L B TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD UC-NRLF 17 DOS JAMES E. RUSSELL, Editor Dean of Teachers College CLIFFORD B. UPTON, Associate Editor Provost of Teachers College This journal is issued bi-monthly except Ju!y, thus having five numbers during the year January, March, May, September, and November. The subscription price is $1.50 per year; foreign postage, 25 cents; Canadian postage, 15 cents. Single num- bers are 40 cents each, postpaid. A discount of 20 per cent is allowed on an order for five or more copie^ or subscriptions, if romifr t ^ * in payment is sent with order. A list of the back numbers of the REC i > v*i) 1 be sent on request. ouey orders pivable to 1 M ; - . i ..RGE and addre-'s all o. 1. rs o ^EACHERS COLLEGE RECORD S 5 WLST I2O1H '/I'R *T W v YOR'? NOTICE TO SUBSCRIBERS Notify the TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD promptly of any change of address; otherwise copies lost in transit will not be duplicated. 1 Entered as second class matter at the New York, N. Y;, Po^ Office. June n, 1900, under the Act of Maich 3, 1879. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized on August 6. 1918. Copyright, 1920, t y Teachers College, Columbia University ADVERTISEMENTS A NEW CHEMISTRY Vivian's Everyday Chemistry By ALFRED VIVIAN Dean of the College of Agriculture, Ohio State University; President, Ohio State Board of Vocational Education 560 Pages Profusely illustrated THIS course is intended for those high schools teaching Agriculture and Home Economics under the terms of the Federal Vocational Education Act, commonly known as the Smith-Hughes Act. It meets exactly a need which has not hitherto been supplied by any text on the market. Designed for use in any high school, it teaches the Chem- istry of everyday life with special emphasis on household economics, soil fertility and the relation of Chemistry to plant and animal production. It is intended for the ninety per cent of the high school pupils who do not go to college and is espe- cially suitable for the many vocational courses now being in- troduced in high schools. Ample provision has been made for supervised laboratory work but throughout, the needs and limitations of the small high school which cannot afford expensive equipment have been borne constantly in mind. Most of the experiments can be performed by means of simple home-made devices or even, in many cases, by the use of kitchen utensils. A wide range of topics is presented to meet the varying needs of boys and girls. After the first half of the book has been completed the boys and girls may be separated and allowed to study those chapters which are of particular interest to each group. In this way the course may be taken up at the same time by classes in both agriculture and home economics. AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO BOSTON ATLANTA The Teachers College Record The TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD in the past has filled an im- portant place in the educational world as a scientific publication, covering all fields and phases of educational theory and practice. It has enjoyed an unusual reputation for the publication of im- portant educational monographs, which have often been the first public announcement of experiments, theories or methods that have later become current in the best teaching practice. Since January, 1915, THE RECORD has been enlarged and supple- mented without detracting from the special monograph feature upon which its value has so long depended. These longer articles continue to occupy the greater portion of the magazine, but, in addition, there appear in each issue shorter items concerning all departments and organizations of the College, news of the alumni and their work and reports from the Teachers College clubs organized in a number of cities. Dean Russell is the editor of the TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD; Provost Upton is associate editor; the contributors include the Teachers College faculty and prominent alumni. SOME FORTHCOMING ARTICLES Training Emotions through Physical Education. Dr. Williams. New Conceptions of Practical Arts in Education. Professor Bonser. A Scale to Measure the Appreciation of Poetry. Professor Trabue and Professor Abbott. The Dramatic Method of Teaching Latin. Professor Lodge. A Series of Articles on the Project Method. A High School Extension of the Ayres Spelling Scale. Professor Briggs. Values in High School Algebra, and Their Measurement. Professor Kelley. 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You will confer a favor on the Association by adding ten cents to out-of-town checks, to pay for collection Send Membership Dues to M. R. TRABUE, Treasurer, Alumni Association TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY NEW YORK CITY ADVERTISEMENTS Do You THINK OF COMPOSITION AS A LUXURY? OR AS A NECESSITY, LIKE THREE MEALS A DAY? BRIGGS AND McKiNNEY, THE AUTHORS OF A FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION AND OF A SECOND BOOK OF COMPOSITION HAVE CORRELATED THE SUBJECT WITH OTHER STUDIES AND WITH EVERYDAY LIFE. THESE BOOKS ACTUALLY TEACH COMPOSITION, SIMPLY, SINCERELY, AND INTERESTINGLY. GINN AND COMPANY BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO LONDON AMERICANISM AND DEMOCRACY This is what we want to teach This is what our History Series does teach OUR UNITED STATES. By WILLIAM B. GUITTEAU, Superintendent of Schools, Toledo, Ohio. A new history written in the light ot recent events, thoroughly sound in its teaching regarding the relation of capital and labor, respect for law and order, growth of the great West, indus- trial development, the international relations of the United States, and the World War. Profuse illustrations with maps and half-tones. Also published in a two-book edition. For seventh and eighth grades. OUR ANCESTORS IN EUROPE. By JENNIE HALL, Francis W. Parker School, Chicago. Edited by J. MONTGOMERY GAMBRILL, Teachers College, Columbia University. An absorbing story of human progress, from ancient times to the colonizing of the New World. Through it the child learns how America came to be, and gains an appreciation of America's place among the nations. For sixth grades. SILVER, BURDETT AND COMPANY BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD Vol. XXI March, 1920 No. 2 Contents Vitamines and Babies WALTER H. EDDY 99 Implications for Elementary Education from Experiments in Democratizing Industry FREDERICK G. BONSER 108 Why High School Principals Succeed and Why They Fail ALBERT B. MEREDITH 117 How to Compute the Median WILLIAM A. McCALL 124 Teaching Through the Use of Projects or Purposeful Ad STUART A J COURTIS 139 Bibliography of the Project Method JOHN P. HERRING 150 COLLEGE NEWS AND DEPARTMENTAL NOTES ,. T / . . 3 . . ^ 175 Trustees Educational Administration Educational *l?sycholfcgy ; r % Fine Arts Foods and Cookery Household arid Institution Administration Household Economics Mathematics Modern Languages Recreational Leadership Secondary Education Textiles and Clothing Horace Mann School Teachers College Country Club The Administration Club. ALUMNI ACTIVITIES 188 The Endowment Campaign New Officers of the Alumni Associa- tion Dr. Graves' Elected Alumni Trustee Annual Alumni Conferences Annual Teachers College Festival Teachers Col- lege Dinner in Cleveland Toledo Teachers College Club Dr. OBrien's Study of High School Failures Recent Alumni Appointments. ;rr D^rT* MAIN TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD VOL. XXI MARCH, 1920 No. 2 VITAMINES AND BABIES By WALTER H. EDDY, PH.D. Associate Professor of Physiological Chemistry, Teachers College Since the discovery of the food factors which Casimir Funk named vitamines in 1911, there has been a progressive interest in these substances and in some cases a hysterical exaggeration of their importance that is hardly justified by the evidence available. The true importance of these substances and their relation to matters of diet are in fact most imperfectly established in the minds of their closest students to-day and much remains to be done before anyone can speak dogmatically about any phase of the subject. Before discussing the particular topic selected for this article let us consider briefly some of the few facts that have been estab- lished in regard to them. Historically, their study dates from Funk's christening in 1911 when the name he devised was applied to a substance found in rice polishings and in yeast which cured a peculiar disease known as polyneuritis or beri-beri. In the Far East, where rice forms so important a staple of diet, medical men were puzzled by the wide- spread development of this disease. Our own army workers in the Philippines had for a number of years, preceding 1911, given much study to this malady. Japanese workers had also investi- gated the subject rather minutely and, had logic decreed the course of events, the announcement of the curative substance should have come from these eastern workers. But, as often happens, the crucial experiment was developed at a point far removed from the seat of the major work in the subject. Poly- neuritis had become a subject for experimental study in the labor- atories of the German universities and it was there that Casimir 99 43S280 TOO TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD Funk became attracted to the problem. The work he began in Germany he carried to England with him and there several English workers, among them Hopkins and Drummond, were attracted to it as a field of research. In 1911, Funk published the papers in which he attributed the cause of the disease to the lack of a certain chemical substance, present and extractable from the hulls or polishings of rice and later shown to be present in yeast. This vitamine later came to be recognized as only one of several types of the substance and we now call it the antineuritic vitamine or "water soluble B." The development of the latter name is also interesting, for, like Funk's discovery, it represents the culmina- tion of a second series of investigations along an entirely different line, namely, the search for the factors essential to growth. In fact, had vitamine proved to be simply a substance curative of beri-beri, the world at large would never have grown excited over it and much of the vast amount of literature that has accumu- lated since 1911 would never have been written. From the historian's viewpoint the whole subject of nutrition is absurdly modern. It has not had time to acquire even a respect- able amount of dust. Atwater and his standard calorie tables and the development of the calorimeter are not beyond the memory of many of your professors in Teachers College. The fight that raged about Chittenden and his low protein diet as against the statistically determined percentage of Atwater and Voit is contemporaneous with the Spanish- American War. Prior to 1911, we had reached an interesting development in regard to dietary laws. We knew how to measure food as we measure coal for a furnace. We knew how much protein, fat and carbohydrates a man must consume to maintain his weight to the satisfaction of the insurance companies. We had learned the value of water and mineral salts and "that we mustn't despise the non-food material commonly classed as roughage as essential to the maintenance of our digestive mechanism in working trim. There were, how- ever, gaps in our knowledge that needed filling in. One of these gaps was the question as to the substitution of proteins of one sort for those of another in the diet. Vegetarianism vs. animal or mixed diets was a controversy symtomatic of our ignorance in this particular. Then, too, a student by the name of Stepp had stumbled across a peculiar situation in his study of the relation of VITAMINES AND BABIES IOI fats to the diet. Basing his experiments on the fact that ether and alcohol extract fats, he proceeded to extract a diet of bread and milk with alcohol-ether to remove the fat. Such a treatment promptly proved that rats which thrived on the diet before ex- traction failed to grow on the extracted diet but could be restored to growth by mixing the alcohol-ether extract with the extracted diet. Having established this fact, Stepp next proceeded to test out the fats necessary to this growth by substituting one pure type after the other. But even though the fats were the same as those obtained from milk or bread this substitution failed to work. Something different from any known fat was extracted by alcohol-ether that was necessary to growth. Mendel and Osborne reported in 1911 the results of an ex- haustive series of experiments in protein feeding. Students of the subject had for some years been taking all the known proteins to pieces and determining their building stones. Such a process had revealed that about seventeen such stones (amino acids, the chemist calls them) were the materials out of which all proteins were built. Some had all the stones present; others lacked certain kinds and the amount of each stone varied rather widely with the protein. By feeding rats with selected proteins these students taught us that the animal body demands all of these seventeen stones in its diet or it goes on strike. But without going into that phase of the story it is a sort of side result to which we wish to call attention here. No matter wha{ combination of protein, fat, carbohydrate and mineral salt they tried, they found