for the present are confined to European Russia, as here the rivers flow south. The crops are tilled and harvested while the barge stops at the river ham- lets and villages on the way down. The church- bell rings when the barge reaches a village, and the people come in from the fields to be led by the Starosta (mayor) to the floating farm, where illus- trated lectures are given, questions of the farmers answered, and oftentimes seed is left with the more enterprising for planting. By fall the barges reach the treeless steppes, where they are sold for wood, and generally bring enough to pay the down-stream expenses. We are surprised to learn what the government is here doing for the agricultural development of the empire. The region through which our train passes from Omsk to Samara is the northern portion of the great wheat region whose port of com- merce has been Odessa. From the library we now go to the dining- car for lunch. The traveler can here lunch, dine and breakfast at the moderate price of from three to five rubles per d&j. The meals are equal to those served at our best Ameri- can hotels, and the steam heat successfully combats the outside cold. Thus we are well housed and well fed on this government train while we speed westward at a gratifying rate of speed. At Kurgan we are told we are but 240 versts from Chiliabinsk, the last station on the Trans-Siberian Railway. Trains began to run between Kurgan and Chiliabinsk in December, 1893. At the last-named place we cross the Ural ramge and enter European Russia. This range is noted for its rich platinum mines found in the region northeast of Perm and the val- uable gold mines found on both sides of the range. At the city of Samara our road makes a turn to the south, and for several miles we ride along the Mississippi of Russia — the Volga. This river and its tributaries have 50 per cent, of the river traffic of European Russia, which usually amounts to 27f million tons annually. The river is navigable for 2000 miles, and is the largest river in Europe. We cross this great water-way of commerce on a high iron bridge op- posite Syzran. We now enter a populous region, and stations are close together, though our through express stops only at large commercial centers. The road and the speed of the train from Tula to Moscow make us think of our ride over the New York Central. Moscow is a large railroad and commercial cen- ter; rich in historic legends, and famous as the City of the Kremlin, where all the czars or em- perors since the days of Ivan the Terrible have been crowned. The city is said to have been COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 131 founded in the twelfth, century, and was the seat of government for 400 years. To-day Moscow is the center of Panslavism ; the real heart of Eussia, though not the political cap- ital. It is reported to be the most character- istically Russian of all the many cities found in the land of the Czar. We are surprised to find many hundred manufactories in textile fabrics, gold and silver plate, jewelry, hard- ware, glass, porcelain, delft ware, paper, tapestry, chemical products, leather, flour, and sugar. Of the nearly four million spindles and 200,000 looms of Eussia, the province of Moscow and its neighboring province of Vladimir claim 90 per cent. Moscow as a commercial center has water communication with the Baltic, Black, and Caspian seas, rail connection with St. Petersburg, Warsaw, Nijni-Novgorod, and, by the railway that brought us to the city, with all Siberia. A heavy sledge commerce is carried on with Tiflis and other points in Asia and southeastern Eussia, from November to April. This city is larger than our own St. Louis, and is the second city of the empire. Entering the Nicolaeosky express, we whirl on- ward toward the capital city, 400 miles to the northwest. This part of Eussia has good railway connections, but statistics show that the empire has but thirty-five lines of railway, approximating a total mileage of 40,000 miles. One of the long- est and most important lines reaches from St. Petersburg to Nijni-Novgorod, 1035 versts. This line has a heavy freight traffic most of the year, and during the summer season a good passenger business, especially through July and August. This is the time of the great Eussian fair at Nijni-Novgorod. This fair is held every year, lasting from July 27 to September 6. It is really a large market, visited by more than half a mill- ion people from European and Asiatic Eussia. The merchants have their own executive commit- Moskwa River and the shimmering spires of "Holy Moscow," Russia. tee, before which body everything concerning trade comes. The governor of Nijni with his military staff stays on the grounds during the fair, to see that private rights and public privileges are pro- tected and strict discipline maintained. On the grounds will be found hotels, churches, dining- saloons, theaters, and special quarters for Ori- entals, as Tartars and Chinese. The grounds have good sewerage, are well supplied with water, and as a protection from fire the whole plot is sur- rounded with a canal of water. Here, only 227 miles from the heart of Eussia, is the empire's greatest fair, a yearly carnival of trade where an average of thirty-five millions of dollars exchange hands. Consul Thomas Smith, of Moscow, says: "Eussia exhibits for sale her cottons, prints, car- pets, cloths, linen, flannels, silks, lace, bags of jute and hemp, leather, skins, chamois, furs, paper, copper, cast iron, enameled ware, cutlery, agricul- tural implements, implements for mechanical and other industries, seeds for farmers, oats, corn, wines, spirits, paints, varnish, cement, etc. Sheet iron, boiler-plates, copper, precious stones and a 132 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. variety of geological specimens from Siberia are exhibited, as well as cotton in a raw state from central Asia and Persia, and turquoises, silks and silverware, made in Oriental style, from Persia, Bokhara, Taschent, etc." But look! we are entering the suburbs of that city founded by Peter the Great, in 1703, and now one of the most interesting commercial cities of northern Europe. The city and her citizens wear their winter clothing, the one mantled in white, the other snugly wrapped in furs. Our double- tracked railway curves to the right, and we enter a substantial and commodious union station. Our long overland trip, taking 33 days and covering 9922 versts (6677 miles), is ended. The distance from St. Petersburg to Chiliabiusk is 2810 versts. The railway between the two cities, while under government control, is not counted as a part of the Trans-Siberian system, the latter named city being the western terminus of the Siberian Railway, 7112 versts from Vladivostok. We find St. Petersburg, by winter, so interesting, that we de- cide to tour the city before we take the steamer for the dear old homeland. A heavy snow-storm kept us housed in our hotel the day after we arrived at St. Petersburg, but on the morning of November 10th a winter's sun made the snow, frost and ice crystals sparkle like diamonds. Bundled in Russian sleighs, well wrapped up in heavy fur coats with close-fitting hoods, we start to tour the city under the direction of an English-speaking guide. We hear the morning salute pedestrians give each other, which our guide tells us is, " Your nose ! Your nose, sir ! " One's nose gets very cold, and would often freeze if some one did not call attention to it, so the owner could rub it with snow to take out the frost. This has almost become the regular winter-morning salute in St. Petersburg. At the head of a well-trodden street we see a palace sparkling and dazzlingly beautiful in the morning sunlight. It is the crystal palace, that the people of this city make each winter. Square blocks of ice are laid up and water poured on them, freezing the layers into a solid wall of crystal ice. A roof of modem ornamental design with a fine tower or minaret surmounts the whole. The interior is richly fitted up, having spacious rooms in which are ice tables, ice chairs, ice bric- a-brac, and ice flowers. Ice stairs lead to upper rooms, and the whole is brilliantly illuminated at night. The ice furniture is supplied with warm fur rugs, and the palace is the scene of many fash- ionable parties and grand balls during the winter months. We are next taken across to a remote side-street, where the town boys have an ice hill. This is a long incline made into an ice slide as the Canadian makes his toboggan snow slide. Nearly all town children in Russia have their ice hills, where girls and boys have keen winter sport with sleds and skates. These St. Petersburg children with the help of their grown brothers build a high tower. On one side blocks of ice are laid to make the in- cline, and, water being poured on, a solid sheet of ice is formed. One slide is especially made, along which the sleds shall be drawn up. This makes us think of " sliding down hill," and a number of our party get out and join the merry, shouting group. The Russian lads give them all a coast, and when the Americans, go whizzing down the ice hill like veterans at the art, they are greeted with an applause that is as satisfying as the sport is exhilarating. With tingling cheeks, fingers and nose, the coast- ers enter the sleighs and our guide pilots us to one of the many bridges that connect the two parts of the city. Here we alight and go down the steps cut in the bank to the ice, for a chair-ride across the river. These chairs have warm covers, and men on skates push them over the ice. This is the passenger ferry, and chair-pushers do a profitable business all winter, although it costs less than a penny to cross the river. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 133 We return to our sleighs and are driven over the Petersborough side of the city. This part is situ- ated just off the mainland, to which it is connected by 150 bridges. Here are the warehouses and other buildings that reveal an extensive commerce. Nearly two-thirds of Hussia's foreign commerce passes through this city. From our consul we later learn that the ten leading imports in order of rank are : Kaw cotton, engines and machinery, tea, steel, sheet and bar iron, coal and coke, chemicals and drugs, salt or dried fish, raw wool and raw silk; obtained principally from Germany, Great Brit- ain, United States, China, Finland, France, Aus- tria, Belgium, Persia, Egypt, and Italy — the amount of purchase being in the order named. The leading exports in order of rank are : Corn, flour and meal, wheat, flax, lumber, rye, barley, oats, linseed, petroleum, sugar, eggs, and cotton manufactures. Eussia holds third place in cotton- spinning in the world. The leading countries to which Russia sends her goods rank as follows : Ger- many, Great Britain, Holland, France, Italy, Aus- tria, Belgium, Turkey, Persia, Denmark, and Rou- mania. Russia is increasing the quantity of her manufactured exports, while her manufactured im- ports are being correspondingly lessened. The quays along the Neva river-front are ex- tensive, and mostly of hewn stone. The making of artificial water-ways and dredging of the river has made this city a port of entry for even large ocean steamers. Ice-breaking steamers keep the port open to commerce during the winter, where formerly 150 to 200 miles of ice shut St. Peters- burg's water-gates five months of the year. At the wharf we see a vessel loading; her flag indicates an American port for the steamer's des- tination. Through our guide we found that the boat was a " tramp " steamer that had brought over a cargo of raw cotton and machinery and was tak- ing a cargo for Hamburg, Antwerp, and Havre. From Havre the steamer would reload and clear for New York. The "tramp" was preparing to clear port on the 12th, and we therefore bargained for staterooms and made arrangements for tickets of passage. At the exchange we learn that the port registers upwards of 3000 entries per year. Pointing to a large factory, our guide tells us the very finest leather for bookbinding is there manufactured — the Russia leather. Across the block is a large bookbindery. This city is the very center of the empire's book trade. We are shown manufactures of cotton, silk, woolen goods, cannon, glass, tapestry, and scores of other commodities sold throughout the empire. On Citadel Island we find the old citadel and one of the nation's large mints. Here we learn the value of the Russian coins. The legal unit is the silver ruble of 100 kopecks. Officials calculate one ruble equal to 51^ cents United States money. There are three gold coins: the imperial, 15 ru- bles ; half-imperial, 7 rubles ; and the 5-ruble piece. Besides the silver ruble and the gold coins named, paper or credit notes of 100, 25, 10, 5, 3, and 1 ruble are printed by the Government, and are legal tender for all debts, public and private. Farther down the river, on Vasile Island, we are shown the Academy of Arts, the Academy of Sciences, with a fine museum, an observatory, and a library containing upward of 125,000 volumes. This latter school was founded by Peter the Great. Here also is the mining school, with a celebrated selection of minerals and a rare museum of Ori- ental objects. On this island also are the fine bar- racks, the West Point academy of Russia, filled with cadets. We observe that the banks of the canals are pro- tected by walls of hewn granite. This part of the city is but little above the level of the river, and more than once the Neva has overflowed, causing loss of life and great destruction to property. A gale from the west, with high tides in the adjacent gulf in the spring when the annual breaking-up of the ice occurs, would well-nigh submerge the whole 134 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Bridge in St. Petersburg. capital, but in the 200 years that the city has ex- isted these three have never occurred at the same time, and probably never will. The Neva river is Lake Ladoga's outlet to the sea. This lake is about the size of Lake Ontario, but, while Ontario is 250 feet above sea-level, Ladoga is less than sixty feet. This lake gives the city canal and river communication with an almost unlimited range of inland territory. We are driven across a picturesque bridge into a large open square, in the center of which stands Saint Isaac's Cathedral. This edifice is symmet- rically perfect, gigantic in its proportion, and mag- nificent in its simplicity of architecture. The original church was constructed by the city's founder, but the present building was erected dur- ing the second quarter of the nineteenth century. The foundation is a forest of 21-foot piles sunk in the swampy soil. This alone cost two million rubles. The whole building cost thirty million ru- bles. Opposite to this cathedral is the greatest monument in the city — the statue of Peter the Great. The great Czar is represented reining in his steed on the very brink of a rock, whose sides as well as front are precip- itous. His face is toward the river Neva, his hand pointing outward and up- ward. The spirited steed has trodden upon a ser- pent, typifying the difficul- ties Peter encountered in founding the city. This equestrian statue is well balanced on the hanging rock, weighs sixteen tons, and the head is said to bear a striking resemblance to the great Peter. Scarcely one of the many open squares in the city that does not have one or more bronze statues of a national hero or noted czar. As we turn another corner we see a solid red granite shaft, 154 feet high, bearing the in- scription, in Russian, " To Alexander I. — Grate- ful Russia." Opposite this column we face one of the largest palaces in the world. It seems built in the form of a square, and as our guide said, has spacious and beautiful halls enriched with rare and costly statuary, gems, paintings and malachite furnish- ings. The cordon of soldiers shows that the Czar is in the palace with his family of 6000 courtiers and attendants. The Salle Blanche or White Hall, decorated in white and gold, is where the court fes- tivals are given. The winter entertainments in this palace have scarcely an equal in all Europe. On one side of the palace are the State buildings, the home of the several ministers. Connected to the Winter Palace by a covered gallery is the elaborate palace built by Catharine II. for a picture gallery and a resort of pleasure. For this reason it has been named the Hermitage. It is now a famous museum, containing 300 orig- inal paintings by the world's great masters, besides COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 135 many other works of art ; a collection of once famous private libraries, a royal theater, and a grand floral conservatory planted with the choicest flowers and shrubs, . heated by sub- terranean fires, and sheltered by a glass cov- ering. Our guide now bids us look up IJ^evski Prospekt. This is the " Euclid Avenue " of Europe, 150 feet wide and fully four miles long, lined with stately trees which are now covered with snow and ice, glittering in the afternoon sun.* The beauty of the rich and costly palaces and cathedrals, the Grand Bazaar with its 10,000 merchants and mas- sive public buildings for which this street is famous, is all forgotten before this indescrib- able picture the sun has " thrown on the canvas." St. Petersburg, with her 200 beau- tiful churches, the spire of some, like the Cathedral of Peter and Paul, nearly 400 feet high, with her colossal public buildings and rare mansions, can present no other picture so superbly beautiful as ISTevski Prospekt under a winter's sun ; so we choose it as our last memory of the Czar's capital, and go to our hotel to rest and prepare for the journey home. At the hotel we learn that from the Admiralty Building is the finest view one can have of the city ; that from this large public building radiate St. Petersburg's three finest streets. An English traveler very interestingly described to us his visit to the Imperial Library, stating that nowhere in the world can one find so complete a collection of the books of the Middle Ages as this library contains. Here are the masterpieces of literature, of all ages and all nations, systemati- cally arranged and numbering more than one mill- ion volumes. He tells of the schools and colleges of the city, and narrates an amusing experience ^ The trees have growo up since the picture on this page was taken. Nevski Prospekt, the Pnncipal Street in St. Petersburg. he had one Sabbath-day when he first came to the city, direct from London with Greenwich time. .(Russia is the one nation of Europe that still uses " Old Style," many days different from " New Style," the adopted system of the rest of Europe.) He told us that on a certain street in the city the gospel is preached in twelve different languages each Sabbath. His sledge-ride over Lake Ladoga and skating-party on the Neva were most graphi- cally described, and helped us to pass a very pleas- ant evening. A Winter Voyage Across the Atlantic. "All aboard ! " The steamer whistle sounds, the gang-planks are in, and a bustling tug pulls the " tramp " into the ice-cleared channel. While the steamer is not designed especially for the passenger service, we find our' accommodations ample and the " tramp " a vessel of very respectable size, whose officers are most courteous and obliging. A few miles below the city we observe the wide expanse of the river, and learn that the Neva 13G COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. The Fountains from Peterhof Palace, the Summer Residence of the Czar of Russia. spreads out to a broad estuary eight to ten miles wide before it reaches the gulf. All sorts of ice craft are visible, and the river seems alive with busy people going and coming from the capital. To the southwest across the river we see the yellow palace of Peterhof. Its site is a natural elevation of about sixty feet, and the building rep- resents the eighteenth century architecture, as it was built by Peter the Great. Succeeding rulers have so improved the grounds with parks, terraced gardens, groves, embowered paths, fountains, water- falls and statuary that they rival the surroundings of Versailles, the finest palace-grounds in Europe. In front of the palace is the " Samson " fountain, which sends an 80-foot jet of water in the air to descend in shining spray. Scores of lesser foun- tains with playing jets reveal a design of water- works as beautiful as it is intricate. Now all is quiet and deserted, and the visitor would find the plan of the grounds concealed beneath a thick mantle of snow, and he could not enter the palace unless he could show a special permit from the proper official. Thirteen miles down the river we come to a series of low flat islands, the group being about one mile wide and five miles long. Here is lo- cated Kronstadt, for more than a hundred years the port of entry for St. Petersburg. The harbor is di- vided into three sections, one of which is large enough to accommo- date 1000 merchant vessels. This is the "Gibraltar of Russia," the seat of her Baltic fleet, and conceded to be the strongest fortified city in the world, now the chief naval station of the empire. Commanding the southern channel, which is narrow, is the famous castle built by Russia's great founder, which more than once has kept the great navies of Europe at bay. The foundations of this fortress are on a sandbar, but still are most substantial. The Russians tell us that Peter the Great laid these foundations on ice, in the winter of 1703. He built huge boxes of sound hewn tim- ber, and loaded them with stones. When the ice melted in the spring these boxes sank down into the sand and gave a sound, substantial base, on which this famous fortress was built. With the numerous forts and batteries on the opposite island mounting modern guns of defense, and this islet fortress, the fortifications of Kronstadt are prac- tically impregnable. To direct the pilot through the north channel is a lighthouse at the northwest point of the west island. Our steamer now heads out into the Gulf of Fin- COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 137 land, that great arm of the Baltic, which reaches inland 250 miles and averages be- tween sixty and seventy miles in width. It is crossed by the 60th parallel of north lati- tude, and until the days of the ice-breaker all its harbors were closed by ice from late 'No- vember to the middle of April. It receives such a volume of fresh water from the rivers that drain the lakes of Finland and north- west Eussia that the water of the gulf is but slightly salt, and cattle readily drink it. Away to the north and west is the port of Helsingfors, the capital city of Finland ; and near it, built upon seven islands, each con- nected by subterranean tunnels with the main fortress, stands the remarkable fortress of Sweaborg, considered one of the very strong- est harbor forts ever built. It is on the south- em shores of this gulf that commercial quan- tities of amber have been found. After steaming westward several hours our ves- sel rounds out into the Baltic, and with her bow southeast, steaming her way across this trackless, tideless sea, we enter a moonless winter night. The next day we pass to the south of the mid- Baltic island of Bomholm, large enough for four cities of commercial size. On the 16th we reach Holtman, on the Bay of Kiel, 950 miles from St. Petersburg. This port is the eastern entrance to the N'ortheast Sea Ship Canal, locally called the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal. Were it not for this canal we should have to spend three days steaming around the Jutland Peninsula to Brunbiittel, at the mouth of the Elbe. This shows the great commercial value of the canal, as in a few hours we pass from the Bay of Kiel to the ^orth sea, and, steaming up the river sixty miles, reach the port of Ham- burg at noon on the I7th of the month. At one of the many docks of this free port our vessel parts with her Hamburg cargo and receives a consign- ment of Christmas toys, chemicals and drugs and decorated ware for New York. ^^^^i.^ tons (90 bbls.). (6) Yeast, 350 lbs. (c) Oatmeal and hominy, 600 lbs. 5. Ice, 40 tons. 6. Eggs, lYOO dozen. T. Ice Cream, 1000 bricks. 8. Oysters and Clams, 14 barrels. 9. Liquids. (a) Milk, 2200 quarts. (6) Oream, 300 quarts, (c) Drinking-vi^ater, 400 tons. (d) Wines and liquors, 12,000 quarts. {e) Beer (in kegs), 15,000 quarts. (/) Beer (in bottles), 3000 bottles. This led us to realize what a factor in food com- merce a great seaport like Havre must be. What a market its shipping, aggregating 3f million tons a year, must make. The provisioning its hundreds of ocean liners for their world voyages gives em- ployment to thousands and thousands of merchants, middle-class men, and farmers. At 4 p. M. on that November day (November 21st) we "cast off" and clear for the homeland. The ride down the English Channel is a "choppy" one, and a storm seems brewing, for scudding clouds cover the western and northern horizon, and night seems to just drop right down. We had hoped to catch a glimpse of Cherbourg harbor, fa- mous for the naval duel between the Alabama and COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 141 the Kearsarge, but we were only able to see the harbor lights far away to the south as we passed on down the Channel. Just after midnight our vessel encountered a heavy fog, and slowed down to eight knots an hour. At regular intervals the fog-whistle is blown, and its hoarse note banishes sleep ; so we decide to get up and try the deck. The officer of the deck reluctantly permits us to do this, as he considers the deck of a rolling vessel in the intense darkness a dangerous place for passengers not accustomed to it. He shows us a sheltered place near the bow on the opposite side from the wind, and, enveloped in heavy winter wraps, we try to " hang on " and sit in one place. All around is inky blackness, while the atmosphere has a cold, clammy feeling that sailors say generally pre- cedes a storm at this season of the year. Suddenly we see far ahead and to the right a twinkling star, low down in the black canopy where sky and water should meet. After a time it seems higher and brighter, and when we have about con- cluded it is a morning star, the officer of the deck informs us that it is the "Eddy Light of the Scilly Islands." It is our last landmark this side of the ocean, and is in the most dangerous part of the Channel. We keep well to the north of it. Some time afterward we heard another fog- whistle, well to the west, and soon lights showed a steamer approaching. When several miles from us her searchlight was turned in the direction of our fog-whistle and our vessel fell within its ray. What an intense light ! — such a contrast to the Eg^^ptian darkness that had but an instant before enveloped us. The " tramp's " steamer-lights were flickering candles of minimum power compared to that electric searchlight now turned upon us. When we came nearer to the vessel we saw that from stem to stern were lights, and it loomed up before us like a swiftly moving mountain. One of the deck's crew told us the vessel was an " ocean greyhound," The boundless Ocean from the wild and dreary Cliffs of Land's End, England. a through liner from ISTew York to Hamburg — the Deutschland. As it passed we felt its speed and force in the waves that rolled under the " tramp," while its many-colored side- and stern-lights left a vivid picture in our mind. The Deutschland passed on out of sight in the night, but it left a train of thought that led us to re- view the wonderful improvements made by the marine engineer since Symington fitted a Watt's engine to drive the steam paddle-wheel of the Char- lotte Dundas at the rate of six miles an hour. We see the glowing accounts printed of the Savannah's wonderful record — the first steamer to cross the Atlantic. This was in 1819, and the steamer crossed the Atlantic in twenty-five days, using pitch-pine for fuel, as it was before the days of coal. She had reduced the time from four to six weeks by sailing-vessel to less than twenty-five days by steamer. Now at the opening of a new century we see the specially built Viper rush through the water at forty-two miles an hour, and a regular ocean liner, the Deutschland, which has just passed, a vessel of 23,200 tons burden, plowing through 142 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. the water at eighteen knots an hour — and then not going at full speed. This vessel has reduced the time from the Cherbourg Mole to Sandy Hook Lighthouse to five and one-half days. Her log for this shows her daily runs on a certain trip to have been 337, 566, 570, 570, 584, and 423 knots. Her average speed was 23.02 knots per hour. This greyhound gets her steam, not with pitch- pine like the pioneer. Savannah, but with coal, consuming upward of 500 tons per day. As she must always be prepared for emergencies, the Deutschland's coal-bunkers will hold 5000 tons, and her officers see that they are all pretty well filled before they undertake a voyage. So large are the modern Atlantic passenger liners, so elegantly are they furnished and so ex- pensive is their service, that most of them must earn $80,000 each trip before they can begin to net a dollar to their owners. Thus our thoughts run on until Morpheus kindly relieves us, giving mind and body !N^ature's best tonic and restorative — blessed sleep. Late the next morning we went down to break- fast. The steward had placed a frame on the din- ing-table to secure the dishes in case of a storm, and foot-rests under the table enabled one to main- tain his seat in ordinary weather. There were but few at breakfast this morning, and just as we were finishing breakfast the wind struck the ship. Most of us were shot clear under the table, and anointed vsdth the soups, coffee, etc., of the table, while en route. Even the veterans of the sea found it an acrobatic feat to keep their chairs. It was the struggle of our life to get to the stateroom, which was finally reached by going "on all fours." A northeaster had struck the "tramp." The careful sailors had removed all things from deck that could be washed overboard, hatches were closed, and the crew at their post prepared to help the ship weather the gale. The previously dark clouds suddenly seemed to break up into great flakes of snow that filled the sky and were blown everywhere by the wind that now roared like a powder-blast. The waves seemed mountain high, and our vessel would rise to the crest of a wave, where it seemed to pause for a moment, trembling in every fiber, and then plunge down into the trough below. Occasionally, as though tired of this ceaseless climbing up only to go down again, our boat would " ship " a wave — deluging the deck and causing us to feel that we were in a diving-bell headed for the bottom of the sea. Slowly we came out of the trough, and w^hen we again reached the crest of a wave the wind joined the rushing waters of the sea and tossed the "tramp" about like a cockle- shell. We seemed to be in the power of a hundred Niagaras, and the shifting wind was blowing great gusts all the while. How utterly insignificant man's work becomes when tested by the boundless, omnipotent sea ! We appeared absolutely at the mercy of wind and wave. The boldest in our number were filled with terror, and would have given their " bottom dollars " to stand on the solid earth once more. We seemed to see the flying Dutchman, his sails in shreds and the whole ship icicled by the winter storm, blowing through his trumpet, imploring us to take letters home for him. Like him, we seemed to be beating in vain and Judgment Day near at hand. But our captain called this only "half a gale," and steamed on his way, guided by the compass. For twenty-four hours this storm raged, and then the wind lulled. It proved to be " the calm before the storm," and the waves, being long, gentle swells, warned the experienced seaman to be on the alert. Just before midnight we entered the storm area, with the wind blowing at eighty miles an hour. " We were crowded in the cabin, Not a soul would dare to sleep, — It was midnight on the waters And a storm was on the deep," came into mind, and impressed its full meaning. We think of the shipwrecks we have read of. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 143 and that disastrous hurricane of September 9th, 1900, seems really upon us. This hurri- cane destroyed the city of Galveston, Texas, and damaged shipping from there to Nova Scotia on the Atlantic seaboard, its effects being felt hundreds of miles at sea. In an- swer to our questions, a ship's officer said we had encountered a hurricane at sea, the grandest example of the cyclone. The largest class of hurricanes originate between the West-African coast and the Windward Islands. Storms originating here move west across the ocean to the American coast, and, being deflected, recurve upon Ice- land, Scotland and Norway, or, following the African coast-line, they lash to foam the Bay of Biscay and are lost off the coasts of Portu- gal or Britain. Navigators at sea, from the reading of the barometer, character and direction of the wind, and their own personal experience, learn how to avoid the storm-center, and if in mid-ocean may take advantage of the wind to hasten the vessel's course. The waves during the calm, and the barom- eter as well as the veering wind of the hurricane, prepared our captain to so direct our course that we passed to the right of the storm-center. With our fog-horn blowing every half-minute, the howling wind lashing huge waves against, around and over the ship until it quivered and creaked and groaned, sleep was banished. Then the tramp sprung a leak, and the thug ! thug ! of the steam-pumps was heard while officers went below to repair the leaks. In the midst of the roar and tumult of the tem- pest there came the questioning appeal of the skip- per's daughter: "Isn't God upon the ocean Just the same as on the land? " Yes, and with faith's return came the first stanza of Cowper's hymn : Riili^ W1 m '^-^ ^'"^ Great heaps of wreckage piled high by the mighty waves.— Galveston disaster. "God moves in a mysterious way, His vponders to perform ; He plants his footsteps in the sea, And rides upon the storm." When the morning sun shone out the storm had passed, and once more we were permitted on deck. All around were whitened waves many feet high and as many feet deep, seemingly running like race-horses. The picture was surely awe-inspiring, and the heavy splash of an occasional wave on deck gave us some idea of the force and action of the hurricane-waves of the night before. These storms are most frequent from July to October. In the earlier stages they are from 25 to 200 miles wide, but in the course of several days may reach a diameter of 1000 or 1200 miles. Poey has published a table recording 365 hurricanes on the Atlantic since Columbus sailed across it. To our question of the ship's location, we receive the reply: "41° 30' north latitude, 19° 46' west longitude." " We are several days from our 144 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. course," the mate said, " but we were lucky to get off as well as we did. Our cargo is still safe, the leaks are stopped, and the machinery is not dam- aged. We can regain our course, with anything like favorable weather, in a very few days. We will not encounter another storm this trip, and need fear nothing until we reach the Newfoundland fogs." The " tramp " bore N.N.W. until it reached the Northern route, followed by most transatlantic steamers from August to January, and, turning into the course of west-bound vessels, bore steadily on her way. Near 40 degrees west longitude our course bore more to the south of west, and after a day's sailing we came to the region of the Arctic current. For some time we have been in the deep blue of the Gulf Stream. Off the coast of Newfoundland this ocean current, which at this time of the year is from 15 to 30 degrees warmer than the surround- ing waters, meets the Arctic current, which is nearly as many degrees colder than surrounding waters. This meeting of a cold and warm ocean-current condenses the vapor in the warm air of the Gulf Stream, causing the fogs that are so constant and such a menace to navigation in this region. After a few scores of miles the Arctic current turns in toward shore, and thus for several hundred miles there is a clear line in the color and temperature of the water which marks the south-seeking cold current and the north-seeking warm current. The Arctic current finally disappears beneath the warmer current, while the Gulf Stream is traced across the Atlantic, tempering the shores of west- ern and northern Europe. This current, with such a remarkable influence on climate, crops, and commerce, has its origin in the vicinity of the Gulf of Mexico. As it passes Florida strait it approximates 30 miles in width and from 1500 to 2000 feet in depth, with a tem- perature approximating 25 degrees centigrade. Off Hatteras the Gulf Stream is twice as wide and a third as deep, and its temperature from 8 to 10 degrees C. warmer than surrounding waters. At about forty degrees north latitude it divides. The larger tropical branch goes south and east, enters the tropical waters, is deflected by the African coast, and returning, enters the north equatorial current near latitude 10 degrees and longitude 40 degrees. The other branch continues as indicated above. The Gulf Stream is to the Atlantic and Europe what the Kuro Sivo or Black Water is to the North Pacific and North America. Thanksgiving Day we had a real New England dinner, with a concert in the evening. On the morning of December 7th we sighted Sandy Hook light-ship, and at noon we reached Ellis Island, the finest immigrant station on the globe. The United States Bureau of Immigration has already expended one and one-half million dollars in build- ings, and has improvements projected that will cost as much more. The care of immigrants is intrusted to some 200 faithful attendants, who can provide for 7000 arrivals per day. These employes of the Government are physicians, interpreters, clerks, matrons, and inspectors. These employ such assist- ance as shall be needed to house and feed the immi- grant for the short time that he is detained at the island. Should any immigrant be unable to pay for this service, he is fed and housed gratuitously, the Government looking to the steamship company which brought over the poverty-stricken stranger for its pay. All immigrants who cannot show thirty dollars in cash, if likely to become a public charge, are sent back to the country from which they came. From six to ten missionaries are sta- tioned here to look after the spiritual wants of the immigrants. The Government has set apart a large, well-furnished room for their use, and pro- vides it with desks, cabinets, stationery, and such printed matter as the missionaries require. Here the Havre immigrants disembark. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 145 United States Em'grant Station, Ellis Island, New York Bay. Steaming up !N^orth river, our vessel reaches her pier, the gang-planks are let down, and we stand on the dear old homeland that we have not seen for so many months. We left Boston, our great New England center of commerce, June 28, and complete our commercial trip around the world by entering our K^ation's greatest port, the second commercial city of the globe, December 7th. " Breathes there the man with soul so dead Who never to himself hath said, This is my own, my native land ! Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned, As home his footsteps he hath turned From wandering on a foreign strand ? " On the Ocean, New York by Moonlight. (146) PART III. FACTS FOR LABORATORY WORK. (147) CONTE:tfTS. Page. 1. Mineral Commerce 149 2. Timber Commerce 159 3. Economic Plants 164 4. Furs of Commerce 184 5. Leather Commerce 186 6. Improvements in the Nile 188 7. Commercial Museums 190 8. Natural Features that Influence Commerce 192 9. Colonies of the Commercial World 197 10. Comparative Area of Nations 201 11. United States Mail Connections with the Com- mercial World 205 12. United States Weather Bureau Service 207 FAOE. 13. Standard Time 210 14. The Coins of Commercial Realms 211 15. The Fives of Commerce 213 16. World Cities ranked according to Population 219 17. Facts about American Cities 220 18. Meaning of Geographical Terms 223 19. Greatest Commercial Nations 224 20. A Trip Through the World's Great Pyramids .... 