that their animals failed to grow unless there were present in the diet two somethings; one present in butter-fat and absent in lard; another present in milk but which was neither protein, fat, carbohydrate nor mineral. These x and y of Mendel's experiments were noted in papers published simultaneously with Funk's announcement of vitamine in 1911. It was natural, therefore, to connect the two ideas were Stepp's and Mendel's unknowns identical with Funk's vitamine? Another worker who had been following the dietary values of food mixtures in great detail was McCollum. To him we had already owed much for his contributions to the importance of salt mixtures in particular. It was natural, therefore, that in 1911 and the years immediately following, these three schools of 102' TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD workers and many others who had been attracted to it should have combined in the pursuit of the vitamines. It would be interesting to follow the development farther but enough has been given to serve our purpose here. Suffice it to say that in 1920 we find ourselves speaking and discussing the properties of three types of vitamines, each of definite functions (though our knowledge of these functions is extremely meagre), each differing from the other two in chemical behavior and usually called by the following names: "Fat soluble A," identical with Stepp's un- known and Mendel's butter fat factor; "water soluble B," the antineuritic vitamine and identical with Funk's beri-beri cure and Mendel's milk factor; "water soluble C," the newest member of the family and the substance which prevents scurvy. These terms, at least the "A" and "B," were devised by McCollum. Because of what Kipling might designate as "another story" McCollum didn't like Funk's name and since no one has yet shown what these substances are chemically, he preferred to call them the "unidentified dietary factors, water soluble B and fat soluble A." But in the absence of absolute knowledge, the name vitamine persists for lack of a better term and the McCollum terms are used to distinguish the types which are now often shortened to vitamine A, B, and C. To-day we know they are; we don't know what they are. We know some of the things they do and don't do, we know many substances that contain them and how to extract them in a crude way from these substances. But their exact chemical nature is as much a puzzle to-day as the day of their discovery and that fact is one of the hindrances to our progress in dietetics. Fortunately, however, the progress of science is not absolutely retarded by the absence of complete information. In fact, if we subtracted from modern medicine to-day all its empiricism, it would be a very small portion, by comparison, that would be left. By careful feeding experiments with animals other than man, we have gleaned much information as to what foods must be present to supply the A and B factors, now known to be necessary to growth. We know, in part, what effect heat, acids and alkalis have on these substances and hence a little about the relation of cookery to these factors. In case of adults with highly varied diets we know now that it would be difficult to avoid VITAMINES AND BABIES 103 getting enough of these factors in an average daily diet, though we don't know how they function in the adult diet. The abun- dance of sources, however, relieves us of much anxiety in regard to the adequacy in adult diets and the general public can safely pursue its ordinary dietary habits without much fear of missing these accessories from its menu. And now we come to the immediate object of this paper, the discussion of what vitamines mean to the babies. Frankly, we are at the beginning of the subject. Little direct study has been made. Most of our conclusions are inferences drawn from the behavior of the baby rats, guinea pigs, etc., of the lower animal order and, unfortunately, while these results are suggestive they cannot always be shown of exact application to the human animal. Each species has its metabolic peculiarities and the human species is no exception to this rule. The two things that make the subject vital, however, are first that without the vitamines present no type of animal yet studied can grow; second, that the limited character of a baby's diet makes its selection and preparation in terms of vitamines imperative. In 1916, the author began at the New York Hospital with the assistance of their pediatrist, Dr. Joseph Roper, a series of experi- ments with babies suffering from malnutrition. Aside from experi- ments conducted by Dr. Alfred Hess, these are the first vitamine studies in which babies have supplied the experimental material. This work was interrupted by the war but has now been resumed. From the animal studies developed to date, it seemed that vitamines enter into infant feeding to the following extent: We must so select and prepare their diet as to provide both the A and the B type in an easily assimilable form if we expect to get growth. The avoidance of scurvy, which is now known to be definitely prevented by the "C" type and which is the basis of the orange juice feeding, demands the presence of that type in the diet. Rickets, which used to be considered purely a matter of calcium salts, has recently been stated by McCollum to be the result of deficiency of any two of four factors quality of protein, mineral salts, fat soluble A, and water soluble B. It follows, therefore, that avoidance of these evils for successful growth demands that we construct diets in terms of these factors and not simply in terms of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, mineral 104 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD salts and calories as heretofore. The results of this attention are already manifesting themselves. Hess has shown that while the C type is present in milk it is easily destroyed at the low tempera- tures of pasteurization and therefore milk must not be depended upon for this factor. It has also been shown that this type is present in other and cheaper substances than orange juice, and this expensive article may now be replaced by cheaper materials such as canned tomato juice and the like. He has also recently shown that apparently the A type is not so important in baby diets as it is in the diet of rats and guinea pigs, which makes the question of the B type still more important. For many reasons the problem of the B type appealed to the author as attractive experimentally. Though it is present in milk in relative abun- dance and, we know now, stable to any temperature used in milk preparation, the power of the babies to utilize it varies greatly. McCollum early showed that the B in whole milk responded entirely differently to heat from the same substance in whey from which the casein or curd had been removed. Seidell had shown that this form could' be easily removed from solutions containing it by merely shaking the same with finely divided Fullers earth ; in which treatment the B sticks firmly to the earth and can be filtered off almost quantitatively with it. Dr. Gibson tells me that he was unable to cure beri-beri in the Philippines by the use of milk, either cow or breast milk, although we have always considered the B type, wherever found, as identical with the antineuritic form of Funk. Finally, there are types of baby malnutrition known as marasums where no matter what com- bination of milk diet used the baby fails to grow. These latter cases therefore form interesting material for testing the vitamine hypothesis, and it is with such cases that the author's experiments have dealt. The basal hypothesis was that while the B type was present in milk it was for some reason not available to the assimilation of the marasmic baby, and that if it were supplied in an easily assimilable form, the child could be made to grow. To that end experiments were devised for supple- menting the ordinary diet (previously made adequate in calories, quality of protein, and in mineral salts) by extracts of the B vitamine. In the earlier experiments the material was extracted from sheep pancreas. In the later ones, the ordinary navy bean VITAMINES AND BABIES 105 was our source. The source does not seem to matter, and the results to date have been equally successful with B vitamine from either source. The accompanying chart, which is a composite picture of the results with seven cases reported in 1917 in the Journal of Dis- eases of Children, 1 illustrates the apparent success of the vitamine stimulation. The results with rats 16, 17, 18, 20, and 22 are especially interesting as confirmation material in connection with the study of the boy J. G. During the first vitamine period of this child five rats were fed on the same diet as the child, with this difference rats 16, 17, and 18 received none of the vitamine, rats 20 and 21, on the other hand, received doses of the B vita- mine with their food. The difference in growth rate is obvious and striking. Furthermore, as will be noted by a glance at these figures, rat 18 made rapid recovery when at the end of twenty- five days the B vitamine was added, while rats 20 and 22 had their growth much reduced by the removal of the vitamine from the diet for a short period in the middle of the cycle. The cases shown are not all equally strong evidence, for in some cases the babies were already beginning to gain at the time when the vitamine was administered ; but in every case the rate of growth increased with the addition of the vitamine and this without change in the amount or composition of the food given. This fall, the experiments were renewed and two babies have since been discharged as cured cases following favorable response to the treatment. One of these gave particularly suggestive evi- dence. This baby was a girl aged four months on admission and weighing at the beginning of the experiment 6 Ibs., 5 ozs. The results are shown in the following table: Case 16 JOSEPHINE A Period Days Type of feeding Cal. value of diet Net gain or loss I 32 Mixed 347 6 ozs - l ss II 17 High calorie diet 54$ 8 ozs. gain (or .47 oz. per day) III 32 Same as period II 548 27 ozs. gain (plus vitamine only) (or .84 oz. per day) 1 Eddy and Roper, article in American Journal of Diseases of Children (1917), Vol. 14, p. 189. 106 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD Effedls of Vitamines on Growth I indicates mm indicates non-vilamine vitamine Rat 16 Rat Charts Patients' Charts VITAMINES AND BABIES 107 In this case we have all the factors constant (so far as it is possible to control them) except the vitamine, and with the latter the weight gain per day is nearly doubled. Such evidence is im- pressive if not conclusive. The results of these experiments and others not recorded here seem to justify time and attention to the vitamine control of the babies' food. As is obvious, much remains to be done. Many questions raised by these meagre details are as yet incapable of answer, such as the matter of dosage, the best form of vitamine administration, the effect of vitamine in normal nutrition as com- pared with malnutrition cases. The vitamine analysis of the foods used for baby diets is another problem yet barely begun. Thanks to the cooperation of the College, the department of physiological chemistry has been enabled to take up these prob- lems this year on a much wider scale. Several students have been assigned as research workers. Additional facilities and materials for experimentation have been provided by the opening to us of the wards of the New York Nursery and Children's Hospital and the assistance of their pediatrists. One of the Teachers College students has already worked out, in fact, the development of a dosage measurement that promises to prove a most valuable aid in the grading of results. The program includes the further study of malnutrition cases and normal cases, the study of cereal preparation in terms of adequacy in all the dietary factors, the study of breast and cow's milk preparations, and the standardiza- tion of vitamine analytical methods. It is hoped that through these studies the department of physiological chemistry may be able to add its quota to the practical contributions to both instruc- tional and scientific progress. IMPLICATIONS FOR ELEMENTARY EDUCATION FROM EXPERIMENTS IN DEMOCRATIZING INDUSTRY By FREDERICK G. BONSER Professor of Education, Teachers College EDITOR'S NOTE. At the Alumni Conferences of Teachers College on Feb- ruary 21, 1920, before the elementary and lower primary sections, Mr. Robert E. Wolf, consulting engineer, presented the topic "Control and Consent Instruction, Initiative, and Individualism in Industry." In this discussion, Mr. Wolf gave the results of extended experiments in providing opportunity and means for the participation of the employees in several paper manufactur- ing plants to analyze and improve their work. Records of the time variability and relative efficiency of various factors in the processes were secured in the plant and shown to the men. Explanations were made of the several elements, and the attainable standards known for each process in efficiency and time were derived and charted. The men were invited to improve the amount and quality of their work by considering these standards. Daily records of each individual worker, of each department, and of the whole plant were posted. Rapid gains in every depart- ment soon followed with increased efficiency and earnings by nearly every worker. Each man began to study and plan to improve his own record, be- coming thereby altogether more intelligent about his work and more efficient in doing it. Suggestions for better ways of working were often made by work- men. A new interest and a larger satisfaction came as the men put their initiative and creative impulses to work. The foremen and managers all cooperated to give every worker, whatever his grade, a chance to contribute his best thought to the work, and rewarded suggestions and improvements with acceptance and increased wage returns. A spirit of democratic comradeship in a common project was developed. A premium was everywhere placed upon initiative and individual effort in the / promotion of a common purpose. The industry was socialized and democra- tized by the stimulation and reward of the individual self-expression of each workman in the intelligent improvement of his own particular work, all the way from the superintendent down to the employee in the most humble position. The implications of such experiments in industry for elementary education were pointed out by Professor Bonser in the paper following. If the schools are to make their contribution in developing the creative impulse in children, and in making the work of men and women a larger opportunity for the expression of personality, they have three closely related problems to solve. 108 IMPLICATIONS FOR ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 109 The first of these problems is that of transforming the school from a place of imposed tasks to a place of purposive activities appreciated in their relationships and worths by the children themselves. The second problem is that of aiding in the change of the general point of view of occupations as mere means of pro- ducing the goods required for the needs of life to a point of view which will regard work as an opportunity for self-expression and creative effort yielding satisfaction in itself, as well as in its material rewards. The third problem lies in the democratization of the administrative and supervisory policies and practices of school boards, superintendents, principals, and supervisors. Human nature is very much the same among all human beings. Whether industrial workers, or teachers, or children, no one likes to be coerced or driven. Under conditions of suppression or sub- servience, no one expresses the best that is in him nor takes much satisfaction in such work as he may do. Autocracy in any form is repugnant and hateful to all red-blooded, energetic people. Autocratic control can be maintained only through the threat or use of force, be this force openly flaunted or covertly veiled. The human quality upon which it operates is fear. No personality can express itself adequately when beset by a state of fear. Let us consider first the implications of this general view for the content and method of work in the school. If children are given an opportunity to participate creatively in the work of the school, the interest in self-expression as an element in whatever they do will grow and bring them to their work with an attitude of creative interest toward it and with a habit of creative effort in it. To make the school a place for the cultivation of this interest and habit means changes in school procedure almost as marked as those which have been described for industry. It means that whatever is done will be done with the full, sympa- thetic attitude of pupils, and that it will be entered into because of a personally appreciated sense of its worth in relationship to a satisfaction which it yields. It means that school work must be organized on the basis of problems which themselves require creative endeavor for their solution. It means the setting up of purposes derived from a desire to live more fully and richly into the natural and social environment. Through the realization of these purposes the work will contribute those elements of race 110 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD experience which have been found most valuable for efficient and satisfying civilized life. Projects in the practical arts, in geog- raphy, in history, in literature, and in all other subjects must be so pursued that each will yield a joy in the work itself a joy that makes everything done create a desire to do more. It is a part of the teacher's work to direct interest to activities that are really creative in form, activities which call for initiative, origi- nality, experimentation, and testing. If this is not done there may be evidences of strong interests in pursuits that are not creative at all but that are rather indications of arrested develop- ment. Children may like to engage in mechanical processes for the reason that they grow increasingly easy, increasingly auto- matic. All drill work which continues to be interesting when carried beyond the point where its relationship to the purpose which it serves is the motive, becomes a means of arrested devel- opment rather than of further growth. Projects, to provide their maximum value, must be in gen- uinely cooperative relationships, just as has been pointed out in industry. The industrial worker contributes his portion to a finished product to which many others are also contributing their parts. His work is not socialized unless he is aware of the rela- tionships of their common contribution to the consumers of their products, of the relationships of himself and his fellow workers, and of the relationships of themselves and their work to workers in other fields. In the school, the individual pupil should likewise appreciate his work in its relationship to the common purposes of the class as a whole, and the cooperative enterprises of the class as a whole to larger life purposes outside of the school. This fundamental fact of social relationships in the endeavor of every pupil must be operative in the organization and promotion of the project method or it is doomed to failure. Any form of school procedure which emphasizes isolated individualism at the cost of the appreciation of cooperative relationships and an atti- tude of breadth and sympathetic social interests is undemocratic and un American. The problem requires the selection of enter- prises in which the value of the individual contribution lies in its promotion of the enterprises of the whole group. When, through creative effort in industry, the individual dis- covers or invents some element which is of value to himself the IMPLICATIONS FOR ELEMENTARY EDUCATION (|T30 whole industry of which he is a part may profit by his contribu- tion. There is no other way to measure the worth of his creative effort. If it can make no appreciable difference in the productive processes which can be shared by others it is rated as wasted effort. Any satisfaction derived from the activity itself is largely destroyed by the very fact that it is wanting in social value. In school, likewise, the test of worth must be social, or an attitude is developed that is selfish and unsocial. Anyone who thoughtfully observes the work of children in a class where the project method is interpreted as meaning purely individual enterprises and in- struction will be struck with the breakdown of social unity, and with the absence of the cooperative spirit and attitude. There may be sufficient regard for others to produce an attitude of non- interference, but this is a negative attitude rather a positive one, it is selfish rather than social. By an appreciation of the worth of the work of others in enterprises for our common good, our feelings of relationship to others are altogether more genuinely social and democratic than when we simply do not interfere with others because we do not wish to be interfered with ourselves. Creative effort is put forth only as the result of impulsion. It cannot be compelled. Surroundings favorable to it therefore require conditions in which children feel impelled to express themselves in response to situations in which there are problems to solve. To make the solutions which bring satisfaction may call forth an impelling activity resulting in discovery or invention. It may be in construction work, in playing games, in making in- vestigations in geography or science, in expressing thoughts or feelings in writing or music or design, or in the solution of number problems. Whatever the situation, the full, wholehearted con- centration of interest and effort will appear only when the motive force lies within the pupil himself. Working under the compul- sion of a teacher for which the only personally appreciated reward is a grade or mark suppresses the creative impulse just as does working under a foreman or manager for the mere reward of the wage received. It is discouraging and deadening to work where there is no opportunity for the expression of initiative, or if an opportunity, no recognition of successful effort. Man is by nature curious, exploratory, investigative. He finds a joy in the expres- sion of these creative impulses. Most of them may be exercised 112 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD and satisfied through successful expression in connection with his work as well as in his play. The school life of children should afford the most ideal conditions for the growth and refinement of creative impulses. It has almost no limitations to place in the way of their development. One of its most significant purposes is to provide conditions for the development of creative impulses under the guidance of social ends and ideals. It can accomplish no more valuable service than to turn the processes of creative effort in directions which will give their products the most worth for human well-being. The implications from industry apply quite as much to the teachers, supervisors, and administrators of the schools as to the pupils. Unless there is a spirit of democracy and creative effort among these in their relationships to each other and to the chil- dren, how can we expect this spirit to exist among the children themselves? The creative impulse is highly sensitive to what we may call atmosphere. It flourishes best in an atmosphere of freedom and encouragement. It shrinks and dies in the presence of autocracy. It cannot be stimulated by dictation. Dictation destroys it. The creative impulse is stimulated in an industrial plant only in the measure in which there is a sympathetic, co- operative, democratic atmosphere among foremen, managers, superintendents, and directors, as well as among the men whom they employ. If school directors, superintendents, principals, and supervisors are autocratic and dictatorial, teachers will be auto- cratic and dictatorial. If teachers are autocratic, initiative in the children will disappear. Creative effort will cease and work will become a dreary routine of imposed tasks. The school may be- come as mechanical as a piece-work factory where men receive no more humane consideration than the machines which they operate. The great danger in industry may be roughly stated as the impersonalization and desocialization of the workers. The school is beset with these selfsame dangers. Personalizing and socializing are but vitally related aspects of the same problem. Fostering the development of the creative impulses is one aspect ; so directing these that their products are of wholesome, positive social worth is the other. We have not only to ask, is the indi- vidual child engaged in producing constructions, skills, ideals, attitudes, and appreciations, working with the full play of per- IMPLICATIONS FOR ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 113 sonal interest and initiative; but also we have to ask, what is the worth of these specific products to the well being of social life as a whole? Are they positively beneficial? Are they just of no social value at all? Or are they antagonistic to the well- being of society? To answer these questions with the children themselves means attention to the second problem raised in the beginning as well as the first. We have been speaking chiefly of the school work it- self. The second question has to do with the change in the gen- eral point of view with regard to the world's work. The two problems are closely related. The personal and social values we strive to promote in the schools are the same in kind as those in productive industry and in the everyday world of intellectual and appreciative satisfactions. But we may go further with this study of work and the satisfactions which it may yield. There is a peculiar joy in the work of all men and women when that work calls forth the constant use of ideas and feelings in new ways, and stimulates the development of new ideas. Occupations which have included these opportunities have been called ener- gizing. But where work is a routine, requiring no applications of ideas or feelings in new ways and no stimulation of new ideas, there is almost nothing of this joy in work. Occupations of this kind have been called enervating. In the mechanical, routine occupations there may often be a dogged kind of apathetic resig- nation, and a feeling of discomfort if the work is discontinued. But this represents a form of arrested development. The discom- fort comes from the absence of activities which have become mechanical habits. In the energizing occupations, little aside from the work itself is required to keep up the buoyancy