225 I. Mineral Pyramids 225 II. Agricultural Pyramids 226 III. Miscellaneous 227 21. State Supplement 233 22. Index 241 A Short Excursion. (148) MINERAL COMMERCE. Xext to food commerce, with its vast quantity of freight transported, surpassing in money value any other traffic, is the mineral commerce of the world. Minerals depend upon neither climatic conditions nor the physiography of the country. All life, whether animal or vegetable, depends upon mineral substances for many essential foods. Leaves must have mineral substance to form ribs and veins, and animals must have mineral matter to form bones and teeth. Minerals are widely dis- tributed, and are found in the mountain, on the plain, and by sea, lake and river shore. Materials as yet unconsolidated, that have been washed down from hill and mountain slopes, composed of rocks containing metals or ores in either veins or irregu- lar dissemination, are called superficial deposits. The precious stones of Ceylon, platinum of Siberia, " stream tin " of Cornwall and Banca, and surface deposits of gold in Colorado, California and Nome City, illustrate this class. Many useful minerals are found in layers or strata or are veined through sedimentary rocks in certain localities. These are called stratified de- posits. Iron ore and coal are most frequently found in beds, while the copper in sandstones of Xew Mexico and the conglomerates along Lake Superior illustrate the Veined deposits. Often these stratified deposits have been changed, by vol- canic or earthquake action. This gives what some authorities call a third division — unstratified de- posits. These changed beds of ore are now believed to have been originally deposited in horizontal lay- ers. These layers were subjected to later changes, as the iron ores of Missouri, Lake Superior and the Alleghany mountains seem to indicate. A mineral that possesses certain marked physi- cal or chemical properties is called a metal. The most universal characteristic is luster. The more important and useful metals are as follows: Name. Date of Discovery. Gold Known to ancient world Silver Mercury ! Copper Lead Tin Iron Bismuth Fifteenth century Antimony Fifteenth " Zinc Sixteenth " Platinum 1736 Nickel 1751 Potassium 1807 Sodium 1807 Calcium 1808 Aluminum 1827 The first two metals are of such value in the commercial world that they are called precious metals. When a metal is found unalloyed, or not mixed in sedimentary deposits, it is called native, or free. If it is combined with some other substance it is called an ore. The more common ores show oxygen, arsenic or sulphur to be the element in combination with the metal, and these must be removed and the metal purified by a process called smelting. One of the largest smelters in the world is at Argentine, Kan- sas, where gold and silver ore from certain Colo- rado mines is refined. The excavation made to extract minerals from the interior surface of the earth is called a mine. The Egyptians are believed to have been the earli- est miners. Abraham, the father of the Jews, twenty centuries before Christ, found gold and silver in common use among these people. Rec- ords show mines of copper, silver and gold to have been worked by these people in both Ethiopia and Arabia, in remote time. The most energetic mine- workers of antiquity were the Phoenicians. Many (149) 150 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. centuries before Alexander conquered tlie world, these commercial people had gold and silver mines in Sardinia, lead and silver mines in Spain, and tin mines in Cornwall on Briton island, while their iron and copper mines were scattered throughout the then known world. No minerals are considered accessible that are more than 5000 feet below the surface. The in- ternal heat increases about one degree for every 53 feet of descent. The heat a few thousand feet below the surface becomes unbearable. Ventila- tion and drainage are factors that must always be taken into consideration in every mine. Shafts and all permanent ways must be carefully pro- tected by iron pillars or well-seasoned and heavy timber supports. In the study of each mineral the following out- line will be found helpful : 1. Name of Mineral. 2. Origin. 3. Distribution — by Countries. 4. How Obtained. 5. Uses. 6. Instructive Commercial Facts. The first mineral to be considered is coal. Coal is the principal fuel used in smelting ores, in man- ufacturing plants, and is the principal fuel of steamboats and steam cars, as well as light, water and gas plants. Coal, for this reason, has great economic value. Coal is a compound of decom- posed woody matter with inflammable gases. Many ages ago, more than 600 species of large, fern-like plants were growing as great trees. In the course of time these fell, and before they had rotted away, were embedded in the earth. As many fossil leaves and scales of these plants are found in nearly every coal region of the world, it is believed that coal was formed from the trunks of trees and these tree-like ferns decomposing under heavy pressure. These trees were widely distributed' during the warm, moist period of the earth's development called the Carboniferous age, and for this reason coal is one of the most widely distributed minerals. Man was led first to study coal as of vegetable origin from peat. If a mass of moss and roots be- comes imbedded, it forms peat. In regions where summers are not very warm and where fogs are frequent, the partial decay of large beds of vegeta- tion forms peat bogs. Peat lands are found in Lab- rador, Newfoundland and Anticosti on the North Atlantic shores, with peat from three to ten feet thick. Peat bogs, within our own nation, are found in New England, northern New York, Ohio, Mich- igan, and Wisconsin. The most extensive peat lands are found in Ireland (one-half of Ireland is peat land), Scotland, England, Sweden, Russia, and France. By a greater pressure and a longer process peat was changed to lignite or brown coal. Lignite, by pressure and heat, was changed into bituminous or soft coal. Added heat and still greater pressure is believed to have changed bituminous into anthra- cite or hard coal. Continued heat and pressure changed anthracite into graphite, which has prac- tically no inflammable material in its composition, and therefore will not burn. Graphite is practi- cally pure carbon, and is not classed as a coal. Anthracite coal is very hard, breaks with a shell- like fracture, has a shiny black luster, and contains a large per cent, of carbon and a small per cent, of inflammable substance. For this reason it burns with very little flame, but with a great per cent, of heat. Bituminous coal has a cubical fracture and though hard, it breaks more readily than anthra- cite, has a greater per cent, of inflammable sub- stances, and burns with a bright flame. This coal yields, by distillation, coal tar, a thick tarry liquid like bitumen, a mineral pitch. For this reason it was named bituminous coal. These classes of coal are not fixed, for the pro- portion of carbon varies from 6.4 per cent, in lig- COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 151 nite to 94 per cent, in Pennsylvania anthracite. The inflammable substances vary from 20 per cent, in lignite to 1^ per cent, in the best anthracite. The discovery of coal occurred early in the his- tory of commerce, twenty centuries ago. Theo- phrastus, a Greek scholar, wrote of blacksmiths using coal. In the twelfth century the mines of Newcastle sent ship-loads of coal to London. For this reason it was called " sea-coal " for centuries. Father Hennepin, while exploring the Missis- sippi river, discovered coal 200 hundred years ago. The first coal mines in our nation were opened near Richmond, Virginia, 150 years ago. The first man to use anthracite coal was Obadiah Gore, who lived in Wyoming Valley, Pennsylvania, just be- fore the Revolutionary War. By using his bel- lows he found the anthracite could be made to burn, and he then used it exclusively in his forge. An- thracite was first sold for house use by Col. Shoe- maker. He sold a small quantity at Philadelphia. The buyers, failing to make the coal burn, procured a warrant for Col. Shoemaker's arrest as an im- postor. They claimed he had sold them black stone for coal. It was not until the beginning of the nine- teenth century that hard coal was used to any great extent. England used to be known as the world's coal- field. The State of Pennsylvania has as much coal as not only England, but all Europe. Penn- sylvania has not to exceed one-tenth of our nation's supply of coal. By burning out the gases of bituminous coal, coke is made. Thus coke is a refined coal. It is valued in smelting ores and the manufacture of steel for its purity. Separating the different ele- ments of coal by heat is called distillation of coal. By distillation of coal, coal-tar, ammonia, paraffin, naphtha, creosote, aniline (a dye product), and il- luminating gas are obtained. In recent years beds of natural coke have been found, of a quality superior to artificial coke. Molten lava bursting through coal-beds is believed to have worked the change. One of the best coke- beds found is at Funikitchen, Hungary. Coke deposits have recently been discovered in Mexico. N^atural coke is of a dark-gray color, and much closer grained than the oven coke. The rise of the coal industry is considered a safe index to the world's industrial development. It is estimated that in 1860 the world's production of coal amounted to 144 million metric tons. In 1900 the world's coal-bin received 775 million metric tons. Modern industry depends upon coal and coal products for its fuel and source of power. About the time Columbus discovered America, England discovered her supply of coal and iron, and began to utilize the discovery. Shortly after this, De Gamo found the route to India via Cape of Good Hope, and the monopoly of the East-In- dian trade was wrested from the Mediterranean ports. This caused their decline, while England's commerce began to develop, largely due to her great quantities of coal and iron. For 400 years England, with 12,000 square miles of coal terri- tory, as a coal-producer led the world. England's coal is largely shaft or deep-mine coal. These shafts are often from 2500 to 3000 feet be- low the surface, with veins from 1| to 2 feet thick. The coal at the pit in England costs from 65 to 70 cents more per ton than our coal costs us. ^ large amount of our nation's coal is drift coal, and veins are from two to five times thicker than the English veins of coal where shafts have to be sunk. The transportation of coal for domestic use in the United States is an important item, owing to the great distances the coal is transported. Until very recently, coal for the Pacific States had been im- ported from Australia. It could be carried by steamer across the Pacific cheaper than it could be transported by rail over the mountain ranges to the Pacific coast. The discovery of extensive coal- beds in Oregon and Washington has enabled these Pacific States to almost supply the home demand 162 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Mechanical Methods of Handling Coal. since 1900. Coal is transported from Pittsburg to New Orleans by stern-wheeled steamers towing supplemental cargoes on large barges. Often a single steamer conveys 20,000 tons of coal down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers to New Orleans, 2000 miles from the "Iron City." This tow, worked by a few men, carries as much freight as 3000 cars drawn by 100 locomotives and manned by 600 men. The cost of carrying coal by water between these cities averages less than one-half a mill per mile. This is declared to be the cheap- est transportation known to the commercial world. The cheapest and easiest coal-mining known to the mining world is in China. The coal in some parts of the empire is so near to the surface, and labor is so cheap, that it is mined for 13 cents per ton. In both coal and iron China is a formidable competitor with England, Germany, and the United States, for the Japanese trade. Our nation has 192,000 square miles of coal territory, and in 1899 passed Great Britain in the quantity of coal mined. Below are the three groups of coal-producing nations. The yield of coal indicated in Group I shows the million tons for 1900; Groups II and III name the countries in rank, and give the sum total per cent, of the world's product that the entire group furnished in 1900: I. First Order. 1. United States , 26.8 Per cent, of Natioii''s Coal. (a) Pennsylvania 52.0 (b) Illinois 11.8 (c) West Virginia 9.5 (d) Ohio 8.4 (e) Alabama 3.0 (/) Indiana 2.2 ig) Iowa 2. -f- {h) Kentucky 2.0 (i) Wyoming 1.6 (,;■) Missouri 1.5 (k) Kansas 1.4 (l) Tennessee 1-3 (m) Washington 1.0 Rest of States less than 1.0 2. Great Britain 25.2 3. Germany 15.8 These three nations produce four-fifths of the world's coal. TI. Second Order. 1. Austria-Hungary, 2. France, "121 per cent. 3. Belgium, These three nations furnish three-fourths of the remaining fifth of the world's coaJ. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 153 > 4 per cent. III. Third Okdee. 1. Russia, 2. Japan, - 3. Xew South Wales, 4. India, 5. Canada, 6. Spain, 7. Transvaal, 8. Sweden, 9. New Zealand, 10. Italy, 11. China, 12. All other countries, The most extensively distributed of the minerals is iron. It is seldom found in nature pure. It is usually in combination with non-metals. It is an ingredient in rocks, soils, natural waters, and is also found in both animal and vegetable matter. The iron of commerce is generally obtained from ifs oxide and sulphide ores. England uses a car- bonate known as argillaceous iron ore. The iron of commerce occurs in three forms: cast iron, wrought iron, and steel. Cast iron is obtained by heating the ores in a blast furnace. The iron is left in combination with a small though varying quantity of carbon. When the molten iron comes from the furnace, it flows down the hearth through a channel, into the middle of a large bed of sand. From the large channel in the middle of the bed, extend smaller ones, and from these extend the " pigs." The pigs are small sand-beds from three to four inches wide and about three feet long. At stated intervals the furnace is opened and molten iron run into the "pigs" to cool. For this reason it is called pig iron. Wrought iron is obtained from cast or pig iron by reducing the amount of carbon to less than one per cent. This is done by means of a reverberatory furnace, which bums out the carbon and runs im- purities off as slag or scoria. The metal is first formed into balls, run through a press to take out remaining scoria, and then rolled into bars. It is now the malleable iron of commerce. Steel was formerly made by " cementation." Bars of wrought iron embedded in charcoal and inclosed in air-tight boxes were heated until the carbon of the charcoal was made to enter into com- bination with the wrought iron throughout. This process made the product too expensive for general use in manufactures. During a European war in 1854, Sir Henry Bessemer began experiments in refining iron, seek- ing a better material than cast iron for the heavier guns then coming into use. He had a large con- verter made in London for changing cast iron into steel. Mr. Bessemer was eminently successful in originating a process of obtaining steel from cast ir<3»n instead of wrought iron. This Bessemer pro- cess of manufacturing steel takes but a few hours, where the " cementation " process requires days. When Mr. A. S. Hewitt received his Bessemer gold medal in 1890, he said: "The invention of printing, the construction of the magnetic compass, the discovery of America and the introduction of the steam-engine are the only capital events in modern history which belong to the same category as the Bessemer process." This process that has created the present age of steel is clearly shown in the following extract: " From two to six tons of cast iron when melted is run into a large globular vessel, built of the most infusible substance. ^Numerous holes in the bot- tom of this crucible allow a strong blast of air to bubble up through the melted metal. A most vio- lent combustion follows, the heat of which keeps the metal in a fluid state, while its carbon and a small part of the metal itself are burned to oxides. Too much carbon by this process is removed and a quantity of cast iron is added to restore carbon enough to change the whole mass into steel. (Usu- ally steel contains from ^ to 2 per cent of carbon.) 154 COMMERCIAL GEOORAPHY. The crucible is then tipped upon its pivots and the molten steel run off into molds. Less than half an hour is enough to change these tons of cast iron into cast steel." The leading nations in the production of pig iron for the year 1900 rank as follows: 1. United States 13| Per cent. (a) Pennsylvania 49 (b) Ohio 17 (c) Illinois 10 (d) Alabama 8 (e) Virginia (/) Tennessee (g) New York {h) Maryland (i) Wisconsin and Minnesota . . (j) West Virginia (k) Michigan (I) Missouri and Colorado (m) New Jersey (n) Kentucky (o) North Carolina and Georgia Connecticut Texas Massachusetts 2. Great Britain 8f 3. Germany Y Less >than 3 per cent. 5. Russia 2^ Ninety per cent, of the iron ore of our nation is furnished by the Lake Superior and the North Carolina, Georgia and Alabama ore regions. Coal is the fuel for smelting purposes, and the ore is transported to places adjacent to coal-beds. The lakes furnish cheap transportation of Superior ore, which is carried down to Cleveland and Pittsburg. The labor-saving machinery invented within the last ten years has reduced both time and expense of mining, loading and unloading ore. Steam drills, steam shovels, traveling cranes, and friction chutes, make ore-mining and ore transportation as much a science to-day as ore-refining. At the docks of Duluth, Two Harbors, Ashland, Marquette and Escanaba, whaleback freighters carrying 6000 tons of ore have been loaded in two hours. Each of these ports ships annually two million tons of iron ore. The world's production of steel in 1900 in million tons : 1. United States 10.20 (a) Pennsylvania 60 per cent. (b) Ohio 21 per cent. (c) Illinois 12 per cent. (d) Alabama, Maryland, West Virginia, North Carolina, Missouri, Colorado, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, New York, and New Jersey with a small per cent, in the order named. 2. Germany 6.30 3. Great Britain 4.93 4. France 1.50 5. Russia 1.00 6. Austria 75 7. Belgium 50 8. All the rest of the world 1.67 Steel is now an important element in the me- chanic arts. It is used in rails, cars, bridges, frameworks of buildings, implements, household utensils, and machinery of all kinds. A nation's consumption of steel is now considered a barometer of its industries. The greatest iron city in the world is Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. Here we find the United States Steel works with ten mill centers with a capacity equal to one-fourth of the entire world's produc- tion of steel in 1900. It owns over 18,000 coke ovens, and 80 blast furnaces. Here are also lo- cated the Westinghouse plants, established by George Westinghouse, and now employing 12,000 skilled workmen, who annually turn out thirty million dollars' worth of air-brakes, switches, elec- tric appliances and engines of all kinds. They manufacture the largest gas-engines known to the engineering world. At Pittsburg and in its vicin- ity is produced 24 per cent, of the nation's pig iron, 34 per cent, of the nation's Bessemer steel ingots and castings, nearly 50 per cent, of total production of open-hearth steel ingots and castings, over 57 per cent, of the total production of crucible steel, 39 per cent, of total production of all kinds of steel, 26 per cent, of Bessemer rails, and 64 per cent, of total production of structural shapes. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 155 Birmingham, Alabama, is our second iron city. Both of these cities have quantities of coal, coke and limestone, and this fact has located at these places many blast furnaces for making pig iron. The blast furnaces have brought the steel in- terests to these iron centers. A blast furnace is cylindrical in form, and shaped like an inverted cone. It is made of solid masonry, and is from 50 to 125 feet high. The "charge" is made up as follows: To every If tons of iron ore nine-tenths ton of coke is used, to which is added one-half ton of limestone. This is poured in at the mouth of blast (top of funnel) by means of mechanical lifts worked by compressed air. Hot air is now blown up through the " charge " by engines. The hot air causes gas to form and renders more intense the heat of the furnace. The gaseous substances in the ore and limestone pass up through the " stack," and the metallic iron melts and flows down to the hearth. The limestone unites with the earthy substances in the ore and forms slag, which is drawn off at stated intervals and thrown away. It is lighter than the iron, and floats on top of the molten iron. The Homestead steel plant is the largest one in the world. The next largest plant is at Ensley, Alabama. Within a radius of three miles of Ens- ley are seen all the processes, from the ore and coal to the best steel plate. A third great plant is located at Pueblo, Colorado, employing many hun- dred men. This plant is especially helpful, as it manufactures the steel implements used in the mining industry. This nearness of cheap fuel to the mined ore, ex- plains the location of coke ovens, blast furnaces, cement works, steel plants, and numerous molding- shops of cast iron. Copper. One of the most important metals now used in the arts is copper. The oldest mine in the Superior ore regions is a copper mine. This mine is sup- posed to have been operated by the Mound Build- ers. History tells us that the copper mines of Sinai were worked many centuries before Christ. In the debris of centuries have been found ruins of the furnaces and crucibles used, the tools and . huts of the miners, with the slag and cinders. The copper mines of Sinai and Lake Superior would indicate that copper was the first metal used by man. Copper is found native in the Lake Superior re- gion, Japan, China, and Sweden. The ores of cop- per are very abundant and quite widely distrib- uted. Copper, being malleable, ductile, and a good conductor of heat and electricity, is quite valua- ble in the mechanic arts. Alloyed with tin, it makes bronze gun-metal and bell-metal. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, and is next to iron in its use in the mechanic arts. German silver is an alloy of copper, zinc, and nickel. The richest copper mines in the world are the mines of native copper along Lake Superior. The Tamarack mine has a depth of nearly a mile. The copper obtained here is often in very curious crystalline forms, sometimes in branch-like shapes similar to growing plants. In one Superior mine a mass of copper was found that weighed 400 tons. Copper is used in household utensils, in electro- typing and electroplating, on the rolls in calico printing, for sheathing vessels, for lightning-rods, and is also quite generally used for transmitting electric energy. The very finest copper for elec- trical purposes is the Lake Superior copper. The United States annually produces between 240,000 and 270,000 tons of copper. This is more than 50 per cent, of the world's output of this metal. The richest copper mines of our nation are the Cali^met (Lake Superior), Butte and Ana- conda (Montana) mines. The leading copper-producing regions are as 156 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. follows: United States, Spain and Portugal, Japan, Chile, Germany, Australia, Mexico, Canada, Russia, and the Straits Settlements, ranking in order named. Gold. Gold is one of the heaviest and most pre- cious of all the metals. It is sometimes found in sand, sometimes fine grains are scattered through crystalline rocks in veins or lodes, and again gold may be found in " nuggets " or large grains of free gold. The largest nug- get ever found was in Australia. This is reg- istered as weighing 233^ pounds troy. All metals were once in a molten or liquid state. As the earth's crust cooled, the metals were believed to have collected in mass forms. These metal centers were broken up by the disintegration of the rocks and upheaval of the mountains. In this way gold particles are be- lieved to have been washed into the valleys, where they became imbedded in the gravel and sand of rivers. The gold is obtained by washing; this washing process is called " placer mining." Where the gold is scattered through gold-bearing quartz, mercury is mixed with the crushed ore, dissolving the gold. The mercury is later separated from the gold by filtration and distillation. This process of amalgamation is generally used to obtain the gold from its ore. Gold is prized for its color and its beautiful luster, as well as its intrinsic value, which is ap- proximately $300 per pound. On account of the slight fiuctuations in its universal value, gold is the standard money of many nations. Pure gold being too soft to use in coins, it is alloyed with copper. Twenty per cent, of the world's output of gold is used in the arts. The leading gold-producing States are Colorado, California, South Dakota, Montana, Utah, Ari- zona, Nevada, Idaho, Oregon, New Mexico, Wash- ington. The Territory of Alaska, with its Klon- $4,000,000, Gold from Nome City, in boxes. dike and Cape Nome gold fields, raised our out- put of gold to nearly eighty million dollars' worth per annum. In 1883 gold was discovered in the Transvaal in South Africa. The product rose from $50,000 in 1884 to $55,000,000 in 1898. The Boer-British war since that time has greatly reduced the output of the Transvaal mines, which are believed to be the richest gold mines in the world. The world's total output of gold for 1900 was $257,000,000, nearly $50,000,000 less than the pre- vious year, due largely to the South- African war. The greatest gold-producer is the United States, with Australia, Russia, Canada, Mexico and India following in order named. The South-African mines are not considered in this tabulation, their output being reduced 80 per cent, by the war now being waged in that section. The Camp Bird mine, on Mt. Snifiles, near Ouray, Colorado, em- ploys 500 miners, and yields its owner, Mr. Walsh, $3500 gold bullion per day, according to the U. S. mint records at Denver. Mr. Walsh is believed to have the richest gold mine this side of Nome City, Alaska. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 151 Sliver. Silver, like gold, is a precious metal, and was known as a money metal 2000 years before Christ. To-day it is a coin metal in all civilized nations, and the money standard in some of them. Silver has a brilliant luster, is mallea- ble and ductile, and is a widely distrib- uted metal. It has strong affinity for both sulphur and chlorine, and therefore is quite largely found as a sulphide or chlo- ride ore. Silver has been found free or native, and also alloyed with gold. Masses of native silver from 50 to 500 pounds in weight have been found in the mines of Norway, Saxony, Bohemia, Hungary, Peru, and Mexico. These in- stances are rare, however, as native silver usually is not found in such large masses. Silver is much used in metallurgy, in vases, table-ware, jewelry, and in silver leaf, by painters and decorators. The principal silver States and Territories of our nation are: Colorado, Montana, Utah, Idaho, Arizona, Nevada, California, New Mexico, Texas, and Washington, in the order named. The world's silver output for 1900 w^as the largest in history of silver commerce — 179,000,000 ounces troy. The United States led the world, producing 59^ million ounces troy ; while Mexico, Australia, Ger- many, Bolivia, and Spain are other great silver- producing countries. Other Mineral Products. The leading nations in other mineral products are given according to the statistics for 1900: Mercury (quicksilver). — Spain, United States, Austria, Mexico, Russia. Zinc. — Germany, Belgium, United States, France. Lead. — United States, Spain, Mexico, Great Britain, Sweden, Germany, France, India. Wheeling Salt to the Stacks, Salt Fields of Sofinen, Russia. Bolivia, Tin. — Straits Settlements, Banca, Great Britain, Tasmania. Nickel. — New Caledonia, Canada. Platinum. — Russia. (Used in chemical appa- ratus. Ninety per cent, of the world's output comes from Ural mountains.) Salt. — United States, Great Britain, Russia, Germany, France, India, Austria, Spain. Sulphur. — Sicily, southern Italy, Mexico, Cen- tral America, and all important volcanic regions. Aluminum. — The United States furnishes 50 per cent, of world's output. A refining process since 1888 has reduced its cost, $8 to $10, to 30 and 40 cents per pound. Mineral Fertilizers. — Phosphates from Florida, South Carolina, and Tennessee; nitrates from Chile. The clay products of the United States alone amount to nearly sixty million dollars annually. England, France and Germany also have extensive plants manufacturing stone- and china-ware, brick, sewer-pipe, drain-tile, and pottery of all kinds. Slate is a rock easily split into layers, and is much used for roofing, mantels, blackboards, slate- pencils, etc. The richest quarries are found in 16S COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Oil Tanks on Fire Wales. In our own country the largest quarries are in Pennsylvania, but the finest quality of slate comes f ron\ Vermont. Marble is crystallized limestone, and is much prized as a building-stone because it takes a high polish. It is much used in statuary, monuments, and as a building material. The finest quarries are in Italy, the islands of thef Mediterranean sea, and the United States. Vermont^ Georgia, Ten- nessee and Xew York are the leading States in the marble industry in our nation, ranking in order named. Petroleum or rock-oil is obtained from the earth as a dark, viscous liquid. While it was known to the Asiatics and ancient Greeks, no special use was made of it until the middle of the 19th cen- tury, when oil was found near Titusville, Penn- sylvania, in 1859. Since then the world's most important lubricating oils, aniline dyes and stains, kerosene, benzine, naphtha, gasoline, paraffin and scores of other commercial products are distilled from petroleum. There are more than 200 val- uable by-products of petroleum. The crude oil is now being used as a fuel on lines of railway and in mechanical shops. The great oil fields of our nation are principally in Pennsyl- vania, California, Kansas, and Texas. The oil industry has grown to be one of the great industries of the world. The greatest oil-produc- ing regions are found in the United States, and in Caucasia, between the Black and Caspian seas. The study of refining petroleum, pipe-lines, oil- tank centers, tank steamers and our nation's kero- sene commerce may here be profitably taken up. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 159 TIMBER COMMERCE. Bark Products. A. Cork. The cork tree of commerce is a spe- cies of live-oak (Quercus suher). This tree is one of the few trees in nature that yields its bark and retains its life. It is the outer bark that furnishes the cork of commerce. It is through the inner bark that most of the sap courses, and strippers are careful not to remove this. The bark of the cork oak is not valuable to commerce until the tree is twenty years old. The cork improves in texture with each stripping, which is made at periods from eight to ten years apart. The cuticle or outer bark used varies from half an inch to three inches in thickness. The stripping is usually jdone in the dryest mid- summer month. This is usually June in. regions of cork-oak groves. The trunk and. main branches of a cork tree yield fronii 50 to 500 pounds of cork bark. The amount varies according to the age of tree, character of growth, and number of the strip- ping. The sap in the bark is partially evaporated by exposure to sun and air for several weeks, and the rest is extracted by boiling. This latter process softens and flattens the bark. The woody exterior that cannot be used is now scraped off and the cork made ready for shipment to the nearest cork ware- house. Here the cork is baled according to thick- ness and quality. These bales are mader as compact as possible, and bound with hoops of steel or wire. They are now shipped to the world's cork factories to be worked up into bottle-corks of all sizes, in- soles, bicycle grips, life-preservers, linings for hats and helmets, pipe covering, and many other useful things. The cork scraps are ground and put through a consolidating process, becoming the gran- ulated cork of commerce. This is much used in the making of linoleum and lining of refrigerators. The principal cork-oak groves are found in Spain, Portugal, Algeria, and Morocco. The two largest cork factories in our nation are situated at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. One of these fac- tories works up nine million pounds of cork bark annually. Cork is now an indispensable element in the manufacturing world. B. Cinchona Bark. The cinchona tree is a na- tive of Peru and Ecuador, but is now being culti- vated in the East Indies. Cinchona plantations were started in Java by ther Dutch Government in 1852. These plantations now supply two-thirds of the quinine of commerce. The English Gov- ernment has established cinchona plantations in India that are now yielding a profitable revenue. The cinchona is an evergreen tree, and numbers more than twenty species. Only a part of these yield commercial cinchona. Certain substances called quina, cinchona and quinidine exists in the inner bark of these trees. Quina, from w^hich quinine is obtained, is the most useful of these sub- stances, and stands, next to opium and calomel, the most important of all drugs. The people of the United States are said to use one-third the quinine of the world, more than one and one-half billion grains being imported annually. C Caoutchouc, or Gum Elastic, is the sap of the inner bark of certain trees growing in South Amer- ica, the East Indies, and Mexico. The tree is tapped by boring a hole in the trunk, and a clay cup is placed beneath each incision. This fluid is thick and yellowish-white at first, but hardens and darkens as it is exposed to the sun. The col- lectors generally hasten the drying process by heat- ing over a fire, which gives caoutchouc its black appearance. Mr. Goodyear, of New York, in 1844 invented the art of vulcanizing rubber, whereby caoutchouc loses its adhesive qualities, is not affected by change of temperature, and retains its desirable elastic 160 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. qualities. This is done bj mixing sulphur with the caoutchouc and subjecting the whole to great heat. Electrical appliances and water-proof goods have greatly increased the demand for rubber. The total world output in 1900 was 57,500 tons, obtained from the following sources : Amounts in Thousand Tons. Amazon District of South America 25 Kest of South America 3)^ Central America and Mexico 2% East and West Africa 24 East Indies 1 Madagascar and Mauritius 1 India and Ceylon 3^ The manufactories of the United States and Canada annually use 21,000 tons; Great Britain, 21,000 tons; the rest of Europe, 15,000 tons. Gutta-percha is the milky juice of a tree of India and the Sandwich Islands. It is similar to caoutchouc, and is quite largely used to cover sub- marine cables, and in the arts. " The barks of these three trees yield more real value to man than all the jewels and precious stones ever dug from the earth," for they give him health, wealth, and luxurious comfort. Gums and Besins. A. Gums. Gums are exudations from trees, arising from, a change of tissue in the tree. They are quite largely used in stiifening fabrics and in the manufacture of mucilage and inks. The most important gum of commerce is obtained from a species of acacia tree growing in Africa, Arabia, Australia, and other countries. The gums are named from the countries producing them ; as, .gum arable, cape gum, gum Senegal, Australian gum. East India gum, gum of^ Bassorah, and Per- sian gum, or gum tragacanth. B. Resins. The resins are widely distributed, and are found not only in trees, but in nearly all groups of plants. The gums are carbohydrates, but the resins are hydrocarbons, and contain vola- tile oils, resinous acids, cellulose, tannin, and many carbonaceous substances. (a) Gamboge is a resin obtained from a small tree growing in Ceylon, Siam, and Cambodia. It is largely used in coloring varnishes, is the yellow of water-colors, and has a medicinal value. The plant bears a luscious fruit. (b) Asafoetida is obtained from two plants in the parsley family. These plants grow in south- western Asia, in the region extending from the Aral sea to the Persian gulf. The plants are from six to seven feet high, and often form vast forests. In the east the resin is pulverized and used as a condiment for flavoring sauces and foods. It has a commercial value as an important drug. (c) The turpentines of commerce are princi- pally obtained from coniferous trees growing in Europe and Xorth America. The turpentine is found in the inner bark and in the wood. The finer kinds are thin and clear, and are used in med- icine. The poorer kinds of turpentines are thick and cloudy, and are used in the manufacture of varnish, resin, sealing-wax, soap, and many other substances. Resin is the mass left after the vola- tile oils have been driven off by distillation. Tar is largely obtained from the roots and wood of turpentine trees. From tar are obtained pitch, oil of tar, creosote, paraffin, and aniline. Turpen- tine " farms " are extensively worked in our South Atlantic and Gulf coast States. The business of "yarding" 'and stripping the resin products of the long-leaf pine belt is the principal industry of many cities of this region. Myrrh is a resin obtained from a small tree growing in Arabia. It is one of the oldest medic- inal articles known. The odor is pleasant and the medicine is much used in the East. Balm of Gilead, or Mecca balsam, is also ob- tained from an Arabian tree of the myrrh family. It is largely employed in the manufacture of per- fumery and in medicine. The Turks use it in ointments and cosmetics. The finest of all turpentines is obtained from the balsam fir. It is called Canada balsam, and is much used in microscopy and the arts. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 161 A Washington Sawmill. Mastic, sandarac, giim lac, copal and balsam of tolu are important commercial resins. {d) " Kauri gum " is believed to be a fossil resin of the kauri tree of New Zealand. Whole forests of this tree are believed to have once covered north- ern New Zealand. The ravages of fire and natural decay gradually, through the centuries, killed out the trees, and the fossil resin found in great quan- tities five or six feet underground is thus accounted for. The exudations of living trees have no com- mercial value. Camplior. This is a commercial product of a species of laurel tree growing in China, Japan, and Formosa. The tree is cultivated in these countries for orna- ment as well as its commercial product. Japanese law now requires that a camphor tree be set out for every one cut down. In one village in western Japan is a group of thirteen camphor trees about 100 years old, so well proportioned and beautiful that they are the pride of that region. Camphor trees have been found fully fifteen feet in diame- ter and 300 years old. In obtaining camphor the trees are cut — roots, stems, trunk and all — into chips and boiled. The sap and oil are thus ex- tracted from the wood, and going up with the steam, dome-shaped covers collect the vapor, which is conveyed to a condensing vessel. The oil is pressed out of the deposit obtained, and leaves the camphor gum of commerce. liumber. The greater part of the world's lumber comes from Canada and the United States. The princi- pal trees from whose saw-logs lumber is made are 162 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. pine, cypress, fir, spruce, cedar, hemlock, oak, hick- ory, walnut, maple, elm, ash, poplar, sycamore, Cot- tonwood, beech, birch, chestnut, cherry, California redwood, rosewood and mahogany of the tropics, ebony of Madagascar and Ceylon, the jarrah woods of Australia, and the kauri trees of Xew Zealand. The greatest lumber-producers of Europe are Rus- sia, Sweden, Norway, and Austria. The lumber regions of North America are Canada, United States, and the West Indies. Argentine and Brazil represent the forests of South America. Australia and New Zealand are also important lumber-pro- ducers. The largest output of lumber in our nation is from the Great Lake region. For this reason we find the center of the American furniture and vehicle industries here, near the chief source of raw materials. Michigan leads in the production of lumber and shingles. The other lumber States of this region are Wisconsin and Minnesota. Sag- inaw, in 1890, was the lumber center of our nation, but the cutting away of forests in advance of the young timber in the eastern portion of this timber- belt has reduced Saginaw's lumber commerce, and to-day Minneapolis is the lumber city of our na- tion, and is believed to be the greatest lumber market in the world. The yearly lumber commerce of this city is nearly 600 million feet. The domestic freight traffic of our nation for a year aggregates as follows: Products of agriculture, 50 million tons. Products of animals, 13 million tons. Products of mines, 227 million tons. Products of manufactures, 50 million tons. Merchandise, 20 million tons. Lumber, 48 million tons. Next to coal, lumber is the greatest single ele- ment of domestic commerce of our nation. The by-product of the saw-mills is utilized in the paper-pulp, toothpick and spool industries, the Penobscot river in Maine are many Along mills. grinding millions of feet of small logs into pulp, and from this product manufacturing paper. In Maine are also located the nation's greatest spool factories. These factories furnish the spools for the thread-mills of England and the United States. Over 90 per cent, of the wooden toothpicks used in our nation come from Franklin county, Maine, and are made of white birch. The principal toothpick factories outside of Maine are in New York, Penn- sylvania, and Massachusetts. The best toothpicks made in the world come from Portugal. They are whittled out of orangewood by peasant girls. Canada has the largest spruce forests in the world. In the forests of Canada are located many large saw^ and pulp-mills. The former turn out millions of feet of lumber, while the latter turn out thousands of tons of pulp, many mills having a capacity of 250 tons of pulp per day. Canada has 121 species of native trees, 26 being of great commercial value. Canada's forest area is so great that it was awarded the leading country in forest resources by the Paris Exposition in 1900. The per cent, of forest land in the total area of each State in the Union is here given in order of rank : 1. Arkansas M 2. Maine 79 3. Alabama 74 4. North Carolina 73 West Virginia 73 5. Georgia 71 Washington 71 6. Mississippi 70 Florida 70 7. South Carolina 68 8. Michigan 67 9. Minnesota 66 10. Tennessee 65 Indian Territory 65 11. Louisiana 62 12. Missouri 60 13. Wisconsin 58 Virginia 58 New Hampshire 58 14. Oregon 57 15. Kentucky 55 16. Massachusetts 52 17. Pennsylvania 51 18. Maryland 44 19. Vermont 43 New Jersey 43 20. Idaho 42 21. Rhode Island 40 22. Connecticut 39 New York 39 23. Delaware 36 24. Colorado 32 25. Indiana 30 26. Montana 29 27. Texas 24 28. Ohio 23 29. Arizona 22 California 22 30. District of Columbia, 20 31. New Mexico 19 32. Illinois 18 33. Utah 13 Wyoming 13 Iowa 13 34. Oklahoma 11 35. Kansas 7 Nevada 6 Nebraska 3 South Dakota 3 38. North Dakota 1 The whole United States ( including Alaska ) . . 37 36. 37. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 163 Geographical divisions of timber-belts in our nation in order of commercial importance: Rank. Name. States Included. Kind of Lumber. 1 The Lake Region Mich., Minn., Wis., la.. III. White pine and hemlock. 3 Thx Southern Region . . . Va., N. C, S. C, Ga., Ala., Fla., Miss., Tex., Ark., Mo., Tenn., Ky., W. Va. Long-leaf pine, short-leaf pine, cypress, and the hard woods. 3 New England and North Atlantic States Me., N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y., N.J..Del.,Penn. Spruce, birch, hem- lock, of Me., pine, hickory and oak, of the rest. 4 The Central Region Ohio, Ind., part of 111. Hard-wood lumber. 5 The Pacific Region Alaska, Wash., Ore., Calif. Redwood of Calif., fir, cedar, and pine. 6 Rocky Mountain Region. All the Rocky Mountain States. Pine, aspen, cot- tonwood, and spruce. On account of the spoliation of vast areas of American forests the Federal Government has in- augurated a systematic policy to preserve, pro- tect and develop forest reserves. Within the last ten years thirty forest reserves have been made by the Government and placed under the care of the General Land Office. These reserves aggregate sixty million acres of forests lying in the States of Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Washington, Oregon, 'New Mexico, South Dakota, and Wyoming. In this way the Government seeks to secure the preservation of our forests and in- crease the commercial supply of timber. ■jK- .p ' ' ji{flHH|H^K 1 ^<^E|^^|| g ^^^^1 Largest Tree in Amer ca — Grisly Giant, Mariposa Grove, California. 164 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Papyrus, from which Paper was first made and takes its name. China. ECONOMIC PLANTS. It is estimated that of the more than 150,000 species of plants growing on the earth, 4200 are used for commercial purposes. These supply food, provide shelter, furnish fiber for clothing, are use- ful to the mechanic arts or give valuable medicinal elements. Some of the most important plants are named below, and their location and use to man indicated. Grasses. Grasses grow wherever there is found suffi- cient soil, moisture, and warmth to sustain plant life. The most widely cultivated member of the grass family is — 1. Rice. This is a staple food of nearly one- third of mankind. It grows in subtropical and tropical regions, thriving best in low, marshy lands along the seacoast. The food product is the berry, while the straw is used in the manufacture of paper. 2. The Cereals furnish the grains of commerce, and are largely used for food for man and beast in the temperate zone regions. (1) Wheat is a native of Asia, but was brought to South America in the sixteenth century. From there it has been carried to all of the Americas. Wheat is now gro\\Ti from the subpolar to the sub- tropical regions, in both the Occident and the Orient. Within or contiguous to the great wheat-belts are found flouring-mills that grind the wheat ker- nels and separate the product into hran, shorts, and bolted flour. By a certain process is made the whole-wheaten or " Kalston " flour. A large num- ber of breakfast foods are now being made from wheat ; the largest mills of this industry being lo- cated in the United States, in the northwest wheat- belt region. Wheat for either flour or breakfast- food purposes is graded at the grain elevator, and numbered as to quality ; all the very best for flour COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 165 purposes rating Xo. 1, the next No. 2, and so on. This grading is marked on the bins in the elevators, and the wheat is sold to the mills or foreign dealers bj grade as • 1^0. 1, No. 2, or No. 3 wheat. Very large wheat elevators are found not only at Min- neapolis and Chicago, but at Buffalo, where the lake freighters must transfer their car- goes to canal-boats or cars for the Boston or New York shipments. This is done through the machinery of the elevators. The fifteen greatest wheat States of our Union in 1900 are here named in order of rank: Kansas, Minnesota, California, Texas, Pennsylvania, Nebraska, Iowa, Washington, Missouri, South Dakota, Illi- nois, Maryland, Oklahoma Territory, Ten- nessee, and Oregon. (2) The Indian corn or maize crop is a very important one since science has opened so many valuable uses for corn. This cereal is a native of America, being cultivated by the Indians when Columbus discov- The First Reaper— McCormick's. The Largest Hop Market in the World, Niirnberg, Bavaria, Germany. ered the New World. The explorer took back some samples of this grain to Spain. This nation later introduced the cultivation of this cereal to the rest of Eu- rope. In America this is an im- portant food element for man and beast, but in Europe until quite recently it was only used as a food for stock. Now, corn meal is being used in rye- or wheaten-flour mix- tures by peasants. It is a cheaper and more nutritious food than the proverbial "black bread." Science has proven that the pith of the corn-stalk is the most service- 166 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. In the Great Union Stock Yards, Chicago, U. S. A. able " padding " that can be placed underneath the nickel-steel armor-plate of war-vessels. It swells when wet, and this quality renders it valuable should a ball pierce through the plate, as the pith will swell to fill the hole made by the ball and keep the water from rushing in, while it forms a spongy bed to break the force of the bullet. This corn- pith padding is used in sheets four inches thick underneath the armor on all modern war-ships. The corn-stalk fiber furnishes the very finest of cellulose obtainable. From the kernel so many different foods can be obtained that our Govern- ment sought to increase the sale of this cereal in Europe, by publishing the different ways in which corn can be used as a table food. A corn-book of 120 recipes was published, and corn Icitchens es- tablished in European expositions to show how to cook and serve corn foods. The manufacture of glucose from corn has changed the im- portation of European glucose and grape-sugar of several mill- ion pounds in 1884 to an impor- tant article of export commerce for our nation in 1900, since 200 million pounds are exported at the present time, and many mill- ions more are consumed in do- mestic uses. Great Britain alone purchases 160 million pounds of corn glucose from our factories yearly. The principal products of the glucose facto- ries that are being found of great commercial value are here given : (a) Glucose, used by refiners of table syrups, manufacturers of jelly, confectioners, and brewers. {h) Sugars, used by ale and beer brewers and apothecaries. (c) Starches, used by cotton and paper manu- facturers, baking-powder manufacturers, confec- tioners, and laundrymen. (d) Refined Grits, used in place of brewers' grits with satisfactory results. (e) Flourine, used by mixers of flour, without detriment, save that a corn product takes the place of a wheat product. (/) .Dextrines, used by fine-fabric workers, paper-box makers, mucilage and glue makers, con- fectioners, and apothecaries. {g) Stock Foods: Gluten meal, corn bran, mixed feed, and corn oil-cake. {h) Corn Oil, used by table-oil and lubricating- oil mixers, paint manufacturers, textile-fabric makers, and leather dressers. From the com oil, by a vulcanizing process, a rubber substitute is ob- tained. This corn rubber can be adapted to all COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 167 the uses to which Para or India rubber is put, from bicjcle tires to linoleum. The five refineries of corn oil now in our nation annually consume twenty million bushels of corn. Distilling spirits from corn is a larger industry than the glucose manufactories. The new smokeless powder mills use corn spirits in the manufacture of smokeless powder, and Great Britain, Japan, France and Germany are buying thousands of barrels of corn spirits for their powder- mills. These new uses of corn not only in- crease the acreage, but enhance the value in the market of this staple crop of our nation. The fifteen States that are the greatest producers of corn in the United States are given in order of rank for the crop of 1900 : Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, Kansas, In- diana, Texas, Ohio, Tennessee, Kentucky, Geor- gia, Arkansas, Alabama, North Carolina, and Wisconsin. (3) Eye is found wild in the arid regions near the Caspian sea. It grows in regions too cold for wheat, as well as in the more temperate climate. It is the principal grain food of many people in northern and central Europe. The " black bread " of the German and Russian peasants is made of rye. This grain is extensively used in making whisky and the straw is used for plaiting. (4) Oats, Dr. Johnson defined as " a grain used to feed horses and Scotchmen." It is supposed to be a native of Asia, and grows best in the cooler regions of the temperate zone. Russia, United States, Germany, France, Great Britain, Austria, Canada, Sweden and Denmark are the principal oat regions, ranking in order named. Oat-meal is so extensively eaten in our nation that many large oat-mills have been built, rivaling the capacity of many flouring-mills. A Barley Harvest, near Bethlehem, In Judea, Palestine. (5) Barley grows wild in Sicily, parts of Asia, and in some regions of the United States. Barley is the hardiest of all the cereals. It is not only an article of food, but is extensively used in the manufacture of ale, porter, and beer. 'The kernel is steeped in water until it sprouts. It is then quickly dried in a hot dry-kiln, and becomes the malt of commerce, from which all malt liquors are made. Barley can be raised in regions too hot for wheat and too cold for rye or other cereals. The leading barley nations are Russia, Austria, Ger- many, Great Britain, France, Canada, ]S[orway, and the United States. (6) Buckwheat is a native of Asia. It was brought to Europe by the Saracens, hence on that continent it is quite generally known as Saracen wheat. The kernel resembles a beechnut, and its common name is believed to be a corrupted form of " beech wheat." Buckwheat flowers profusely, and the flower contains a large per cent, of honey. This makes it an important plant in bee culture. The kernel is valuable for the large per cent, of 168 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Tyrolese Haymakers, Val Ampezzo, Austria. starch which, it contains. It is not a wheat, al- though the kernel is ground into flour and used to make the "griddle-cakes" of winter, used in northern climes. Buckwheat will grow on poor soils, matures rapidly, and does not exhaust the soil. It is raised in Russia, Germany, France, Spain, England, Tartary, Egypt, and the United States. 3. Sugar Cane is a native of Asia. It now grows in all warm regions. The plant is perennial, yielding a good quality of sugar until eight to ten years old. Then the tops of the old canes are cut off and planted, forming a new plantation. The canes grow from three to twelve feet high, and the pith contains a sweet juicy substance. When the canes are matured they are cut down and the juice removed, boiled and crystallized as the cane sugar of commerce. The native sugar is of a yellowish- brown color, and the juice that remains in a liquid state after the brown sugar has crystallized is the molasses of commerce. By the use of chemicals and processes of remelting and mold- ing, the various grades of loaf, granu- lated and powdered sugars of commerce are obtained. One of the largest sugar refineries of the United States is sit- uated at JSTew Orleans'. That makes New Orleans a world sugar mart. A single plantation and manufacturing company has three groups of sugar mills in Louisiana, and averages twenty mill- ion pounds of sugar and 500,000 gal- lons of molasses yearly. The largest sugar refinery in the world is situated on East river, Brooklyn, New York. It covers five city blocks. The most im- portant cane-sugar plantations are in the West Indies, the Gulf States, and in Hawaii. The best canes are raised in the West Indies, yielding 35 per cent, more sugar than either Hawaii or Louisiana cane. 4. Bamboo is a kind of tree-like grass found in southern Asia and in the West Indies as well as the East Indies. It often grows to a height of forty to fifty feet, and in diameter may vary from a few inches to four and even five feet. The seeds of this plant are edible, although it requires thirty years for the plant to reach the blossoming period. A famine in certain Oriental districts is sometimes averted by the general flowering of this grass. In one bamboo jungle, that flowered in 1864, 50,000 came to the jungle and camped for weeks, gather- ing the seeds for food. The bamboo is the national plant of China, where its young shoots are boiled, dried, and made into sweetmeats by confectioners ; the roots serve many purposes, while the hollow stem is the staple lumber and tiling of their do- mestic commerce. It is the principal constructive material for houses, masts of ships, water-pipes, canes, furniture, water-wheels, pens, and many other useful articles. While Asia shows over 100 species, Africa shows but one, America one, and COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 169 Europe none. Many cities of Burmah are built exclusively of bamboo — like Ran- goon and Prome. 5. Hay Crops. There are a great many grasses that are used for hay, but prob- ably those of greatest commercial value are clover, alfalfa, timothy, Hungarian grass, and wild or prairie grass. The hay is compressed into bales, and in this way reaches the great arteries of trade. It is the most important of "rough feed" for stock known to commerce. The nation's hay crop for 1900 num- bered 50 million tons, valued at 445 mill- ion dollars. The fifteen leading hay States were as follows (the yield in thousand tons) : 1. Iowa 5,006 2. Kansas 4,031 3. New York 3,351 4. Missouri 2,768 5. California 2,708 A Cuban Farmer Carrying Grass to Market, Province of Havana. The Hay Market, Galway, Ireland. 6. Pennsylvania 2,672 7. Nebraska 2,639 8. Illinois 2,119 9. South Dakota 2,064 10. Colorado 1,781 11. Michigan 1,727 12. Oregon 1,677 13. Indiana 1,663 14. Ohio 1,652 15. Minnesota 1,428 The Palm Family. This family ranks second in the com- mercial importance of its products, and numbers 1000 species. There is scarcely a species that is not in some way useful to man. The home of the palm is within the tropics, in regions of great heat and abundant moisture. One species of palm is native to southern Europe and four are native to our Southern States, — the cab- bage, saw, blue, and dwarf palmetto trees. These five species are almost the only ones in this large family that are found beyond the tropics. The palm wood is used for building purposes; the leaves to make thatched roofs, fans, mats, hats, and use- 170 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Cocoanut Trees in the White Sands of Flonda. fill house-utensils; the fiber for clothing and paper material; and the fruit is a highly nutri- tious food. The Sago of commerce comes from a palm that grows in Siam and the East-Indian Archipelago. This palm is from thirty to fifty feet high. The stems of these palms contain a soft white pith. This is treated mechanically, yielding starch grains. These starch grains on being treated are converted to a paste, the sago of the market. This Caryota palm has leaves that yield a fiber much used in making ropes and mats, while its flower- spikes yield wine and sugar. The Rattan Palm of the Malay peninsula grows from 100 to 300 feet high. Its fruit is edible, while its stem is used by the natives for many purposes; Europe and America use the canes in chairs and sofas and for walking-canes. The Peach Palm, a native of Venezuela, yields a fruit that is an important food element in the region w^here cultivated. The Date Palm, is one of the most im- portant members of the palm family. It is found in Egypt, Asia Minor, Persia, and China, principally. Our nation annu- ally imports from fifteen to twenty million pounds of dates. Great Britain, Turkey, British East Indies and China furnish us with most of our dates. The Cocoanut Palm stands at the head of this great family of useful plants. Every part of this tree — roots, stem, leaves, and fruit — is useful to man. It thrives best along the seashore and the islands of the Indian ocean ; and the trop- ical regions of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans are centers of cocoanut commerce. These palms begin yielding cocoanuts when six to eight years old, and continue yield- ing fruit, on an average, for sixty to sixty- five years. The average yield is 75 to 100 nuts per tree each year. These nuts furnish food for millions of people, and the albumen of the nut contains a valuable oil used in soap and candle manufactories. These two facts make this nut an important article in the world's commerce. Many of the Pacific-islanders remove the albu- men of the cocoanut and dry it in the sun, and sell it as copra or dried cocoanut meat. It usually takes from 75,000 to 80,000 nuts to make one ton of copra. Our nation annually imports from 600,000 to 800,000 of these nuts. For the past few years our chief sources of supply have been the West Indies, Colombia, Honduras, Nicaragua, and French Oceanica. The Tuber Family. This includes many common garden vegeta- bles — the beet, turnip, radish, parsnip, carrot, onion, the indispensable potato, the yam, and the manioc or manihot. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 171 The Beet of commerce is the sugar beet, the juice of this tuber yielding from 12 to 18 per cent, of sugar. K'apoleon Bonaparte introduced into France the manufacture of sugar from beets. To- day more than half the world's sugar is obtained from the beet. By dialysis or diffusion the sugar molecules in the beet are obtained, and the use of steam-pipes, the vacuum method and the centrifu- gal machine has greatly reduced the time and ex- pense of sugar-making and refining. There are many large beet-sugar factories, located princi- pally in California, J^ebraska, Utah, and Virginia. Tall upright cylinders, each with a capacity of two to three tons, are filled with sliced beets. Eight of these cylinders constitute a series. By the diffu- sion process the molecules of sugar are obtained, and the water that finally flows from Xo. 8 con- tains the sugar procured from the whole series. A ton of beets yields from 260 to 280 pounds of pure sugar. The capacity of the American fac- tories is from 30 to 300 tons of beets per day. The mangel-wurzel {Beta maritima) is the sugar beet. The Potato is a native of America, and was cultivated by the Andean Indian governments long before Columbus discovered the New World. Sir John Hawkins is said to have brought the potato to England, in 1563. It took nearly one hundred years to teach European nations that the potato was a valuable article of food. To-day it is Eu- rope's largest food crop. At a European centenary exposition in 1886 there were shown the varieties of potatoes cultivated in Europe, They numbered 500 species. On account of this tuber being a staple crop of Ireland, soon after its introduction into Europe it was named the Irish potato. The potato thrives best in a temperate climate. The potato crop of 1900 for our nation was, in round numbers, 211 million bushels. The fifteen States producing the greatest number of bushels are here named, with the yield in thousand bushels : 1. New York 27,481 2. Michigan 16,631 3. Wisconsin 15,620 4. Illinois 15,296 5. Iowa 14,004 6. Ohio 12,561 7. Pennsylvania 10,921 8. Missouri 10,107 9. Nebraska 9,664 10. Indiana 9,060 11. Minnesota 8,636 12. Kansas 7,246 13. Maine 6,200 14. Vermont 3,305 15. West Virginia 3,029 The nation's potato crop for 1900 was valued at ninety millions of dollars. The potato belongs to the same botanical fam- ily that tobacco, capsicum, the egg-plant and the tomato do. The Sweet Potato is not a potato, but is a tuber of the morning-glory family. It was one of the presents that Columbus brought Queen Isa- bella from the New World. It has been thought that this was the potato spoken of by Shakespeare and other early English writers, rather than the Irish potato. The Chinese are reported to have cultivated the sweet potato from very early times ; hence this plant may be a native of the Orient as well as the Occident. The sweet potato thrives best in a subtropical or tropical climate, although it is a profitable crop now in States as far north as Michigan and New Jersey. The South- Atlantic and Gulf States, with New Jersey and Virginia, furnish the greater part of the sweet potatoes of domestic commerce. The Yam is a tropical plant related to the sweet potato, and is cultivated in southern temperate climes as a food product, the same as the sweet potato. The Manioc plant is a woody-stemmed plant with parsnip-like roots, indigenous to tropical America. The starch from the roots is the Bra- zilian arrow-root. The ground-up root is cassava. This is by the natives mixed with water and baked in thin cakes as cassava bread. By moistening the starch obtained from the roots of this plant, granulating it and heating on metal plates, the tap- ioca of our mother's pantry is obtained. The root 172 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Carrying Bananas to Market, Jannaica, W. I. from which tapioca comes is poisonous, as it con- tains prussic acid, but this is either squeezed out with the water of the tuber or evaporated when cassava and tapioca are made; so both food ele- ments are absolutely free of the poison. The Fruit Family. 1. Figs. This is probably the earliest known fruit; is a native of Asia, and is counted one of the most valuable of fruits, being used both as a food and for medicinal purposes. It is now cul- tivated throughout southern Europe and in parts of our own nation. The best figs come from Smyrna, but the Agricultural Department of our nation has found a certain Asiatic insect that fer- tilizes the fig blossom, and is now seeking to grow Smyrna figs in the arid lands of southern Arizona, with fair prospects of success. This will truly "make the desert blossom," and mean millions of dqllars to the nation. 2. Grapes. This is also a fruit known to the ancients, found by Joshua when he went to " spy out" the promised land. The grapevine grows best in temperate regions, and is exten- sively cultivated for its berry fruit. A small seedless grape, raised in Greece and its adjacent islands, is dried, and forms the currants of commerce. (Believed to have been so named from Corinth, Greece.) This one article constitutes 50 per cent, of the exports of Greece. Raisins are dried grapes, produced in large quantities in the Grecian Archipelago, Asia Minor, south- eastern Spain, and California. From grapes wine is manufactured. The prin- cipal wine-producing regions are France, Germany, Hungary, Spain, Portugal, Ma- deira, and California. California is the wine State of our nation, producing up- ward of fifty million gallons yearly. One of the finest grape regions is in the vicin- ity of Lakes Erie and Ontario, in northern Ohio and western New York. 3. Bananas. The banana is a tropical plant largely cultivated in all warm climes. It grows to be fifteen to twenty-five feet high, but each ^ear dies to the root. Its fruit is very nutritious, and is a main source of food in tropical regions. A fiber from the banana-skin makes a beautiful cloth. 4. Apples. The apple is believed to be a native of Asia, having been brought to Europe by the Romans. The crab-apple is indigenous to Great Britain. The apple was the first American fruit exported. Aside from apples, fresh and dried, and vinegar, one of the chief apple products, no other fruit item is recorded among our nation's exports prior to 1865. In 1821 our exports included 68,- 000 bushels of apples, while now the yearly exports of this fruit average : apples, one million barrels ; dried apples, thirty million pounds; cider, 625,- 000 gallons; and vinegar, 100,000 gallons. The nation's annual apple crop more than fills sixty million barrels. Since the invention of the fruit evaporator (1870-75), the export trade in dried COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 173 picking Oranges, Riverside, California, U. S. A. apples has risen from $250,000 to one and one- fourth millions of dollars, and is still increasing. Judge Wellhouse, of Kansas, has the largest apple orchards in the world. His orchards cover 1630 acres, and number upward of 100,000 well-selected trees. The apple does not thrive in a warm cli- mate. Limestone soils with good drainage, in tem- perate regions, seem best adapted for this fruit. Cold storage and quick transportation service have greatly stimulated the shipping of all fruits, and one-third of the fruit exports of our nation are apples, either dried or fresh. The United States and Canada are the greatest apple-raising regions, and Great Britain, France and Germany are their best customers. 5. Oranges. This fruit has been cultivated in India for many centuries. It was brought to Eu- rope by the Moors. In the New World, Florida, Louisiana, Mexico and California furnish the orange of commerce. The trees are prolific bloom- ers, and the blossom is most beautiful and very fragrant. Each year 1600 tons of orange blossoms are used for perfumery purposes. A sin- gle orange tree has been known to yield 20,000 oranges, and a single acre of trees will produce ten tons of fruit. The trees will bear fruit for more than 100 years. The seedless or navel orange was intro- duced into the United States from Bahia, Brazil, in 1870, by Mr. William Saunders, superintendent of the gardens and grounds of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. He had twelve trees of this unique va- riety of oranges shipped him from the Bahia district. From these trees Mr. Saunders obtained buds, which were grafted upon small orange plants and shipped to Florida and California. The new orange did not thrive in Florida, and, while it thrived in California, it awakened little interest until two trees came into bearing in 1879, at River- side, California. The first crop from these two trees consisted of sixteen oranges. JSTow, River- side annually sends out to the world 1,600,000 boxes of navel oranges. While Californa and the Gulf States have prolific orange groves, that dur- ing the fruit season send solid trains of orange cars across the continent to our great fruit-distributing centers, yet at present we are importing two million boxes to supply the home demand. Some come from the islands of the Mediterranean sea — chiefly from Sicily and Malta, Portugal, Azores, Mexico, and West Indies. Oranges are packed for ship- ment in oblong boxes, each orange being wrapped in tissue-paper and in a division compartment to prevent bruising or rubbing. The orange belongs to the botanical family of citrus fruits. 8. The Lemon is a member of this same ever- green group of citrus fruits. The lemon tree is not as symmetrical as the orange tree, is not as hardy, and averages twelve feet in height. The lemon was used by the ancient Roman to keep moths from his garments, and in Pliny's time the 174 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. fruit was deemed an excellent poison. While the tree is more tender than the orange tree, its fruit will keep better. A lemon tree yields from 3000 to 8000 lemons in one season. The extract and oil of lemon are important articles of commerce, as well as the fruit from which they are obtained. California and Florida are the principal sources of our lemons, although they cannot supply the home demand. From two to three million boxes of lem- ons are yearly imported. These are obtained from the Mediterranean lands. West Indies, Mexico, East Indies, and Carribean states of South Amer- ica. 9. The Lime is a citrus fruit, closely related to the lemon. The juice is much used for " sum- mer drinks" and for medicinal purposes. Lime- juice prevents scurvy, and therefore has a place in the medicine-chest of every navy in the world. Confectioners and cooks make important uses of lime-juice. 10. The Orchard Fruits, pears, peaches, cher- ries, apricots, nectarines, are important articles of domestic trade, but do not enter largely into the international or world commerce, feeing quite per- ishable fruits. 11. The Berry or Small Fruits are strawberry, raspberry, blackberry, huckleberry, cranberry, gooseberry, and dewberry. The strawberry is the most important small fruit grown. It grows wild in many parts of the United States and Europe, but has been greatly improved by cultivation. It is considered one of the most desirable of fruits. Something like a million cases a year are taken to our large cities on " strawberry trains." In some p*irts of Mexico strawberries can be so grown as to ripen every month in the year. In the United States the strawberry harvest begins in early spring at the Gulf, and goes slowly northward, the Canada strawberries maturing in July. The berry business has created the demand for berry-boxes and baskets. Basket factories have been built near the fruit regions of Michigan, Cali- fornia, Illinois, Maryland, New York, New Jer- sey, and Georgia. The fruit business has opened up large canning and preserving factories, and these in turn have increased the capacity of tin- plate mills and glass factories to supply the needed tin and glass for canneries. One of the most important garden fruits canned is the tomato. This is a garden vegetable common to all North-American gardens. Linna?us gave the tomato a Persian name (Lycopersicum esculen- tum), but eminent English botanists credit this plant to South America. Less than 100 years ago the tomato was believed to be poisonous. While the skin is indigestible, we use the luscious pulp raw, cooked, or canned, at all seasons of the year. Corn, beans, peaches, apples, cherries, pears, plums, the berries, and tomatoes, are canned and sent far and near. American canned goods are in demand in international trade from Russia to Australia. 12. The Pineapple is a most remarkable fruit, indigenous to the tropics. A cone-shaped growth weighing from two to six pounds is formed close to the ground. This is topped with flowery plumes, and is surrounded with cactus-like leaves. This cone contains a woody pulp in which is secreted a most palatable juice. This fruit is now quite suc- cessfully grown in Florida and California, and is being introduced into all the Gulf States. Our chief supply of pineapples has formerly come from Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies. 13. The Olive. The olive tree is a native of Asia Minor, and is noted for its fruit, its oil, and its long life. It is an evergreen that flourishes best in subtropical climes. The fruit, pickled before it ripens, is a very important article of commerce, from Italy, France, Spain, and Turkey. From the ripe fruit is obtained the olive-oil of commerce. In Spain and Italy this oil is used by many peasants as a substitute for butter. The olive was brought to America by the Spaniards, about 200 years ago. It is cultivated in many COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 175 parts of Mexico, southern California, es- pecially in the region of San Diego, and in the South Atlantic States as far north as IsTorth Carolina. Olive-wood is fine grained, and is much used for cabinet work. The tree rarely exceeds twenty feet in height, and is the earliest tree of an- tiquity. Its branch from remote times has been the emblem of peace and plenty. Miscellaneous Garden Pkoducts. Aside from the vegetables and fruits already mentioned, melons, pumpkins, squashes, cucumbers, cabbages, cauli- flower, spinach, chard, celery and aspara- gus deserve a place on our commercial list. The greatest melon center east of the Mississippi is Atlanta, Georgia, and the greatest one west of the Mississippi is Rocky Ford, Colorado. Trains of melons are dis- tributed by the railroads many hundreds of miles from these centers each season. The melon is a native of Asia. Columbus is believed to have brought it to America. The finest melons in Eu- rope are raised along the Volga river. The pumpkin is raised in nearly all parts of our nation, and its pies are always appetizing. Squashes are related to pumpkins on the one hand and to gourds on the other. The crookneck, scallop and Hubbard all furnish table delicacies. The cucumber belongs to the melon tribe, and both melons and cucumbers are members of the gourd family, and are the leading edible fruits in this large group of plants. The cucumber is largely used for pickles, and its commercial im- portance arises from this fact. The largest pickle factories in our nation are at Pittsburg, Pennsyl- vania. Here, five billion cucumbers are bottled yearly. These factories establish salting-houses in the cucumber districts of western Pennsylvania. Gardeners bring their cucumbers to these salting- houses. Here they are placed in large cylindrical Where the Luscious Pineapple Grows, Florida, U. S. A. vats and covered with brine. When taken to the factory these salted pickles are cleaned in warm running water, which preserves their green color. They are placed in the sorting-machine and sep- arated into different sized groups of pickles. A row of girls now receive the pickles, and, with a pair of slim wooden tongs, arrange them in good form in bottles. Vinegar and spices are then added. The bottles are corked, labeled, covered with tin-foil, and cased for the market. One pickling manufactory at Pittsburg covers ten city blocks, and, working up cucumbers, onions, Cauliflower, beans, beets, tomatoes and other vege- tables, manufactures fifty-seven different food products. This factory was established in 1869, and some one or more of its food products can be found at every cross-roads grocery in the nation. Of the rest of these vegetables, celery is the most important. It is much used in many patent medicines and drugs, and its succulent stalks grace the dinner-table all the year round. Kalamazoo bottoms in Michigan have just the right climate and the proper soil and moisture for this plant. 176 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. For this reason, tJbe city of Kalamazoo is the cel- ery center of our nation, and three crops per year are sometimes raised there. While the leaves may be bleached by being covered for a fortnight, yet mnch of the celery is bleached by sulphur fumi- gation. The yearly output of celery in the Kala- mazoo district averages from 900 to 1000 million bunches. The Spice Family. Spices are those vegetable substances that are much used for flavoring foods. 1. Ginger. Ginger is cultivated in the East Indies, the West Indies, and in China. It is ob- tained from the roots of the plant. The root-stalk of young plants is frequently preserved in syrup. 2. Pepper. The berries of the pepper plant form an important article of spice commerce. The plant is a climbing shrub much cultivated in trop- ical countries, especially in the East Indies. The berries grow in clusters, and are of a bright red color. The berry when ripe is soaked in water until the red skin falls off. This gives the white pepper of commerce. The black pepper comes from the pepper-berries that are picked before they ripen, and turn black. In mediaeval times this was the most costly of the spices. Eighty per cent, of our nation's pepper that is imported comes from the British East Indies. 3. Cinnamon. Cinnamon is the bark of an evergreen tree that is native to Ceylon. The trees are from twenty to thirty feet high, are long lived, and the bark from young shoots as well as trees 100 years old is utilized in the cinnamon trade. The trees are stripped twice a year. The bark is scraped until quite thin, and laid out in the tropical sun to dry. When perfectly dry these strips are tied into bundles and sent to market. The world's cinnamon port is Colombo. Cinna- mon trees are also grown in China and the north- eastern coast of South America. 4. Cloves. The cloves of commerce are the fruit-buds of a tropical tree. These buds are picked just before they are ready to open, and are dried in the sun. The tree grows to the height of thirty to forty feet, lives to be 150 to 200 years old, and is a native of the Molucca Islands. The principal clove supply of the world to-day comes from the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba. A valuable oil is also obtained from cloves. 5. Nutmeg. The nutmeg tree looks much like a pear tree ; is from twenty to thirty feet in height, and is found in the tropical regions of Asia, Amer- ica, and the island of Madagascar. The fruit when ripe is blood-red. It is inclosed in a husk that breaks open when the fruit matures. The fruit is obtained by means of a barb fastened to a long stick. The fibrous pulp of the fruit is the mace of commerce. The kernel or seed of the fruit contains the nutmeg. The pulp is dried until it is of a golden-brown color, and is preserved by being sprinkled with sea-water. The seeds are dried over a slow fire not exceeding 140° tem- perature. This is kept up until the nut within the kernel shell rattles freely. Often this takes two months' time. Now the shell is cracked and the nut is obtained. This is the nutmeg of commerce. 