of spirit of the worker. His work supplies a variety of satisfactions and keeps him always animated by the zest of that which is novel. In the enervating occupations, much of variety in interest is necessary outside of working time to balance the dead level of the mechanical. Funda- mentally, the difference which produces the two attitudes is the difference in the occupations, as followed, to stimulate and give play and worth to the creative impulse. The organization of the work is in itself a means by which the difference between the two attitudes is intensified. Workers in 114 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD the energizing occupations are largely free of managerial or directive oversight. The lawyer, the doctor, the artist, and the musician have no manager or superintendent or principal to whom they must yield the direction of their activities. They have personal, self -directive freedom. They are controlled by condi- tions and the social worth of their products, and not by individ- als with authority over them. Conditions may be analyzed and adjusted to without any feeling of subservience. Yielding to them implies no feeling of personal inferiority. But, in industry, the systems of piece work and factory organization with man- agers, superintendents, and foremen hedge the worker about with authorities who direct his activities and control his freedom to make variations or to be guided by conditions alone. Naturally the limitations for variation in the so-called enervating occupa- tions are greater because of the mechanical character of the methods of production. Yet, as has been pointed out by the experiments in industry, there may still be introduced oppor- tunities for energizing elements, even in the most mechanical forms of production. These energizing factors not only save the personality of the worker, but they yield increases in the economic returns to employers and increased production for consumers. There is a problem in the study of enervating occu- pations to find what they may offer to utilize this creative impulse and give it both personal and social value. We may find that all occupations may be energizing, although in relatively different degrees. Some one has said that there is no unskilled work. There are unskilled workers. It may be conceived that in every kind of work nothing is so well done that we cannot find ways of doing it better. There is always room for initiative and inven- tion. A further implication from the studies in industry for the schools which has been much emphasized in connection with the project method seems to be clearly evident. In school, even such mechanical operations as writing, spelling, the number processes, and the mechanics of reading may be mastered and made to yield their values in the most effective way when they are approached through situations in which the pupil is impellingly engaged. The full vigor of purposive drive, and the dynamic of interest and sense of worth make the mastery a response to a personally IMPLICATIONS FOR ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 115 appreciated need. Achievement is more economical in both time and effort than when the process is laboriously learned as a pre- scribed task. The conditions, and not the authority of the teachers, elicit the activity. As to the third problem, that of democratizing the adminis- trative and supervisory officers of the school system, allusion has already been made to the importance of this factor in its relation- ship to the atmosphere and tone of the work with and by the children. There is another aspect of this problem that is of far- reaching significance for education. This is the question of the effect of the relationship of other school officials to the teachers upon the teachers themselves. The so-called bankruptcy of education through the flocking of teachers to other callings is, without doubt, partly a matter of salary. But, the cause, not only of many of the withdrawals from the profession but of much of the mechanical teaching by those teachers remaining, is the intolerably autocratic control of superintendents, principals, and supervisors. Before the war the economic conditions in our country made it seem to thousands of teachers that they had to endure this condition to make a livelihood. Now they do not have to endure it and they will not. The break comes hard with many who have genuine professional zeal, but it often comes as the only means for the preservation of personality and intellec- tual self-respect. If the schools are to be saved to do their appointed work in the service of our democracy, their boards of education, superintendents, principals, and supervisors will have to bear broadminded, sympathetic, and genuinely democratic relationships to their teachers. They will have to provide means for the participation of the teachers in the promotion of the school's enterprises and policies. They will have to learn enough about what good teaching is and about what a good teacher can accomplish if she is treated as a personality with some initiative, creative capacity, and judgment of values, to treat her as a pro- fessional equal. Some of our school systems are top-heavy with a sodden mediocrity, and there is nothing which so makes medioc- rity assert itself as a little authority. Many a teacher in the grades who knows more about teaching than her principal or supervisor will ever know is browbeaten into a subservience that means either death to her personality or withdrawal from the work. 116 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD The method by which administrative and supervisory officers of schools are chosen is partly responsible for this situation. The frequent failure in school administrators to distinguish between the business aspects of the office and the professional aspects is another cause. Both of these causes are contributing to the filling of many of these offices with men and women who have wholly wrong attitudes toward supervision, some from crass ignorance, some from moral mediocrity, and some from inborn, temperamental kaiserism. But, whatever the cause, the remedy lies in changing the autocratic attitude of supervisors and admin- istrators, where this attitude exists, into one of genuinely demo- cratic cooperation with the teachers in the interests of the chil- dren. Unless this cooperative attitude is realized, the work of the teacher is more truly described by the term enervating than energizing. Change from the regime of authority to one of cooperative consent, and we shall see as great improvement in school work as we have seen in industry in the experiments described. To summarize briefly, the implications for the schools from the attempts to personalize and socialize industrial occupations, I deduce in this way: The schools should organize their whole round of work on the basis of projects that will arouse in children challenges and feelings that will impel them to put forth their creative energy in carrying forward these projects; that the selec- tion of projects should be such that the social worth of the results of effort will be constantly tested; that the projects selected should in themselves be cooperative, socialized life situations in which the individual contributions will derive their worth from the measure in which they promote the common interests of the group; and that the projects should so reflect the occupational and recreational interests of the present social world that what- ever of value is derived from the point of view of the school will contribute toward a larger personalization and socialization of the occupations themselves. This means a socialized curriculum, a socialized method, and a democratic spirit of cooperation. It means putting a high premium upon creative effort and co- operative participation in all school enterprises from the super- intendent's office down through principals, supervisors, teachers, and pupils to the youngest child in the kindergarten. WHY HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS SUCCEED AND WHY THEY FAIL* By ALBERT B. MEREDITH, L.H.D. Assistant State Commissioner of Education for New Jersey In what I have to say I shall have particularly in mind the small high school, with fewer than seven teachers, since it is in the smaller schools that the success or failure of the principal is more marked, and the consequences of his practices and of his ideals more immediately felt. The responsibilities of the princi- palship, however, are no less in one type of school than in another. They differ rather in degree than in kind. In every high school a progressive principal is the dynamic, vital, and propelling force of the organization. He sets its standards and establishes its ideals. He thinks of his school as something more than a mere aggregate of classes. The school in his mind is an organization with a life of its own, with a conscious- ness of its significance in the field of education, and, moreover, it is coming to have a more sensitive conscience with respect to its obligations to growing youth. The position of the principal is strategic. He is officially responsible for the activities of the school and also for its spirit and its morale. He is responsible, in a large measure, for the health of his fellow workers, pupils, and teachers, for the quality of the teaching, and for the educational growth of those associated with him. The failure or success of the school in the eyes of the public is largely a matter of the principal's own making. The importance of the high school principalship is more fully realized to-day than ever before, if for no other reason than that there are more pupils in the high schools than formerly, and that the public has a keener sense of the social and civic value of the high school. All these factors suggest possible points of failure as well as emphasize opportunities for service. The discriminating superintendent will delegate to the compe- tent principal much power and responsibility. He will give him opportunities to exercise initiative and to display his own *Address given at Annual Alumni Conferences at Teachers College, February, 1920. 117 Il8 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD individuality. This freedom, at the same time, involves on the part of the principal a corresponding loyalty to the larger aims of the school system as a whole, and also to its official head. The day is past, however, when this loyalty means simply willingness and faithfulness in carrying out the instructions of the superin- tendent. Why then do some principals fail? i. One outstanding reason for failure is the lack of specific professional training for the position. Too frequently good teachers have been advanced from the class room to administra- tive responsibilities because the board of education has desired to recognize their worth by giving them better salaries. As a teacher, the principal may have been eminently successful; but as an administrator he may be a failure. Unless a principal thus advanced has made a special preparation for this work of adminis- tration, he usually lacks a broad and comprehensive philosophy of education. He has little or no professional background in sociology, economics, or related subjects. He has failed to get the specific training for the position of leader, however great his success may have been as an instructor. He lacks perspective and vision. He is likely to think of the high school as a separate institution, and not as an integral part of a common school course of twelve years. Further, an untrained principal does not recognize the various types of pupils which make up the high school enrollment, in relation to their varying ages, probable destinies, and the length of time they will remain in school ; nor does he consider the rela- tions which should exist between the high school and the elemen- tary grades. The secondary school stands for more than he thinks. Without a broad training for leadership the principal is apt to shape the school curricula in the light of college entrance requirements. He will think of the school as a place in which to administer courses, because he does not appreciate the fact that educational processes and materials are not static, since society is not static. He fails to realize that the high school is interested primarily in persons in their relations to knowledge, to aptitudes, to capacities, to training in skill, and to matters of individual and social development and growth. He does not see what these elements of personal worth have to do with the real needs of the THE HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL 119 hour. In short, a principal without training for the work rarely comes to know what is really meant by a high school. No simple or single expression describing the high school can be easily made. Its purposes are related to knowledge, aspiration, purposeful habits, workable ideals, and to various forms of skill. Failing to grasp the real significance of the high school, the principal is unable to get the idea over to the teachers associated with him, to the pupils, or to the public. In the degree to which this is not done, the principal has failed. On the other hand, he succeeds if he has a working knowledge of the opportunities and responsibilities of the high school as a part of the school system, and also has the skill through knowledge, insight, and ability to bring those associated with him to the same view. In other words, he succeeds if he has vision and the qualities of leadership. 2. A second reason for a principal's failure is to be found in his lack of a keen sense of relative values regarding his duties, and the time at his disposal as an administrator, inspector or appraiser, and as a supervisor. Too much of a principal's time is spent merely in keeping the machinery going. In the business administration of the schools there is too little responsibility delegated to the teachers, to the pupils, and to the clerks who have in charge the routine matters of the school. In matters of everyday occurrence a good motto for the principal is: "Do nothing in administration that you can get others to do." Principals spend vastly more time than is necessary in the office on clerical details. No one piece of school administration is more vital in the matter of the efficient use of the time and energy of pupils and teachers than the weekly schedule of recitations, and yet how much time is wasted in preparing the scheme of class work, through failure to apply definite principles of organization and economy. The typical schedule of recitations is a mosaic, organ- ized more for the benefit of those who are irregular through failure than for those who advance regularly. Good business manage- ment reduces the time ordinarily taken to make a schedule, and also conserves the broader interests of the school. The principles of the "block plan" 1 as worked out in the Boston schools illus- trates the desirable type of schedule I have in mind. 'See School and Society, 6:688-9. 120 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD Another source of failure as an administrator is the failure to keep adequate school records. When a pupil accomplishes a unit of work, he has a right to expect that a proper and intelligible record has been kept, which is capable of interpretation by any one who has access to it later. The matter of complete records of high school work is of growing importance in connection with the legal demands for high school education as a prerequisite to entering teaching or any of the other professions. Scrupulous care in the matter of keeping definite office hours for the public and for the teachers adds to the confidence which should be one of the assets of a school administrator in his busi- ness relations. When office hours are advertised, the public has a right to expect that the principal will keep them, and it is characteristic of poor public business if the principal is not to be found by the public or by the teachers at the advertised time. Many principals fail because they take all criticism of the administration as personal. The principal should be a good listener. Frequently a complainant is wholly satisfied if he has had a chance to tell his story all the way through, even if positive action by the principal does not follow. There is all the more reason for courtesy and patience if the answer has to be in the negative. Firmness and courtesy should characterize the prin- cipal's attitude in all contacts with the public and the school. He should be willing to take any criticism which makes for the common good; otherwise to this extent he fails. As an inspector or appraiser of school results, the successful principal is familiar with the use of standard tests and measures, so far as they have been developed for high school subjects. These tests he uses to supplement his own observations of class- room activities. He regards each subject in its relation to the other units of the curriculum. He does curriculum thinking and does not regard each subject as a detached unit of school work. Failure as an inspector often comes as the result of not making clear to each teacher the bases upon which his work is being estimated. The standards used by the principal are not always understood by the teacher, and I sometimes think that this condition is more frequently found in the high school than in the elementary grades. THE HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL 121 The business of the principal, as an inspector, is to protect pupils, teachers, and the public from incompetency. Failure to produce attainable results on the part of any teacher is a con- dition which demands prompt and fair treatment at the hands of a principal. He must know good school work when he sees it. All the school machinery and organization are but means to an end; viz., that the best possible conditions may be created for the act of teaching. The chief business of the principal, however, is to supervise instruction. This activity is the largest field of service, and yet it is in this relation that a majority of principals fall short of their highest usefulness. Among the causes which operate may be mentioned lack of a technique of supervision, the great diversity of work offered in a modern high school, failure to recognize the various types of learning which are most prominent in the different subjects, and the fact that teachers are largely specialists, while the principal is a general practitioner in the field of education. Another manifest cause of failure is the lack of a working knowledge of the psychology of adolescence. A still further reason for failure is found in not knowing the factors of progression within a given subject, whereby the different stages of advancement may be clearly indicated. Too frequently there exists in the supervisor's mind no clean cut distinction be- tween the various levels of difficulty which a sequential sub- ject, e. g., history or English, presents. Unless a principal teaches a class regularly, and is responsible for its progress, he is likely to be out of intimate touch with real teaching problems. To teach a class means to have a sympathy with and an understanding of the difficulties met by both pupils and teachers. At the same time, by teaching, a principal would be kept a student. Teaching offers also an excellent opportunity to enforce precept by example through having teachers visit the principal's class for help. The successful supervisor uses his best teachers to assist those who are but apprentices or who may be failing. Not to utilize this valuable asset in any school means failure to achieve the highest success. Failure in supervision is due in part to not having a definite plan. Supervision should be definite and sym- pathetic, not merely incidental or accidental. While the approach 122 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD to the teacher may appear incidental, it should be a part of a well matured and constructive plan of the principal. Many principals fail because their criticisms of their teachers are too vague and indefinite. Teachers may never have clearly understood what is expected of them, and, when criticized, the suggestions are not always given with a full knowledge of all the conditions under which they work. Fairness and definiteness in criticism, together with discriminating praise, make for the highest success in the class room, and for the success of the principal as a leader and inspirer of teachers. It is the spirit of helpfulness that counts in supervision. Principals as supervisors are successful when they can anticipate a teacher's difficulties and needs. Teachers should not have to take the initiative in all cases when help is needed. 3. A third outstanding reason for non-success is the princi- pal's failure to utilize for citizenship ends and for their incidental values, the extra-curricular activities of the school. Good citizen- ship does not consist merely in having a knowledge of our civic ideals or of the institutions which represent these ideals, but rather in possessing habits of action which involve such qualities as respect for others, a sense of personal responsibility for the common weal, a spirit of the square deal. All these qualities find their expression in the athletic, debating, and social activities of the school. The successful principal knows this and encourages these interests and directs them into helpful channels. Again, the principal fails when he does not become an active participant in the social and civic life of his community. The principal is the attorney for the high school before the public. He represents a part of the institution which, next to the church, is of most immediate interest to the public. His participation in civic affairs is to the end that he may be of greatest service to the children of the community. Moreover, the principal needs the corrective which may be supplied by his intimate con- tact with the public. His own philosophy of life and his profes- sional practices are greatly aided by this relationship. The danger arising from constant contact with younger minds is averted by closer relations with adults. Teachers and principals often fail at this point. THE HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL 123 4. Finally, a principal fails by not exercising the human qualities of tact, sympathy, friendliness, and respect for others. Some one has said that the world consists mostly of other people. I recently asked twelve adults chosen at random what qualities they admired most in the principals or teachers they knew best, and what were the reasons, as they saw it, for the success of their principals and teachers. All who were questioned said they recognized scholarship and executive skill, but that they admired and responded to tact, and understanding of youth, con- sideration, and big-hearted personality. One hundred teachers, when similarly questioned, said they admired most in a princi- pal "friendly sympathy and kindly encouragement." Further, these teachers admire courage and a willingness to face adminis- trative problems as they arise, also the principal's ability to make decisions, to act, and to take the consequences of his decisions. These are the marks of success in leadership in any undertaking. Are they not especially needed in high school principalships? Of course, every principal should be possessed of a saving sense of humor. This will illuminate many dark and perplexing situations. To be a success as a principal means: 1. Vision and leadership due to natural ability and specific training. 2. A sense of the significance of his position and a working knowledge of the relative importance of his duties. 3. A utilization of the life of the school and all its interests for citizenship ends. 4. The exercise of judgment, fairness, and sympathy in his contact with persons. In conclusion, the successful principal must be intensely human, for without this quality he cannot but fail. HOW TO COMPUTE THE MEDIAN By WILLIAM A. McCALL Assistant Professor of Experimental Education, Teachers College This article, written by request, purposes to give a brief sum- mary and evaluation of the manifold methods for computing the median. The article will close with an amended definition of the median and with a recommendation as to what method of com- putation should be adopted for general use. A class of fifteen pupils were tested by the Courtis Arithmetic Test, Series B, Addition. The number of problems done cor- rectly by each pupil was as in Table I. TABLE I Pupil a b c d e f g h i j k I m n o Score 67 10 II 4 13 7 3 10 12 13 5 5 n 10 The first step in the computation of a median is to arrange the measures of Table I in the order of their size. Such an order dis- tribution is given in Table II. TABLE II Pupil helmagbc i o d n j f k Score 3455677 10 10 10 ii n 12 13 13 What is the median for the above class? The median is, according to general acceptance, that score which has as many scores above it in size as there are scores below it in size. When scores are arranged in an order distribution, as in Table II, the median is the middle measure. Just which score is the middle one N + i is quickly determined by the formula , where N is the 2 number of scores or measures. Method I shows the computation : METHOD I Total number of pupils = 15. ZLJL = I5 + ' = 8 2 2 Thus the middle pupil is the eighth 124 HOW TO COMPUTE THE MEDIAN 125 Counting from the smallest score toward the largest score, or vice versa, the eighth score is 10 Hence, the medfan = 10 But suppose there had been sixteen pupils in the class instead of fifteen and that pupil p had made a score of 7. Table III gives the new situation. TABLE III Pupil helmagpbc i o d n j f k Score 345 5 6 7 7 7 10 10 10 11 11 12 13 13 Now, what is the median? It is not the middle score, for when the total of pupils in a class is an even number, there is no middle score. The definition for a median does not cover the case, conse- quently different statisticians have each proceeded to amend the accepted definition according to his pleasure. The diverse re- sults afford a remarkably telling argument for the necessity of accurate and adequate original definition of scientific terminology. Methods II, III, and IV are the ones most frequently used to deal with this situation. METHOD II 1 Total number of pupils = 16. = = 8.5 2 2 Drop the .5 and call the middle score the eighth score Counting from the smallest score, the eighth score is 7 Hence, the median = 7 METHOD III Add .5 and call the middle score the ninth score Counting from the smallest score, the ninth score is 10 Hence, the median = 10 METHOD IV Call the middle score halfway between the eighth and ninth N + i scores, since - - yields 8.5 2 Counting from the smallest score the eighth score is 7 and the ninth score is 10 , Hence, the median = = 8.5 2 *See Monroe, DeVoss and Kelly: Educational Tests and Measurements, page 243. (Houghton Mifflin Co., 1917.) 