6. Allspice. The allspice of commerce is the berry of the bayberry or pimento tree. This tree is a native of the West Indies and South America. In Jamaica it grows wild in great abundance, and is a highly ornamental tree. It averages from twenty-five to thirty feet in height. One tree has been known to yield 150 pounds of fruit. The berries are picked just before they ripen, and are very carefully dried. They then retain their aromatic flavor, which is supposed to combine the flavor of cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg, — hence the name, allspice. If allowed to ripen, the berry loses this flavor. 7. Cayenne Pepper. Cayenne pepper is the pod of a South-American plant, first brought from Cayenne, Guiana. This plant is called capsicum ; has four species, only two of which are valuable to commerce. Capsicum is a native of tropical re- COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 177 gioiis, but is grown in nearly all parts of the commercial world. It grows from two to three feet high; has an ovate or a coni- cal pod, which is often picked green and used for pickling. When ripe the pod is a bright scarlet or orange color. The ripe pod is picked, dried, and ground to powder. This is the cayenne pepper of commerce, quite largely used as a condiment to aid di- gestion. A volatile liquid is extracted from the Guiana pepper that is much used in place of the powder in medicine. 8. Mustard. Mustard is an annual plant, well known and much used in ancient times. The seed is an important article of spice commerce. There are three important va- rieties: black mustard, found principally in Europe; white mustard, found in Eu- rope, Asia, and the United States; and a wild mustard, found in England and Korth America. Beverage Family. 1. Coffee. The coffee tree is an evergreen tree, in its wild state reaching a height of twenty to thirty feet. The cultivated' tree is prevented from attaining a height of more than twelve feet. The coffee tree is a native of Abyssinia, and is believed to have taken its name from Kaffa, a province in Abyssinia. Coffee has been an article of com- merce for a thousand years. The Coffea ardhica, as it is known to science, is a shrub from four to eight feet high. This shrub furnishes the Arabian coffee. Coffee leaves are dark green in color, and the blossoms are pure white, and very fragrant. The fruit grows in clusters, from three to twelve berries in each. The fruit when ripe is very much like the cranberry in color, shape, and size. This fruit has a yellowish pulp, that is pleasant to the taste. It contains two irregular half-sphere-shaped seeds, although sometimes there is only one seed, almost round. Very many seeds in the Arabian or Mocha coffee are single or " male " seeds. The Coffee Trees 'n Blossom, Blue Mountains, Jamaica, W. I. berry pulp is removed by passing through wooden rollers, and the seeds or beans are dried, roasted, polished and sacked as the coffee of commerce. The coffee plant grows anywhere beyond the reach of frost, and in climates not affected by ex- cessive drouth or moisture. It thrives best on steep mountain-sides about 1000 feet above sea- level, and upon well-drained plains. As the plants bear fruit many months, several crops are gathered each year. A tree bears fruit after three years old, and a plantation lasts from twenty to twenty-five years. A yield from one to six pounds of coffee seeds or beans is obtained from each tree at each period of fruiting. The coffee trees of Brazil yield from three to six pounds per tree. It is said that one farmer can care for an orchard of 2000 to 10,000 trees. At the time of bearing the trees have cost the farmer from thirty to sixty cents apiece. In Arabia the leaves of the coffee plant are dried, rolled, and used as tea leaves. This coffee made from the leaves has the flavor of the beans. Brazil now furnishes commerce over sixty per 178 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. cent, of its coffee. Rio Janeiro is the greatest coffee mart in the world. 2. Tea. The tea plant is an evergreen shrub, cultivated for its leaves. In its native or wild state it grows from fifteen to thirty feet high, but under cultivation its height is kept below ten feet. This plant is believed to have been first cultivated in China. It was first brought to Europe by the Portuguese, in the sixteenth century. The tea farms of China are usually small, and are in l^'orth China. The leaves can only be gathered at certain seasons, and the plants require much care. When, in the spring, the new leaves burst from the bud, they are gathered while young and tender. This tea loses much of its flavor when transported long distances, and is therefore principally used for domestic trade and the Russian caravan trade. It brings a very high price in Russia. Just after the summer rains, a second picking gives the prin- cipal tea of commerce. A third picking in mid- surrwner furnishes a poorer tea, used by the lower classes. Tea leaves are dried by the air and sun, and are roasted in shallow pans over a slow fire. It is now hand-rolled, assorted, and packed in chests lined with lead sheets to keep out the air. This process is carried on not only in China, but in Japan, East Indies, Brazil, and all other tea- producing countries the method of preparing tea for trade is practically the same. The plants are raised from the seed, and the tea farm is restocked with new plants when the old shrubs are ten to twelve years old. Tea farms are being successfully developed in South Carolina and Georgia on our Atlantic coast, and in southern California on the Pacific coast. Tea can be profitably raised in Mexico, Central America, and the northern half of South America. The price of labor in the tea-growing region is an important factor in its culture, as the plant re- quires much care and attention. 3. Pulque. This is the national beverage of Mexico. It is made from the "honey-water" or juice of the maguey plant. This plant is a species of the agave or century-plant group. The plant requires from seven to eight years to mature in Mexico and Central America, where it is native. It takes from fifty to sixty years for the plant to mature and blossom in greenhouses in this coun- try, and as it dies after it has blossomed and re- quires so many years to mature out of its native climate, we call the agave the century plant. When the plant matures it sends up a flower-stalk from twenty to thirty feet high. This ends in clusters of blossoms, often numbering between 3000 and 4000 flowers. In Mexico, when the maguey plant flower-stalk begins to appear the Mexican cuts the center of the stem out. Often this leaves a hollow eighteen inches across and fully as deep. The honey-water that the plant has stored for the flow- ers, flows into this hollow. It is collected, fer- mented, and becomes pulque, the great Mexican drink. The honey-water is quite sweet, but the pulque is sour, has the consistency and appearance of thin buttermilk, and a disagreeable odor. Mexi- cans regard it as agreeable and delightfully re- freshing. A maguey plant at the flowering stage yields from ten to twelve pints daily for a period of twelve to sixteen weeks. Mexicans are so fond of this drink that their capital city alone uses thou- sands of barrels of pulque daily. From the plant's leaves is obtained a fiber used to manufacture cloth, twine, rope, and paper. The dried leaves are often used in place of shingles on houses. Along the edges of the leaves are thorn-like needles. These are connected with fine fibers, which, by twisting together, make a strong thread. Some peo- ple therefore call this the thread-and-needle plant. The roots are cooked and used as food, while the whole plant makes a good fuel. This is therefore a very useful plant. 4. Chocolate. Chocolate is the Mexican name for the cacao tree. This tree resembles the cherry tree in form, and grows from twelve to twenty-five COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 179 feet high. The fruit is a sort of cucumber, of a yellowish red color, and the pulp is used for food. Within the pulp are from twenty to thirty seeds, or beans. These beans contain two lobes called ''nibs." From these, cocoa and chocolate are ob- tained. The tree is an evergreen, and carries both flower and fruit in all stages at the same time. The fruit ripens in July and December. One tree sel- dom yields more than a pound and a half of beans. These beans are roasted with great care. The greatest chocolate mills are in Holland. In these mills a cracker and fanner breaks oif the shell and lets the nibs fall out. These nibs- are then ground and made into a thick chocolate paste. This is now molded into cakes, wrapped in tin-foil, and sent to market. The cacao bean or nut is more than 50 per cent fat. This, w^hen extracted, constitutes cocoa butter, much used by confectioners and in the finest grades of toilet soaps. The residue remaining after the butter or oil is pressed out of the chocolate paste constitutes the cocoa or cocoa-shells of commerce. The cacao tree grows best in Venezuela, although the tree is now found in nearly all tropical coun- tries. It is believed to be a native of tropical America. Our nation consumes fifty million pounds of chocolate and ten million pounds of cocoa yearly. 5. Yerba Mate. This is a species of holly that grows in the river valleys of Paraguay and in the valleys and table-lands of southwestern Brazil. The leaves are gathered and carefully dried after the manner of tea-leaves in other countries. The aborigines were using these leaves when the Euro- peans came, and called the drink mate. Mate is used as a beverage quite generally over South America. It is estimated that no portion of the world consumes so large an amoimt of tea in pro- portion to its inhabitants as is used of the mate by the South-American people. The Fiber Family. This is a very large group, numbering 1018 different plants, that furnish some species of fiber used in the manufacturing world. Those fiber plants that furnish an important element in our nation's commerce are named below. 1. Flax. Flax rivals the staple food plants in its importance to mankind. The Swiss lake-dwell- ers, who lived when the long-extinct mammoth was earth's elephant, wore fabrics mfede of flax. Egypt was noted for the fineness of her linen 3000 years ago. Here flax was first known. This useful plant was brought to our land in 1626. The fiber was made into sail-cloth in Massachusetts in 1790. From its thread Ireland manufactures a fine va- riety of linen called damask. Belgium and Hol- land from linen thread make the finest of laces and fancy edgings. The first mill for spinning linen yam in Great Britain was built in 1787. In 1834 a large mill was built at Fall Kiver, Massachusetts. The countries leading in the manufacture of linen are Great Britain, Belgium, and France. A light linen fabric called lawn was first made in France, but is now made in many other countries. From flax-seed is obtained linseed oil, much used in the manufacture of paints and varnishes. The meal of the seed left after extracting the oil is a commer- cial stock food known as oilcake. 2. Cotton. There are many different species of this plant native to the tropical regions of Africa, Asia, and America. Cotton was the original fiber of India. The Phoenicians and Babylonians w^ere noted for their skill in making textile fabrics of cotton as well as linen, while cotton fabrics were used in both Greece and Rome. Columbus found cotton growing in America, and in Peru mummies of a prehistoric age have been found wrapped in cotton. The finer muslins and laces are made from the Sea-Island cotton grown on the islands and seacoast of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, and the Egyptian cotton. Sea-Island cotton was first brought to the United States in 1786. From the common Brazilian and American cot- ton, cambrics, calico and shirting are made. Fus- 180 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Picking Cotton, Georgia, U. S. A. tian is made from the poorer qualities of Surat and -American cotton. The most perfect system of cotton cultivation is found in our own nation, which, from 1890 to 1900, furnished 62| per cent, of the world's cotten. It now furnishes over 66 per cent., or two-thirds of the cotton of the world. The most of the world's cotton is raised between the 35th and 40th parallels north latitude. The principal cotton-producers outside of the United States are India, China, and Egypt. These three countries furnish 30 per cent, of the world's cotton. Greece, Italy, Turkey in Asia, Persia, Mexico and the West Indies furnish the remaining amount of cotton that makes up a world's yearly output of fifteen million bales of 500 pounds each. Up to 1793, the "churks" had been used for centuries in Oriental countries as a hand-mill for separating the seeds from cotton fiber. In this country slave labor was employed on the plantation, and all cotton ■was " seeded " by hand. From one to five pounds constituted a day's work for a man. In 1793 a Xew England school teacher, visiting in the South contrived a machine that worked admirably from the start. This machine was a cotton- gin that could clean a thousand pounds of cotton in a day. It was invented by Eli Whitney, in 1793. This machine reduced the labor and expense of " seeding " cotton, increased the acreage of cotton, and caused Robert Fulton to say, " Arkwright, Watt and Whitney have done more for mankind than any of their contemporaries." Sir Richard Arkwright invented the cotton-spinning frame in 1768, that enables one man to do the work of thirty. The spinning-frame and cotton-gin greatly in- creased the importance of cotton as a commercial fiber. The first cotton-mill in the United States was built at Pawtvicket, Rhode Island, in De- cember, 1790, by Samuel Slater. The water-power of New England was utilized in making cotton goods, and Lowell, Manchester, Lawrence and Fall River became centers where millions of yards of cotton cloth were manufactured. In 1793 Samuel Slater set seventy-two spindles to spinning cotton. In 1900 we had 18,500,000 spindles making cotton yarn in this country. The past decade has seen a large number of cotton mills established in the South. Nearness to the cotton- fields, abundance of fuel and cheapness of labor are factors that have led to the establishment of COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 181 Native making Rope from the Fiber of the Maguey Plant, Monterey, Mexico. these mills. In 1899 these mills turned 1,415,000 bales of cotton into jam and cloth; while the Northern mills used only 2,217,000 bales of cot- ton. South Carolina leads the Southern States in cotton manufactures. In 1899 the United States passed Great Britain in the amount of cotton manufactured. In 1899 the greatest purchasers of American cot- ton were as follows (in thousand bales, of 500 pounds each) : 1. Great Britain 3,610 2. Germany 1,728 3. France 804 4. Italy 400 5. Spain 248 6. Japan 182 7. Belgium 130 8. Canada 98 9. Russia 94 10. Austria 56 11. Netherlands 52 12. Denmark 39 13. Mexico 36 14. Sweden and Nor- way 24 15. Portugal 22 The great cotton ports of our nation rank as follows : 1. Galveston ships 29 per cent, of export cotton. 2. New Orleans ships 25 per cent. 3. New York ships 8 per cent. 4. Savannah ships 8 per cent. 5. Boston ships 6 per cent. The greatest cotton mart in the w^orld to-day is Galveston, Texas. It has been found that the pulp made from stems of the cotton plant can be successfully used in the manufacture of writing-paper. The oil from cotton-seed is much used for domestic purposes as " cottolene." The residue left after ex- tracting the oil is a valuable stock food, and is sold as oilcake. Cotton-seed flour has been found not only palatable but highly nutritious, and bids fair to enter commerce as a food element. 3. Hemp. This is an annual plant, that grows in both hot and cold coun- tries. It is valued for its fiber, which is used in making cloth, twine and ropes; and its seed, which is food for cage birds, yields an oil used in some lands for illumi- nating purposes, and in making paints, varnishes and soaps. From the seed an intoxicating beverage is obtained called hashish. This is much used in Arabia and Ori- ental lands. The principal hemp-producing States of our na- tion are Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and Mis- souri. We import hemp from Russia, France, Ger- many, and Austria. From a species of plantain, closely resembling the banana tree, and growing from eighteen to twenty-five feet high, is obtained a light-colored fiber. As most of it is shipped out from Manila, P. I., it is called manila hemp. It constitutes the most important article of export of this commercial port. The finer fiber is woven into cloth and sandal straps ; the rest is made into coarse cloth, binding- twine, and ropes. The natives of the Philippines have crude instruments for preparing the fiber for market, and waste nearly half of it ; yet their aver- age crop approximates 800,000 bales of 250 pounds each. England and the United States purchase nearly the entire crop. 182 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. The fiber obtained from dogbane, a small per- ennial plant, was used by the Indians, and is com- mercially known as Canada hemp. 4. Sisal, a fiber similar to hemp, is much used in rope-making, and is imported from Mexico and Yucatan. 5. Vegetable hair from Spanish moss, and pal- metto fiber, are much used in parts of our nation. Fiber manufacturers import ramie from China, jute from India, raffia from Africa, tampico from Mexico, cocoanut fiber from East Indies, and the fiber of the maguey plant from Mexico. In Ger- many a cloth is made of the needles of the pine, in Sweden a very durable cloth is made from the fiber of the hop plant, and in the islands of the south tropical oceans the bast of the paper mul- berry is largely used in paper-making. In elapan the fiber of the paper mulberry is used f'or handker- chiefs, napkins, and many other domestic fabrics. Tlie Medicine Family. 1. Cinchona Tree. (Previously discussed.) 2. The Poppy. Opium is derived from the milky juice of the white poppy. This plant is cul- tivated in India, Persia, China, Turkey, and Egypt. The most important opium district in the world is along the Ganges river, India. This is one of the most powerful narcotics and is an important element in compounding medicines. 3. Nightshade. This is the name of a family of plants, widely diffused over the earth. The potato and the tomato, which belong to this family of plants, have been discussed as food products. The next most important member of the nightshade group of plants is tobacco. Tobacco is a native of America. A Frenchman, Jean Nicot, first brought the seeds to Europe, and the plant was named Nicotiana, in honor of him. The plant was first discovered by the Spaniards, in St. Domingo, near the close of the fifteenth century. There are many species of the plant grown for use in smoking, , chewing and snuffing, as well as for its medicinal use as a narcotic. The constant use of the leaf of this plant causes suffering, and tobacco is now taxed as a luxury by nearly all commercial nations. Our own nation obtained from its revenue tax on tobacco, in 1900, 1Z^ million dollars. The yearly crop in the United States amounts to 500 million pounds annually. Virginia is our best tobacco-growing State, although it is raised in all the Southern States. Special kinds of tobacco are grown in the West Indies, Persia, Paraguay, China, and the United States. Other important members of the nightshade fam- ily furnish from either their leaves, seeds or roots, belladonna, gelsemium, nux vomica, strychnine, and other powerful medicinal substances. Some of the most virulent herb poisons known are obtained from the nightshade plants. 4. Aromatic, (a) Caraway, (&) Coriander, (c) Anise-seed. The seeds are much used in sea- soning foods, and have also medicinal value. 5. The Cactus Group. This consists of 1000 species, native of tropical America. The more im- portant members are the night-blooming cereus, the cereus, prickly pear, veiled pear, and opuntia. The opuntia coccinellifera secretes the cochineal insect, so valuable in dyeing fabrics. 6. Myrtle Group. This group numbers 1800 species, varying in size from a small shrub to a good-sized tree. The guavas, pimento, blue gum, eucalyptus, Brazil nut, as well as the common myrtle, belong to this group. 7. The Soapberry Group consists of shrubs and trees, and numbers between 600 and 700 species. To this group belong the maples, box-elder, buck- eye, bladder nut, and horse chestnut. The soap- berry tree proper is a native of tropical America. The rind of the hard globose seeds of this tree is saponaceous, and is much used for soap. The hard maple is well known in the N^ortheastern States of our nation. Its sugar is a valuable commercial product of Vermont, New York, and Ohio. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 183 8. The Rue Group numbers 650 spe- cies of shrubs and trees. To this group belong all the citrus fruits, — oranges, lemons, citrons, limes, etc., — as well as the prickly ash and rue trees. The last-named trees are cultivated solely for their medicinal qualities. 9. The Geranium Group numbers 750 species native to tropical regions, as the balsam, of India; oxalis, of Africa ; and tuberosum tropoeolum, of Peru. 10. The Saxifrage Group consists of herbs, shrubs and trees of temperate and cold climates. 11. The Mallow Group consists of 700 species of herbs, shrubs and trees. The silk tree, baobab, mallows,, and hollyhock are representatives of the general distribution as well as botanical characteristics. 12. The Cruciferoe or Mustard Group numbers 1200 species. This group is a native of the Arctic regions, and its plants are much cultivated over the north-temperate regions. Most of the members of this group furnish edible leaves or roots, while others, like the mustard, have also valuable medi- cinal qualities. 13. Smilax Group. This group numbers many species. The sarsaparillas of the drug market come largely from the Mexican, Central- American and South-American plants of this group. 14. Juniper berries, peppermint leaves, ipeca, belladonna root, castor beans, digitalis, ergo, liver- wort, pawpaw juice and marshmallow roots furnish well-known and valuable members of a miscella- neous list of a crude-drug trade that classifies hun- dreds of medicinal plants that cannot be mentioned in a work of this kind. The crude-drug trade of the United States amounts to millions of dollars annually. New York, Detroit, San Francisco and St. Louis are great distributing points for this trade. One of the largest local markets for barks and herbs is Asheville, North Carolina. A Geranium Wall — California. Miscellaneous. There are 420 species of plants used for perfum- ery purposes. Grasse, France, is a very important center of the perfume industry. This one center uses annually 1,200,000 kilogrammes of roses, 1,000,000 kilogrammes of jessamines, 2,000,000 kilogrammes of violets and orange blossoms, besides the tuberoses, mignonette and cassias used. These are gathered, oils extracted from the flower petals with lard, and the resulting " pomade " is sent to all parts of Europe and America. Here grasses and other ingredients are added -and the perfume of commerce appears. The cut-flower markets of Europe and America are creating an important demand for cut flowers in commercial quantities. New York city is the greatest flower market in the world, using six mill- ion dollars' worth of flowers annually ; while flower shows are approaching the importance of exposi- tions in large commercial centers. A rose farm near Madison, N. J., and an orchid farm near New Kochelle, N. Y,, have stock worth more than a million dollars each, and illustrate a new and greatly expanding industry. The cut-flower trade of the United States, for 1900, amounted to more than twelve million dollars. 184 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. FURS OF COMMERCE. Furs were among the first materials used for clothing. The barbarians of Europe used furs to clothe them, and when tliey became civilized, they used fur-covered couches and made " art squares " for their tents of furs. When the quantity of furs at home was lessened the fur-loving Europeans sought other lands, where trading-posts were estab- lished and a lucrative trade opened in breadstuffs, building material and fuel, as well as furs. In this way many parts of Russia and Siberia in the Eastern continent, and Canada, Alaska and our own ^Northwest have been opened up to civilization. After the trading-post came forts, to protect the traders, while hamlets of traffic sprang up along the routes of trade. One of the oldest fur compa- nies of America was the Hudson Bay Company, es- tablished by Prince Rupert in 1670. The North- west Fur Company was formed in 1783, but this joined the Hudson Bay Company in 1821. The furs collected by this British company are sold at half-yearly sales in London. The headquarters of the Hudson Bay Company, where furs are baled, is at Winnipeg. In the very year the American colonies gained a treaty from their mother country granting free- dom and acknowledging their independence, the founder of the American Fur Company, John Jacob Astor, came to our shores. Mr. Astor founded a fur trading-post on the left bank of the Columbia river in the Northwest, in 1811. This soon became one of the fur centers of the trade, and was named Astoria. This trading-post devel- oped into an important commercial center, and greatly strengthened the claim of the United -States to the Oregon country. In the year 1840 some Canadian fur-traders built a number of log huts on the present site of St. Paul. In 1849 St. Paul was a village of 500 people and the capital of the newly formed Terri- tory of Minnesota. To-day the greatest fur center of our nation is St. Paul, where millions of costly pelts are collected from the great Northwest and made into such garments as the fashionable woman, the Northern farmer, the hunter, the cowboy, the street-car motorman or the roadster demand. The season's product of the St. Paul fur-dressers is ap- proximately as follows: Raccoons, 115,000; Aus- tralian wombats, 85,000 ; Russian, German and American calfskins, 120,000; otter, 10,000; beaver, 7,000; mink, 16,000; opossum, from Aus- tralia 10,000, from America 5,000 ; wolf, 4,000 ; muskrat, 45,000; Chinese dogs, 75,000; foxes, 1,500; Galloway cattle, 3,500; marmots, 65,000; sables, 600; with a few seals and miscellaneous furs. The most expensive and highly prized fur is the Russian sable. The ermine, a small animal, a member of the mink family, found in northern Europe, Asia, and America, formerly furnished the fur that lined the robes of kings and queens. One king of France used over 700 ermine skins to line his robe. The fur in summer is a tint of brown in color, but in winter is snow-white, with the exception of the tail, which is black. This is used to ornament robes and muffs. The best er- mine furs come from Hudson bay, Siberia, and Lapland. The seal fur is probably the most generally used fur. This fur, soaked in water and frozen, makes the best shoe the Esquimau can use for his sledge ; while its use in caps, capes and cloaks is common in all northern countries. The greatest region for the sealing industry is in the vicinity of the Priby- lof Islands, Alaska. The United States purchased Alaska of Russia in 1869, and in 1870 the Alaska Commercial Company leased the right to take 100,- 000 seals per year, agreeing to pay $50,000 rent per year and a tax of $2 per sealskin. British Co- COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 185 lumbian and Alaskan sealers have carried on pela- gic sealing (killing female seals on the way to their breeding-grounds) with such wanton destruction, that the United States and Great Britain have prohibited pelagic sealing, as it threatens the ex- tinction of the seal. The otter possesses a glossy brown fur that is so highly prized that the American species is well- nigh exterminated. The beaver is at home in T^^orth America. Its fur is much used in muffs, capes, and hats. The Novgorod fair is the annual fur market of Russia. The semi-yearly fur shows of Leipsic permit Russia, Germany, Austria, Turkey and other central European nations to exchange pelts and fur manufactures. The greatest fur market in the commercial world is London. Most of the Canadian, Australian, and a large majority of the seal furs of the world are sent to the London fur manufacturers. The most important furs used in the St. Paul manufactures are: 1. Hair and wool seal — ^orth Atlantic and Pacific oceans. 2. Sea otter — North Pacific ocean. 3. Wombat — Australia. 4. Kangaroo — Australia. 5. Wallaby — Australia. 6. Skunk — !N^orth America. 7. Beaver — Northern United States and Canada. 8. Bear — Northern United States and Can- ada. 9. Badger — Northern United States and Can- ada. 10. Fisher — Northern United States and Can- 11. Otter — United States, Canada and Japan, ( The otter is a native of Russia, Mfhere its fur is highly prized.) 12. Wolverine — Canada. 13. Musk-ox — Canada. 14. Lynx — Canada. 15. Wolf — United States, Canada, Russia. 16. Mink — United States and Canada. 17. Muskrat — United States. 18. Wildcat — United States. 19. Raccoon — United States. 20. Ring-tailed cat — California. 21. American marten— Northern United States, Alaska, and Canada. 22. Opossum — America and Australia. 23. Nutria — South America. 24. Persian lamb — Western Asia. 25. Conies and hares — Belgium, France, Rus- sia, and Australia. ( One million Siberian gray squirrels enter the fur markets of the world yearly.) 26. Marmot — Russia and Western Asia. 27. Foxes (silver, gray, white, blue, red) — Alaska, British America, Northern United States, Russia, and Japan. 28. Sable — Northern Europe. 29. Stone marten — Northern Europe. The fur commerce of the United States amounts to twenty million dollars annually. For many years the American bison or buffalo furnished valuable carriage- and lap-robes, the fur being very highly prized, and buffalo-meat was considered quite palatable. Countless thousands roamed over the grassy plains of the great West. To-day the buffalo is well-nigh extinct. The world's best furs come from the animals of the polar regions of the earth. London prices are fixed twice a year — in March and August — by a board composed of the leading fur dealers of this metropolis. Prices of furs throughout the commercial world, save Russia alone, are gauged according to this scale. 186 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. LEATHER COMMERCE. Leather is made from the skins of animals. All flesh particles are removed from the skins, and they are next soaked in a lime solution which loosens the hair, so it can be removed. Kext, the skins are soaked in barley or some weak acid solu- tion to open up the pores of the skins. Then, dried oak or hemlock bark that has previously been re- duced to a coarse powder is rolled up with the skins, and they are left for many weeks in a water bath. The skins become flexible and strong by this process, which is called tanning. The world's leather tanneries use millions of pounds of bark each year. The oak has for centuries supplied tanneries with their bark. In Spain the inner bark of the cork oak {Quercus suher), in Egj'pt the African oak {Q. coccifera), in Great Britain, central Eu- rope and the United States the white oak (Q. alba), red oak {Q. rubra), black oak {Q. fincfo- ria), burr oak (Q. macrocarpa), hemlock and birch furnish tanneries their barks. These barks are believed to give the leather good weight and make it firm and hard. The mimosa bark in Australia, willow bark in Russia, and mangrove bark in tropical countries, are much used for tanning leather. When taken from the tanning-vats, the skins are thoroughly dried and made smooth by being passed between heavy rollers. In this way the skins of horses, cows, calves and oxen in Europe and America are converted into leather. The skins of wild animals of Mexico, Central America and South America and other countries, desired for leather, are similarly treated. The skins of goats found in Switzerland and Morocco are used to make morocco leather. The skins of young goats and lambs make kid leather, much used in glove manufactories. Sheepskin forms a soft leather much used by bookbinderies. Parchment, the earliest material for scrolls, is a kind of leather made from the skins of sheep and goats. This was the first leather made. The first copies of the Bible were made of parchment. The skins of calves furnish the material for vellum, a fine parchment. In ancient times this was much used for leaves of books. The boot-and-shoe manufactories of England, Germany, France and the New England and cen- tral Mississippi States of our own nation use many million pounds of kangaroo, alligator, horse, cow and calfskin leather for uppers and oxhide for soles. Oxhide is also much used in the manufac- ture of harness. European nations and the United States are the chief leather-producing countries of the world. These nations import hides from many lands, as they cannot meet the demand for leather with the home product. Europe annually imports eighteen million pounds of hides, chiefly from South Amer- ica, Australia, and India. The leather manufac- tories of our own nation use all the product of our home tanneries, and now annually import over thirty-seven million dollars' worth of hides and leather. These come chiefly from the East Indies, Great Britain, France, Argentina, Germany, Rus- sia, Brazil, Mexico, China, Canada, Uruguay, and Australia. The amount of purchase is, for 1900, in order named. A new method of acid tanning was discovered in 1856, and used in the tanneries near Philadelphia. This has made that city the leather metropolis of the commercial world. The ten leading cities in our nation engaged in the boot-and-shoe industry rank as follows: Lynn (Mass.), Brockton (Mass.), Haverhill (Mass.), Chicago, Philadelphia, Rochester, Marlboro (Mass.), 'New York, Cincinnati, St. Louis. (Sta- tistics for 1890.) COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. '\^^''''^'^^lSlrY Or 187 The United States now manufactures upward of 260 million dollars' worth of boots and shoes annually, nearly one-half of which is the product of the Massachusetts factories. Boston is the metropolis of ISTew England and New England manufactures two-thirds of the nation's boots and shoes. This makes Boston the greatest boot-and'- shoe market in the nation. While our exports of leather manufactures have increased 200 per cent, within the last ten years, yet we now export ten million dollars less of leather goods than we import in hides and skins. Plucking the beautiful plumage from the famous Biped of the Desert, in South Africa. 188 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. IMPROVEMENTS IN THE NILE. 1. Removal of Sudd. The Nile river is a stream of great importance commercially to Egypt, both for its navigation and its annual sedimentary deposit from the yearly overflow. Above the city of Khartoum, mats of grass, papyrus and other water-plants interlace with trunks and limbs of the ambatch, a soft-wooded, leguminous tree, making dense masses of vegetation called sudd. In the White Nile, one of three branches of the upper Nile, British gunboats in 1898 found sudd com- pletely obstructed navigation, the floating mass being on an average four feet thick. The Egyp- tian government organized a " sudd-cutting expedi: tion," and placed Major Peake, of the English Royal Artillery, in command. The following ex- tracts are taken from the Major's journal, and show the character of this work : " When one arrives at a block it is very curious. All of a sudden the river ceases to be. Nothing but an exquisite greenness of tall papyrus about fourteen feet high entwined with convolvulus, the hippos and crocodiles disporting themselves, and numerous wonderful birds. . . . On arriving at a block we tie up the steamer and set everything on fire, then cut down all the dead papyrus, which is on the sudd, until it soon looks like a very rough field. Then this field is dug into small sections four or five yards square; the trenches are dug to about two feet under water, the sudd itself being from one to four feet above water and from six to ten underneath. Next we put pieces of wood round our section (cut-up telegraph poles), fix a wire hawser round the section, shoved well down in the trenches and behind the posts, and bring the two ends on the steamer. The steamer then backs astern, and eventually pulls out the section, which floats away down-stream. The wire is got on board again, the poles recovered, and the steamer pro- ceeds for another . section. The force and jerk which the steamer brings on the wire severs the roots of the section underneath from the others — or at least something does! " On the 3d [of March] the seventh block burst, and hundreds and hundreds of tons of sudd came tearing down, carrying my steamer and barge away with it. I had a most anxious time, as I was in a rather dangerous position — pitch-dark and no moon, simply surrounded by sudd, no water visible at all. After two hours I luckily managed to get hold of a bank, and hung on there. The sudd con- tinued to stream down for two whole days and a night." In January, 1900, Major Peake began his work on the Bahr-el-Gibel (White Nile) at 8° 34' N. latitude, and on May 17th of the same year he telegraphed that he had opened' up navigation to Uganda, which cleared the Nile of its sudd. This has proven a great advantage, in carrying civiliza- tion and trade to the Soudanese tribes of the in- terior, while it has reclaimed the Upper Nile for a highway of commerce. 