126 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD The traditional definition of the median is adequate (i) when there is a middle score, and (2) when there is no middle score but when the two middle-most scores are identical in size. The ac- cepted definition is inadequate when there is no middle score and when the two middle-most scores are different in size. Method I is in perfect harmony with the original definition. Methods II, III, and IV are necessary but arbitrary amendments. Of the last three, Method IV must surely appeal to all as being in more accord with common sense. Hence, the writer proposes the following re-definition of the median: When measures are ar- ranged in order of size, the median is the middle measure, or (lack- ing a middle measure} midway between the two middle-most meas- ures. We could now consider answered the question of how to com- pute a median were it not for some statisticians who have bequeathed us even more complicated questions. These ques- tions cluster about the distinction between discrete and continu- ous scores. The significance of this distinction is such that no one can determine the median until he knows the meaning of his scores. What is meant by discrete scores? Substitute, in Table III, family for pupil, and number of children in school for score and the scores in Table III will be changed from continuous to discrete. Table III would then read: family h has three children in school, family e has four children in school, and so on. The median number of children in school from any one family could not possibly be 8.5. Such vivisection of a child into halves would be statistical murder! According to the principle that .5 or above should be called I., the median is 9. Discrete scores require no departure from Methods 1 2 or IV. When Method IV yields a number with a decimal in it, the median may be corrected for obvious absurdity by considering it as the nearest whole number. What is meant by continuous measures? The measurements of time, distance, weight, ability in addition, penmanship, spelling and the like are continuous. Measurement of the number of children and the like are discrete, because there are gaps between 2 Method V may be applied to discrete scores when they are grouped into a frequency distribution whose step-intervals are larger than one unit. The effect of such grouping is to make them psuedo-continuous. HOW TO COMPUTE THE MEDIAN 127 the various scores. We must say 2 children, 3 children, etc., with no intervening step. We cannot say 2.1 children, 2.2 children. But we can say 2 hrs. 20 min. 16 sec., or 3 Ibs. 8.5 oz., or 6.72 examples in arithmetic. Measurements are continuous when the fact being measured is infinitely divisible. But it is not sufficient for statistical computation to know that the data dealt with are continuous. It is necessary to know from what point to what point each score-interval is continuous. The spread of each score-interval is determined by the method of scoring. Given this method of scoring, it is a simple matter to determine the spread. Courtis directs that no pupil is to receive credit for an example which is only partly finished, even though the pupil has nine-tenths of an example done correctly when time is called. Consequently the pupil will be scored, say, 7, when his real score is 7.9 or possibly 7.943. Hence, a score of 7 means 7 to 7.9999, etc., or, as it will henceforth be expressed, 7 to 8, or 7-8; a score of 8 means 8 to 9, and so on. Had Courtis directed that each pupil finishing half or more of an example should receive complete credit, 7 would mean 6.5-74999, etc.; $ would mean 7.5-8.5, and so on. Had Courtis directed that each pupil finishing the slightest portion of an example should receive credit for that example, 7 would mean 6.0-6.9999, etc., or 6.0-7.0. Suppose, further, that Courtis had directed that each pupil receive a credit of two points for each example correctly and completely done; then a score of 6 would mean, not 6-7, but 6-8, and a score of 8 would mean 8-10. In summary, it is necessary to answer two questions before beginning to compute a median, or any other measure for that matter: Are the scores discrete or continuous? If continuous, what is the spread of each score? What is the influence of continuous scores upon the computa- tion of the median? They have no influence whatever. Like discrete scores, continuous scores require no departure from Method I or Method IV. It is important for the reader to keep this in mind if he is to think clearly about the computation of the median. The methods yet to be described are not new methods of computing the median, as is frequently supposed. They are merely devices for correcting crude scoring. If it were convenient to determine, while scoring a pupil's paper, that his exact score is, say, 7.493 instead of merely tabulating it as 7, the median 128 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD should be computed according to Method I or Method IV. But test scoring is usually so crude that it is highly desirable that an attempt be made to correct for crude scoring by statistical methods. Let us illustrate the principle of the new methods before demonstrating them. Table IV gives scores on the Courtis Addition Test, scored according to his directions. TABLE IV Pupil abcdefghijkl m n o Score 344556666677789 Since there is an odd number of pupils, Method I is applicable. But before applying Method I the scores should be corrected for crudeness. The scores are continuous and a score of 6 lies some- where between 6.0 to 6.999, e tc., or from 6.0 to 7.o. 3 There are five scores of 6. We do not know how nearly these five pupils came to completing the seventh problem. The most convenient guess is that they are distributed evenly over the interval 6-7. The fifteen scores of Table IV are re-expressed below in terms of their most probable location. TABLE V 3-4, 4-4.5, 4.5-5, 5-5.5, 5.5-6, 6-6.2, 6.2-6.4, 6.4-6.6, 6.6-6.8, 6.8-7, 7-7-33^, 7-33K-7-66^, 7-66^-8, 8-9, 9-10 According to Method I, the middle score is in the interval 6.4-6.6. The most likely location of this score is at the mid-point of the interval 6.4-6.6 or at 6.5. Hence, the interpolated median is 6.5. Without attempting to refine the scores Method I would yield a median of 6.0. But the chances are far greater that the real median would be, by more accurate scoring, nearer 6.5 than 6.0. What would be the median if there were another score of 9? This would make sixteen pupils, and Method IV would be appli- cable. The median would be midway between 6.4-6.6 and 6.6-6.8. Obviously the median would be the average of 6.5 and 6.7, or the junction-point of the two intervals, that is, 6.6. But suppose We might just as well have chosen a test where 6 means not 6-7 but 5.5-6.5. In that case Table V would be: 2.5-3.5, 3-5~4 4-4-5. etc. HOW TO COMPUTE THE MEDIAN 129 there were enough scores of 9 or larger to make a total of twenty scores, what would be the median? This would give for the two middle-most score-intervals 6.8-7 an d 7~7-33.^3- The average of their mid-points, 6.9 and 7.166 + , would be 7.033 + . Is 7.033 + or 7 the median? In other words, shall we define midway between the two middle-most score-intervals as the average of the two mid-points or as the junction-point of the two intervals? The average is 7.033+ while the junction point is 7. Either of the above alternatives is about as logical as the other. The traditional definition of the median makes it that measure above which and below which is an equal number of the cases. But since no middle case exists when there is an even number of measures, it would seem that the median should be called that point above which and below which is an equal number of the scores. Changing middle score to middle point makes the defini- tion, as Buckingham points out, universally applicable. So changed, the definition applies to discrete or continuous scores and to an odd or an even number of scores. Now the interval 6.8-7 terminates at point 7.0 and the interval 7-7.33^, counting backward, terminates at point 7.0. Thus logic seems to favor the junction point of 7.0 as the median, if we think of a score as repre- sented by its spread. But if we think of a score as at the mid- point of its interval, logic favors the average of the two mid- points, namely, 7.033 + , as the median. It seems to the writer that the latter position is slightly more defensible. But practical convenience enormously outweighs the slight difference in- volved, at least for those who are not engaged in extremely refined research and equally refined statistical computation. All the methods simple enough for common use assume the junction- point. For general practice, then, we favor the junction-point. Another situation remains to be considered. Continue our last supposition of twenty scores, but imagine that the two middle- most intervals are 6.8-7 an d 8-9 with no score at all between 7 and 8. This situation frequently arises. Now, what is the median? There is no junction-point since the lower interval terminates at 7.0 and the upper interval terminates at 8.0. Rugg very wisely tells us that a median from such a situation as this is not worth worrying much about. But we need to agree upon how to deal with the problem. Common sense suggests that all blank 130 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD intervals be apportioned equally to the lower and upper score- intervals. This gives a median of 7.5. A final problem. Throughout this discussion we have assumed that scores are distributed evenly over the score-interval. For example, we assigned to each of the five scores of 6 in Table IV an interval of .2. The statistical methods to be described assume this even distribution. But a closer bunching of scores just below our METHOD V Exam. Freq. Computation 3-4 I - = = 7-5 2 2 4-5 2 Counting down the "Freq." column 5-6 2 7.5 = i -f- 2 -h 2 -f- 2.5 (of the 5 scores of 6-7) 6-7 5 2 S The median is of 6 to 7 above 6 7-8 3 5 8-9 i Median = 6 + (^ of 6 to 7) 5 9~IO i = 6 -f- (?l of i) N 15 = 6.5 median score-interval and a thinning out just above make it probable that the true median score falls somewhat below the mid-point of its interval instead of at the mid-point. To take the shape of the frequency curve into consideration, when com- puting the median, is a complicated matter. The practice of the methods for doing this will for some time be the peculiar privilege of the statistical "sharks," and hence need concern us no further in this article. Most readers who have had sufficient will-power to progress to this point in our discussion are doubtless satisfied that the program already proposed is quite sufficient. Method V 4 applied to the scores of Table IV shows that the statistical process of computing a median and refining crude scor- ing at one stroke is a very simple matter after all. We have thrown 4 See such books on Statistics as those by Thorndike and Rugg, HOW TO COMPUTE THE MEDIAN 131 the scores of Table V from an order distribution into a frequency distribution. Even this is not necessary but it is more convenient. Thus Method V gives the same median as was gotten by the more elaborate process of spacing off the score-intervals. Some individuals prefer to compute the median by means of a formula. The process of Method V is condensed below into Kelley's formula for computing the median. The writer is in- debted to Professor Kelley for this description: "The calculation of the median may be expressed in a formula as follows: 1. Let N = the total number of cases, or the sum of the frequencies of all the classes. ^ , 2. Determine the class in which the - measure lies. If 2 it lies between two classes, as sometimes happens when N is even, the common boundary of these two classes is the median and no further calculation is necessary. 3. Let/ = the frequency of this class. 4. Let i = the class interval, or range covered by the median class. 5. Let F = the sum of the frequencies of all the classes below (or above) this class. 6. Let v = the value of the lower (or upper) boundary of this class. 7. Let Mdn = the median value. N -- F (Calculated from below up, or Then Mdn = v + - _ * S m g from sma11 values to large / values) Also Mdn = v - * (Calculated from above down) / These two values of Mdn are, of course, identical. Using this formula upon the preceding example and calculating from below up, gives: N = i5 The median class is 6-7 examples / =5 i = i.oo F = 5 (i + 2 + 2) v = 6.00 132 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD 2 Substituting Mdn = 6.00 + - i-oo = 6.50 5 The same example calculated from above down gives: N = 15, / = 5 * = i -oo, F = 5 (i + i + 3), v = 7.00 15 " o Substituting Mdn = 7.00 i.oo = 6.50" o The median was located in Methods I and IV by the formula N + I . It was located in Method V by the formula ^. The 2 2* N + i formula - - must not be used with Method V. Kelley's use of 2 N + i - in solving his formula is legitimate. Kelley's formula 2 yields the same median as Method V. A close study of Method V and Kelley's formula will show why its use in one place is legitimate, while in the other place it is wrong. Courtis 5 has used N + i - with Method V but he seems to have done so consciously 2 to avoid working with fractions. Sechrist 6 has made the same error and aggravates the error on the next page by attempting to N + i apply - to the computation of quartile points as well. If 2 N + i we use it in connection with Method V above, - - equals 8. 2 Counting down the frequency column, 8 gives an interpolated median of 6.6. But we have already shown that 6.5 and not 6.6 N + i is the truer median. Methods I and IV employed because 2 N + i there we were seeking the middle score and - gives us the 2 6 Courtis, S. A., Annual Accounting, 1913-10,16, p. 35. (82 Eliot Street, Detroit, Mich.) 6 Sechrist, H., An Introduction to Statistical Method, pp. 260-263. (The Macmillan Company, 1917.) HOW TO COMPUTE THE MEDIAN 133 ordinal number of this middle score. Method V does not seek the middle score so much as it seeks the middle or median point. N For this purpose is preferable unless Kelley's formula is used. 2 N Furthermore, has the advantage of yielding the same median 2 irrespective of the direction in which the counting is done. This is illustrated below. Exam. Freq. Computation 10-9 I N 9-8 I - = 7-5 8-7 3 Counting down the "Freq." column, 7-6 5 7.5 = i + i + 3 + 2.5 (of the 5 scores of 7-6) 6-5 2 Median = 7 - ( of 7 to 6) 5 5-4 2 2 ^ = 7 - (- 5 of i) 4-3 I 5 = 6.5 N 15 CONCLUSION In conclusion the writer recommends the following definition of a practical median: When measures are arranged in order of size, the median is the middle measure or (lacking a middle measure] midway between the two middle-most measures. It is understood that when the measures are continuous, middle measure means the mid-point of the middle score- interval after the scores have been refined for crude scoring, as in Table V. It is also under- stood that midway means the average (corrected for absurdity) of the two middle-most scores when scores are discrete, and the junction-point of the two middle-most score-intervals when measures are continuous. If there is a gap instead of a junction- point, half the space of the gap should be added to the lower score-interval and half to the upper score-interval. 134 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD When measures are discrete these conditions are satisfied by Method I or Method IV. When measures are continuous the conditions are satisfied by Method V. 7 A few of these conditions are somewhat arbitrary, and hence should be passed upon and conventionalized by some authorized organization. The writer believes, however, that in every instance where perfect theory has been sacrificed, it has not been sacrificed to personal bias but to undoubted convenience. It is in this sense that the conditions are arbitrary. ILL. i. SCORES GROUPED IN STEP-INTERVALS OF Two. SAMPLE SCORES: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc. Exam. Freq. Computation 2-4 3 N - = 7-5 2 4-6 7 Counting down the "Freq." column, 7-5 = 3 + 4.5 (of the 7 scores of 4-6) 6-8 4 Median = 4 + ( of 4 to 6) 8-10 i 7 = 4+ (of 2) 7 N 15 = 5.29 or 5.3 Methods I and IV need no further illustration, so the remainder of this article is devoted to the application of Method V to a variety of situations. Some tests are so scored or some data are so collected that 6 means 6 7. Such, for example, is the Courtis test already de- 7 When an approximate median is all that is desired, continuous scores may be treated as discrete and dealt with by Methods I and IV. Use Method V when results are to be published. Also discrete scores may be grouped into larger intervals, such as in Illustration I, and treated as though pseudo-continuous; then Method V would apply in computing the median. There are times when the computation is only for inspectional purposes, o* when the cases are very few or when the concentration about the median point la very slight, or when, for some reasons, the results are known to be very unreliable. In all such cases the refinements of Method V may not be worth the trouble, even when the scores are continuous, At the, same time it should be remembered that Method V is just about as easy and rapid as Methods I and IV. HOW TO COMPUTE THE MEDIAN 135 scribed. Judgment scales, like the Thorndike Handwriting Scale, are usually so scored that 6 means 5.5 6.5. Why a score on a judgment scale usually has a different spread is easily explained. Imagine a handwriting scale with ten specimens of handwriting with values: o, 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. If a pupil's penmanship specimen is more like 6 in merit than like either 5 or 7, it is usually scored 6. If the specimen is 5.5, it is scored 6. If it is ILL. II. SCORES ACCORDING TO THE THORNDIKE HANDWRITING SCALE. SAMPLE SCORES: 7, 8, 9, 10, ETC. Quality Freq. Computation 6-5- 7-5 I N =6 2 7-5- 8.5 8-5- 9-5 2 3 Counting down the "Freq." column, + o (of the 4 scores of 9-5-10-5 10.5-11.5 4 2 9-5-IO-5) Median = 9.5 + = 9-5 + = 9.5 (- of 9.5 to 10.5) 4 (-of i.o) 4 N 12 5.7 it is scored 6. If it is 6.3, it is scored 6. If it is 6.48, it is scored 6. In sum, if it is anywhere between 5.5 and 6.499, *t is scored 6. Hence 6 means 5.5-6.5, 7 means 6.5-7.5, etc - Dr. Kelley has made the suggestion that every continuous score should be treated as extending from halfway between itself and the preceding score to halfway between itself and the suc- ceeding score, according to 111. II and III. To do so \vould make the median comparable to the good, old-fashioned average got by dividing the sum of the scores by their number, and thus facilitate the computation of skewness. The writer agrees with Dr. Kelley to the extent that, for the sake of greater simplifica- tion, we should arbitrarily fix the spread of each score-interval without regard to the method of scoring. Dr. Kelley's sugges- 136 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD tion, while valuable, runs counter to such a deeply-rooted prac- tice and is so arbitrary that the writer does not feel the time has come to recommend it. But the writer does feel free to urge all to hold themselves ready to adopt a uniform practice when the call from authoritative organizations comes. ILL. III. SCORES ACCORDING TO THE AYRES HANDWRITING SCALE. SAMPLE SCORES: 40, 50, 60, 70, ETC. Quality Freq. Computation 35-45 2 N = 5.5 2 45-55 3 Counting down the "Freq. column, 55-65 5-5 = 2 + 3 + -5 (of the 4 scores of 65-75) 65-75 4 75-85 i Median = 65 + (- of 65 to 4 75) 85-95 i = 65 4- (- of 10) 4 N ii = 66.25 or 66.3 ILL. IV. SCORES ACCORDING TO NASSAU COUNTY COMPOSITION SCALE. SAMPLE SCORES: o, i.i, 1.9, 2.8, 3.8, 5.0, ETC. Quality Freq. Computation .55-L5 I N =6 1-5 -2-35 2 2 Counting down the "Freq." column, 6 = i + o + 2 + 3 (of the 4 scores of 3.3 -44 4 3.3-44) 44 -5-5 5-5 -6.6 3 2 Median = 3.3 + (- of i.i) 4 = 3-3 + .825 = 4.125 or 4.1 N 12 HOW TO COMPUTE THE MEDIAN 137 Occasionally pupil scores are reported in terms of some judg- ment scale, like the Nassau County Composition Scale, whose steps are irregular. For such scales the computation is shown in 111. IV above. 111. V shows how to deal with a gap in the scores. The reader should compare 111. V with 111. II and III in order not to get ILL. V. SCORES ACCORDING TO THE Wooov-McCALL MIXED FUNDAMENTALS OF ARITHMETIC. SAMPLE SCORES. 3, 4, 5, 6, ETC. Quality Freq. Computation 3-4 I N 4-5 2 5-6 I Counting down the "Freq." column, 6-7 3 5 = 1+0+1+3 and o (of the 2 scores of 8-9) 7-8 Q 8-9 2 Median = 7.5 + (- of 7.5 to 9) 2 9-10 2 - 7-5 + (- of 1.5) 10-11 I 2 N 10 ILL. VI. FREQUENCY OF FAMILIES WITH A GIVEN NUMBER OF PUPILS IN SCHOOL. METHOD I Pupils Freq. Computation I 2O Since there are 67 families, the middle 2 30 family is the 34th 3 10 Counting down the "Freq." column, the 4 5 34th family is somewhere among the t: 2 30 families with two pupils each in school. Hence, N 67 Median = 2 pupils per family 138 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD confused. 111. V shows a gap at the 7-8 interval. In all such cases half the space of the gap-interval goes to the score-interval just below it and half to the score-interval just above it, as shown in the illustration. Were there a gap of two score-intervals, the lower gap-interval would go to the score-interval just below, and the upper gap-interval would go to the score-interval just above. Lest anyone should think that frequency distributions are useful only in connection with continuous scores and Method V, 111. VI and VII are given, showing the computation of a median of discrete measures. ILL. VII. NATURE OF DATA AS IN ILLUSTRATION VI. METHOD IV Pupils Freq. C0wwtofo'0 I 5 Since the number of families is an even 2 8 26, there is no middle family. The I3th family, counting down the "Freq." 3 6 column, has 2 pupils. The I3th family, 4 4 counting up, has 3 pupils. Hence, 5 3 2 swer is absurd the median can be N 26 taken as either 2 or 3 pupils per family. SOME REFERENCES TO MORE ELABORATE METHODS OF COMPUTING THE MEDIAN ZIZEK, PERSONS. Statistical Averages. (Henry Holt and Co., New York.) BOWLEY. Elements of Statistics. (Charles Scribner's Sons, New York.) YULE. An Introduction to the Theory of Statistics. (C. Griffin and Co., London.) TEACHING THROUGH THE USE OF PROJECTS OR PURPOSEFUL ACTS * How PROVIDE FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS? By STUART A. COURTIS Director of Educational Research, Detroit Public Schools The topic assigned me in this morning's discussion is an im- portant one because it deals with a question which, more fre- quently than any other, rises in a teacher's or a superintendent's mind when he is "on the fence" and has not yet decided on which side to get down. He may be conscious of the mechanical and"} deadening character of the drill work in his own school system, f he may admit the essential value of "interest" and "purpose" in children's activities, he may even earnestly desire a greater freedom and a more democratic spirit in his class rooms; but the thought which is potent to inhibit these, and many other in- fluences which make for the adoption of the project method, is precisely the fear that the new type of work will not provide for the adequate development of reading, writing, and arithmetic, and of those other fundamental skills so cherished by the Ameri- can public spelling, geography, and English composition. The advocate of the project method who ignores this fear, or treats it with contempt, is either ignorant of the practical situa- tion in American education to-day, or unfair to the average schoolman. In either case his action is most unwise and operates more effectively to retard the spread of the project method than the unjust criticisms of the worst enemies of the method. The situation must be faced squarely and the superintendent's ques- tion adequately answered. Consider for a moment public pressure for results. We say education is a basic American ideal because Americans from the very first, and up to the present moment, have regarded educa- * Address given at Teachers College Alumni Conferences, 1919. 139 140 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD tion as essential to the life of the republic. This means that every true American has felt that if proper educational opportunities were provided, all would be well. He has been quite willing to turn the actual teaching over to schoolmasters, but he has ex- pected their efforts to function in the struggle for progress in American life, and in the pursuit of happiness by the individual. When things go wrong anywhere in the social order, he, quite consistently, has a tendency to feel that the trouble must be sought back in the school, so he begins to examine his children to see whether or not the schoolmasters are doing the work for which he has paid them. Not knowing what to look for, he seizes upon the most evident products of education. "Knowledge is power" he thinks, and he judges accordingly. Read any lay criticism of the schools, past or present, and see how unvaryingly it is based upon discoveries of deficiencies of either knowledge or skill. Indecent years educational measurement has aggravated the situation. For measurement has made it easier to discover educational deficiencies and to measure their extent. Every superintendent these days knows that at any time the survey lightning may strike close at home and that if it does, it is "re- sults" to which attention will be directed. Many of us value the project method because we believe it changes the educational perspective of the teacher, and directs her attention to children instead of to results. But there is no escape from the fact that the project method, or any other method for that matter, is, in the last analysis, a method of securing results, and that no school man whose bread and butter depends upon his meeting the de- mands of those who pay his salary, can afford for one instant to neglect a consideration of what the tangible outcomes of the adoption of the project method will be. Put yourself in the place of the average American city superin- tendent to-day. He knows that his teachers are working under great pressure and on the whole doing their best as they see it. He knows that his courses of study have been elaborately and carefully worked out, and that much time and effort is given to drill and review. He knows, further, that his present results are very unsatisfactory and will not bear close scrutiny except by comparison with the poor work that other school systems are TEACHING THROUGH THE USE OF PROJECTS 141 doing. He knows that eternal