2. The Dams of the Nile. The ancient Egyp- tians built many canals and waterways that led from the Nile. These ofttimes reclaimed barren wastes and widened the fertile portions of the val- ley. During Joseph's rule in Egypt the Nile im- provements were quite extensive, one waterway, the Bahr Yussuf (Water of Joseph), has survived the demolition of the centuries. Napoleon is said to have remarked, when he vis- ited Egypt at the close of the eighteenth century, that a dam at Cairo would double the area of tilla- ble land in the delta. Later, a French engineer was secured by ruler Mehemet Ali to draw up plans for this work. The purpose was to increase the area of cotton and sugar land by constructing two barrages, one in the Damietta and the other in the Rosetta mouth of the Nile. Lack of funds COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 189 and skilled labor prevented the completion of the construction plans. After twenty years' work the extensive viaduct of arches was completed, and the sluices closed. When the Xile was at its flood, the great structure cracked in all directions and threat- ened to actually collapse. To prevent this, the sluices were opened, and the river reduced to its normal height. The dam was saved, but it was rendered useless. Sir Colon Moncrieff and Mr. Willcocks — two talented British engineers — later bored beneath the piers and made a firm foundation for these barrages in the river-bed, overhauled the French- man's structure, and put the w^hole in such a good state of repair that since 1889 the barrages have fulfilled their mission and the money thus ex- pended has been returned many fold in the in- creased area of tillable land in the delta. The success of the Cairo dam led engineers to discuss the feasibility of storing the water of the upper Xile. The designer of the great Firth bridge — Sir Benjamin Baker, — Sir John Aird, England's greatest contractor, and Mr. Ernest Cassel, London's greatest financier, were interested in the Upper Xile improvements, and when they proposed to build two dams and a number of irri- gating canals the government accepted the proposal. The river at Assouan is a mile wide. To render the foundation sufficiently strong, the river was turned from its course, and a huge trench dug 100 feet deep and filled with concrete rubble. Upon this solid bed were built the granite piers that sup- port this mile and one-quarter viaduct. The 180 sluices of the Assouan dam have the Stoney steel doors, the mechanism of which' is so nicely adjusted that a lever which a child can work raises and low- ers these heavy water-gates. This dam stores one billion tons of water, and the wall, rising 90 feet above low Nile, gives a lake that will fertilize both sides of the river's valley for 140 miles. Between 300 and 400 miles below Assouan is Assiout, where another remarkable reservoir is located. The dam is here laid on a foundation of solid masonry in the bed of the river, forty feet below low-water level. The wall is eighty-seven feet wide and one-half mile long. To prevent any undermining of the dam, large cast-iron piles were driven into the bed of the river thirteen feet, both above and below the dam. The sluices of the Assiout weir number 111, with sluice-gates similar to the water-gates of the Assouan weir. To the west of the dam, a navigation lock permits the traffic of the Upper Nile to pass unimpeded through a fifty-foot passage. Thus these dams are no obstruction to commerce, while their irrigating waters add fully two and one-half thousand miles of fertile land to the Xile valley. What the Pyramids were to the ancient world, the sudd dredging and Xile dams are to the en- gineering and commercial world to-day. 190 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. COMMERCIAL MUSEUMS. The commercial museum is established to foster a nation's trade. It gives the producer the best method of packing his wares, cost of transportation and trade conditions in advantageous foreign mar- kets. It shows the exporter how to introduce his merchandise where foreign weights and measures prevail. It also furnishes him lists of desirable trade dealers in all parts of the world. Museums often have samples of raw materials as well as manufactured goods from every country of the commercial world. Museums receive the consular reports of commercial nations, and from these sources make reliable statistics of trade. This makes the museum an emporium of knowledge on commerce. Many museums send investigators to foreign ports to study trade conditions. Through these specialists and the consular statements the museum gains the information that will help its nation meet the demand for goods in new markets. European countries were the first nations to see the advantages of trade obtained through commer- cial museums. The leading museums are located as follows: Great Britain 1 Belgium 9 Holland 4 Germany 17 Austria 3 France 26 Italy Turkey Greece , Japan United States Some museums are directed by province or na- tional supervision, some by chambers of commerce, and some by private enterprise. The museum es- tablished at Vienna, Austria, in 1880, is un- doubtedly the most influential museum in the world at the present time. The commercial museum of our own nation was established at Philadelphia by ordinance of that city's council, June 15, 1894. It is supported largely by municipal appropriations. Its board of trustees numbers fourteen of the most prominent business men of Philadelphia, w^ith the Governor of Pennsylvania, Mayor of Philadelphia, and six other State and city ofiicials as ex officio members of the board. An advisory board numbers repre- sentatives of the leading commercial organizations of this nation and such other nations as have direct trade through corporative interests with the United States. This board helps to make the Work of the museum international in its general scope. The museum does not engage in trade itself, is non-political in organization, and derives no profit from any of its many lines of work, all charges for special service being based on the actual cost. Prices current and market reports from all im- portant centers of commerce are always on file, while more than 20,000 books and pamphlets give information on trade elements of the entire busi- ness world. The museum publishes a weekly bul- letin giving valuable information on foreign trade opportunities. This museum is in close touch with the chamber of commerce in over 300 foreign cities as well as all leading commercial cities of our own land. The following incidents show the object lessons taught by the samples of foreign manufactures shown at the museum : A Pennsylvania manufacturer of plows while looking through the Argentine samples in the mu- seum, saw the primitive plow made and sold there. Within two years he had opened a trade in that region and sold 20,000 of his plows. A glass-maker passing through the sample-room of the museum found a sample of his own glass- ware in a foreign exhibit. On investigation, he found that an English firm had for years been sell- ing his glassware in Australia at such an advance over his factory price that they made a good profit. The glass-maker soon opened a good trade with Australia, shipping from the factory to dealers in this South Sea nation. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 191 The commercial collection of the Phila- delphia museum presents the manufactures of foreign nations in more than a thousand different lines. This museum has made up sets of statis- tical literature, maps and photographs, and placed them in several hundred Pennsyl- vania schools. These exhibits quicken geographical study along commercial lines. Loan exhibits are sent to many cities to instruct those interested in foreign prod- ucts and manufactures. In one depart- ment of the Philadelphia museum are found American and foreign catalogues. The American catalogues give foreign merchants the products of American fac- tories, and the foreign catalogues tell our American manufacturer what goods are produced by his competitors in other coun- tries. The President's Flag and East Room Decorations, Army and Navy Reception, Washington, U. S. A. A Swiss Home and its Home-Maker. The natural products of foreign coun- tries comprise many hundred thousands of specimens. This collection is classified by nation and character of the product. Ad- joining this room are the laboratories, [where the industrial value of each product is determined. Although our commercial museum is but a comparatively new institution, it is considered by foreign as well as home students of commerce as a model museum, and a major factor in our rapidly expand- ing commerce. The Department of State has recognized our commercial museum by instructing United States consuls to assist the museum in its work in foreign marts of trade. The Philadelphia museum is to the United States what the Imperial Institute is to the British empire — a national fac- tor in its commercial development. 192 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. The New Holyoke (Mass.) Dam. NATUKAL FEATURES THAT INFLUENCE COMMERCE. Navigable Rivers of Importance. Uame Length, Area of Basin, in miles. in sq. miles. 1. Amazon 3400 2,320,000 2. Kongo 2500 1,500,000 3. Yenesei 3000 1,400,000 4. mie 3900 1,300,000 5. Mississippi 4200 1,250,000 6. La Plata 2500 1,150,000 7. Obi 3000 1,100,000 8. Niger 2900 1,000,000 9. Lena 2800 900,000 10. Amur 2700 780,000 11. Yangtse 3100 690,000 12. Mackenzie 2400 680,000 13. Ganges-Brahmaputra 1800 600,000 14. Volga 2300 590,000 15. Zambesi 1600 580,000 16. St. Lawrence 2100 565,000 17. Euphrates 2000 490,000 18. Nelson-Saskatchewan 1900 470,000 19. Orinoco 1500 425,000 20. Hoang 2800 390,000 21. Yukon 2000 380,000 22. Indus 1900 360,000 „ Length, Area of Basin, ^'*"**' in miles. in sq. miles. 23. Murray 1100 350,000 24. Danube 1800 320,000 25. Columbia 1400 290,000 26. Mekong 2600 280,000 27. Orange 1200 270,000 28. Eio Grande 1800 230,000 29. Colorado 1000 230,000 30. San Francisco 1800 210,000 31. Dneiper 1300 197,000 32. Irawadi ,. . .1200 180,000 33. Rhine 965 90,000 34. Rhone 550 33,000 Locate, give source, direction, mouth, and name com- mercial cities situated on each river. IJalces of Commercial Importance. Name. Depth. Altitude. ^^^u*^'^' 1. Caspian 3100 —85 169,000 2. Victoria 620 4000 32,000 3. Superior 1008 602 31,000 4. Aral • 220 158 26,000 5. Huron 702 581 24,000 6. Michigan 870 581 22,000 7. Tanganyika 1300 2670 14,000 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 193 The "Alpine Spipt's" Sanctuary. The Charnning Zermatt and the Matterhorn, Switzerland. liakes of Commercial Iraportance. — Continued. Name. Depth. Altitude. 8. Baikal 4500 1400 9. Tchad 20 1100 10. Erie 210 573 11. Winnipeg 72 710 12. Balkasli 135 900 13. Ontario 738 247 14. Ladoga 732 55 15. Titicaca 925 12,500 16. Nicaragua 320 108 17. Great Salt 50 4200 18. Chapala — 7000 19. Dead Sea 1300 —1290 Locate, state facts showing commercial name iKjrts located upon each lake. Area in sq. Miles. 13,000 10,000 10,000 9000 8500 7000 7000 3000 3000 2000 1300 350 value, and Most Important Mountain Peaks. Name and Location. Height, in feet. 1. Everest (Asia) 29,002 2. Aconcagua (South America) 23,910 3. Sahama (South America) 22,350 4. Sorato (South America) 21,286 5. Chimborazo (South America) 20,517 6. McKinley (North America) 20,464 7. Kilimanjaro (Africa) 20,000 8. Logan (North America) 19,500 9. Demavend (Asia) 18,846 10. Orizaba (North America) 18,314 11. St. Elias (North America) 18,100 12. Kenia (Africa) 18,000 13. Popocatapetl (North America) 17,784 14. Cotopaxi (South America) 16,291 194 COMMERCIAL GEOORAPHY. "Old Faithful " Geyser, Yellowstone Park. Most Important Mountain Peaks. — Con- tinued. Name and Location. Height, in feet. 15. Whitney (Xorth America) 14,890 16. Rainier (North America) 14,526 17. Pike's Peak (:N'orth America) . . .14,147 18. Blanc (Europe) : 15,744 19. Fujiyama (Asia) 14,177 20. Vesuvius (Europe) 14,205 21. Mauna Kea (Hawaii) 13,953 22. Matterhorn (Europe) 14,705 23. Etna (Europe) 10,875 24. Hecla (Iceland) 5,108 25. St. Gothard (Europe) 10,000 26. Cenis (Europe) 11,000 27. Stromboli (Europe) 3,000 28. Washington (North America) ... 6,288 29. Shasta (North America) 14,350 30. Hood (North America) 11,934 31. Fremont's (North America) 13,790 32. Mitchell (North America) 6,710 Locate in the continent and mountain system. Name some facts interesting or instructive about each peak, and state what effect the mountain range in which each peak is located has upon civili- zation or commerce. The Greatest Natural Wonders. Name. Location. 1. Glaciers — Canada, B. A. ; Washington, U. S. A. ; Switzerland, Europe. 2. Geysers — Iceland, Danish America ; Yellowstone Park, U. S. A. ; New Zealand, Australasia. 3. Mt. Brocken — Germany, Europe. 4. The Boiling Mountain — Ecuador, S. A. 5. Kilhorn Peak — Norway, Europe. 6. Glass Mountain — Yellowstone Park, U. S. A. 7. Profile Mountain — Franconia, Germany. 8. Pitch Lake — Trinidad, West Indies. 9. The Maelstrom — Off Lafoden Islands, Europe. Royal Gorge, Grand Canyon of the Arkansas, Colorado, U. S. A. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 196 The Greatest Natural Wonders. — Cont. Name. Location. 10. Aurora Borealis as seen in Danisli America. 11. Garden of the Gods — Colorado, U. S. A. 12. Lost River — Indiana, U. S. A. 13. Pictured Rocks — Lake Superior, U.S.A. 14. Giant's Causeway — Ireland, Europe. 15. Grand Canyon — Colorado river, U.S.A. 16. Palisades of LIudson river, U. S. A. 17. Yosemite Valley — California, U. S. A. 18. The Mariposa Big Trees — California, U. S. A. 19. Trees and animals of Australia. 20. Watkins Glen — Xew York, U. S. A. 21. Bad Lands — South Dakota and Ne- braska, U. S. A. 22. The Great Spring— Florida, U. S. A. 23. Hot Springs — Arkansas, U. S. A. 24. Sutherland Falls — New Zealand. 25. Grand River Falls — Labrador, N. America Niagara Falls In Winter. iagara Falls in Summer The Greatest Natural Wonders.— Con<. Name. Location. 26. Falls of Niagara river — North America. 27. Multnomah Falls — Oregon, U. S. A. 28. Snoqualmie Falls — Washington, U.S.A. 29. Victoria Falls — Zambesi river, Africa. 30. Stambach Falls — Switzerland, Europe. 31. Falls of St. Anthony — Minnesota, U.S.A. 32. Echo Canyon — Utah, U. S. A. 33. Echo Cave — Mexico, North America. 34. Mammoth Cave — Kentucky, U. S. A. 35. Wyandotte Cave — Indiana, U. S. A. 36. Luray Cave — Virginia, U. S. A. 37. Fingal's Cave — Isle of Staffa, Europe. 38. Howe's Cave — New York, U. S. A. 39. Nicojack Cave — Georgia, TJ. S. A. 40. Cave of Adelsburg — Austria, Europe. 41. Grotto of Capri — Italy, Europe. 42. Natural Bridges — Virginia, Alabama, California, U. S. A. 43. Vichy Springs — France, Europe. 44. Lake Cirknitzer — Austria, Europe. 196 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Looking through the great Forth Bridge (8300 feet long), Scotland. Tlie Greatest Natural Worx^ers.— Continued. Name, ' Location. 45. Indian Mounds — Ohio and Mississippi, U.S. 46. Pyramids — Egypt, Africa. 47. Leaning Tower — Pisa, Italy, Europe. 48. Wall of China — Asia. 49. St. Gothard Tunnel — Alps. 50. Mt. Cenis Tunnel — Alps. 51. Simplon Tunnel — Alps. 52. Cascade Tunnel — Cascade Mountains, U.S.A. 53. Hoosac Tunnel — Hoosac Mountains, U. S. A. 54. Alpine Tunnel — Eocky Mountains, U. S. A. An Alaskan Volcano. In the Bering sea, about midway between the Aleutian and Pribilof Islands, is a peculiar vol- canic center. Here was thrown up a volcanic island in 1796. In a shroud of steam and fog in 1883 waters in this region were parted by a volcano that sprang into being, rising to a height of 500 feet. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. These two volcanoes, old and new Bogslof, are the resting-places of myriads of sea birds and the playground for multitudes of sea lions. Oceans. Name. Area, sq. miles. 1. Pacific 71,000,000 2. Atlantic 34,000,000 3. Indian 28,000,000 4. Antarctic 7,000,000 5. Arctic 4,000,000 Give facts on the commercial importance of each ocean. Which is the greatest ocean of commerce to- day ? Why ? Principal Plateaus of tlie World. Name. Location, Height, in feet. 1. Thibet, Chinese Empire. .15,000-17,000 2. Pamir (Eoof of the World), Northeast Afghanistan, 14,000-16,000 3. Bolivian, Bolivia 12,500-14,000 4. Mexican, Mexico 6500-8000 Abyssinian, Abyssinia 6500-8000 Colorado, Colorado 5000-8000 Iran, Persia 3000-6000 Alpine Plateau, South - Central Europe 3500-4000 Spanish, Spain 3000 Guiana, Guiana 2000-3000 South African, South Africa. . . 2000-3500 Desert Plateau, Central Sahara, 2500 Asia Minor, Asia Minor 1500-2000 Brazilian, Brazil 2000-2800 Arabian, Arabia 1000-2000 Bogslof Volcano, Bering Sea, U. S. A. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 197 COLONIES, DEPENDENCIES AND PROTECTORATES OF THE COMMERCIAL WORLD. ;N"ames of countries controlling these colonies and dependencies, with area and population of latter. (IJ. S. Bureau of Statistics.) 10. 11. 12. Great Britain . France Germany Portugal Spain Italy Austria Denmark Russia Turkey China United States. ■^1 r 48 32 3 9 3 2 2 3 3 4 5 6 Totals 128 31,821,382 503,049 So w 11,250,412 3,617,321 802,863 801,060 245,877 104,000 23,262 86,614 255,550 564,500 2,881,560 168,287 Colonies by Continents. NORTH AMERICA. Names. Nation in Control. Bahamas — Great Britain. Barbadoes — Great Britain. Bermudas — Great Britain. Canada — Great Britain. Curasao — Xetherlands. Greenland — Denmark. Guadeloupe — France. Honduras, British — Great Britain. Jamaica — Great Britain. Leeward Islands — Great Britain. Martinique — France. Newfoundland — Great Britain. Porto Rico — United States. St. John — Denmark. St. Pierre and Miquelon — France. St. Thomas — Denmark. Saint Croix — Denmark. Trinidad — Great Britain. Windward Islands — Great Britain. o si 344,059 52,643 33,912 9,217 256 650 1,568 114 5,684 17,489 16,680 10,177 SOUTH AMERICA. Names. Nation in Control, Falkland Islands — Great Britain. Guiana, British — Great Britain. Guiana, French — France. Guiana, Dutch — Xetherlands. EUROPE. Names. Nation in Control, Bosnia — Austria. Bulgaria, Turkey. Faeroe Islands — Denmark. Gibraltar — Great Britain. TIerzogovina — Austria. Iceland — Denmark. Mala and Gozo — Great Britain. Roumelia — Turkey. ASIA. Names. Nation in Control, Aden and Perim — Great Britain. A ^ajn — France. • Bahreim Islands — Great Britain. Baluchistan — Great Britain. Bokhara — Russia. Cambodia — France. Cg^lon — Great Britain. China dependencies (Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet, Jungaria, East Turkestan) — China. Cochin China — France. Hong Kong — Great Britain. India, British — Great Britain. India, French (area only 200 square miles) — France. India, Portuguese (area 1295 square miles) — Portugal. Khiva — Russia. Macao — Portugal. Malay (federated native states) — Great Britain. Samos — Turkey. 198 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. • Sikkim — Great Britain. Reunion — France. Straits Settlements — Great Britain. St. Helena — Great Britain. Tonquin — France. AFRICA. Names. Nation in Control. Algeria — France. St. Marie — France. Senegambia — France. Sierra Leone — Great Britain. Somali — Great Britain. Angola — Portugal. Ascension — Great Britain. Azores and Madeira Islands — Portugal. Basutoland — Great Britain. Bechuanaland — Great Britain. British East Africa — Great Britain. British Central Africa — Great Britain. British South Africa — Great Britain. Canary Islands — Spain. Cape Colony — Great Britain. Cape Verde Islands — Portugal. Ceuta — Spain. The Transvaal Country — Fighting Great Brit- ain for absolute independence. Tripoli — Turkey. Tristan d'Acunha — Great Britain. Tunis — France. Uganda — Great Britain. Zanzibar — Great Britain. Zululand — Great Britain. AUSTRALASIA. Names. Nation in Control. Bismarck Archipelago — Germany. Borneo, British North — Great Britain. Comoro Islands — France. Borneo, Dutch — Netherlands. Dahomey — France. Caroline Islands and Palaos — Spain, Egypt — Turkey. Erythrea — Italy. Fernando Po — Spain. Emperor William's Land — Germany. Fiji and Rotuma Isles — Great Britain. Guam — United States. French Sudan — France. Hawaii — United States. Gaboon Congo — France. Java and Madura — Netherlands. Gambia — Great Britain. Marquesas Islands — France. German East Africa — Germany. New Guinea, British — Great Britain. German S. W. Africa — Germany. New Guinea, Dutch ^ Netherlands. Gold Coast, British — Great Britain. New South Wales — Great Britain. Gold Coast, French — France. New Zealand — Great Britain. Kamerun — Germany. Kongo Free State — Belgium (protectorate). Lagos — Great Britain. Philippine Islands — United States. Queensland — Great Britain. Samoan Islands — Germany and United States. Logoland — Germany. Madagascar — France. South Australia — Great Britain. Society Islands and dependencies — France. Mauritius and dependencies — Great Britain. Suiriatra — Netherlands. Mayotte and Nossi Be — France. Tasmania — Great Britain. Mozambique — Portugal. Xatal — Great Britain. Timorard Archipelago — Netherlands. Tutuila — L'nited States. Niger Territories — Great Britain. Victoria — Great Britain. Obock and Tajura — France. Providence Island — Germany. Wake Island — United States. West Australia — Great Britain. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 199 Our Territorial Possessions. 1. Hawaii. — Area, 4210 square miles. Maui, 760 square miles. Oahu, 600 square miles. Kauai, 590 square miles. Molkai, 270 square miles. Lauai, 150 square miles. Nihau, 97 square miles. Kahoolawe, 63 square miles. The exportation of sugar in 1897 was 520 million pounds, coffee exportation was 337,000 pounds, and rice exportation the same year was 5^ million pounds. Xearly all the necessities of life have to be imported. There are 71 miles of railroad and 250 miles of telegraph in the islands. The present territorial government was inaugurated at Honolulu, June 14th, 1900. The inauguration of Governor Dole took place at the capitol steps. The islands form a territory styled the Terri- tory of Hawaii, and are attached to the depart- ment of California. The Legislature of the Ter- ritory consists of two houses — a Senate of 15 members, elected for four years, and a House of Representatives of 30, elected for two years. The Legislature meets biennially, and its sessions are limited to sixty days. The capital is Honolulu, a city of nearly 40,000. 2. Wake Island. (See page 105.) 3. Guam. This is the largest island of the Ladrone Archipelago, and lies directly in the trade route from San Francisco to the Philippine Islands. The island is 32 miles long and 100 miles in circumference. The capital is Agana, a city of 5000. The island is a military territory, whose governor is appointed by the President of the L^nited States. It is valuable as a coaling sta- Scotland's Pride — the great Forth Bridge and the Highland Kilt. tion, and is a base of naval supplies for the United States navy. 4. Tutuila. (Seepage 102.) 5. Philippines. (See page 115.) 6. Porto Rico. This island is the most eastern of the Greater Antilles of the West Indian archi- pelago. The United States flag was raised over the Governor's palace, San Juan, October 18, 1898. The island is 1000 miles from Havana ; is 108 miles long, east and west, and averages 40 miles in width, north and south. Its area is about one-half the area of the State of New Jersey. It has 137 miles of railway, and 170 more under con- struction. Nearly 500 miles of telegraph have been built in the island. San Juan, the capital, has cable connection with Jamaica and St. Thomas. Porto Rico was organized as a civil territory May 1st, 1900. The Governor appointed by the 200 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. President of the United States holds office for four years, with the power usually given Territorial governors. In the government of the island he is assisted by an executive council composed of a sec- retary, attorney-general, treasurer, auditor, com- missioner of the interior, commissioner of educa- tion, and five native Porto-Ricans. These consti- tute the upper house of the Legislative Assembly. The House of Deputies, composed of 35 members elected for two years constitutes the other branch of the Legislative Assembly. San Juan is a city of 32,000. Ponce, with 28,000, and Arecibo, with 30,000 inhabitants, are important commercial centers. Porto Rico is extremely fertile. The principal occupations are lumbering and agriculture. Coffee constitutes 63 per cent, of the exports from the island ; sugar, 28 per cent. ; while tobacco, honey, molasses, cattle, timber and hides follow as im- portant exports, in order named. Porto Rico, Hawaii and the Philippines furnish our nation a large amount of its tropical and sub- tropical imports, and afford a good market for im- portant agricultural and manufactured exports. Thus our nation receives through these possessions valuable elements of trade, and enters the new cen- tury with greatly increased commercial resources and power. United States Capitol, Washington, D. C, U. S. A. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 203 STATE AND TERRITORIAIj STATISTICS. Alabama Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland , Massachusetts. . . Michigan , Minnesota Mississippi Missouri . , Montana Nebraska Nevada : . . New Hampshire . New Jersey New York North Carolina. . North Dakota . . . Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina. , South Dakota . . . Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia. . . Wisconsin , Wyoming Territories. Alaska Arizona District of Columbia Hawaii Indian New Mexico Oklahoma Colonial Possessions. Porto Rico Philippine Islands. . . Tutuila, etc Guam Wake United States. * Estimated. Capitals. Montgomery .. Little Rock . . . Sacramento . . . Denver Hartford Dover Tallahassee . . . Atlanta Boise Springfield Indianapolis . . Des Moines . . . Topeka Frankfort Baton Rouge . . Augusta Annapolis Boston Lansing St. Paul Jackson Jefiferson City . Helena Lincoln Carson City . . . Concord Trenton Albany Raleigh Bismarck Columbus Salem Harrisburg . . . Providence . . . Columbia Pierre Nashville Austin Salt Lake City Montpelier. . . . Richmond Olympia Charleston Madison Cheyenne Largest Cities. Mobile Little Rock . . . San Francisco . Denver New Haven . . . Wilmington . . . Jacksonville. . . Atlanta Boise Chicago Indianapolis . . Des Moines Kansas City. . . Louisville New Orleans . . Portland Baltimore Boston Detroit Minneapolis . . . Vicksburg St. Louis Butte Omaha Reno Manchester . . . Newark New York Wilmington . . . Fargo Cleveland Portland Philadelphia . . Providence . . . Charleston .. . . Sioux Falls Memphis San Antonio. . . Salt Lake City Burlington. . . . Richmond Seattle Wheeling Milwaukee Cheyenne Date of Admission or Ratification of United States Constitution. Dec. 14, 1819 . . June 15, 1836. . Sept. 9, 1850... Aug. 1, 1876... Jan. 9, 1788.... Dec. 7, 1787 . . . March 3, 1845.. Jan. 2, 1788. . . . July 3, 1890 . . . Dec. 3, 1818 . . . Dec. 11, 1816.. Dec. 28, 1846 . . Jan. 29, 1861... June 1, 1792... April 30, 1812. . March 15, 1820. April 28, 1788. . Feb. 7, 1788 ... Jan. 26, 1837. . . May 11, 1858... Dec. 10, 1817 . . Aug. 10, 1821.. Nov. 8, 1889 . . . March 1, 1867.. Oct. 31,1864... June 21, 1788. . Dec. 18, 1787 . . July 26, 1788 . . Nov. 21, 1789.. Nov. 2, 1889 . . . Feb. 19, 1803 . . Feb. 14, 1859 . . Dec. 12, 1787 . . May 29, 1790... May 23, 1788... Nov. 2, 1889... June 1, 1796... Dec. 29, 1845 . . Jan. 4, 1896.... March 4, 1791 . June 25, 1788.. Nov. 11, 1889.. June 20, 1863. . May 29, 1848. July 10, 1890. Area of Delaware and New York Bays and Part of the Great Lakes, Sitka Phoenix Washington. Honolulu . . . Santa Fe. Guthrie . . San Juan. Manila. . . Nome Tucson Washington. . Honolulu Ardmore Albuquerque. Oklahoma San Juan. Manila . . . Date of Organization. July 27, 1868 . . Feb. 24, 1863 . . March 30, 1791. April 30, 1900.. June 30, 1834.. Sept. 9,1850... May 2, 1890. . . . In United States service abroad Washington | | July 4, 1776 Area, in Sqxuire Miles. 52,250 53,850 158,360 103,925 4,990 2,050 58,680 59,475 84,800 56,650 36,350 56,025 82,080 40,400 48,720 33,040 12,210 8,315 58,915 83,365 46,810 69,415 146,080 77,510 110,700 9,305 7,815 49,170 52,250 70,795 41,060 96,030 45,215 1,250 30,570 77,650 42,050 265,780 84,970 9,565 42,450 69,180 24,780 56,040 97,890 65,897 590,884 113,020 70 6,449 31,400 122,580 39,030 3,688,110 8,531 * 114,410 77 150 1 3,806,279 Population, 1900. 1,828,697 1,311,564 1,485,053 539,700 908,420 184,735 528,542 2,216,331 161,772 4,821,550 2,516.462 2,231,853 1,470,495 2,147,174 1,381,625 694,466 1,188,044 2,805,346 2,420,982 1,751,394 1,551,270 3,106,665 243,329 1,066,300 42,335 411,588 1,883,669 7,268,894 1,893,810 319,146 4,157,545 413,536 6,302,115 428,556 1,340,316 401,570 2,020,616 3,048,710 276,749 343,641 1,854,184 518,103 958,800 2,069,042 92,531 63,592 122,931 278,718 154,001 392,060 195,310 398,331 76,212,168 953,243 ♦8,000,000 6,100 9,000 91,219 85,271,730 204 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. THE GOVEKNMENTS OF THE WORLD AND THEIR RULERS. (Authority on Statistics E:dway, 1901.) Country. Population. Capital. Official Head. Abyssinia Afghanistan Argentine Republic Austria-Hungary Belgium '. Bolivia Brazil British South Africa^ Bulgaria Chile Chinese Empire ^ Colombia Costa Rica Denmark Ecuador ". Egypt ( Proper) France German Empire^ Great Britain and Ireland * . . Commonwealth of Australia^ British India, etc Dominion of Canada Greece Guatemala Haiti Honduras Italy^ Japanese Empire Korea Liberia Luxemburg Mexico Monaco Montenegro Morocco Netherlands Nicaragua Oman Paraguay Persia Peru > Portugal Roumania Russia* Salvador Santo Domingo Servia Siam Spain Sweden and Norway Switzerland Turkey» United States Uruguay Venezuela 3,500,000 4,550,000 4,574,000 46,912,000 6,815,000 2,270,000 14,334,000 6,506,000 3,311,000 3,110,000 330,130,000 4,000,000 310,000 2,448,000 1,272,000 9,735,000 38,600,000 56,345,000 41,606,000 3,778,000 299,933,000 5,339,000 2,434,000 1,574,000 1,211,000 588,000 32,450,000 46,495,000 9,670,000 1,400,000 218,000 13,571,000 15,000 229,000 5,000,000 5,104,000 500,000 1,000,000 636,000 9,000,000 4,610,000 4,660,000 5,913,000 130,925,000 916,000 610,000 2,535,000 6,320,000 18,079,000 7,329,000 3,314,000 23,045,000 85,272,000 900,000 2,445.000 Addis Abeba . . Kabul Buenos Aires . \ Vienna ( Budapest .... Brussels Sucre Rio de Janeiro Sofia Santiago Peking Bogota San Jose Copenhagen Quito Cairo Paris Berlin London Melbourne^ Calcutta Ottawa Athens New Guatemala . Port au Prince . . Tegucigalpa Rome Tokyo Seoul Monrovia Luxemburg Mexico Monaco Cetinje . . Fez, Morocco, The Hague. Managua Maskat Asuncion Teheran Lima Lisbon Bukharest St. Petersburg . San Salvador. . . Santo Domingo Belgrade Bangkok Madrid Stockholm Christiania . . . Bern Constantinople . Washington Montevideo Caracas Menelek II Habib Ullah Julio A. Roca Franz Joseph I Leopold II Jose M. Pando M. F. de Campos Salles. Sir Alfred Milner Ferdinand Federico Errazuriz Kwangsu Jose M. Marroquin Rafael Iglesias Christian IX Eloy Alfaro Abbas Hilmi Emile Loubet Wilhelm II Edward VII Earl of Hopetoun Lord Curzon Earl of Minto Georgios I Manuel E. Cabrera T. Simon Sam Terencio Sierra Vittorio Emanuele III . Mutsuhito YiHeui G. W. Gibson Adolf of Nassau Porfirio Diaz Albert Nicholas I Mulai-Abd-el-Aziz Wilhelmina J. Santos Zelaya. . . Feysal bin Turki . . Emilio Aceval .... Muzaffar-ed-din . . E. L. de Romana. . Carlos I Carol I Nicholas II Tomas Regalado . . Juan I. Jiminez . . . Alexander I Chulalongkorn I. . . Maria Christina . . . Oscar II Joseph Zemp , Abdul-Hamid II ... . Theodore Roosevelt . Juan L. Onestas — Cipriano Castro King. Ameer. President. Emperor. King. President. President. High Commissioner. Prince. President. Emperor. President. President. King. President. Khedive. President. Emperor. King. Governor-General. Governor-General. Governor-General . King. President. President. President. King. Mikado. Emperor. President. Grand Duke. President. Prince. Prince. Sultan. Queen. President. Sultan. President. Shah. President. King. King. Emperor. President. President. King. King. Queen Regent. King. President. Sultan. President. President. President. ilncludes Cape of Good Hope, Basutoland, Natal, Rhodesia, Bechuana- land Protectorate, Central Africa Protectorate, Orange Elver Colony, and Transvaal Colony. "Includes China proper, Manchuria, Mongolia, Chinese Turkestan, and Tibet. "Includes the confederation of Qerman States, and Principalities under the Oonstltutlon of the Empire. * Includes England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, Isle of Man, and Channel Islands. '^ Includes the former Australian Colonies and Tasmania. « The temporary capital of The Australian Federation, pending the lo- cation of a federal district and building of a capital city. 'Includes Italy proper, Sicily, and Sardinia. 8 Includes Russia In Kiirope and all the Russian possessions in Asia. "Includes Turkey In Europe, in Asia, and in Africa. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 206 fX. Salmon-Canning in Alaska. u:n^ited states mail connections with the commercial WORLD. The Universal Postal Union was formed in 1874. For two cents an ounce a letter can be sent to any postoffice in Canada, Mexico, and the United States. For five cents an ounce or fraction thereof, a letter can be sent to any nation in the Postal Union. The Superintendent of Foreign Mails dispatches the mails for foreign countries by the fastest steamers. The principal mail steamer lines con- necting our leading ports with the commercial world are here named, both our nation's port and the port of destination of mail steamer being given. Transatlantic Mails. Name of Line. Forts of Destination. American. — Xew York to Southampton. American. — Philadelphia to Liverpool. Amsinck. — IsTew York to Fayal.^ Anchor. — ISTew York to Glasgow. 5. Cunard. — ^ew York to Queenstown. 6. Cunard. — Boston to Liverpool. ' Carries mall to Azores Islands. 7. l)ominion. — Boston to Liverpool. 8. General Transatlantic. — New York to Havre. 9. Hamburg-American. — ^ew York to Hamburg. 10. Holland- American. — New York to Rotterdam. 11. Italian Royal Mail. — New York to Naples. 12. La Valoce. — New York to Naples. 13. North German Lloyd. — New York to Bremen. 14. Prince. — New York to Punta Delgada.^ 15. Red Star. — New York to Antwerp. 16. Red Star. — Philadelphia to Antwerp. 17. Thingvalla. — New York to Copenhagen. 18. White Star. — New York to Queenstown. Canada and Newfoundland. Name of Line. Ports of Destination. 1. Allan. — Philadelphia to St. Johns. 2. Canada, Atlantic and Plant S. S. Co.— Boston to Halifax. 3. Pacific Coast S. S. Co. — San Francisco to Victoria. 4. Red Cross. — New York to St. Johns. ^ Carries mall to Azores Islands. 206 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. West Indies, Mexico, Central and Soutli America. Name of Line. Port of Destination. 1. Atlas. — New York to Kingston, Port au Prince, etc. 2. Atlantic and Mexican Gulf S. S. Co. — Mobile to Progresso. 3. Bahama S. S. Co. — New York to Nassau. 4. Cameron. — New York to Port au Prince. 5. Clyde. — New York to San Domingo. 6. Lamport & Holt. — New York to Rio Janeiro. Y. Lamport & Holt. — New York to Buenos Ajres. 8. Mexican International S. S. Co. — San Diego to La Ensenada. 9. Morgan. — New Orleans to Havana. 10. Munson. — New York to Matanzas. 11. New York and Cuba Mail. — New York to Havana. 12. New York and Cuba Mail. — New York to South Cuban Ports. 13. New York and Cuba Mail. — New York to Vera Cruz and Tampico. 14. New York and Porto Rico. — New York to San Juan. 15. Pacific Mail. — San Francisco to Mexican Ports. 16. Pacific Steam Navigation Co. — San Francisco to South American Ports. 17. Panama R. R. Co.'s S. S. Line.— New York to Colon. 18. Prince. — New York to Montevideo. 19. Quebec S. S. Co. — New York to St. Thomas, Barbadoes and Georgetown. 20. Red Cross. — New York to Para and Manaos. 21. Red D. — New York to San Juan and Curagao. 22. Red D. — New York to Maracaibo. 23. Royal Dutch West Indian Mail. — New York' to Port au Prince, Trinidad, Georgetown. 24. South American S. S. Co. — San Francisco, Central and South American Ports. 25. Trinidad. — New York to Grenada and Trini- dad. 26. United Fruit Co. — New Orleans to Belize, Port Limon and Belize. 27. United Fruit Co. — Mobile to Bocas del Toro. 28. United Fruit Co. — Philadelphia to Port An- tonio. Transpacific Mail. ^ome of Line. Ports of Destination. 1. Canadian Pacific S. S. Co. — Victoria to Syd- ney. 2. Nippon Yusen Kaisha. — Seattle to Yokohama.^ 3. Northern Pacific S. S. Co. — Tacoma to Yoko- hama and Hong Kong.^ 4. Oceanic S. S. Co. — San Francisco to Sydney. 5. Occidental and Oriental S. S. Co. — San Fran- cisco to Shanghai.^ 6. Oriental S. S. Co. — San Francisco to Hong Kong and Kobe. 7. Pacific Mail. — San Francisco to Shanghai.^ Study steamer routes indicated on the Commercial Map of the World. These routes are given in nautical, not statute, miles. 1 From Yokohama a line runs to Australian ports. 2 This line carries mall to Hawaii, TutuUa, and Auckland. 3 Carries mail to Honolulu, Yokohama, and Hong Kong. ■* Carries mall to Yokohama and Nagasaki. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 207 THE WEATHER BUREAU. When tie English settlement was established at eTamestown, Virginia, the properties of the air had not been revealed to science, and no instrument had been devised to measure its phenomena. Twentj-three years after the Pilgrims landed on Plymouth Kock, Torricelli brought forth his barometer. His great teacher, Galileo, gave to the world the principle of the thermometer. One hundred years afterward, our own philoso- pher, Benjamin Franklin, developed the philosophy of storms. His theory of rotary storms traveling in a northeasterly direction was fully established by the data gathered by Redfield, Espy, Maury, Loomis and Abbe in the early part of the last century. The first series of weather observations after Franklin were conducted by James Madison and Thomas Jeiferson. These observations were be- gun in 1771. Madison was stationed at Williams- burg, the colonial capital of Virginia, Jefferson at Monticello, 120 miles west of the^ capital city. These two friends, by comparing observations, found that barometric and thermometric changes usually occurred at Monticello four to five hours before they did at Williamsburg. These two students of nature kept up their study of atmos- pheric changes through many years. While in Philadelphia, in July, 1776, Jefferson found time to take several readings each day. On that first memorable Fourth of July Jefferson made the following readings : Thermometer 6 a. m., 68°; 9 a.m., 721°; i p. j^j,^ 76°; 9 p.m., 73^°. This shows that July day to have been a cool one, although most historians affirm otherwise. A few years after the opening of the Revolu- tionary War the British ransacked Madison's home, and carried off his barometer. Prof. Joseph Henry, secretary of the Smith- sonian Institution, in 1855 constructed a daily weather map from observations collected by tele- graph. With a large wall map he demonstrated the feasibility of establishing a Government weather service. This man's work largely determined the following commercial nations to use this service as an aid to their commerce and various industries: Holland established a weather service with tele- graphic reports and forecasts in 1860, England in 1861, France in 1863, and the United States in 1870. To-day most of the nations having an ex- tensive commerce have established a government weather service. Our own weather service has trained a corps of expert weather forecasters, who present a pic- ture of atmospheric conditions over an area ex- tending from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from the Isthmus of Panama on the south to the north- ern limit of Canadian settlements. The service presents, every twelve hours, a graphic picture of the hurricanes, cold waves, hot waves, rain- or snow-storms over vast areas. !N^owhere else can meteorologists find such an opportunity to study storms and atmospheric changes. Secretary Wilson, of the Department of Agricul- ture, has arranged with Europe and the Azores Islands so that meteorological reports of the east Atlantic and adjacent coasts can be received at our Weather Bureau headquarters in Washington. This enables our own Weather Bureau to forecast wind direction and wind force for transatlantic steamers for a period of three days out from each continent. It is estimated that 5628 transatlantic steamers and 5842 transatlantic sailing-vessels enter and leave ports on the Atlantic seaboard each year. Their cargoes are estimated to be worth at least a billion and a half of dollars. Outside of this enumeration is our coast traffic. On the At- lantic coast, from Maine to Florida, in a single year 4000 steamers and 17,000 sailing-vessels clear 208 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. port, with cargoes worth seven millions oi dollars. Add to these the vast marine interests of the Great Lakes, Gulf and Pacific coast of our nation, and we can in a measure comprehend the value of marine property that our Weather Bureau aims to protect by giving warning of approaching storms. The service seeks to give warnings from twelve to sixteen hours in advance of a storm, by tele graph, messenger or warning light and flags, di- rectly to the masters of vessels. The Galveston hurricane was detected at the time of its inception, September 1, 1900, in the ocean south of Porto Eico, and such full information of its progress was given out by the Weather Bureau that there was little or no loss of life and property in the Gulf, and when the storm passed over the region of the Great Lakes the warnings had been so general that shipping was kept in port and not a life was lost. Every day in our ports, float more than forty million dollars' worth of craft. In every port there is stationed either a meteorological observa- tory or a storm-warning display near, to display danger lights on storm-warning towers by night and danger flags by day, and to distribute storm- •warning messages among vessel-masters. From the central office at Washington a storm warning can be dictated, and within an hour this warning will be in the hands of every vessel-master who desires it, in every port of commercial size in our nation. The benefit of the Weather Bureau to property- owners inland is even greater than to owners of marine property. The cold wave of January 1, 1898, that swept from the Rocky Mountains east- ward to the coast, was predicted by the Weather Bureau in sufficient time to save much property. The estimates secured from 100 commercial centers show that property valued at $3,400,000 in these centers was saved as a direct result of these pre- dictions. By means of telegraphic circuits, re- ports are transmitted with remarkable rapidity. The Bureau has 20,0 regular meteorological sta- tions, established for geographical advantages in taking observations, each one in charge of a skilled and well-trained observer. This Bureau has 315 paid temperature and rainfall reporters, who daily telegraph their data from all parts of our nation. Besides these, there are 3000 voluntary observers, equipped with standard thermometers and rain- gauges, who daily take weather observations and give weekly crop reports to State central offices ; 14,000 other persons report weekly, to the climate and crop centers, the crop conditions in their re- spective localities. Besides these voluntary work- ers this Bureau employs 200 skilled employes in the central office at Washington, and 1200 skill- fully trained officials in the field. The machinery of reports has been so perfected that within thirt}' minutes after the station observer in the most remote telegraph circuit has filed hi« observation, all observations have been received at the central office. Synoptic charts are made from the daily read- ings made at 8 a. m. and 8 p. m. (75th meridian time). These observations consist of readings of the barometer, thermometer, direction and velocity of the wind, state of the weather, amount, kind and direction of clouds, and amount of rain or snow. The weather maps are made at Washington, Toronto (Canada), and many of the larger sta- tions selected for their location, as Kansas City, Denver, and San Francisco. Solid lines, called isobars, pass through points in the weather map having the same atmospheric pressure. Dotted lines, called isotherms, pass through points having the same temperature. These lines are drawn for every ten degrees. Heavy dotted lines are some- times shown inclosing areas where a decided change in temperature has occurred within the last twenty- four hours. The general movement of storms in the United States is from west to east, similar to a series of atmospheric waves. The crests are designated in the weather maps as " highs " and the depressions or troughs as " lows." These alternating highs COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 209 ^^wWe^a^kt'^. Ve.'w5^S\o>twvw\)^xvtiX. VkSiLVCNw est Sxx.C»K. WA.'^m 0>tSvs.(5^,- ^o>aW«>5l6\y^0£\,xvS^1 oovjSw«( 2. Fish. 3. Machinery. 3. Denmark. 3. Swedish ores. 4. JMetals. 4. Russia. 4. Animal products ( malty food ) . 5. Vegetable products. 5. France. / 5. Paper and paper manufac- tures. SWITZER- L Silk and cotton fabrics. 1. Breadstuffs. 1. Great Britain. LAND— 2. Clocks and watches. 2. Raw silk and cotton. 2. Germany. 3. Colors. 3. Metals and mineral sub- 3. Denmark. . 4. Machinery. stances. 4. Russia. / 5. Condensed milk. 4. 5. Coal, coke, etc. Leather and leather goods. 5. France. TURKEY— 1. Wine. 1. Textile fabrics. 1. Great Britain. 2. Fruits. 2. Sugar. 2. Austria. 3. Rugs and carpets. 3. Breadstuffs. 3. France. 4. Tobacco. 4. CofTee. 4. Russia. 5. Sponges and pearls. 5. Petroleum. 5. Italy. * Sweden Is the largest lumber-exporting country in Europe. It Is also a match factory for the world. II. North America. UNITED STATES- CANADA- REPUBLICS OF CENTRAL AMERICA— A. 1. Breadstuffs. 2. Cotton. 3. Meat and dairy products. 4. Iron and steel manufactures. 5. Petroleum. 1. Wood and manufactures. 2. Wheat and flour. 3. Cheese. 4. Fish. 5. Gold. 1. Coffee. 2. Bananas. 3. Hides and skins. 4. Cedar and dyewoods. 5. Caoutchovie. B. 1. Sugar. • 2. Hides and skins. 3. Chemicals, drugs and dyes. 4. Coffee. 5. Raw silk. 1. Iron and steel manufactures. 2. Coal and coke. 3. Woolen goods. 4. Sugar. 5. Cottons. 1. Cotton goods. 2. Hardware. 3. Flour. 4. General manufactures. 5. Tinware. C. Great Britain. Germany. France. Canada. Netherlands. Great Britain. United States. Germany. France. West Indies. 1. Great Britain. 2. United States. 3. Germany. 4. France. 5. Mexico. (Complete commercial statistics for Central American republics are not available.) COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 215 MEXICO— CUBA- WEST INDIES— A. 1. Silver. 2. Coffee. 3. Sisal hemp. 4. Gold. 5. Cattle. 1. Sugar. 2. Tobacco. 3. Honey and wax. 4. Hides. 5. Rum. 1. Coffee. 2. Sugar. 3. Eum. 4. Cacao. 5. Cocoanuts. II, North. America. — Continued. B. C. 1. Linen, woolen and cotton fab- 1. United States. rics. 2. Great Britain. 2. Hardware. 3. France. 3. Machinery. 4. Germany. 5. Spain. 1. Flour. 2. Rice. 3. Meats and lard. 4. Coal. 5. Kerosene. 1. Cotton fabrics. 2. Codfish. 3. Flour. 4. Rice. 5. Kerosene. 1. United States. 2. Great Britain. 3. Spain. 4. France. 5. Belgium. 1. United States. 2. Great Britain. 3. Cuba. 4. France. 5. Denmark. [Bermuda onions and asphalt from Trinidad are very important exports.] ARGENTINE REPUBLIC— COIX)MBIA— BOLIVIA- BRAZIL^ A. 1. Wool. 2. Meats.* 3. Live stock. 4. Hides and horns. 5. Wheat. 1. Coffee. 2. Timber. 3. Vegetables. 4. Tobacco. 5. Hides and cattle. III. South America. B. Silver. Tin and bismuth. Copper. Rubber. Quina. Coffee. Rubber. Tobacco. Hides. Cacao. 1. Textile fabrics. 1. Great Britain. 2. Iron and steel manufactures. 2. France. 3. Breadstuffs. 3. Germany. 4. Crockery and glass. 4. Belgium. 5. Beverages. 5. United States. I. Foodstuffs. 1. United States. 2. Iron and steel manufactures. 2. Great Britain. 3. Textile fabrics. 3; Germany. 4. Beverages. 4. France. 5. Kerosene. 5. West Indies. 1. Breadstuffs. 2. Iron and steel manufactures. 3. Beverages. 4. Textile fabrics. 5. Ready-made clothing. 1. Breadstuffs. 2. Meats. 3. Coal. 4. Machinery. 5. Textile fabrics. Has no seaport, and carries on its foreign trade through Chile, Argentine, Brazil, and Peru. Great Britain, Germany and United States furnish most of the imports purchased by Bolivia, that are not furnished by the above- named republics. 1. United States. 2. France. 3. Great Britain. 4. Germany. 5. Belgium. [Until 1867 Brazil was the chief source of the world's diamonds. Since that date her diamonds have largely been supplanted by the Kimberley Diamonds of South Africa.] CHILE- ECUADOR- 1. Nitrate. 2. Copper. 3. Wheat. 4. Gold. 5. Beans. 1. Cacao. 2. Coffee. 3. Rubber. 4. Hides. 5. Vegetable ivory. 1. Textile fabrics. 2. Cattle. 3. Machinery. 4. Oil. 5. Tea. 1. Breadstuffs. 2. Textile fabrics. 3. Machinery. 4. Kerosene. 5. T^rd. 1. Great Britain. 2. Germany. 3. United States. 4. France. 5. Peru. 1. France. 2. Great Britain. 3. United States. 4. Spain. 5. Peru. ♦The world's largest frozen-meat plant Is located at Buenoe Aires. 214 COMMERCIAL OEOGRAPHY. I. Europe.— Contmued. / A. B. C. PORTUGAL— 1. Wine. 1. Wheat. 1. Great Britain. 2. Cork. 2. Textile fibers and fabrics. 2. Germany. 3. Fish. 3. Sugar. 3. United States. 4. Copper. 4. Coal. 4. Brazil. / 5. Subtropical fruits. 5. Iron. 5. Spain. RUSSIA— 1. Wheat and flour. 1. Textile fibers. 1. Germany. 2. Timber and wooden goods. 2. Machinery. 2. Great Britain. 3. Flax fiber. 3. Tea. 3. France. 4. Leather goods and furs. 4. Coal, coke, etc. 4. Holland. ( 5. Dairy produce and eggs. 5. Chemicals. 5. Austria. SPAIN— L Wine. 1. Cotton and cotton manufac- 1. France. 2. Cork. tures. 9_ Great Britain. 3. Oranges, olives and olive oil. 2. Machinery. 3. United States. 4. Minerals. 3. Live animals and meats. 4. Portugal. i 5. Raw silk. 4. 5. Timber and wood. Woolen and silk goods. 5. Germany. SWEDEN AND 1. Lumber and wood manufac- 1. Breadstuflfs. 1. Great Britain. NORWAY— tures.* 2. Textile fibers and fabrics. 2. Germany. ' 2. Fish. 3. Machinery. 3. Denmark. 3. Swedish ores. 4. JVIetals. 4. Russia. 4. Animal products ( malty food ) . 5. Vegetable products. 5. France. / 5. Paper and paper manufac- tures. SWITZER- L Silk and cotton fabrics. 1. BreadstuflFs. I. Great Britain. LAND— 2. Clocks and watches. 2. Raw silk and cotton. 2. Germany. 3. Colors. 3. Metals and mineral sub- 3. Denmark. 4. Machinery. stances. 4. Russia. t 5. Condensed milk. 4. 5. Coal, coke, etc. Leather and leather goods. . 5. France. TURKEY— 1. Wine. 1. Textile fabrics. 1. Great Britain. 2. Fruits. 2. Sugar. 2. Austria. 3. Rugs and carpets. 3. BreadstuflFs. 3. France. 4. Tobacco. 4. CoflFee. 4. Russia. 5. Sponges and pearls. 5. Petroleum. 5. Italy. * Sweden is the largest lumber-exporting country In Europe. It is also a match factory for the world. II. Nortli America. UNITED STATES- CANADA— REPUBLICS OF CENTRAL AMERICA— A. 1. BreadstuflFs. 2. Cotton. 3. Meat and dairy products. 4. Iron and steel manufactures. 5. Petroleum. 1. Wood and manufactures. 2. Wheat and flour. 3. Cheese. 4. Fish. 5. Gold. 1. CoflFee. 2. Bananas. 3. Hides and skins. 4. Cedar and dyewoods. 6. Caoutchouc. B. 1. Sugar. • 2. Hides and skins. 3. Chemicals, drugs and dyes. 4. Coflfee. 5. Raw silk. manufactures. 1. Iron and steel 2. Coal and coke. 3. Woolen goods. 4. Sugar. 5. Cottons. 1. Cotton goods. 2. Hardware. 3. Flour. 4. General manufactures. 5. Tinware. C. 1. Great Britain. 2. Germany. 3. France. 4. Canada. 5. Netherlands. Great Britain. United States. Germany. France. West Indies. 1. Great Britain. 2. United States. 3. Germany. 4. France. 5. Mexico. (Complete commercial statistics for Central American republics are not available.) COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 215 II. Nortli America. — Continued. A. B. C. MEXICO- 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Silver. Coffee. Sisal hemp. Gold. Cattle. 1. 2. 3. Linen, woolen and cotton fab- rics. Hardware. Machinery. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. United States. Great Britain. France. Germany. Spain. CUBA— 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Sugar. Tobacco. Honey and wax. Hides. Rum. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Flour. Rice. Meats and lard. Coal. Kerosene. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. United States. Great Britain. Spain. France. Belgium. WEST INDIES— 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Coffee. Sugar. Rum. Cacao. Cocoanuts. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Cotton fabrics. Codfish. Flour. Rice. Kerosene. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. United States. Great Britain. Cuba. France. Denmark. [Bermuda onions and asphalt from Trinidad are very important exports.] A. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC— 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Wool. Meats.* Live stock. Hides and horns. Wheat. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. COTX)MBIA— 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Coffee. Timber. Vegetables. Tobacco. Hides and cattle. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. BOLIVIA— 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Silver. Tin and bismuth. Copper. Rubber. Quina. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. III. South. America. B. Textile fabrics. Iron and steel manufactures. Breadstuffs. Crockery and glass. Beverages. Foodstuffs. 2. Iron and steel manufactures. Textile fabrics. Beverages. 5. Kerosene. Breadstuffs. Iron and steel manufactures. Beverages. Textile fabrics. Ready-made clothing. BRAZII^ 1. 2. 3. 4. .5. Coffee. Rubber. Tobacco. Hides. Cacao. I. 2. 3. 4. 5. Breadstuffs. Meats. Coal. Machinery. Textile fabrics. [Until 1867 Brazil was the chief source been supplanted by the Kimberley Diamonds of of the world's diamonds. South Africa.] CHILE- 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Nitrate. Copper. Wheat. Gold. Beans, 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Textile fabrics. Cattle. Machinery. Oil. Tea. ECUADOR- 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Cacao. Coffee. Rubber. Hides. Vegetable ivory. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Breadstuffs. Textile fabrics. Machinery. Kerosene. Lard. (7. 1. Great Britain. 2. France. 3. Germany. 4. Belgium. 5. United States. 1. United States. 2. Great Britain. 3; Germany. 4. France. 5. West Indies. Has no seaport, and carries on its foreign trade through Chile, Argentine, Brazil, and Peru. Great Britain, Germany and United States furnish most of the imports purchased by Bolivia, that are not furnished by the above- named republics. United States. France. Great Britain. Germany. Belgium. Since that date her diamonds have largely 1. Great Britain. 2. Germany. 3. United States. 4. France. 5. Peru. 1. France. 2. Great Britain. 3. United States. 4. Spain. 5. Peru. * The world's largest frozen-meat plant is located at Buenos Aires. 216 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 4. GUIANA- 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Sugar. Rubber. Molasses. Rum. Gold. [From PARAGUAY— 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Yerba mat6. Hides. Timber. Tobacco. Oranges. PERU- 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Silver. Copper. Sugar. Cotton. Hides. URUGUAY— 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. L' Jerked beef. Wool. Horns and bone ash, Frozen meats. Flax. VENEZUELA— 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Coffee. Cacao. Hides and skins. Rubber. Gold. III. South. America. — Continued. B. Flour. Textile fabrics. Coal. Meats ( dried ) . Hardware. French Guiana is obtained cayenne pepper.] 1. Textile fabrics. 1. 2. Wine. 2. 3. Rice. 3. 4. Wlieat. 4. 5. Hardware. Textile fabrics. Machinery. Hardware. Breadstuffs. Lumber. [Cinchona bark is an important export.] 1. Foodstuffs. 2. Beverages. 3. Textile fabrics. 4. Machinery. 5. Coal. 1. Breadstuffs. 2. Textile fabrics. 3. Machinery. 4. Coal. 5. Kerosene. C Great Britain. United States. Netherlands. France. West Indies. Argentine. Uruguay. Great Britain. Brazil. Great Britain. Germany. United States. Chile. France. Argentine. Great Britain. France. Brazil. Belgium. United States. Great Britain. Germany. France. Cuba. ALGERIA— ABYSSINIA- 1. Vegetables. 2. Wines. 3. Dates. 4. Cereals. 5. Tobacco. 1. Coffee. 2. Civet. 3. Wax. 4. Gold. 5. Ivory. CAPE COIX)NY— 1. Gold. 2. Diamonds. 3. Ostrich feathers. 4. Wool. 5. Hides. EGYPT- KONGO INDE- PENDENT STATE— 1. Cotton. 2. Cereals. 3. Tobacco. 4. Beans. 5. Dates. 1. Rubber. 2. Ivory. 3. Palm nuts. 4. Palm oil. 5. Coffee. IV. Africa. B. 1. Cattle. 2. Timber. 3. Coal. 4. Machinery. 5. Coffee. 1. Textile fabrics. 2. French mirrors and cutlery. 3. Matches. 4. Firearms. 5. Spirits. 1. Textile fabrics. 2. Breadstuffs. 3. Machinery. 4. Lumber. 5. Naval stores. 1. Cotton fabrics. 2. Coal. 3. Petroleum. 4. Machinery. 1. Textile fabrics. 2. Foodstuffs. 3. Machinery. 4. Beverages. 5. Steamers. 1. France. 2. Great Britain. 3. Morocco. 4. Tunis. 5. Russia. 1. Egypt. 2. Great Britain. 3. India. 4. France. 1. Great Britain. Nearly all exports go to Great Britain, and a large portion of im- ports come from that country. The United States, India, Germany and France furnish most of the remain- ing imports. 1. Great Britain. 2. France and Algeria. 3. Russia. 4. United States. 5. Germany. 1. Belgium. 2. Great Britain. 3. Neighboring possessions. 4. Germany. 5. Netherlands. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 217 IV. Africa. — Continued. A. B. G. MADAGASCAR- - 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Rubber. Wax. Hides. Gold. Vanilla. 1. 2. 3. 4. 6. Cotton textiles. Beverages. Flour. Tobacco. Machinery. 1. 2. 3. 4. France. Great Britain. Germany. Neighboring possessions. MOROCCO— 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Goat-skins. Cattle. W^ool. Eggs. Beans. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Sugar. Tea. Hardware. Candles. Petroleum. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Great Britain. France. Germany. Spain. Rest of Barbary states. NATAL- 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Wool. Hides and skins. Coal. Gold. Bark. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Textile fabrics. Iron and steel manufactures. Breadstuff s. Machinery. Leather goods. 1. 2. Great Britain. Cape Colony. ORANGE 1. FREE STATE— 2. 3. 4. Animal products. Diamonds. Garnets. Coal. 1. 2. 3. 4. General merchandise. Cereals. Wool. Horses. 1. 2. 3. 4. Cape Colony. Natal. Basutoland. South African Republic. SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC— [Now in state oi 1. Gold. 2. Wool. 3. Cattle and hides. 4. Ostrich feathers. 5. Ivory. t war with Great Britain - 1. Machinery. 2. Textile fabrics. 3. Hardware. 4. Leather goods. 5. Timber. -nation in control. Therefore no 1. Cape Colony. 2. Great Britain. 3. Rest of Europe. 4. Natal. 5. Orange Free State. late data on commerce. Data for 1897.] TRIPOLI- 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Esparto (a grass fiber) Sponges. Barley. Madder. Henna leaves. 1. 2. 3. 4. Textiles. General manufactures.* Glassware. Sugar. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The Sudan Country. Great Britain. France. Germany. Italy. TUNIS— 1. 2. 3. 4. 0. Wheat. Olive oil. Zinc. Alfa (grass fiber). Wine. 1. 2. 3! 4. 5. Textiles. Foodstuffs. Sugar. Machinery. Railroad materials. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. France. Great Britain. Italy. Algeria. Russia. [Dates of the oases are the best in the commercial world.] ♦Tripoli carries on a large caravan trade with the Sudan, and many of these articles are for the Sudanese trade. V. Asia. A. B. G. ARABIA— 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Mocha coffee. Ivory. Sheep and goat skins. Gum arable and myrrh. Pearls. 1. 2. Cotton fabrics. General manufactures. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Great Britain. United States. India. Egypt. Zanzibar. AFGHANISTAN- -1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Cotton goods. Fruits and vegetables. Cereals (barley, wheat, rice, corn ) . Felts and carpets. Drugs (crude). L 2. 3. Machinery. Firearms and ammunition. General manufactures. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. India. Persia. China. •Great Britain. Russia. CHINA— 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Silk. Tea. Hides. Matting and straw braid. Chinaware and pottery. I. 2. 3. 4. 5. Cotton fabrics. Opium. Kerosene. Metals. Coal.^ 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Hong Kong. Great Britain. Japan. United States. India. 218 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. V. Asia. — Continued. A. B. C. INDIA- 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Cotton. Rice. Jute. Wheat. Oil seeds. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Cotton fabrics. Metals and hardware. Machinery. Sugar. Oils. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Great Brtain. China. France. Straits Settlements. Belgium. [Opium is a large export.] JAPAN— 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Raw silk and silk textiles. Cotton yarns. Coal. Tea. Copper. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Raw cotton. Rice. Sugar. Cotton textiles. Kerosejie. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. United States. Netherlands. China. Italy. Great Britain. [Japan, through Formosa, is the chief source of camphor gum.] PERSIA— 1. 2. 3. 4. Opium. Pearls. Dried fruits. Textile fibers silk). ( cotton, wool, 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Textile fabrics. Glass. Carriages. Sugar. Petroleum. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. India. Russia. Great Britain. France. Germany. 5. Carpets. [The world's greatest pearl center is near the Bahrein Islands, Persian Gulf, and the richest turquoises in the market come from the Persian mines situated at Nishapur.] RUSSIAN ASIA- 1 . Cotton. 2. Petroleum. 3. Wheat. 4. Furs. 5. Gold. 1 . Breadstuff s. 2. Farm implements. 3. Iron and steel manufactures. 4. Textile manufactures. 5. Railroad supplies. [The Trans-Siberian Railroad, now open via the Manchurian branch, is one of the greatest feats of engineering skill. It will be a great factor in developing commerce in Russian Asia.] 1. Russia. 2. Japan. 3. United States. 4. Korea. 5. Persia. VI. Australasia. A. B. C. AUSTRALIA- 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Wool. Frozen and preserved meats. Gold. Hides and skins. Dairy products. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Textile fabrics. Hardware and machinery. Coffee and tea. Sugar. Petroleum. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Great Britain. New Zealand and Australasia. Germany. France. United States. the rest of EAST INDIES- 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Sugar. Coffee and tea. Spices. Cinchona bark. Tin. 1. 2. 3. 4. Cotton yarn and fabrics. Hardware. Machinery. Fertilizers. 1. 2. 3. 4. Netherlands. Great Britain. China. United States. NEW ZEALAND- 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Wool. Frozen meat. Gold. Kauri gum (fossil). Dairy products. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Textile fabrics. Iron and steel manufactures. Sugar. Paper and stationery. Beverages. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Great Britain. Australia. United States. Pacific Islands. India. POLYNESIA— 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Copra and coeoanuts. Pearl and tortoise shell. Tropical friiits. Sugar. Sago and spices. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Cotton goods. Hardware. Machinery. Foodstuffs. Kerosene. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Australia. New Zealand. Great Britain. United States. France. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 219 WORLD CITIES RANKED ACCORDING TO POPULATION. ( From Statesman's Tear Book and United States census for 1900. No. Name. Census. Population. Continent. 1. London 1891 4,211,056 Europe. 2. New York 1900 3,437,202 North America. 3. Paris 1896 2,536,834 Europe. 4. Berlin 1900 1,843,000 Europe. 5. Chicago 1900 1,698,575 North America. 6. Canton *. . . 1,600,000 Asia. 7. Tokio 1898 1,452,564 Asia. 8. Vienna 1891 1,364,548 Europe. 9. Philadelphia 1900 1,293,697 North America. 10. St. Petersburg 1897 1,267,023 Europe. 11. Peking. *. . . 1,000,000 Asia. 12. Moscow 1897 988,614 Europe. 13. Constantinople 1885 873,560 Europe. 14. Calcutta 1891 861,764 Asia. 15. Bombay 1891 821,764 Asia. 16. Osaka 1898 821,235 Asia. 17. Buenos Aires 1895 663,854 South America. 18. Warsaw 1897 638,209 Europe. 19. Hamburg 1895 625,552 Europe. 20. Glasgow 1891 618,052 Europe. 21. St. Louis 1900 575,238 North America. 22. Cairo 1897 570,062 Africa. 23. Brussels 1898 561,130 Europe. 24. Boston 1900 560.892 North America. 25. Naples 1898 540,393 Europe. 26. Rio Janeiro 1890 522,651 South America. 27. Liverpool 1891 517,980 Europe. 28. Amsterdam 1898 512,953 Europe. 29. Baltimore 1900 508,957 North America. 30. Buda-Pesth 1891 505,763 Europe. 31. Manchester 1891 505,368 Europe. 32. Rome 1898 500,610 Europe. 33. Melbourne 1891 490,900 Australia. 34. Milan 1898 481,297 Europe. 35. Birmingham 1891 478,113 Europe. « 36. Madrid 1887 470,283 Europe. 37. Lyons 1896 466,028 Europe. 38. Madras 1891 452,518 Asia. 39. Marseilles 1896 442,289 Europe. 40. Haidarabad 1891 415,039 Asia. 41. Munich 1895 407,307 Europe. 42. Odessa 1897 405,041 Europe. 43. Mexico 1900 402,000 North America. 44. Leipsic 1895 399,963 Europe. 45. Sydney 1891 383,320 Australia. 46. Cleveland 1900 381,768 North America. 47. Shanghai *. . . 380,000 Asia. 48. Breslau 1895 373,169 Europe. 49. Leeds 1891 367,505 Europe. 50. Turin 1898 355,800 Europe. 51. Kioto 1898 353,139 Asia. 52. Buffalo 1900 352,387 North America. 53. San Francisco 1900 342,782 North America. 54. Dresden 1895 336,440 Europe. 55. Cincinnati 1900 325,902 North America. 56. Sheffield 1891 324,243 Europe. 57. Pittsburg 1900 321,626 North America. 58. Cologne ..1895 321,564 Europe. 59. Santiago (Chile) 320,628 South America. 60. Alexandria 1897 319,766 Africa. 61. Lodz 1897 315,209 Europe. 62. Copenhagen 1890 312,859 Europe. * Estimated. Numbers here given correspond to numbers given on world map.) No. Name. Census. Population. Continent. 63. Rotterdam 1898 309,309 Europe. 64. Lisbon 1890 301,206 Europe. 65. Stockhqlm 1898 295,789 Europe. 66. Palermo 1898 290,951 Europe. 67. New Orleans 1900 287,104 North America. 68. Detroit 1900 285,704 North America. 69. Milwaukee 1900 285,315 North America. 70. Antwerp 1895 277,576 Europe. 71. Lucknow 1891 273,028 Asia. 72. Barcelona 1887 272,428 Europe. 73. Edinburgh 1891 264,796 Europe. 74. Bordeaux 1896 256,906 Europe. 75. Riga 1898 256,197 Europe. 76. Belfast 1891 255,950 Europe. 77. Bangkok *... 250,000 Asia. 78. Montevideo *. . . 249,251 South America. 79. Kieff 1897 247,432 Europe. 80. Newark 1900 246,070 North America. 81. Dublin 1891 245,001 Europe. 82. Nagoya 1898 244,145 Asia. 83. Genoa 1898 232,777 Europe. 84. Bucharest 1894 232,000 Europe. 85. Frankfort-on-Main . 1895 229,279 Europe. 86. Bristol 1891 221,578 Europe. 87. Hong Kong 1891 221,441 Asia. 88. Benares 1891 219,467 Asia. 89. Montreal 1891 216,650 North America. 90. Bradford 1891 216,361 Europe. 91. Lille 1896 216,276 Europe. 92. Kobe 1898 215,780 Asia. 93. Magdeburg 1895 214,424 Europe. 94. Nottingham 1891 213,877 Europe. 95. Florence 1898 212,898 Europe. 96. Teheran 1881 210,000 Asia. 97. Hanover 1895 209,535 Europe. 98. .Jersey City 1900 206,433 North America. 99. West Ham 1891 204,903 Europe. 100. Louisville 1900 204,731 North America. 101. Minneapolis 1900 202,718 North America. 102. Hull 1891 200,044 Europe. 103. Damascus *. . . 200,000 Asia. 104. Seoul *... 200,000 Asia. 105. Smyrna 1885 200,000 Asia. 106. The Hague 1898 199,285 Europe. 107. Havana 198,270 North America. 108. Salford 1891 198,139 Europe. 109. Yokohama 1898 193,762 Asia. 1 10. Delhi 1891 192,579 Asia. 111. Mandelay 1891 188,815 Asia. 112. Cawnpore 1891 188,712 Asia. 113. Newcastle 1891 186,300 Europe. 114. Prague 1891 184,109 Europe. 115. Toronto 1891 181,220 North America. 116. Bangalore 1891 180,366 Asia. 117. Rangoon 1891 180,324 Asia. 118. Tabriz 1881 180,000 Asia. 119. Lahore 1891 176,854 Asia. 120. Dusseldorf 1895 175,985 Europe. 121. Providence 1900 175,597 North America. 122. Allahabad 1891 175,246 Asia. 123. Kharkorf 1897 174,841 Europe. 124. Leicester 1891 174,624 Europe. ♦Estimated. 220 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. World Cities Ranked According to Population. — Continued. Ifo. Name. Census. PopulatUm. Continent. 125. Bahia 1890 174,412 South America. 126. Konigsberg 1895 172,796 Europe. 127. Valencia 1887 170,763 Europe. 128. Liege 1898 169,202 Europe. 129. Indianapolis 1900 169,164 North America. 130. Agra 1891 168,662 Asia. 131. Patna 1891 165,192 Asia. 132. Kansas City 1900 163,752 North America. 133. St. Paul 1900 163,065 North America. 134. Ghent 1898 162,652 Europe. 135. Rochester 1900 162,608 North America. 136. Nuremberg ...1895 162,386 Europe. 137. Poona 1891 161,390 Asia. 138. Chemnitz 1895 161,017 Europe. 139. Vilna 1897 159,568 Europe. 140. Portsmouth 1891 159,251 Europe. 141. Jaipur 1891 158,905 Asia. 142. Trieste 1891 158,344 Europe. 143. Stuttgart 1895 158,321 Europe. 144. Venice 1898 157,099 Europe. 145. Bologna 1898 155,787 Europe. 146. Dundee 1891 155,671 Europe. 147. Messina 1898 154,436 Europe. 148. Manila 1887 154,062 Asia. 149. Tunis *... 153,000 Africa. •150. Zurich 1897 151,994 Europe. * Estimated. Smaller Cities of Great Commercial Importance . A. — Auckland, Australasia. B. — Ballarat, Australia. Bu. — Butte, North America. 0. T.— Cape Town, Africa. D.— Dawson City, North America. Du. — Duluth, North America. Ga. — Galveston, North America. G. — Guayaquil, South America. Iq. — Iquique, South America, I. — Irkutsk, Asia. J. — Johannesburg, Africa. K. — Kiakhta, Asia. Kim. — Kimberly, Africa. M. — Mobile, North America. N. — Nome City, North America. Or. — Orenberg, Asia. O. — Ottawa (Canada), North America. Sea. — Seattle, North America. S. — Singapore, Asia. T. — Tomsk, Asia. Val. — Valparaiso, South America. V. — Victoria, North America. W. — Winnipeg, North America. FACTS ABOUT AMERICAN CITIES. The census of 1900 enumerated 3715 organized villages, towns, and cities. The 25 largest cities are already given in the list of world cities. Below is given the 161 important commercial centers of our nation, in alphabetical order. These are the cities that have a population of 25,000 or more inhabitants. Rank. Names. Commercial Nicknames. 87. Akron, Ohio — Oat Meal City, and Buckeye Reaper Town. 40. Albany, N. Y.— Gate City of the Hudson. 27. Allegheny, Pa. — Tannery City. 114. Allentown, Pa. 97. Altoona, Pa. 43. Atlanta, Ga.— Gate City of the South. 149. Atlantic City, N. J.— Beach City. 135. Auburn, N. Y. 94. Augusta, Ga. 6. Baltimore, Md. — Monumental City ; Oystertown. 151. Bay City, Mich. 125. Bayonne, N. J. 93. Binghamton, N. Y. 100. Birmingham, Ala. — Iron City of the South. 5. Boston, Mass. — City of Notions. 54. Bridgeport, Conn. Rank. Names. Commercial Nieknames. 92. Brockton, Mass. — Shoe City. 8. Buffalo, N. Y. — Queen of the Lakes. 133. Butte, Mont.— Copper City. 41. Cambridge, Mass.— University City. 52. Camden, N. J.— Pen City ; Oilcloth City. 132. Canton, Ohio.— McKinley City. 159. Cedar Rapids, Iowa. 68. Charleston, S. C— Palmetto City. 136. Chattanooga, Tenn. 118. Chelsea, Mass. 119. Chester, Pa. 2. Chicago, 111. — Grain City ; Porkopolis. 10. Cincinnati, Ohio. — Queen of the Ohio. 7. Cleveland, Ohio. — ForestCity ; Sewing-MachineCity. 28. Columbus, Ohio. 158. Council Bluffs, Iowa. 86. Covington, Ky. 88. Dallas, Tex. 115. Davenport, Iowa. 45. Dayton, Ohio. 25. Denver, Col. — Queen of the Plains. 59. Des Moines, Iowa. 13. Detroit, Mich.— City of the Straits. 108. Dubuque, Iowa. 72. Duluth, Minn. — Zenith City of the Unsalted Seas. 160. Easton, Pa. 137. East St. Louis, 111. 74. Elizabeth, N. J.— Singer City. 113. Elmira, N. Y. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 221 Bank. Names. Commercial Nickname*. Bank. Names. Commercial Nicknames. 73. Erie, Pa. 20. Providence, R. I. — Jewelry City ; has largest cotton 64. Evansville, Ind. factory in the world. 33. Fall River, Mass.— Cloth City. 148. Pueblo, Col. -Steel City of the West. 128. Fitchburg, Mass. 100. Quincy, 111. 83. Fort Wayne, Ind. 140. Racine, Wis.— Carriage City. 152. Fort AV^orth, Tex. 50. Reading, Pa. 103. Galveston,Tex.— Cotton City; Hurricane City. 46. Richmond, Va. — Cockade City. 154. Gloucester, Mass.— Fisherman's Town. 24. Rochester, N. Y.— Flower City ; Aqueduct City. 44. Grand Rapids, Mich. — Furniture City. 130. Rockford, 111.— Watch City. 77. Harrisburg, Pa. 139. Sacramento, Cal. 49. Hartford, Conn.— Insurance City. 89. Saginaw, Mich. 105. Haverhill, Mass.— Shoe City. 111. Salem, Mass.— Shoe City. 63. Hoboken, N. J. 70. Salt Lake City, Utah.— Mormon City. 82. Holyoke, Mass. — Paper City. 71. San Antonio, Tex, 95. Honolulu, Hawaii— Island Queen. 9. San Francisco, Cal. — Golden Gate. 85. Houston, Tex. 69. Savannah, Ga. — Forest City of the South. 21. Indianapolis, Ind. — Railroad City. 127. Schenectady, N. Y.— Locomotive City. 161. Jackson, Mich. 38. Scranton. Pa.— Anthracite City, 143. Jacksonville, Fla. — Pineapple City. 48. Seattle, Wash. 17. Jersey, N. J.— Transportation City. 124. Sioux City, Iowa. 112. Johnstown, Pa.— Flood City. 61. Somerville, Mass. 138. Joliet, 111. 110. South Bend, Ind.— Wagon City. 155. Joplin, Mo. — Zinc City. 156. South Omaha, Neb. 76. Kansas City, Kan. 106. Spokane, Wash. 22. Kansas City, Mo. 117. Springfield, 111. 126. Knoxville, Tenn. 60. Springfield, Mass.— Gun City. 141. La Crosse, Wis. 102. Springfield, Ohio. •90. Lancaster, Pa. 34. St. Joseph, Mo. 57. Lawrence, Mass. 4. St. Louis, Mo.— Mound City ; River Metropolis. 153. Lexington, Ky. 23. St. Paul, Minn.— Fur City ; North Star City. 91. Lincoln, Neb. 129. Superior, Wis. 101. Little Rock, Ark. 30. Syracuse, N. Y. 36. Los Angeles, Cal.— Fruit City. 104. Tacoma, Wash. 18. Louisville, Ky.— Falls City. 31. Taunton, Mass. 39. Lowell, Mass. — City of Spindles. 107. Terre Haute, Ind. 55. Lynn, Mass. — Shoe Metropolis. 26. Toledo, Ohio.— Spice City. 121. Maiden, Mass. 122. Topeka, Kan. 65. Manchester, N. H. 53. Trenton, N. J.— Pottery City. 116. McKeesport, Pa. 62. Troy, N. Y.— Nail City. 37. Memphis, Tenn. 66. Utica, N. Y.— Rose City. 14. Milwaukee, AVis. — Cream City ; Schlitz's Town. 15. Washington, D. C— City of Magnificent Distances; 19. Minneapolis, Minn.— Flour City. Federal City. 99. Mobile, Ala. 81. Waterbury, Conn.— Clock City. 134. Montgomery, Ala. 98. Wheeling, W. Va.— Glass City. 47. Nashville, Tenn. 75. AVilkesbarre, Pa. 16. Newark, N. J.— Trunk City. 142. Williamsport, Pa. 58. New Bedford, Mass.— Codfish City. 51. Wilmington, Del.— Match City. 157. New Britain, Conn. 147. Woonsocket, R. I. 144. Newcastle, Pa. 29. Worcester. Mass. 31. New Haven, Conn.— Elm City. 79. Yonkers, N. Y. 12. New Orleans, La.— Sugar City; Crescent City. 120. York, Pa. 145. Newport, Ky. 84. Youngstown, Ohio. 123. Newton, Mass. 1. New York, N. Y. — Empire City ; Gotham; commer- cial Emporium. The following cities of less than 25,000 inhabit- 80. Norfolk, Va. 56. Oakland, Cal. ants are noted for special commerce : 35. Omaha, Neb. 146. Oshkosh, Wis. Amsterdam, N. Y. — Carpet City. 150. Passaic, N. J. Astoria, Ore. — Salmon City. 32. Paterson, N. J.— Silk City. Bangor, Me. — Lumber City. 96. Pawtucket, R. I. Barre, Vt.— Marble City. 67. Peoria, 111.— Distillery City. Brattleboro, Vt. — Organ City. 3. Philadelphia, Pa.— City of Brotherly Love; Centen- Burlington, Iowa — Orchard City. nial City. Danbury, Conn. — Hat City. 11. Pittsburg, Pa. — Steel City; Pickle Town; Smoky Elgin, 111.— Dairy City; Watch City. City. Gloversville, N. Y.— Glove City. 78. Portland, Me.— Hill City. Grand Junction, Colo.— Peach City. 42. Portland, Ore. Greeley, Colo.— Potato City. 222 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Hutchinson, Kan. — Salt City. Nome City, Alaska — Gold City. lola, Kan. — Cement City. Raleigh, N. C— Oak City. Jacksonville, Fla. — Pineapple City. Rocky Ford, Colo. — Watermelon City. Kalamazoo, Mich. — Celery City. Salem, Ore. — Hop City. Key West, Fla.— Sponge City. Savannah, Ga. — Cotton City. Leavenworth, Kan. — Apple City. Sheboygan, Wis. — Evergreen City. Lynchburg, Va. — Tobacco City. Virginia City, Nev. — Silver City. Madison, Wis.— Lake City. Wichita, Kan. — Corn City. Napa, Cal.— Wine City. Zanesville, Ohio — Brick City. Nashville, Tenn.— Rock City. The f'Oregon" and one of the great Dry Docks — Brooklyn Navy Yard. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 223 MEANING OF GEOGRAPHICAL TERMS. 1. By is an old Anglo-Saxon word, meaning town. Wliitbv — White town; Derby — Deer town. 2. Chester is derived from the Latin word cas- tra, meaning camp. The sites of old Roman camps in England are thus preserved in names of English cities : Worcester — War's camp ; Leicester — Lee's camp; Manchester; Lancaster; Chichester, etc. 3. Sliire — English snffix, meaning province ruled by an earl; nearly synonymous with our American county. Yorkshire, Berkshire, etc. 4. Terra is a Latin word for earth, or , land. Mediterranean — in the middle of the land (Eu- rope and Africa); Tierra, del Fuego — land of fire. 5. Metropolis is derived from two Greek words, meaning Mother City ; hence, the commercial cen- ter of a region. 6. de is from the Romance languages, and means of. 7. Rio is from a similar source, and means river. Rio de Janeiro — River of January. 8. In naming many riyers and cities in the United States, Indian names have been used that are not only suggestive but unique and historic — often the only relic of aboriginal days. (a) The island upon which part of the present city of New York stands was traded for by the Dutch in an early day. The Dutch gave the In- dian owners " fire-water." By these Indians the island was given the name it still bears, Manhat- tan — meaning, "The place where we all got drunk." (b) Minnehaha — Laughing water. (c) Hiawatha — An Indian hero. (d) Oklahoma — The beautiful land. (e) Wabaunsee — Dawn of day. (/") Mohawk, Ojibway, Ottawa, Onondaga, On- tario, Wyandotte, etc., were names of tribes of In- dians. 9. Dalny is the recent name (1901) Russia has given Talienwan, and means "far away." 10. The Chinese have the most descriptive names of any commercial nation, and by Europeans and Americans they are generally the least understood. (a) Fu is a sufiix added to provincial capitals, as we add the explanatory terms " court house " or '' county seat." Chang Chow fu illustrates this. (6) Hai means the sea. (c) Hoang means yellow. Hoang hai is there- fore Yellow sea, so called as the Hoang river cuts its way through a yellow soil, turning the water yellow where it enters into the sea. ■ i^d) Ho means river. Hoang ho — Yellow river. (e) Kiang also means river, but is used in the superlative degree. Yang means ocean; tse means son. Hence, Yang tse Kiang means Ocean, son of the river. The Chinese of antiquity believed this river to be greater than the ocean into which its waters emptied ; hence its name. (/") Kow means north city. Hankow — city north of Han river. {g) King means capital. {h) Nan means south. Xanking — south capital. (i) Pe means north. Peking — north capital. (j) Pci means white. Pei ho — white river. (Ar) Tien means heavenly. (I) Tsin means place. Tien Tsin, therefore, means heavenly place — revealing in the name the pains the Chinese have taken to render it a delight- ful place. That vvT^rld-traveler, Marco Polo, who visited this city 600 years ago, named it the " citta celeste." (m) Yum means transportation. Yum ho is the Chinese name for their Imperial canal, and means "River of Transportation." (n) Shanghai means " city by the sea." The Japanese in a similar way describe their towns as they name them. 224 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. MARINE COMMERCE OF IMPORTANT COMMERCIAL NATIONS. MexcWnt SYlanne MercWvil Wlanwe ^ovwwxqe "\Y\ TovAY^ w\\\\\ov\a :*< 2 'A. J //j COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 225 K Tr\p Through The \A/orld'S Grert P\R(\M\0S. LTVveae sta\;ve>t\.ci. (iTe^roYvi t\ie\ate.al telvabk aovxTce?) and >rt'itk bat ■?ew exceptions re'pte^evvi tVe data \ot ifiOol 1. rvlmeral Pi^raWida. \'^ &o\d m miWion dollars 226 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. I BuisVia. i-'ll 1 I VigncE i.'h | CiTtat Brilam 9 'A United Stales 13 Vk a. Stee\- vA vYvvWvon lows 4 Pio \Ton - w mUUon tons 5. Coal - lA. vwiUion tons [Si dafayv iT Spain vPorlvi5»\ Jt \)n\U4 State?. "1. C). Copper — iwtVvowaaKd \ov\s | Gil«lBr>U>na.| \)fferS\\e.w.a ISO \Jmtei St«Us WTIa. J 1. imt - w tkuiu?.an4 Ions.. Slrail^SettlemenlS . %.T\»v- vn tViousawtJ to as. J \)mtei &-.atts j M014J H»SOt / 5um«.troi I '/, [ Mnite* Stotes 51 (\ . VvdbvlveT - m'^W=.ks,1(o;/x\^t£^'v \c> ttuAe Petvi,\eum-amx\Wbwreis..'',5aoi.eftyt ■ I 'w^^«l, ,^^r"^" I, G»Ma«uj Vto E.I\(y\c\jiLwTa\ 1 &t«av Britain H^i \JivvtU &to.te» »«> »aoWl RAma\Mimo.\ ?t0^u.C.te''i'\. \.C.oaow->^miVUWe.-5oopo*«i.ea* a.Woo\-vnmU\,ov,po>A«4& i F\ftA.- itv tWcuWwd tons. I France I \ Uouito I 5apo.T\ 1 C,V«na \'o 1. Rvjt -in rnxUiOfi toaiV\e\i. H.R'xvy&vW- wwi\\v6ifv ^yjcnA^- 5. WVeoX - m mAvion buiaVvel^ to- C/OT*\-vw n\iV\von'\au£>Vvet& COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 227 % ^T\ei^-\A'w\\l\\ov\ ba^V\elS. OnitU StAlitt *I0 iGit.BriUin »';, j Rwawa Ift^A VJmtea StcAas H5 '\. OaxTij Products - iw tVoasavii \m%- w GattAe. - \v\ voumd vmVlxons . \)«A«i§UU*fc? W ■ V\«(^%— iw round. >ir\U\ion%. U«iUd States W lSl.Tobo.cco- \n't>\ouao.irii torft. /\ K \^\sce\\aneoas. RvtitnCL "tsoo \)n\ted Stoles.. Hi5«oo Girmanvj. 55e,«oo \^ . VAom - m evitiS. 1 ^ GeTvnoinij Wo Gtreat Brittun i50 Umttd States aso \. lAftY\uWluTes- value wmiUioniWVin i.tteviis>paiptTs-cowvi;)a.ToX\Ye.wo»a\l1 \nyvv\\V\ov\(J(i\\ftT(. IrraT\at. I w L Qreat BnUnln GeTTworiM lis 5 V3v\'\W Slates aMSO 1 ^vivi^fc%a»vKa>-'mnullimi«ttaT» \)«ited Slatts fc-«sn I Spam nw I { \toiij a.5>M I Citeat Bt'iWw 3o4) Russia 31*7 ftance SWO J "4 RiftKvunl totmngs. oj Vfia!i\v«i Nations ' (\ .l^wctDtW:oiV£aifvnfl ^oiio*^ VO • R" wi^e- ^^^ cafito, tax • w mfiti 228 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 0\eocvvv\^V\ouae5>. KtWm^ House, Xs. (xw vTOt\luUovyeE.Wo\«.VeA'>3>;4Ww.\ia»te dt Q.aiyvw«erdo.\ «Ato , to vv(Vuti\ oi\ cVvetV^ 4tw - w w\\\ovv 3t^.w\. (.EsiwAotei.BUMj, arean^ot kwown.') COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 229 Sio\\lA \ieepSonv\(^'b.- m^js*. (.C.C.Waw^.^ ifi it Jis It I! - iw lV\ou=)av\d mWes.. Xi.^.'bUUsA.KoA Voids IBS' m^ii*" \v\\yett\a\ Be.«3.o It^O itfo u El <^\% u ?5% U nrk J l«v fcO-Vi. w qSVs- • ncu t. \ll!,S7 UiaiftOtfiiTTusL Cow^wviitS) ■ 80 Slate. B«fcC \«no \«*o i*'iO woo ■>'•'• •5V.0 VI, Ci^ \3L% n li ii% iS'Ja. 50 ca^js 7b'/.- ■ OxM Gjw'tte w Po'pvJiotiovx ,Vii^ X^etcxAe.^ , \v\ wv\\\ov\^ nqncvAtiuTol Pfoducte ISO 1?0 Vood*i\n\Ywa\3 950 Cov\Sumpll(SV\ SI Vtoiixxcis ti.vofted:..-\« wv\UiOndo\\a.T& ?rpducLs> WootW. U»\w\Ui(n\4o\\ari1 Xeartij aveTO^e Vow AX GloU Ccpper Silver. 33 Ru'Ottos VAtlaUic Oi-e.=, Wllv\eii'-uv\w\\UiOv\do\)aTsN (Yearti^toeTo^e. M'AceWaweous. 15H Biturw\r\DusCo<4 Petroleum "6 30 WovimelfXllic Ores Wl wed. >.»amllion dollars) Xeaxl^ aveio^e 3W N\ckv\e-n ^«at-\W Cav\e-^^^. c,>A<^aT -'\y\ vwXVwrv 'po^«.lr\4^. Ma.\>»e 'A **"« ft»«wttX4 - w «*V«n to*MV I V\ou.r and CornWleal \J.S W\ani«TOLS.kQ, Kawsois. Five V-tadm^ Corn Statw COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 231 \owa 5 4 NewXerk 3 a. C«.VV\omva 1 ?vNiscoyttin \5 UV\WOV% V5 \owo. Five. Uead'm^ Potato 9>taUi '^ieW iw million busheVi. MewXorV; \ow(x Pe¥\v\si/)\vamQ \Ui«ovs OKvO f vje Leadwq Da>Tv^ States ai5 UJu'isuiMCl 132 Potto Ricfl 60 PK.l|;pi«: ^0 Tive \.ett(i\n OVilo WUam^ Texas Fivft Lcadvnij Hoa 9r»iv«ciin^ Sules- Qacovi UavYV ai5 VorK >1S L^^OTt=, c4 Ho^ PrtAvAoU - m w\Uiow pouwda. C)0\OTOiAo W\owWY\a . Rnicna \)lftVv t^evo^ Twe. SWver He^xoAS CWicaqo SLtaa OMoya Boston StLoiCxs HIS Ottxm fcW CMm Pftckwq \v\du.s.lTii . Wo.Hm^ inTWovAsand^. 40 GermQWU 31 Cowoda Bmul n \owa Taxos Kansas U\mov6 Uew^ofk. five Leading Countries buying Hoi, prodocte of rhu United States- in million 'bs- OVivo Wlov\tciv\a '\/Vi^ow\\v\(j Oregon HewMeiico Fwe Cattle ttToducwq Stoles ?'\ve &Wt^ oToAwcina Stales. Lake Stales SoutWm States New EnaWnd &tal£=> States FWasXa Five. tjAmloer Reglovx^. 232 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. GoVoradb GaVi^oTvua Wa&ka M6V\lii\vaY\va Ul'iwoxs VJest Vlrqivvlo. OVvo IWabawa T"ive. Coa.\ Ktojiows Wlassac>\vxsetts ^Wyv^yWanio. NtwYoxk RiftoittelaM Hew3"St>j ^wft StaUs Manu^aclur'mq Textile FabV'ies. \WnYVSijV vavvia OWu \\\v Mevv'toTk P'we \tov\ W\ay\\A.^aclunT\q States- IVwteTSBjj ?WUadelpV\\a §)cV\eviec1.adLi V'We. Car and LocomotWe VJotVs ■ PVv\\ade\pVi,\a. SaArroyvcisco Ne\«'pOTl Qt^eVmd BanQor rwe, SK'\p )ouUd'iv\q Cenlera WewVork PeY\y\s.ij\vamoi \\\mo\% OWo Mkuoi^i^ IVvt Fiva M.os\, f\)pu.\ou& 9>\,(i.te?> New'^ork GVv'xcaqo ?V\Uade\^V\\a StUuis. BoSlOYl Twe GiTtat W\airvui\aduLnir«j Cevdev«> 8'Ji ^tewVotK ■^V«, ^vYtSUUbVwVwiUi^(«.rs| s M I T N | J E WELL t ».««ior. ur,,,,, ,^^^^^^^, 1^^ 1. Xame and locate each one on a drawn map. VII. Educational Institutions. 1. Xame, locate, and describe. VIII. Benevolent Institutions. 1. Xame, locate, and describe. IX. Penal Institutions. 1. Xame, locate, and describe. X. Railroad Lines crossing the State. 1. On State outline, trace one road at a time. 2. Have a separate page for each railroad, so that each line may be clearly shown without its competitors for trade. 3. Locate all the important cities along the line of road in the State. 4. In Kansas a separate page and a separate State outline map should be used for the fol- lowing lines: (a) Santa Fe. (&) Union Pacific. (c) Missouri Pacific. (d) Eock Island. (e) Missouri, Kansas & Texas. (/) "Frisco" (St. Louis & San Francisco, including the newly acquired Memphis Route). XL Railroad Map of State. XII. Agricultural, Mineral and Industrial Sta- tistics for the State. XIII. History of State. 1. First settlement. When ? Where ? 2. When organized as a Territory? 3. When admitted as a State ? 4. Xames of persons instrumental in early State development. 5. Most important incidents and facts in State's history. (Limit to five.) Kansas Summary. Kansas is forty years old. With her more than fifty million acres of fertile land she can furnish good homes for many times the people now numbered among the Kansans. The Kansas hen in three years gives her owners more money than the whole Louisiana Purchase cost this nation of ours — $15,000,000. The " family cow " each year furnishes enough milk, butter and cheese to supply the 500,000 school children of Kansas with their school books and give each of our State and denominational colleges a $150,000 endowment fund. 236 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. How Wheat grows in Kansas. Kansas has twelve million bearing fruit trees and 13,000 acres of luscious grapes and berries. The " busy bee " supplies us with one and a half million pounds of the best honej every two years. The whole nation is astonished at Kansas' 1900 record of 77,000,000 bushels of wheat, 135,000,000 bushels of corn, 30,000,000 bushels of oats, 7,500,- 000 bushels of potatoes, 50,000 pounds of cotton, 1,500,000 bushels of flax, 18,500,000 bushels of broom-corn, 5,000,000 tons of hay and fodder crops, and $75,000,000 worth of dressed meats. Kansas points proudly to her immeasurable beds of building-stone, zinc, lead, gypsum, brick-clay, coal, oil, and gas. The statistician says that Kansas has the largest salt plant, the largest smelter, the most extensive cement plant, the very finest brick, and the largest apple orchard in the world. We have 6000 churches, 9200 free public schools, 490 banks with $51,000,000 surplus deposited, 9000 miles of railway, and good wagon-roads everywhere. We now number one and one-half millions of contented, happy people who know Whittier's " Song of the Kansas Emigrant," and whose chil- dren sing with Ironquill : " We all believe in Kansas : she 's our State, With all the elements to make her great — Young men, high hopes, proud dreams — 'tis ours to see The State succeed to what the State should be." Kansas Statistics. Population. 1. State 1,468,808 2. Five most populous counties, in round num- bers: 1. Wyandotte 74,000 2. Shawnee 56,000 3. Sedgwick 44,000 4. Leavenworth 40,000 5. Crawford 40,000 3. Twenty-five largest cities, in order of rank : 1. Kansas City 53,625 2. Topeka 38,067 3. Wichita . 24,472 4. Leavenworth 22,392 5. Atchison 16,617 6. Pittsburg ; 12,676 7. Lawrence 11,358 8. Fort Scott 10,751 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 237 Growing a Bank Account in Kansas. 9. Hutchinson 10,009 10. Emporia 9,477 11. Parsons 8,477 12. Galena 8,017 13. Ottawa 7,447 14. Arkansas City 7,045 15. Tola 6,787 16. Salina 6,657 17. Winfield 6,571 18. Xewton 6,525 19. Argentine 6,515 20. Independence 5,628 21. Coffejville 5,259 22. Chanute 4,953 23. Junction City 4,889 24. Wellington 4,406 25. Concordia 4,008 11. Area. 1. State 52,000,000 acres. Breadth 210 miles. Length 400 miles. 2. Largest county — Butler — contains 913,920 acres. 3. Smallest county — Wyandotte — contains 97,- 920 acres. How many square miles in each of these counties ? 4. Altitude — Eastern limit 750 feet above sea-level. Western limit at Colorado line 3300 feet above sea-level. III. Weather Eeport — averages from U. S. Weather Service for Kansas for 14 years. 1. Temperature — Average temperature for December, January, February, 31° F. Average temperature for June, July, August, 76.3° F. Average annual temperature for the State, 54.1° F. 2. Precipitation of moisture — Average precipitation for December, January, February, 0.96 inch. Average precipitation for each of the months June, July, August, 3.22 inches. Average annual precipitation for the eastern third of State, 34 inches. Average annual precipitation for entire State, 26.17 inches. IV. Distances from Kansas City, Kansas, the State's chief commercial center, to the chief centers of domestic commerce. miea. Omaha 205 St. Louis 283 Chicago 458 Buffalo 1017 ..Baltimore 1217 Pittsburg 896 Philadelphia 1250 A^ew York 1345 Boston 1504 238 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Miles. Savannah 1081 Kew Orleans 878 Galveston •. 790 Denver 640 San Francisco 2100 Seattle 2234 V. Commercial Products in round numbers — 1900. (Taken from Secretary F. D. Goburn's reports.) 1. Products of live stock, value. . .$88,000,000 2. Farm crops, quantity — . susheu. Wheat 77,000,000 Corn 134,000,000 Oats 30,000,000 Bnshela. Broom corn 18,500,000 Barley 3,300,000 Potatoes, Irish 7,500,000 Flax 1,500,000 Hay crop (tame, tons) 1,200,000 Hay crop (prairie, tons) 1,400,000 Total value of all farm crops, $113,300,000. 3. Garden vegetables and horticultural prod- ucts, $1,500,000. 4. Mineral products, $18,000,000. 5. Average annual value of commercial prod- ucts at present time (1902), $190,000,000. 6. Total value of agricultural products alone, from 1882 to 1901 inclusive $2,750,000,000. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 239 PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. Abercorn, ab'-er-korn Aconcagua, a-kon-ka^-gwa Admiralty, ad'-mi-rar-ti Aleppo, a-lep^-o Allahabad, al-a-ha-bad' Amsterdam, am'-ster-dam Amur, a-moor' Angelus, an^-jel-iis Apia, a^-pe-a Argentine, ar^-jen-tln Arkansas, ar'kan-sa^ Asafoetida, as'-a-fet^-i-da Atbara, at-ba^-ra Auckland, ak'-land Bagamoyo, b^g-a-mo'-yo Bahia, ba-e'-a Baikal, bi-kar Baireuth, bi^-roit Baku, ba-koo' Ballarat, bal-a-rat' Balkash, baK-kash' Baluchistan, bal-oo-chis-tan' Banca, bank'-a Bangalore, ban'-ga-lor' Barre, bar'-re Bassorah, bas^-6-ra Bathurst, bath'-erst Bayohne, ba-yon'; FrJ^a'-yiin' Beirut, ba^-root Benares, ben-a^-rez Bokhara, bok-a^-ra Bolivia, bo-liv'-i-a Bologna, bo-lon'-ya Bornholm, born^-holm Brahmaputra, bra'-ma-poo'- tra Bucharest, bu^-ka-rest' Buda Pesth, boo'-do-pSst Buenos Aires, bwa^-nos-I-rez Cairo (Afr.), ki^-ro Cairo (111.), ka'-ro Calais, kaK-is, Fr. ka-la' Carysfort, kar^-is-fort Caucasus, ka'-ka-siis Chelan, che^-lan' Cheliabinsk, chel-ya-binsk^ Chemnitz, kem'-nits Cinchona, sm-ko'-na Demavend, dem-a-vend^ Dungeness, diinj-nes' Esquimault, es'-ke-malt Fernshaw, fern'-shg, Flourine, flour '-in Fusiyama, foo-zi-a'-ma Gamboge, gam-boj' Grioucester, glos'-ter Guayaquil, gwl'-a-kel Haidarabad, hl-da-ra-bad' Haiti, ha'-ti Halemaumau, hal-e-ma'-ma Hawaii, ha-wi'-e Himalaya, him-a'-la-ya Hoang, ho-ang' Honolulu, ho-no-loo'-loo Hugli, hoo'-gle Iconium, i-ko'-ni-iim Irkutsk, ir-kootsk' Jaipur, ji'-poor Jinrikisha, jm-rik'-i-sha Juan de Fuca, hoo-an'-da- foo'-ka Kamehameha, kam-e-ham'- e-ha Kars, kars Kauri, ka'-u-re Karwau-Baschi, kar'-wa- bas'-M Kenia, ke'-ni-a Kharkoff, kar-kof' Khartoum, kar-toom' Kiakhta, ke-ak'-ta Kieff, kf -ef Kiel, kel Kilauea, ke-low-a'-a Kilimanjaro, kil-e-man'-ja-ro' Kioto, ke-o'-to Kirghiz, kir-gez' Kiushiu, ke-6o-she-6o Kobe, ko'-ba Kongo, kon'-go Koniah, ko'-ne-a Kootenai, koot'-e-na Krasnoyarsk, kras'-no-yarsk' Kurgan, koor'-gan Kuroshiwo, koo'-ro-she'-wo Ladoga, lad'-6-ga La Mancha, la-man'-cha Liau-Tong, le'-ow-tong' Liege, li-azh' Lille, lei Linnaeus, lin-e'-tis Madeira, ma-de'-ra Madras, ma-dras' Magdeburg, mag'-de-boorg' Maguey, ma-gwa'' Maimatchin, ml-ma-chen' Mandelay, man'-de-la Manihot, man'-i-hot Manila, ma-nir-a Martinique, mar-ti-nek' Matterhorn, ma'-ter-horn Mauna Loa. mow'-na-lo'-a Maui, mow -e Mauritius, ma-rish'-i-iis Mechlin, mek'-lm Mecklenburg, mek'-len-burg Micronesia, mi-kro-ne'shi-a Minots, mi'-nots Mocha, mo'-ka Moii, mo-e Molokai, mo-lo'-ki Molucca, mo-liik'-ka Mombasa, mom-bas'-a Munich, mti'-nik Nagoya, na-goi''-a Nelson-Saskatchewan, nel'- son-sas-kach'-e-wgn Nemain, ni-man' Netherlands, neth'-er-landz Nevskii Prospekt, nev'ski pros'-pekt Nikolskoe, ne-kol'-ske Nippon Yusen Kaisha, nV- pon ii-zen ka-i-sha Novgorod, nov'-go-rod Oaxaca, wa-ha'-ka Oahu, o-a'-hoo Orinoco, o-ri-no'-ko Orizaba, o-re-tha'-ba Pago-Pago, pa'-go pa'-go Panama, pan-a-ma' Peiho, pa-ho' Pribilof, pre-be-16v' Pulque, pur-ka Riga, re -ga Rubens, roo'-benz Sahama, sa-ha'ma Saigon, sa-e-gon' Samoan, sa-mo'-an Savaii, sa-vi'-e Shimonoseki, shim'-o-no- sek-e Stuttgart, stoot'-gart Tabriz, ta-brez' Tanganyika, tan-gan-ye'-ka Tashkent, tash-k§nt' Tchad, chad Tobol, to-bSr 240 COMMERCIAL . GEOGRAPHY. Tobolsk, to-bolsk' Vladivostok, vla-de-vos-tok' Yenisei, yen-e-sa'-e Triest, tre-est' Wallaby, wol'-la-by Yei-ba Mate, yer'-ba-ma-ta' Tripoli, ti'ip^-o-li Wenatchee, we-nach'-e Yokohama, yo-ko-ha^-ma Tsitsika, tset'-ske Woonsocket, w6on'-s6k-et Ypres, e^-pr Tunka, ttin-ka' Yakuts, ya^-koots Zambesi, zam-be'-ze Uganda, u-gan'-da Ujiji, oo-je -je Yang tse Kiang, yang' tse Zanzibar, zan^-zi-bar ke-ang' Zermalt, zer-malt' Verkhoyarsk, verk-ho-yarsk' Yawatu Maru, ya-wa'-too- Zurich, zoo^-rik Vladimir, vla-de^-mer ma-roo' Zuyder Zee, zl'-der ze COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 241 INDEX. A. Fage. A bonanza wheat farm, description of 89 Abyssinia, greatest exports of; greatest imports of; na- tional counters 216 Academies of Arts and Sciences, St. Petersburg 133 A century of United States commerce 229 Acid tanning, method of 186 Acknowledgments 4 A commercial trip around the world 73-145 Across the Eastern Continent 122-135 Admiralty Headlight ; Inlet 96 Afghanistan, greatest exports of; greatest imports of; national counters of 217 A four-track railroad 75 Africa, commercial countries of 216 Agave, time to mature; why called century plant 178 Aids to commerce 9-70 Agricultural pyramids 226, 227 A hurricane at sea 142 Alabama, coal of 152 Alabama, pig iron of ; steel 154 Alaskan Railway ; a remarkable enterprise 27 Alaskan Commercial Company 184 Alaska, gold of 156 Albany 75 "Albany Gateway," a business center 75 Albatross, a South-Sea bird; endurance of 105 A leper colony 99 Algeria, greatest exports of; greatest imports of; na- tional counters of 216 Allan Line 205 Allspice, definition of; why so called; yield of, per tree, 176 Alster Basin 137 Aluminum, where found 157 Amber 137 American cities, facts about ; number of . 220-222 American consumption of chocolate 178 American constil, salary of 55 American cotton, where sold 181 American Fur Company, origin of 184 American Line 205 American locomotive, the first 25 American schools in the Philippines .'. 117 Amgoon, description of 125 Amount of food elements 19 Amsinck Line 205 Amsterdam, canal of 68 Amur 124 Amur and Shilka river boats 125 Amur river, buoys of 125 description of 125 woodpiles of 125 Anaconda mines 155 Anchor Line 205 An express train explained 39 Angora river 128 Aniline 160 Anise seed 182 Annual earnings of leading nations 227 Anthracite coal, when first used 151 Antwerp a distributing point 138 docks of 138 Page. -^PJa 101 Apple, America's finest fruit 172 products of 172 commerce of United States 173 customers, best 173 crop of 172 exports of 1821 and 1900 172 native of 172 orchard, largest 172 173 regions, greatest 173 regions of world 172, 173 trees, soil required 172, 173 Apricots 174 Arabia, greatest exports of 217 greatest imports of 217 national counters of 217 Area of nations compared —ith United States as a unit, 201 Argentine 149 Argentine Republic, greatest exports of 215 greatest imports of 215 national counters of ' 215 Arizona figs 172 gold of 156, 157 Arkwright's spinning-frame. efi"ect on cotton 180 Aromatic herbs of medicinal value 182 A Russian fair, commercial features of 131 Asafcetida, uses of 160 where found 160 Ashland, an ore port 154 Asia, commercial countries of 217 Asiatic journey, length of 132 •Asphalt 215 Assiout sluices, number 189 weir, construction of 189 Assarian dam, construction of 189 Astoria, founding of 184 Atbara bridge made of Amer'can iron 29 Atlantic and Mexican Gulf Steamship Co. Line 206 Atlantic cable, how made 36 rate of speed when laid 56 when successfully laid 36 Atlantic cargo, west-bound 52 Atlantic coast steamers, number of 207 Atlantic hurricanes, origin 143 times when most frequent 143 Atlantic passage, cost of 48 Atlantic passenger lines, cost of voyage 142 Atlantic routes, northern 49 southern 49 Atlantic sailing-vessels, number of 207 Atlantic voyage, log of 51 Atlas Line 207 Auckland, docks of 107 harbor of 107 Auditing department of a railroad vs. Government auditing department 26 Australia, gold and silver of 157, 158 gold mines 110 greatest exports of 218 greatest imports of 218 national counters of 218 Australasia, commercial countries of 218 242 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Australian Alps, description of 108, 110 Australian central Plateau 109 Australian exports 113 Australian Federal Government, description of Ill Australian meat refrigerators 113 Australian plant-life conditions 110 Australian railways 109' Austria, greatest exports of 213 greatest imports of 213 national counters of 213 steel 154 Austria-Hungary, coal 152 Austrian colonies, number of 197 A wheat farm, seeding of 89 A winter voyage across the Atlantic 135-145 Average per cent, of tax of leading nations 227 Average yearly earnings per capita of leading nations . . 227 B. Babylon, royal canal of 68 Badger 185 Bagdad caravan. The 22 "Bahama Steamship Co. Line 206 Bahr Yussuf 188 Baker, Sir Benjamin, architect 189 Balance of trade, meaning of term 10 Balsam, native of 183 Balsam of tolu 161 Baltic and North sea canals, description of 69 Baltimore & Ohio Railroad a pioneer 25 Bamboo cities 169 Bamboo, definition of 168 prevents a famine 168 uses of 168 seeds edible 168 species of 168 Banana cloth 172 Bananas, where grown 172 Banana tree, character of 172 Banda sea 115 Banking capital classified 229 Baobab mallows 183 Barge farms of Russia, description of 129 Barley, latitudes 167 native of 167 production by nations 227 regions of 167 Barometer, invention of 207 Bark and herb market 183 Barks of more value than gold 160 Bark products 159 Basket factory, location of 174 Bass strait 112 Bathurst wheat region 108 Battleship " Nebraska " 96 Bayberry tree, native of 176 value to commerce 176 Bear 185 Beaver 185 Beavers' fur, uses of 185 Beaver Tail Light 57 Bedloe's Island 49 Beef regions 15 Bees and buckwheat 167 Beet of commerce 171 Beet-sugar factories, capacity of 171 ■where located ; 171 Beet-sugar regions jg Beet sugar of the world le Belgian and Dutch lace of flax igl Belgium, compared to Maryland 138 canals of 133 capital of 133 coal of 154 greatest exports of 213 greatest imports of 213 minerals of 133 national counters of 213 sea-coast of 133 steel 154 Belladonna 182 Belladonna root i83 Belle Island, its horticultural beauty 81 Benevolent institutions of the State, plan of study 235 Bermuda onions 215 Bessemer process, explanation 153 value of 153 when introduced 153 Beverage family 177-179 " Big Bend Country," description of 91 Big Fiji 105 Birmingham. Alabama, its iron industries 155 Bismuth, date of discovery 149 Bituminous coal, why so called 150 distribution of 150 Blackberry 174 Black bread 165 made of rye 1(57 Black-pepper commerce 115 Black Rock Beacon go Blagovestchensk. description of 125 Blakely Harbor lumber mill 94 Blast furnace, how charged 155 how made 155 influence of 155 Blue ATountains, description of 108 Bluff Harbor IQ7 Blue gum 182 Boffslof Aolcano 196 Bolivia, greatest exports of 215 greatest imports of 215 national counters of 215 Bonilla Point 97 Boot and shoe industry in United States 186 Boot and shoe market of our nation 187 Bornholm, a mid-Baltic island 137 Boston, a commercial port IQ a live-stock port 73 coast trade of 73 commerce, total foreign 73 exports of 73 harbor deepening of 73 imports of 73 the depot of commerce for New England 9' steam tonnage of 73 water commerce, influence on railroads 73 Boston to Buffalo . . . 73-79 Boston Light 57 \ Boxers 124 Brant Point Light 57 Brazil coffee in commerce 179 Brazil, greatest exports of 215 greatest imports of 215 national counters of 215 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 243 Brazilian arrow-root, how obtained 171 Brazil nut 182 Breakfast under difficulties 142 Bread fruit, description of 103 Bread fruit tree, value of 103 Breadstuflfs, our nation's order of national sales 19 Brisbane, description of 114 British colonies, number of 197 British consul, salary 55 British Fishguard Light 96 Brussels lace, manufacture of 138 value of 138 Buckwheat, why so called 167 kernel, value of 168 flowers, for bees 167 uses of 168 value of 167 Buckwheat regions of the world 168 BuflFalo (city ) , description of 78 Buffalo (animals) , disappearance of 90 Building a modern steamer 45 Bureau of Telegraphy, codified cost of international messages 35 Butte, a large mining-camp 90 Butte mines 155 c. Cabinet woods in Luzon 117 Cable first laid in Europe 36 Cable first spoken of in 1795 35 Cablegrams, cost of 37 speed 37 Cable mileage for world 36 Cable projected across Pacific 36 Cables, total for the world 36 Cacao, tree, description of 178 best region of 178 bean 178 character of fruit 178 nibs 178 Cactus group, number of species 182 Cairo caravan. The 21 Cairo dam, influence of 189 Calais 139 Caledonian Canal, description of 69 Calfskin leather 186 Calcium, date of discovery 149 California, gold of 156 silver of 157 Calumet mines 155 Camel, why chosen for caravans 22 Cameron Line 206 Camp Bird mines, yield of 156 Camphor, definition of 161 how obtained 161 Camphor tree, where grown 163 Canada and Newfoundland, steam connections with the United States 205 Canada, Atlantic and Plant Steamship Company Line, 204 Canada Pacific Steamship Company Line 205 Canada, greatest exports of 213 greatest imports of 213 national counters of 213 coal of 153 geld of 156 balsam, use of 160 balsam, where obtained 160 Canada hemp 182 lumber 162 pulp mills 162 saw mills 162 Canals, origin of 68 Canal locks, invention of 68 largest in the world 69 Cane sugar of world 16 Cane-sugar regions 16-168 Canned goods of America 174 Canning factories, location of 174 Caoutchouc, definition of 159 how obtained 159 regions'of the world 160 where obtained 159 Cape Colony, greatest exports of 215 greatest imports of 215 national counters of 215 Cape Flattery 97 Cape Flattery Light 97 Cape Henlopen Light 57 Cape Nome gold fields 156 Cape to Cairo Railroad, bridges of ■. 29 divisions of 29 route of 29 the spirit of African commerce 30 Cape Tribulation 114 Cape York 114 Capsicum, native of 176 number of species 176 where cultivated 177 Caravan, an important vehicle of commerce 21 origin of 21 routes of Eastern World 21 time table 22 trade of Russian empire 22 Caraway 182 Carboniferous age 150 Carmanah Point 97 Carpet-bag express 38 Cars, classified ". 26 Carysfort Reef Light 60 Cascade tunnel, description of 92 a triumph of engineering skill in railroad build- ing 27 Cassava bread, how made 171 how obtained 171 Cast iron, how made 153 Castle Garden 48 Castle William 49 Castor beans 183 Cathedral of Antwerp, chimes of 138 collection of paintings 138 Cattle, by nations 227 Cavite 118 Cayenne pepper 214 how obtained 177 how used 177 not a pepper 176 volatile liquid of 177 why so called 176 Cebu 116 Celery, bleaching of 176 center of our nation 175 number of crops yearly 176 uses of 175 Center of tea trade 118 244 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Central America, sulphur of 159 Cereal production of the United States compared with other nations 19 Cereals, classified 164 for what used 1G4 where grown 164 of the tnited States, value of 230 Chabarovska express 123 Charleston main light 57 Chemulpu, Korea's principal port 122 Cherbourg harbor 140 Cherries IM Chicago a great inland port 10 Chicago drainage canal 70 Chief occupations in the Philippines 117 Chief duties of consul 54 Chile, greatest exports of 215 greatest imports of 215 national counters of 215 nitrates of 157 Chiliabinsk 130 China, coal of 163 greatest exports of 217 greatest imports of 217 national counters of 217 imperial canal of - 68 national plant of 168 Chinese colonies, number of 197 Chinese traders in Philippines 116 Chinook, center of irrigation region 90 Chita 126 Chocolate, a Mexican name 178 how adulterated 18 how obtained 17, 178 mills, the greatest 178 Christ's Church ' 107 Chronometer, explanation 51 Cinchona, of commerce, where obtained 159 bark 216 bark, use of 159 tree, an evergreen 159 tree, nature of 159 Cinnamon, definition of 176 how prepared 176 port of world 176 regions, where grown 176 tree, description 176 Citadel Island 133 Cities, population of 219, 220 Cities of State, plan of study 233 City of the Kremlin 130 Clallam forest, country of 97 Classes of cars, cost of 26 Clay products, classified 157 Clearing house, explanation of 228 Clearing house of Oriental and Occidental trade 118 Clearing houses of the world, with an annual billion- dollar exchange 228 Clermont, dimensions of 42 trial trip on the Hudson river 42 Cleveland, description of 80 docks of 80 Light, origin of Prof. Bliss's lighthouse song. ... 80 ship-building of 80 Climate of Australia Ill Cloth from American cotton 178 Cloth from Brazilian cotton 178 Cloves, definition of 176 how obtained 176 nature of 176 oil of 176 tree, size of 176 world supply of 176 Clyde Line 206 Coal and modern industries 151 Coal, cheap transportation of 152 definition of 150 distribution of 150 fields of Australia 113 industry and index 151 industry, development of 151 industry of world 151 inflammable substances of 151 kinds of 150 machinery of transportation 154 mining in China 152 nations of the world, rank of 152 origin of 150 production by nations 225 production, first order 152 production, second order 152 production, third order 153 shafts 151 transportation 151 uses of 150 trade of Boston vs. New York 73 Cochineal insect, value of 182 Cocoa butter, how obtained 178 uses of 178 Cocoanut palm, fruit 170 rank in familv 170 utility of . . ■ 170 Cocoanuts. chief source of our supply 170 Cocoa shells, what they are 178 C. O. D. explained 39 Coffee, fruits and nuts, etc 18 Coflfee, character of tree 177 of commerce, how obtained 177 in commerce 177 latitude in growth 177 leaves, use of 177 long known in commercial world 177 mart of world 178 origin of name 177 per capita 17 regions 17 tree, amount of care required 177 cost of. at bearins 177 tree, fruit described 177 tree, period of fr>.itage 177 tree, vield of coffee beans 177 Coins of commercial realms 211, 212 Coinage, first silver 212 first sold 212 Coke, how made 151 Coke ovens 154 Cold storage, influence on fruit commerce '..... 173 Colombia, greatest exports of 215 greatest imports of 215 national counters of 215 Colonies of Africa, names of If'S Colonies of Asia, names of 1^7 Colonies of Australia, names of 198 Colonial dependencies and protectorates of the world. . 197 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 245 Colonies of Europe, names of 197 Colonies of North America, names of 197 Colorado, gold of 156 pig iron of 154 silver of • • • 157 steel of 154 Commerce, defined 9 in cut flowers 183 in yerba mate 178 mineral 149-15(5 kinds of 9 of Australia, per capita 113 of Great Britain, per capita 113 of Kobe 120 origin of 9 question summary 13 Commercial agent, definition of 54 Commercial agents of the United States, number of ... . 54 Commercial city, how developed 9 Commercial freighters to Honolulu 96 Commercial museum, purpose of 190 Commercial plants, number of 164 use of 164 Commercial relations of the United States to her terri- torial possessions 200 Commodore Stenfeldt, commercial work of 122 Comparative area of nations 201 Coney Light 49 Congressional act of 1878, its effect on the life-saving service 65 Congressional committee of 1851 58 Conies 185 Connecticut, pig iron of 154 Consignment plan, explained o9 Consular service, of Austria 55 of England 55 of France 55 of Germany 55 of Italy 55 graded 53 salaries 55 Consular system, origin of 53 Consul, definition of 53 duties of 54 general duties of 54 Consuls, by whom appointed 53 Consuls-general, number of 54 Consul service of the United States, how established. . . 53 Continents, length of coast line 228 mean height of 228 Oopal 161 Copper and tin alloys 155 Copper, distribution 155 heavy blocks of 155 importance of 155 native 155 production of. in the United States 155 richest mines of 155 qualities of 155 the first metal used 155 u.ses of 155 Copper Harbor 86 Copper mines, mound-builders 155 Copper-pfoducing nations 156 Copper production, by nations 226 Copper, zinc and nickel alloy 1 55 Copra, how obtained 170 Copra, what it is 105 Coriander 182 Cork, definition of ' 159 factories 159 groves, regions of 159 how obtained 159 uses of 159 Corn, introduction to Europe by Spain 165 an important element 165 book of recipes 166 Corn bran, use of • 166 Corn crop of the New World 15 Corn kitchens .' 166 Corn oil, the refineries of 167 uses of 166 Corn production by nations 226 Corn pith, use of 166 Corn rubber 166 uses of 167 Corn spirits, uses of 167 Corn States of our Union 167 Corn sugar, uses of 166 Cornell's cable 35 Cornwall, mines of 150 Corregidor 115 Cottolene 181 Cotton churks 180 Cotton fabrics, antiquity of 178 Cotton gin, value of 180 Cotton mart of the world 181 Cotton mills in the South 10 Cotton, kinds of 178 latitude of growth 180 nation, the largest 181 native of 178 oil cake 181 per cent, of in the United States 180 production, by nations 220 Cotton ports of our nation 181 Cotton pulp 181 Cotton regions of the world 180 Cotton-seed flour 181 Cotton spindles of our nation 180 Counties in Congressional districts, plan of study of . . . 233 Counties of State Senatorial districts, plan of study of, 234 Counties of State Representative districts, plan of study of 234 Cow leather 186 Cow tree 103 Crab apple, nature of 172 Ci'anberry . . . ^ 174 Creosote 160 " Crown of the Continent " 91 Crucible, explanation of 153 Crucible steel 1 54 Crude-drug commerce 183 Crystal Palace, description of 132 Cuba, greatest exports of 215 greatest imports of 215 national counters of . 215 Cucumber, a gourd 175 use of . 175 Cunard Line 205 Cunard, a pioneer steamer line 42 Currants, origin of name 172 Cut-flower trade of the United States 183 Cuxhaben 138 246 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. D. Dairy products, by nations 227 Dams of the Nile 188 Damascus caravan, The 21 Danish colonies, number of 197 Darfur caravan, commerce of 22 Darfur caravan, The 22 Darling river 108 Date commerce 170 Date palm, value of 170 where found 170 Dead letter office 34 Deep mines, heat of 150 Denmark, greatest exports of 213 greatest imports of 213 national counters 213 Desert mirage 22 Detroit, description of 82 Detroit river tonnage 81 Deutsehland, its recent log 142 Devil's Lake 90 Dewberry 174 Dextrines (corn) , uses of 166 Diamond Head, or Leahi 99 Digitalis 183 Diagrams all our own 229 Diagrams of relative proportions of foods imported in 1900 18 Dirt-eating people 105 Distance in miles at sea — a problem 98 Distillation of coal, products of 151 Donedin 107 " Dogs " in ship-building 44 " Doldrums " of the Pacific 101 Domestic commerce, in agricultural products 162 in animal products 162 in lumbering 162 in manufacturing products 162 in mineral products 162 Dominion Line 205 Drug commerce, distributing points of 183 Dulutli, description of 87 an ore port 154 docks, description of 87 harbor lights 87 Dungeness Light 96 Dutchman, The Flying 142 Duties of the Life-Saving Service officers 65 E. Eastern Chinese Railroad 124 East Indian archipelago 115 commerce 115 telegraph 35 Economic plants 164-183 Eddy Light 141 Eddystone Lighthouse 52 Ediz Hook Light 97 Educational institutions of State, plan of study of ... . 235 Effect of Panama or Niearaguan Canal on food com- merce 19 Effect of Trans-Siberian Railroad on food commerce. ... 19 Eggs, per capita 16 Egypt, greatest exports of 216 greatest imports of 216 national counters of 216 Eight most important food products exported by the United States 20 Eight most important food products imported by the United States 20 Elbe 137 Electric city ......' 80 Engine quarters 50 England, coal area of 151 English coal 151 Ensley steel plant : 155 Ecuador, greatest exports of 215 greatest imports of 215 national counters of 215 Erie Canal, description of 68 effects on commerce 68 enlargement of 68 Ermack, description of 123 Ermine fur^ use of 184 when obtained 184 Ermine robe of French king 184 Escanaba as an ore port 154 Essayist on Samoa 103 Esquimault Harbor 96 Euphrates Railroad, history of 30 route of 30 Europe, lumber nation of 214 Evans steamboat 42 Everett, a Puget Sound city 93 Executive order affecting consuls 54 Exports, defined 10 Experimental farms of Russia 129 Exported products of the United States, classified .... 230 Express, amount of 39 a Yankee notion 39 business, origin of 38 collectors 39 companies, commercial names of 39 medals 41 money orders vs. postal orders 39 Extent of express business in our nation 3SF F. Facts for laboratory work 147 " Fairing the ship," explanation of 43 Fargo, a machinery center 89 Farm Cove 108 Father Hennepin 151 Federal capital of the Australian commonwealth 112 Fernshaw gum trees 112 Fern trees lOtf Fiber of cryota palm 170 Fiber family 170-174, 179-182 Fiber family, what it includes 170 Fiber plants, number of 179 Fiji Islands, description of • 105 Figs, earliest known fruit 172 native of 172 regions in which cultivated 172 work of Agricultural Department in transplant- ing 172 value of 172 Figs, Smyrna 172 Finest immigrant station on the globe, Ellis Island 144 Finland. Gulf of 136 Finland's capital city v,. . . . 137 First American coal mine 151 First application of steam 24 First express west 39 First ocean cable ; value of one cablegram 36 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 247 First ocean steamer 42 First Ohio steamer 42 First postal service of America 33 First steamer across the Atlantic 141 Fisher 185 Fitch's steamboat * 42 Five car and locomotive works of the United States. . . . 232 Five coal regions of the United States 232 Five copper regions of the United States 232 Five gold regions of the United States 232 Five great manufacturing centers of the United States, 232 Five iron manufacturing States of the United States. . . 232 Five leading cattle States of the United States 231 Five leading corn States of the United States 230 Five leading cotton States of the United States 230 Five leading countries buving hog products of the United States ' 231 Five leading dairy States of the United States 231 Five leading hay States of the United States 231 Five leading hog-producing States of the United States, 231 Five leading potato States of the United States 231 Five leading sheep States of the United States 231 Five leading silver regions 231 Five leading sugar districts of the United States 231 Five leading toliacco States of the United States 231 Five leading wheat States of the United States 2a0 Five lumber regions of the United States 231 Five most populous States of the United States 232 Five most w-ealthy States of the United States 232 Five ship-building centers of the United States 232 Fives of commerce 213-218 Five Sttites having the greatest railroad mileage 232 Five States manufacturing textile fabrics of the United States 232 Flax, antiquity of 179 importance of 179 production by nations 226 uses of 179" when introduced to America 179 Florin, first regular coin 212 " Florence B.'" and her work, The 81 Floiiring mills, location of 164 products of 164 Flour market of Xew York city 183 " Flour City " of the nation 88 " Flower City " of the nation 77 Fluctuating currency 212 Fog signal, cost of 59 object of 59 Fogs off Newfoundland, causes of 144 Fog whistle in a channel voyage 141 Food adulterations 18 'Food counterfeits vs. money counterfeits 18 Food elements exported by the United States 19 Food elements " Uncle Sam " imports 18 Foreign mails, steamers carrying 34 Foreign money, value in U. S. gold 212 Forest reserves, area of 163 location of . . 163 need of 163 Forest resources of Canada 162 Formosa 119 Fort Bourk 108 Fort Gratiot 83 Fort Hamilton 49 Fort Totten 90 Fort Wadsworth 49 Four leading States in periodicals issued 232 Foxes, kinds of 185 France, coal of 152 the greatest exports of 213 the greatest imports of 213 the national counters of 213 the steel of 154 Franklin, Benjamin, philosophy of storms 207 Freight engines, the weight of 25 Freighter routes 21 French colonies, number of 197 French consul, salary of 55 French dolls 139 Fresnel lamp, cost of 63 description of 63 From the Lakes to the Pacific 88-96 Frozen-meat plant, largest in world . 215 Fruit evaporation, its influence on apple exports 172 Fruit family 172-176 Fur, first clothing material 184 Furnace blast 153 Furnace, reverberatory 153 Fur of St. Paul dressers, classified 184 Fur market of Russia 185 Fur market of the world 185 Fur most highly prized 184 Fur sales in London 184 Fur traders pioneers of civilization 184 Fur-trading posts 184 Fusan 12f Fustian, made from 182 a. Galveston, destruction of 143 Galveston storm, help given by railroads 27 Gamboge, uses of 160 where found 160 Granary of the world 17 Gas 150 Gas engines 154 Gclsemium 182 General trans-Atlantic line 205 Geneva of America 91 Gensan, description of 122 Geographical terms, meaning of 223 Geranium — group, number, species 183 Geranium hedges 112 German consul, salary of 55 German colonies, number of 197 Germany, gi'eatest exports '. 213 greatest imports 213 national counters 213 steel of 154 Gibraltar of Russia 136 Ginger, where cultivated 176 how obtained 176 Gipsland 110 Glass factories 174 Glucose, amount piirchased by Great Britain 166 corn product 166 factories 166 factories, by-products of 166 uses of 166 Gluten (corn ) , uses of 166 Gold 156 Gold, amalgamation process 156 bullion per day, $3,500 156 248 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Gold, date of discovery 1 49 distribution of 150 free 156 how freed from impurities 156 nuggets of 156 ore, origin of 156 placer-mining of 156 regions of, in the United States 156 regions of, in the world 156 uses of 156 value of 156 why a standard "of values 156 Gold fields of Australia 113 Gold mines in Siberia, character of 127 Gooseberry 174 Gore, Obadiah 151 Government improvement of Siberian Railroad 126 Government inducements to Siberian settlers 123 Government watchers, tents and row-boats of 84 Grades of sugar, how obtained 168 Grain crop of the world 15 Grape region, one of the finest 172 Grape, seedless 172 Grapes long known to man 172 Graphite, definition of 150 Grasse (France), flowers used for perfumery 183 Grasses " 164-169 Gras pomade 183 Gravity dump, description of 87 Great Barriers Reefs 114 Great Britain, greatest exports of 213 greatest imports of 213 national counters of 213 steel of 154 Great canals of commerce, question summary 70 Great Eastern and the Atlantic cable 36 Great Lakes commerce, summary of 82 Great Sandy Island 114 Greatest business concern in the world 34 Greatest coffee region 17 Greatest iron city in the world 154 Greatest manufacturing center in Siberia 128 Greatest natural wonders '. 194 Greece, greatest exports of 213 greatest imports of 213 national counters of ; 213 Greymouth . 107 Ground swell of ocean 97 Guam, capital of 199 description of 105 government of 199 Guavas 182 Guiana, greatest exports of 216 greatest imports of 216 national counters of ' 216 Gulf of St. Peter the Great ' . . . 122 Gulf Stream, description of 144 Gum lac 161 Gums, classes of 160 definition of 160 of resins 160 uses of 160 Gurnet Light 57 Gutta-percha, definition of 160 regions producing 160 H. Hamburg-American line Hamburg, commerce of description of history of Hard maple, uses of Hares Harness Hashish Havre a commercial center docks of history of shipyards of Hawaii, a valuable commercial exchange for the United States commerce of geography of government of history of products of railways of Hawaiian health officer with the ship's pilot, why Hawaiian Islands, names of Hay crops Hay crops of our nation Hay grasses Hay States of our nation Hay yield by States Heavy caravan Helena, description of Hemp, habitat of oil regions of seed uses of " Hermit nations," in commercial world Herodotus' account of royal canal of Babylon Highest-paid American consul " Highs " and " lows " Hilo Historic Boston History of a State Hobart Town Hobson's bay Hog-producing nations ' Hold, capacity of Holland-American Line Hollyhocks Holly tree Holtman Home again _ Home of Mocha coffee Homestead steel plant Hondo Hong Kong, description of expanding commerce Honolulu harbor, description of Hoosac tunnel Hop cloth, where made Horse leather Hot Lake district Houses of refuge, description of How metallic ores of the United States rank 205 137* 137 137 182 185 186 181 139 139 139 139 101 199 100 199 100 100 101 99 199 109 169 169 169 169 23 90 181 181 181 181 181 121 08 55 208 101 73 235 108 111 227 45 205 183 178 137 145 17 155 120 118 118 199 99 74 182 186 105 66 230 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 249 Huckleberry 174 Hudson Bay Fur Company 184 Hull, construction of 44 Hunting Island lighthouse 61 I. Icebergs 49 Ice-breakers, value of 123 Idaho, gold of 156 . Illinois, coal of 152 pig iron of 154 steel of 154 Iloilo 116 Immigrants, care of 144 Imperial library 135 Important aids to commerce, question summary 39 Imported products of the United States, classified .... 230 Imports, defined 10 India, coal of 153 gold of 156 greatest exports of 218 greatest imports of 218 national counters of 218 original fiber of 179 Indiana, coal of 152 Indian corn, native of 165 Influence of Mohammedan caravan commerce 21 Inland sea, description of 119 International Bureau of Telegraphs 35 International code signals 97 International date line, history of 103 location of 103 juoblem, explained 104 International wrangle over Samoa 102 Introduction 5 Invention of canal lock, effect on canal-building 68 Invercargill 107 Iowa, coal of 152 Ipecac •. 183 Irish damask of flax 179 Irkutsk, a commercial center 127 Irkutsk fairs 127 Iron, date of discovery 149 distribution of 153 of commerce 153 ore. kinds of 153 " Ironquill's " Manila verse 116 Isotherms, definition of 208 " Islands of Rainbows " 99 Isle of Xew Werk 138 Italian colonies, number of 197 Italian Royal Mail Line 205 Italy, coal of 153 greatest exports of 213 greatest imports of 213 national counters of 213 J. " Jam ■' island 84 Japan, coal of 153 greatest exports of 218 greatest imports of 218 national counters of 218 Japanese coaling a vessel, description of 118 Jinrikisha man, description of 120 Juan de Fuca Strait 96 .July the coldest Australian month . 110 Juniper, berries of 183 Jungle of bamboo 168 Jute, where obtained 182 K. Khartoum 188 Kaiser Wilhelm canal 137 Ivaiser Wilhelm's Land 114 Kalama, the largest active volcano on the globe 101 Kalamazoo celery district, yield of 176 Kalaupapa and Koko Head 99 Kalawao 99 Kangaroo 185 Ivangaroo grass 113 leather 186 Kansas, altitude of western limit of State 237 area of 237 average annual moisture 237 average value of commercial products 238 barley yield .238 breadth in miles 237 coal of 152 commiercial products, classified 238 corn yield 238 distance from Kansas City. Kas.. to chief centers of domestic commerce of the United States. . . 238 eastern altitude 237 five most populous centers 236 garden vegetables, value of 238 hay crop 238 length in miles 237 live-stock products 238 mineral products, value of 238 moisture, summer 237 moisture, winter 237 population of 236 potato yield 238 statistics 236-238 summary 235 twent.y-five largest cities in order of rank 236 temperature, summer months 237 temperature, winter months 237 value of crops from 1882 to 1901 238 value of farm crops 238 weather 237 wheat yield 238 Karaka ". 106 Karwan-baschi, defined 22 Kauri gum 106, 161 Keeper of life station, salary of 66 Kentuckv, coal of 152 pig iron of 154 Khar-ma-Davan 126 Kiahtka a. caravan center 127 Kid leather 186 Kiete 128 Kiushu Island 119 Kirghiz steppe region 128 Klondike, gold of 156 Kobe, brightest and healthiest foreign settlement in Japan 119 Kobe, harbor, steamer lines of 121 Kongo, greatest exports of 216 greatest imports of 216 national counters 216 Kootenai river, description of 91 250 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Korea, development of 121 shape and size of 122 Krasnoyarsk, mining center of 128 Kronstadt fortress, history of 136 harbor 136 Kroogo-Baikal Line, The 127 Kurgan 130 Kyoto, history of 120 L. Laces from cotton 179 Ladrone group 105 Lake Baikal, description of 126 Lake Chelau, a national wonder 92 Lake Erie, storms of 83 Lake freight vs. rail 86 Lake Huron, storms of 83 Lake Ladoga 134 Lake Shore Express 75 Lakes of commercial importance 192 Lake Superior, comparative area of 86 iron 154 ore shipping ports of 87 ore, why transported 87 picture rocks of 86 why always cold 86 La Manche 139 Lamport and Holt Line 206 Land areas of earth classified 228 Largest cities of the United States, by States 203 Largest gold nuggets, weight of 156 Largest islands of the world 228 Largest steel plant 155 Largest sugar refinery in the world 168 Launching of steamers 44 La Valoce Line 205 Lead, date of discovery 149 where found 157 Leading museums of the world 190 Leather commerce 186-188 Leather exports vs. imports of hides and skins 187 Leather metropolis of commercial world 186 Leather-producing countries 186 Lemon, botanical family of 173 extract 174 imports 174 oil of 174 regions of 174 tree, compared to orange 173 tree, used by Romans 173 tree, yield of 174 Length of a degree of longitude ; table in nautical miles, 98 Letter postage, " then " and " now " 33 Liberty Light 49 Life-saving appliances 65 Life-saving service, examinations 65 miles under regulation 64 mother of 64 officers 65 of the United States ; question summary 67 value of 67 Life-saving stations, number of 67 Life-saving wage-system uniform 65 Light caravan 23 Lighthouse board, organization of 58 Lighthouse, its influence on commerce 56 Lighthouse-keeper, character of 63 Lighthouse lamps 62 Lighthouse, location of 59 Lighthouse service, officers of 58 a training-school 58 under Federal Government 57 Lighthouses, history of 56 Lighthouse system of Europe, study of, by a United States Government committee 57 Lighthouse tender 62 number of 62 Light-ships 56 lo<.'ation of 59 Light stations, of America, classified 56 of our nation, question summary 63 of the world 56 Lignite, definition of 150 Lime juice, use of 174 Lime, production of, by nations 226 relation to lemon 174 Linen manufactories 179 Linen mills in England 179 Links 179 Linseed meal, how obtained 179 Linseed oil, use of 179 Little Brewster's Light 57 Liverwort 183 Location of American consuls-general 56 Locomotive boiler, life of 25 Locomotive, first builder of 24 largest in the world 33 life of 25 mileage and care of 25 power of 25 cost of 26 ■when first built 24 ' London, Bombay & Hong Kong Railroad, route of ... . 30 London to Hong Kong, via Canadian Pacific 29 via Suez Canal 29 via Trans-Siberian Railroail 29 Longest lake ride in the world 79-88 Longitude, length of a degree varies 98 Longstreet's steamboat 42 Louisville floating station 64 Lumber 161-163 classes of trees 162 greatest regions of 161 market of the world 162 regions of Europe 162 regions of North America 162 regions of South America 162 States in rank 162 Luster, a metal characteristic 149 Lyttelton 107 M. Mace of commerce 115, 176 Mackinac, a cool resort in summer 83 scenic places of 83 Mackinac Island, history of 83 Madagascar, greatest exports of 217 greatest imports of 217 national counters of 217 Ma^ey, flower-stalk 178 uses of 178 yield of pulque 178 Mail clerks, how selected 34 work of 34 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 251 Mail, " left over and late " 53 Mainachin, a Chinese trading-post 127 Mallow group, number of species of 183 Mauch Chunk Railroad ' 25 Manchester, canal of 68 Manchurian Railroad, American ties and rails for .... 123 Manila, exports of 116 imports of 117 Manioc, native of 171 description of 171 Manila time, when changed to Asiatic time 103 Manna 102 Manuaka 106 Manufacture of boots and shoes 186 Manufactures of the United States, in order of rank . . . 230 Manufacturing plant, value to commerce 75 Maple sugar a commercial product 182 Marble, definition of 158 regions of 158 uses of 158 quarries of 158 Marine commerce, sailing vessels, tonnage of 224 steam tonnage of 224 Marine Signal Hill 107 Marshmallow roots 183 Marten 185 Marmot 185 Maryland, pig iron of 154 steel of 154 Marquette as an ore port 154 Massachusetts Humane Society, work of 64 Massachusetts, pig iron of 154 Mastic 161 Mauna Loa Fourth of July display, 1899 100 Meat bill of the United States 15 Meat exports. Government stamp 48 Meat schedule for nations, per capita 15 Mecca, a caravan center 21 Mecca balsam, how used 160 where obtained 160 Medicine family 182, 183 Meeting a ship at sea 51 Meeting of currents of Newfoundland 144 Melbourne, commerce of Ill description of 110 history of its founding 110 Melon, native of 175 regions 175 Mercury, date of discovery 149 where found 157 Metal, definition of 149 Metallic ores of the United States, rank of 230 Metals, free, explanation of 149 Mexican International Steamship Company Line 206 Mexico, greatest exports of 215 greatest imports of ,. . 215 national counters of 215 gold of 156 Michigan, pig iron of 154 steel of 154 Micronesia 105 Mid-ocean concert 51 Milford Sound 107 Milk sticks for sale 128 Minerals, most widely distributed 153 outline for study 150 commerce, value of 149 Minerals, distribution of 149 Mineral fertilizers, classified 157 where found 157 Mineral pyramids 225, 226 Mineral productions by nations 226, 227 Minerals of Tomsk 128 Mineral wealth of Luzon 117 Minot, a division headquarters 90 Mines, depth limit to work 150 drainage of 150 shafts of 150 A'entilation of 150 Mink 185 Minneapolis and St. Paul, twin cities of 88 Minneapolis, lumber commerce of 162 mills of 88 Minnesota, description of 88 two great railroads of 88 steel of 156 Minnesota mills, exported products of 88 feed ground at 88 Miscellaneous garden products 175-177 Missouri and Colorado, pig iron of 154 Missouri, coal of 152 steel of 154 Mocha coffee 177 Mohawk valley 76 Molasses of commerce, how obtained 170 Money, an index 211 cereal 211 bronze 211 Chinese cash 211 Chinese 211 copper coin 211 copper 212 definition of 211 dried codfish 211 hoe 211 hunting 211 in circulation in the United States 229 iron 211 pastoral 211 silver 212 of the world, value of 212 of the United States, kinds of 212 standard unit of each coin 212 tobacco 212 Money orders, division of United States mails in inter- national clearing-house 34 Moslem caravan routes 21 Montana, gold of 156 Molucca pass 115 jMorgan Line 206 Moreton bay 114 Morey's steamboat 42 Morning salute in St. Petersburg 132 Morocco, greatest exports of 217 greatest imports of 217 national counters of 217 Moji, Japan 121 Mulberry fiber, uses of 182 Moscow Express, The 127 Moscow, commercial conections of 131 industries of 131 sledge commerce of 131 the Pan-Slavic center 131 Mound-Builders 153 252 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Mountain peaks, important 193 Mount Hotham 110 Mount Intoko 107 !Mount Kosciusko 110 Mount Morgan mine 114 Mount Eanier 9G, 194 Mussow, Siberia 126 Muscat caravan, The 22 Museum at Philadelphia, work of 191 Museums, most influential 189 Murray river, description of 109 Mustard, an annual plant 177 black, where grown 177 wild, where found 177 Muskrat 185 Musk-ox , 185 ^Mustard group, number of species 183 native of Arctic regions 183 Muslin, from cotton 179 Myrrh, uses of 160 where obtained 160 ]\Iyrtle group, number of species 182 Myrtles, varying size 182 N. Nagasaki 118 dry docks of 119 Naples of New England 105 Natal, greatest exports of 217 greatest imports of 217 national counters of 217 Nation's marine commerce ' 224 Nations owning their railroads 28 Natural coke, where found 151 Natural features that influence commerce 192-195 Natural gas of the United States, by States 230 Natural sky-scrapers of the world 228 Navel oranges, history of 173 Navigable rivers of importance 192 Navigator's island 102 Nectarines 174 Negroid natives 109 " Neptune's christening " 101 Nerchinsk 126 Netherlands, canals of 68 greatest exports of 213 greatest imports of 213 national counters of 213 Nevada, gold of 156 New commercial freighters to Honolulu 96 New England a manufacturing center 9 value to central States 75 New Guinea, size of 114 New Jersey, pig iron of 154 steel of 154 storms of 1880 67 New markets for American meats 19 New Mexico, gold of 156 New Orleans, the world's sugar mart 168 New South Wales, coal of 153 New York and Cuba Mail Line 206 New York to San Francisco by rail 27 New York Central freight traffic from west 77 New York a logical metropolis ; why ? 10 New York and Porto Rico Line 206 New York, canals of (!8 first in biickwheat 76 New York, first in cheese 76 first in hops 76 first in milk 76 nursery and grape region of 77 pig iron of 154 steel of 154 New Zealand, coal of 153 comparative area 106 earthquakes of 105 greatest exports of 218 greatest imports of 218 national counters of 218 value of her location to her commerce 107 Niagara, energy of. how transmitted and made kinetic, 79 harnessing, history of 79 Nicaragua canal 70, 107 Nickel, date of discoveiy 149 where found 157 Nightshade group, members of 182 Nikolskoe 124 Nile, commercial importance of 188 Nile dam. commercial value of 189 Nippon Yusen Kaisha Line 206 Noon log, how taken 98 North America, commercial countries of 214 North Carolina and Georgia, pig iron of 154 North Carolina, steel of 154 North German Lloyd Line 205 North Island legends 105 Northern Pacific Steamship Company Line 206 North river 48, 145 North sea 138 " Northwest " steamer, cost of 80 crew of 80 description of 79 NoA-gorod, great fair of 131 Number in consular service 55 Nutmeg of commerce 115 how obtained 176 Nutmeg fruit, description of 176 Nutmeg tree, description of 176 O. Oahu 99 Oat meal, per capita consumption of 15 Oat-meal mills 167 Oat regions of the world 167 Oats, Dr. Johnson's definition of 167 native of 167 Obi-Irtysk river system 128 Occidental and Oriental Steamship Line 206 Ocean areas 228 Oceanic Steamship Company Line 206 Ocean mail, improvements made in by Dr. Franklin ... 33 Oceans, area of 196 Ocean, sign-posts and signals of 97 Ocean steamer, description of 43 Ocean voyage in steamer " St. Louis " 53 Ocean weather report 206 October weather at Irkutsk 126 Officers of lighthouse service, salaries of 58 Ofoo 102 Ohio, coal of 152 pig iron of 154 steel of 154 Ohio flood's work, life-saving by floating station 66 Oil cake (corn ) , uses of 166, 179 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 253 Oil industry 158 Oil of tar 160 Oil regions 158 Oil, pipe lines of 158 used to sprinkle railroad track 74 Oldest lighthouse in existence 63 Oldest mining center of Siberia 128 Oldest trees, where located 112 Old-style Russian time 135 Olive branch, emblem of 175 Olive fruit, how used 174 Olive oil, use of for butter 174 how obtained 174 Olive tree, size of 175 where grown 175 Olive, native of 174 value of 174 Olive wood 175 Oloosinga 102 Onon 124 Opium, as a narcotic 182 medicinal use 182 source of 182 Opossum 185 Orange blossoms, uses of 173 Oranges, botanical family of . » 173 native of 173 packing 173 regions of 173 Orange Free State, greatest exports of 217 greatest imports of 217 national counters of 217 Orchid farm. An 183 Ore, definition of 149 machinery of transportation 154 of New Zealand 106 Oregon, gold of 156 Organization of the United States life-saving service,. . 64 Oriental Steamship Company Line 206 Original colonies, date of ratification of United States constitution 205 Osaka, industries of 120 Otter 185 Otter fur 185 Outline book for State study 233 Overland commerce, where now carried on 23 Oxalis. native of 183 Ox hide 186 P. Pacific Coast Steamship Company Line 205 Pacific coal 151 Pacific commerce with Vladivostok 123 Pacific Mail Line 206 Pacific ocean, comparative area of 99 Pacific Steam Navigation Company Line 206 Pacific voyage, length of 122 Packing industry, by cities 231 Pago-Pago 102 Pali of Oahu, description of 101 Palmetto fiber 182 Palm family, number of species 169 rank in commercial importance 169 Palm fiber, uses of 170 Palm, four species in the United States 169 home of the -. 169 Palm fruit 170 Palm leaves, uses of 169 Palm wood, use of 169 Panama canal 107 Panama Railroad Company's Steamship Line 206 Pan-American Railroad, division of 31 history of 31 value of 31 Papuans, most barbaroiis of savages 114 Paraffin 159 Paraguay, greatest exports of 216 greatest imports of 216 national counters of 216 Parcels post 39 Parchment 186 Paris 140 Paris Island Rouge Light 61 Parramatta river oranges 108 Passenger engine, weight of 25 Passenger locomotive, the first 25 Passing an ocean greyhound at night 141 Pawpaw, juice of 183 Peach palm, where found 170 Peaches 174 Pearl oyster farm, description of 115 Pears 174 Peat bogs 150 Peat, definition 150 use of 150 Pimento 182 Pekin 124 Pelagic sealing, definition of 185 Penal institutions of State, plan of study of 235 Penobscot saw-mills 162 Pennsylvania, coal of 152 pig iron of 154 steel of 154 Pepper commerce of the United States 176 Pepper of commerce, what it is 176 Pepper vineyard, description of 115 Peppermint, leaves of 183 Perfumery, number of plants of 183 Perm, Russian 130 Persia, greatest exports of 218 greatest imports of 218 national coimters of 218 Petersborough, with its bridges 133 Peterhof, palace of 136 Petroleum, history of 158 production by nations 226 products 158 uses of 158 when first found in America 158 Philadelphia museum, organization of 190 Phoenician mines of antiquity 149 Phosphorescent seas 108 Physiography of a country, its influence 10 Pickle factories, largest 175 how cucumbers are bottled 175 Pig iron, nations producing 154 production by nations 226 production of 154 why so called 153 Pineapple, character of 174 where grown 174 Pine cloth, where made 182 Pioneer railroad of New York 27 Pitch 160 254 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Pittsburg a steel center; why? 10, 87 its iron industries 154 Pittsfield, Massachusetts 74 Plan for study of States 233-235 Plants of Australia, number of native species 112 Plants, number of species of 164 Plateaus of the world, height of 196 Platinum, date of discovery 149 uses of 157 where found 157 Platinum mines 130 Poi, a staff of life 100 Point Allerton 57 Point Wilson light 96 Pony express 33 Polar furs 185 Polynesia, greatest exports of 218 greatest imports of 218 national counters of 218 in milky way 104 Poppy, Avhere cultivated 182 Population of world, by continents 227 by races 227 by religions 227 Populations of the United States, 1790-1900 230 Pork regions 15 Port Angelus harbor, description of 97 Port Arthur 124 Portsmouth harbor light 57 Porto Rico, cables of 199 capital of 200 commerce of 200 cities of 200 description of 199 government of 200 location of 199 Port Hudson 96 Port Jackson 108 Port Nicholson 107 Port Philip Ill Portugal, greatest exports of 214 greatest imports of 214 national counters of 214 Portuguese colonies, number of 199 Postal auditing office 34 Postal department and gold in California 33 Postal depmrtment of the United States vs. England, France. Germany 34 Postal order 39 Postal service, value to commerce 33 Postal system established by Dr. Franklin 33 origin of 33 Postal union, rates of 205 when established 34 Post lamp on river, cost of maintaining 60 Potassium, date of discovery 149 Potato crop, of the United States, amount 171 of the United States, value 171 of the world 14 Potato family, members of 171 Potato. Europe's greatest crop 171 history of introduction 171 native of 171 number of species 171 why called Irish 171 Potato States of the Union 171 Potatoes, per capita consumption of 14 Precipitation, for State 237 Pi'eface 3 Preserving factories, location of 174 Pribylof islands, valued for 184 Prince Line 205, 206 Provisioning a trans-Atlantic liner 140 Prussie acid in manioc roots 172 Public debt of leading nations .• 227 Pueblo steel plant 155 Puget Sound fisheries 95 Puget Sound harbors vs. Atlantic harbors 93 Puget Sound shore line 95 Pulp mills 162 Pulque, amount used in Mexico 178 definition of 178 how obtained 178 Pumpkin, use of 175 Put-in Bay, place in history 81 Q. Quarantine anchorage 49 Quebec Steamship Company Line 206 Questions on overland commerce 23 Question summary. . .13, 19. 23, 32, 40, 47. 53, 55, 63, 67, 70 Quicksilver, production of, by nations 226 Quick transportation, influence on fruit commerce 173 Quincy Railroad, cost of 24 length of 24 pioneer 24 Quinine, use as a drug 159 R. Raccoon 185 Race Rock's Light 96 Raffia, where obtained 182 Railroad, chief agent of land commerce 24 first one in the United States 24 first one in the world 24 first to connect the east and west 27 importance to commerce 25 mileage by continents 28 mileage in North America 28 mileage in the United States 26 Railroads a civilizing agency 24 commercial namies of 32 of Asia .* 28 of Europe 28 of State, plan of study of 235 public vs. private 28 question summary 32 Railroad time, fastest on record, long-distance trains ... 78 Railroad tunnels, important ones named 32 Railway mileage by nations 228 " Rainbow City," a wonderful creation 78 Rain tree 103 Rainy day in Japan, whole city three inches taller 121 Raisins, how obtained 172 regions of 172 Ralston flour 164 Ranking cities in boots and shoes 186 Raspberry 174 Rata 106 Rattan palm, product used by man 170 where found 170 Receipts and expenditures of the United States, 1890- 1900 229 Red Bluff 96 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 255 Red Cross Line 206 Red D Line . 206 Red river, wheat regions of 88 Red Star Line 205 Refined grits (corn), uses of 166 Region of Fourth of July weather the whole year through 11^ Region of frozen rivers 129 Region where our sale of food products is increasing. . . 19 Republics of Central America, greatest exports of 214 greatest imports of 214 national counters of 214 Resins, definition of 160 distribution of 160 how obtained 160 qualities of 160 Results of a good trade balance 10 Results of a trade balance against a nation 10 Revenue, commission of 57 Rice, a staple article of food 164 per capita consumption of 15 uses of 164 ' where grown 164 Ringtailed cat 185 River commerce 59 River light, cost of 60 description of 60 Rivers of State, plan of study of 234 Riverside oranges 173 Robert Fulton and his steamboat 42 Robert Mackey on Tutuila 102 " Rocket," weight and speed 24 Romer shoal light 49 Rose island, one of Samoan group 102 Rose farm, A 183 Rounding the " Nose " 76 Route of telegram, Washington to Manila 37 Royal Dutch West India Mail Line 206 Rubber commerce 160 Rubber, use of 160 Rudder of a ship 45 Rue gi'ovip. number of species 182 Rue tree, medicinal value 182 Rumsey's steamboat 42 Russia, coal of , 153 gold of ] 56 greatest exports of 214 greatest imports of 214 national counters of 214 steel production of 154 Russian coins 133 Russian colonies, number of 197 Russian consul, salary of 55 Russian leather factory 133 Russian mint 133 Russian wheat belt 129 Rye, a hardy plant 167 native of 167 per capita consumption of 15 a principal food 167 uses of 167 s. Sabbath, service on ships 52 Sable 185 Sacred mountains of Japan 120 Saginaw bay and its cities , 83 Sago, a palm product 170 how obtained 170 Sago palm, description of 170 Sahara Railroad of Africa 30 Sail cloth, of flax 179 Sailors' home 51 Sailors' orphans' home 52 Saku 124 Salaries of heads of governments 228 Salt, where found 157 Salter's cotton mill, a pioneer 180 Salting house 175 Samara 130 Samoa, description of this favored land 102 division line 117° W. longitude 102 home of poet Stevenson 102 notable result of storm of 1889 102 supplies 102 Samoan treaty of 1899 102 Samoan type of physical manhood and womanhood 102 Sandaric 161 Sandy Hook 144 Sandy Hook light 57 Sandy Hook, time from, to dock 49 San Francisco, cargo for Sydney 108 Sapeks, as money , 211 Saracen wheat 167 Savaii, one of Samoan islands 102 Sarsaparillas 183 Sault Ste. Marie canal, entering of 84 Sault Ste. Marie, locks of 84 Savings banks, by nations 227 Saxifrage group 183 " Sayonara " to Japan 122 Schenectady, its history 75 locomotive works 76 Sawmills, by-products of 162 Scrub land, description of 109 Sea coal 151 Scrive-board, explanation of 43 Sea gulls, bird monarchs of the Pacific 98 endurance of 98 Sea Island cotton introduced 179 Seal center 184 Seal fur, uses of 184 Seal otter 185 Seattle, description of 93 shipping of 94 Sea water that cattle drink 137 Secretary Hay on Pan-American exposition 80 Sector lights, definition of 97 Seeding cotton, amount per day ; 180 Seine river 139 Senegal 128 Seven nations having greatest amount of silver coin in circulation 225 Seven nations having greatest amount of gold coin in circulation 225 Sextant 98 Shaft coal, cost of 151 Sheep regions of the world 16 Sheepskin 186 Scheldt river 138 Shilka river 125 Shimonoseki strait 119 Ship of the desert 22 Ship's dining-room, description of 45 256 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Ship's library 45 Shipping a wave 142 Ship's log, explanation of 49 Ship's provisioning important 140 Ship's mails 48 Ship's watches 49 Shoemaker arrested for selling coal that was black stone, 151 Siberia, agricultural region of 129 Kennan's graphic picture of 129 ivory deposits of 129 forest area of 128 Siberian dining-car meals 130 Siberian forest, description of 129 Siberian marine, department of 125 Siberian Railroad, station-houses of 124 Siberian squirrels 185 Signal display station 97 Silk port of Japan 120 Silk production by nations 226 Silk tree 183 Silver a coin metal 157 a precious metal 157 date of discovery 149 loading nation in production of 157 native, -where found 157 qualities of 157 Silver regions of the United States 157 of the world 157 Sinai mines 155 Sisal fiber 182 Sisal, use of 182 where obtained 182 Skunk 185 Slag, defined 153, 155 Slate, uses of 157 richest quarries 157 Sleighride in St. Petersburg 132 Smilax group 183 Smith Island Light 96 Smokeless gunpowder 167 Smelters 149 Smelting explained 149 Soapberry group, members of 182 Soapberry tree, native of 182 Soapberry seeds, character of 182 Sodium, date of discovery 149 mines of 150 Sombrero Key, light of 61 Soo canal, description of 69 developer of the West 85 value to lake commerce 69 Souih Africa, gold of 156 South Dakota, gold of 156 South African Republic, greatest exports ' 217 greatest imports of 217 national counters of 217 South America, comimercial nations of 215 South American Steamship Company Line 206 South island 107 Southern centers of trade 10 Southern cotton mills 180 Southampton, docks of 52 harbor of 52 river of 52 South terminal States, description of 73 Spain, coal of 153 greatest exports 214 Spain, greatest imports 214 mines of 150 national counters 214 Spanish colonies, number of 197 Speed of lake steamers 81 Spices, definition of 176 Spice family 176-177 Spikes of caryota palm 170 Spinning-frame, value of 180 Spokane, description of 91 Spool factories . .• 162 Springfield, Massachusetts 74 Squashes, kinds of 175 Stage-coach, a mail carrier 34 Station of life-saving service, description of 66 Station patrol of coast 67 Standard coins of nations 212 Standard time, by whom planned 210 defined 210 explained 210 meridians of 210 when adopted 21(X Stanovoi mines, Siberia 127 Starches ( corn ) , uses of 166 State boundaries, plan of study of 233 State canals 70 State capitals 203 St. Clair river ship canal 82 St. Clair flats described 82 St. Clair 'tunnel, description of 82 States, date of admission of 203 States of our Union, area of each 203 population of each 203 State supplement 233-238 Station of Peter the Great 134 Statistics. State and Territorial 203 St. Augustine Light 62 Steam ferries on Lake Baikal 126 Steel, a barometer of business 154 by Bessemer process 154 by cementation 154 importation of 154 cars 26 production by nations 226 products of 154 world's production of 154 uses of 154 Steel mills 154 Steamboat, origin of 42 Steamboats of the eighteenth century 42 Steamers, imports of New Zealand 106 Steamer, engines of 45 completing after launching 44 construction of 43 passenger, classified 48 twin screws of 45 stern wheel 152 Steamer cargo east 48 Stevens's steamboat 42 Sticks of eggs 121 St. Isiiac's cathedral, description of 134 St. Louis, steamer, christening of 43 comparative measurements of 45 Storms, general movement of 208 St. Marys, rapids of 84 thousands of isles of 84 St. Paul a fur center 184 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 257 St. Poteisburg chair-pushers 132 commercial importance of 133 ice-breaking steamers 133 quays of 133 Stratified deposits defined 149 Strawberries, every month 174 tame 174 wild . 174 Strawberry liarvests 174 Strawberry, importance of 174 Stretenska 124 Strychnine 182 Submarine cable, origin of 35 Sudd, definition of 188 depth of 188 Sudd-cutting, method of 188 Sudd-cutting expeditions. Major Peake"s account 188 Suez canal, description of 69 a shortened route to India 69 without locks, why? 70 Sugar beet, introduced by Napoleon 171 Sugar cane, native of 168 Sugar, from beet, how obtained 171 from cane, how made 168 of the United States, classified 230 plantation, product of 168 Summer seas 115 Summit station, description of 91 Sunset on Lake Superior 86 Superior, minerals of 86 Superintendent of foreign mails 34, 205 Sutherland falls, highest in the world 107 Sweaborg fortress 137 Sweden and Norway, greatest exports of 214 greatest imports of 214 national counters of 214 Sweet potato, not a potato 171 in Orient 171 presented to Isabella by Columbus 171 regions of 171 Switchback, description of 92 Switzerland, greatest exports of 214 greatest imports of 214 national counters of 214 Sydney botanical garden, description of 113 Sydne.y, description of 108 Sydney Heads 108 Synoptic charts 208 Syracuse, an Erie canal city 76 T. Tacoma, a " Sound " center of business 94 Tamarack mines 155 Tank steamers 158 Tanning bark, amount iised 186 names 186 Tanning process 186 Tanning vats 186 Tapioca, what it is 171 Tar, how obtained 160 Tasmania 108, 112 Tasmanian gum trees 112 Tasmanian tin 113 Tatoosk island 97 Tea farms in the United States ....'. 178 Tea in Europe 178 Tea, kind of plant 178 per capita consumption of 17 regions of 17, 178 where first grown 178 Tea leaves, first picking 178 preparation of 178 second picking 178 third picking 178 Telegraph, a language to lightning 35 first in Europe 35 where first located 35 Telegraph and cable, aid in Queen's Jubilee 36 value to press 37 Telegraphic communication, worth to business world. .35, 37 Telegraph lines by nations 229 Telegraph money-order service 37 Telegraph tribute to President McKinley 37 Telephone, extent of in United States .\ 38 origin of 38 worth of to business world 38 Tennessee, coal of 152 pig iron of 154 Territories of the United States, area of each 203 capit.il of each 203 date of organization of each 203 largest city of each 203 population of each 203 Texas pig iron 154 Theophrastus, Greek scholar 151 Thread-and-needle plant 178 Thread mills 162 Thermometer, invention of 207 Thingvalla Line 205 Thursday Island 114 Tides of harbor 52 Tientsin 124 Tillamook Rock Light Station 62 Timber belts of the United States 163 Tin, date of discovery 149 where found 157 Tin plate mills 174 Titusville oil well 158 Tiumen-Irkutsk canal, description of 127 Tobacco, a source of revenue to nation 182 effects of use of 182 history of 182 native of 182 Tobacco-giowing States 182 Tobacco-raising nations 227 Tokyo 120 Toledo, coal and clover city of the lakes 81 Tomato, as a garden fruit 174 history of 174 native of 174 Tomsk, coal beds of 128 hot springs of 128 Tobolsk river 128 Tonnage, of Soo Canal and London compared 70 of Soo canal and New York harbor compared ... 70 of Suez and Soo canals campared 70 Toothpick factories 162 Torres strait 114 Townsville, Queensland, description of 114 Trading post, commerce of 184 Tramp cargo for New York 139 Tramp steamers 135 Tramwavs. when first used 24 258 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. Trans-Atlantic cargoes, value of 207 Trans-Atlantic mail steamers 205 Trans-Atlantic steamers, number of 207 Trans-Atlantic sailing vessels, number of 207 Trans-Caucasus Railroad 30 Transportation, of coal, cost of 152 value of to commerce 31 Trans-Siberian Railroad a town-builder 29 effect in Siberia 29 vs. Cairo and caravan time-table 22 history of 28 Trans-Siberian train, description of 124 Transvaal, coal of 153 gold of 150 Transvaal mines 156 Tre-asuroi- Walker's report to Congress 57 Trees of Canada 162 Trinidad Line 206 Tripartite treaty of 1890 102 Tripoli caravan, The 22 Tripoli, greatest exports of 217 greatest imports of 217 national counters of 217 Trip through the Pacific 96-122 Trip through the world's greatest jiyramids 225-229 Tsitsika 124 Tula 130 Tundra, definition of 129 Tunis, greatest exports of 217 greatest imports of 217 national counters of 217 Turkey, greatest exports of 214 greatest imports of 214 national counters of 214 Turkish colonies, number of 197 Turntable, first one made 24 Turpentine farms 160 Turpentine, how obtained 160 Tutuila, raising United States flag over 103 Two-cent postage of our nation 205 Two Harbors as an ore port 154 Two Harbors Light 86 u. United Fruit Company Line 206 United States, area of 203 boot and shoe product of 187 coal area of 152 gold of 156 greatest exports of 214 greatest imports of 214 national counters of 214 national resources of 229 national expenditures, classified 229 leather manufactures, importation of 38 lighthouses, districts, location 58 lighthouse service, supervision of 57 population of 203 United States Bureau of Immigration, work of 144 United States coast lights. 1789 57 United States colonies, number of 197 United States life-saving service district, classified .... 64 United States life-saving system, origin of 64 United States mail, annual amount of 34 United States delivery carriers 34 United States mail connection, when founded 205 United States mail delivery department, where estab- lished ' 34 United States postal service, employes of 34 United States storm-signal flags 209 United States weather flags 209 United States weather service, when established 207 Universal Postal Union, when formed 205 Upolu Island 102 Uruguay, greatest exports of 216 greatest imports of 216 national counters of 216 Utah, gold of 156 Utica, an Erie canal town 76 description of 76 V. Van Diemen's Land 112 Value of marine property under weather service pro- tection '. 208 Vancouver's Island 96 Vasile Island 133 Veined deposits defined 149 Vellum 186 Venezuela, greatest exports of 216 greatest imports of 216 national counters of 216 Veronica 106 Victoria, minerals of 110 " Viper," speed of 141 Virginia, pig iron of 154 Vladimir, spindles and looms 131 Vladivostok 123 Volcano, an Alaskan 196 Vulcanizing process of Mr. Goodyear 159 w. Wallaby 185 Waltham, Massachusetts 74 Warning of weather service, how given 208 Washington, coal of 152 gold of 156 tide-land crops 96 timber supply : . . . 95 Watches on ship 52 Watches turned back to mountain time 90 " Water babies " of Hawaii 99 Watt. James, and steam 42 Weather of nation ranked 227 Weather of the United States classified 220 Weather bureau, benefit of to owners of inland propert}', 208 benefit of to owners of marine property 208 machinery of reports 208 maps, where made 208 of the United States 207-210 Weather map, explanation of 208 first daily 207 how obtained 210 where sent 210 Weather not in Hawaiian language 100 Weather reports of Madison and Jefferson 207 Weather reports on July Fourth, 1776 207 Weather service aid in flood of 1897 210 Weather service and rural delivery 210 Weather service, cost of 210 of England 207 of France 207 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 259 Weather service of Holland 207 value of 210 Wenatchee 92 Welliugtou 107 West Indies, greatest exports of 215 greatest imports of 215 national counters of • 215 region of best canes 168 Westinghousc works 154 West Point Light 96 Westport 107 West Virginia, coal of 152 pig iron of 154 steel of 154 Wheat breakfast foods 164 Whaleback freighters 82 Wheat by freight cheap as letters by mail 77 Wheat, native of 164 grading of 1 64 large elevators of 165 per capita consumption of 15 production by nations 226 when brought to America 164 where now grown 164 Wheat regions of Australia 113 Wheat regions of the world 15 Wheat States of our Union 165 Whitby island 96 Whistling buoy 59 White pepper of commerce 115 White Star Line 205 Whitney cotton gin, effect on cotton 180 Why corn meal is meeting with favor in Europe 20 Wisconsin and Minnesota, pig iron of 154 Wisconsin, steel of 154 Wild cat 185 Wildest spot on earth 62 Wine State of the Union 172 Winnipeg a fur center 184 Winter sports in St. Petersburg 132 Wires under Hugh river 35 Wolf 185 Wolverine 185 Wombat 185 Wool, production of by nations 226 Worcester, Massachusetts 74 Wrought iron, how made 153 Wyoming, coal of 152 ^^ Yablonoi mountains 126 Yakutsk province 127 Yam, regions of 171 Yawata Maru, description of 113 Yearly consumption of eggs, by nations 20 Yenisei bridge 128 Yerba mat6, a tea 178 how obtained 178 Yokohama, commerce of 120 Z. Zinc, date of discovery 149 where found 157 Zuyder Zee 138 260 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. Tvuge. A Patriotic Appeal * 4 School Children of America 8 Christiania's Largest Market * 9 Cheapside, formerly the World's Commercial Center *.. 11 A Half-Mile of Pork * 14 Sugar Levee, New Orleans, Louisiana * 16 Picking the Famous Uji Tea, Japan 16 Drying CoflFee. Porto Rico * 17 Blossom and Fruit of the Cacao Tree * 19 Husking the Crop in a Cocoanut Forest * 20 China's Substitute for Railways * 21 Lumber for the Gold Belt, Ouray * 22 One of the Freight Trains that Carries China's Home Commerce * » 23 The Mountain Carrier * 23 A Mountain Babv * 24 Grand Central S'tation, N. Y.* 24 Train of Commerce '. 25 De Witt Clinton Express 27 The Empire State Express 27 St. Louis LTnion Depot 31 Remarkable Railway Crossing 33 Carpet-Bag Express ' 38 First Steamer to Cross the Atlantic 43 Launching of the St. Louis 44 Library, StearAship St. Louis 45 First Cabin Dining Room 46 Grand Staircase, Steamship St. Louis 47 Steamship St. Louis 49 First Lighthouse built within the limits of the United States 56 Shoal Light Station 56 " Hen and Chickens " Light Vessel 59 Detroit River Light Station 59 Ohio River Post Light 60 Carysfort Reef Light Station 60 Sombrero Key Light Station 61 Rear Beacon. Paris Island Rouge 61 Tillamook Rock Light Station 62 Life-Saving Station * 64 Egyptian Beef for the Great Ocean Liners * 69 South Terminal Station 73 Rounding the Nose, Mohawk Valley 76 Map of the Great Lakes 78 Mackinac Island — Old Fort 84 Entering the Lock — Soo Canal 85 Canal Lock, Empty 85 Loading the Great Whaleback Boat * 87 A Modern Harvester 89 Profile of Moimtains crossed by a Switchback 92 Twenty Million Feet of Lumber in one Yard 93 View of Seattle 93 A Washington Sawlog 94 The Longest Wheat Warehouse in the World 94 A Salmon Catch 95 Cape Plattery Light Station 97 Sea-Gulls on the Pacific Ocean * 98 Group of Natives Eating Poi * 100 Avenue of Royal Palms * 100 A Public Laundry and Bath * 116 Pasig River Entrance. Manila. P. I.* 116 Making the Famous Manila Rope * 117 Drying Hemp on the Island of Cebu * -j-z-j-^irish!-:^- ^^^ Delights of Oriental Farming * ^.^^^TfTTX'^.'^l 8 The Right Way to Filipino Freedom * .,; . . .r.'o. . r.>:. -.'. 116 Raft of Cocoanuts * ,,. . i (.%•.»»/ (r.'*i%.. . Jl» Paye. Hong Kong Bay, China * 120 A Semicircular Bridge * 121 Bamboo Avenue * 121 Fusiyama, the Sacred Mountain of Japan * 122 Grand Throne of the Emperor's Palace, Sacred to the " Son of Heaven," Forbidden City * 124 Wheat for Export. Odessa, Russia * 130 Moskwa River and " Holy Moscow." Russia * 131 Bridge at St. Petersburg, Russia * 134 Xevskii Prospekt. St. Petersburg. Russia * 135 The Fountains from Peterhof Palace * 136 Great Bridge over the Elbe * 137 In the Market, Hamburg, Germany * 138 Most Splendidly Decorated Bridge in the World * 139 The Famous Drive, Avenue Champs Elysees, Paris* .... 140 The Boundless Ocean, from Land's End * 141 Great Heaps of Wreckage, Galveston * 143 United States Emigrant Station, Ellis Island 145 Moonlight on the Waters 145 New York City from the Bay, Night View 146 Mechanical Methods of Handling Coal 152 $4,000,000 in Gold from Nome City, in Boxes 156 Wheeling Salt to the Stacks, Solinen, Russia * 157 A Washington Sawmill .' 161 Grisly Giant, Mariposa Grove, California * 163 Papyrus, Original Source of Paper 164 Largest Hop Market in the World 165 First Reaper 165 Union Stock Yards. Chicago 166 Barley Harvest, Palestine 167 Tyrolese Haymakers 168 HajTuarket in Ireland 169 Carrying Grass to Market, Cuba 160 Cocoanut Trees. Florida 170 Marketing Bananas. Jamaica 172 Picking Oranges, California 173 Pineapples Growing. Florida 175 CofTee Trees in Blossom. Jamaica 177 Picking Cotton. Georgia 180 Native Ropemaking, Mexico 181 Geranium Wall, California 183 Plucking the Ostrich * 187 A Swiss Home and its Home-Maker * 191 The President's Flag * 191 The New Holyoke Dam 192 Charming Zermatt and the Matterhorn * 193 "Old Faithful " Geyser, Yellowstone Park * 194 Royal Gorge, Grand Canyon of the Arkansas * 194 Niagara Falls (in summer and winter) * 195 Looking through the great Forth Bridge * 190 Bogslof, an Alaskan Volcano 196 Scotland's Pride * 199 United States Capitol, Washington, D. C. * 200 Map — Comparative Areas 201 Salmon-Cannins in Alaska 205 United States Weather Flags and Storm Signals 209 The Oregon and one of the great Dry Docks * 222 Merchant Marine of Important Nations 224 Only a Part of the Family 233 Too much Com for his Cribs 233 One wav to Compound Interest 234 Harvesting Third Alfalfa Crop 234 Outline Map of Kansas 235 How WTieat grows in Kansas 236 Growing a Bank Account in Kansas 237 Note — Star denotes that cut is made from view copyrighted by Under- wood & Underwood, Ottawa, Kansas. VF 02797 Oil 1 !?>41 • 1 *•. X. -'*