vigilance is the price of such efficiency as he now has, and that to relax for one moment the effort and care he is expending in keeping the wheels turning smoothly, means an immediate running down of the quality of his output. Then he hears of the project method. He sees a demonstration lesson. The theory appeals to his common sense. The promised outcome seems desirable. He notes, however, the real or apparent disorganization of subject matter and the absence of drill. Doubts arise. He looks for proof that the project method will be effective in producing the results he is expected to achieve. What does he find? He reads the TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD for November and studies the scores of the Horace Mann School. It is not a clear, reassuring record. He reads the Gary survey. It is even more disturbing. He looks, and looks in vain, for experimental evidence that the new method has anywhere de- veloped degrees of skill equal to those which he has already adopted as desirable standards. Too often his conclusion is, "The project method may be all right for private or experi- mental schools, but I simply can't afford to run any risks. I will stick to the old ways a little longer." Face to face with these conditions, two courses are open to those who believe that the project method is the ultimate method. One is to prove that present standards of knowledge and slcill are altogether too high, jto try to educate the~public to 'the ac- ceptance of lower standards and to the appraisahat their true worth of such other outcomes of the method as there may be. The other is to frankly set before themselves- the- desirability of achieving accepted standards of knowledge and skill, and of proving by measurement that it is possible to attain them on the project basis. In my judgment no contribution to American' education could be made which would have greater immediate practical value than experimental proof by measurement that, hour for hour, the project method produces larger returns than compulsory mechan- ical drills. I have taken the time to emphasize the superintend- ent's viewpoint because I feel that many advocates of desirable changes in method do not have an adequate understanding of the part this viewpoint plays in determining the attitude of the 142 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD superintendent toward experimental work in the schools under his control. Personally, I am convinced that the second of the courses described is the one to follow, and I want to spend the rest of my time this morning in arraying for your consideration the principles and criteria which should guide us in our experi- mental attempt to achieve that goal. The first of the questions to be considered is this. If a child works industriously all his school days at projects of value which interest him, may he reasonably be expected to acquire therefrom adequate degrees of the knowledges and skills involved? The answer is not as simple as it would appear to be. We "learn to do by doing," to be sure, but we do not necessarily learn the best ways of doing things, nor do we necessarily acquire from our activity degrees of skill which are adequate. For instance, I know an illiterate man who for many years barely made his living by keeping a grocery store in an isolated community. He could add, subtract, multiply, divide, and make change by some practical method of his own, but when competition ap- peared his store was quickly eliminated. In this case the activity, although fully motivated, failed to evolve adequate control over the conventional number system and symbols. Another man I know, a college graduate, is very fond of read- ing. He reads a great deal but with difficulty. Somewhere in his development he acquired faulty habits of eye movement. The more he reads, the more firmly he establishes the wrong habits. In this case neither education nor purposeful activity, in and of itself, has operated to produce desirable results. What about writing? Most of you are writing every day. Is the rate and quality of your handwriting improving because of its use in the purposeful activity? Mine isn't. I have already planned that when I get back to Detroit I shall again revert to drill to offset the undesirable effects of rapid note-taking during this year of study. I know that drill for that purpose will be effective because it has so operated in the past. In general I believe this principle will be found to hold. If the knowledge or skill is of such a character that undesirable re- sults follow directly from failure, purposeful activity may be depended upon to build up slowly, by trial and error methods, correct habits and adequate degrees of skill. But if the operation TEACHING THROUGH THE USE OF PROJECTS 143 of the habit or skill is obscure, so that cause and effect may not be easily and directly traced, mere activity, except by chance, will not produce the desired result. For instance, many of you know that you do not read as rapidly or as understandingly as other people. How many of you could tell whether or not your difficulty is caused by poor habits of eye-movement? How many of you know anything at all about the type of eye-movements you personally employ in reading? On the other hand, all of us learn correct habits of speaking and of spelling. Very poor spellers who live in an environment of good spellers eventually learn to spell correctly the most frequently occurring words. Even adults who move from the West to New York soon have to struggle to retain their Vs" and "a's". In this respect, the development curves for such abilities as multiplication and spelling are of markedly different character. At Gary, for instance, where tests of the elementary school were given in the high school also, the eighth grade scores in spelling were low but the scores on the same words rose steadily through high school years. Ultimately high school students were found who spelled the eighth grade words as well as eighth grade chil- dren in conventional schools. In multiplication, however, ac- curacy of work was not only low in the eighth grade but did not ^ rise during high school years, showing, it seems to me, that as soon as direct training stopped the use of multiplication in algebra, physics, etc., did not contribute to the development of further skill. The first step in the solution of our problem, there- fore, is to determine very definitely which knowledges, which habits, which skills, and what degree of each, may be left safely to the incidental selection of the activities themselves and which must be provided for systematically by special training. There are, however, other considerations whose possible bearings on our problem need to be kept in mind. Our civiliza- 1 tion is the product of an age-long evolution in which the best; solutions for our common problems have been slowly and labori-1 ously built up by the master minds of the ages. The basic func^ tion of the school is to transmit this social inheritance to the on- coming generation. Other things being equal, the more efficiently this duty is discharged, the greater will be the contribution to the social progress which the new generation will make. 144 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD From this point of view the school must not only see to it that the child acquires the fundamental skills, but also that he wastes no time in doing so. If compulsory drill exercises under expert teaching will short-circuit the slow evolutionary development which comes from the use of skill in purposeful activity, then not to drill a child is to handicap both him and society. Here, too, unfortunately, we can reach at present no certain conclusion; for it may be that the concomitant and accessory effects of the evolutionary development are of more value than the efficiency which the drill method might yield. For instance, if drill neces 1 sarily tended to the suppression of personality, and purposeful activity to its development and expansion, we could not afford to achieve efficiency by drill methods. The crucial experiment on this point has yet to be made. One of the important considerations often overlooked is that no two children are exactly alike or learn in exactly the same way. On this point scientific investigation is very clear in its conclu- sions. No two individuals profit to the same degree by any activity, or in the same way, or at the same rate, or uniformly at all times. ^Even for any one individual different methods of learning may be needed for two types of activities as closely related as addition and division. \Learning by doing provides for such individual adjustment while conventional class drills do not. On first thought the necessity for making adjustment for individual differences would seem to be an insurmountable obstacle to the use of class drills and an unanswerable argument in favor of the project method, but really it is not. Measurement has made possible complete individual adjustment in group drills. So far we have not discussed the effect of the most important element of the project method; that of purpose or motive. Here measurement again bears witness in no uncertain way to the utter futility of mere drill as a method of teaching. We do not have to guess at the efficiency of unmotivated drill. We know, both in terms of general progress and in terms of individual growths, just what our schools are accomplishing at present. For instance, on the basis of tests the country over it is possible to say that out of every thousand children practicing handwriting from 75 to 100 minutes a week, less than 100 children ordinarily show a real improvement as a result of a year's practice. For TEACHING THROUGH THE USE OF PROJECTS 145 at least 90 per cent of the children the time spent in handwriting exercise is just plain waste; while for very many of them the effects of the drill are positively evil. Conventional drills in arithmetic are at best only from two to three times as effective; while the data of both Ayres and Buckingham agree in showing that drills in spelling, the most effectively taught of the drill subjects, affect about a third of the children. That is, if a word is taught during any year, about one third of the children who could not spell it correctly at the beginning of the year can spell it at the beginning of the next year. The other day in my reading I came across the report of a sur- vey in 1878 of twenty-four towns in Norfolk County, Mass. Among other figures it reported the number of fourth-grade children who spelled correctly "which" and "whose," two words which occur in the Ayres Scale. For "which," the results then were 69 per cent and now 66 per cent, while for "whose" the figures then were 54 per cent, now 58 per cent. That is, after 35 or 40 years of progress the general effectiveness of spelling teaching as measured by these two words has not been changed. Other things have changed, however. In a survey of the Boston schools in 1845, the average number of floggings reported for one school on the basis of a week's observations was 65 per day, and it is explicitly stated that this is not an exceptional but a repre- sentative school. If with compulsory drills backed by corporal punishment the schoolmasters of the previous generation were unable to secure any better results in even the mechanical skills than the schools of the present day, surely there is reason to hope that eventually methods still more humane and scientific will replace those now generally employed. It seems to me that the progress from present practice to an almost ideal administra- tion of the project method does not involve so great a change in viewpoint as the change that was made from the methods and curricula of seventy-five years ago to those of the present day. The crux of the matter seems to be that the old adage, "You can lead a horse to water, but you cannot make him drink," holds in educational matters also. You can make a child go through the motions of practicing, but you cannot make the effects of the practice stick in his nervous system unless you secure the consent of the governed. It is not alone what a child does that educates 146 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD him; the motives and emotional states which accompany his activities play a crucial part. A child may be compelled by force to go through the motions of an addition drill, but in such cases his outward activity is usually accompanied internally by the raging resentment of an outraged personality, and by a deep- seated conviction that the activity itself is valueless. Under such conditions he may not only lose in both speed and accuracy as a result of his practice, but he is almost certain to develop a Bolshevistic, rebellious attitude toward the entire scheme of things educational, and a personal hatred of both teacher and A subject. On the other hand, some teachers make the mistake of suppos- l J ing that any drill in and of itself is valueless. If we define drill as an activity carried on as an end in itself, or for the purpose of. acquiring control over the activity, and not for its products, we find a great deal of drill in life outside of school. Almost all play partakes of the nature of drill. The kitten chases its tail, and the baby babbles "da-da-da" from sheer satisfaction in the activity. Most of us have drilled ourselves in the use of certain strokes in tennis, or in ways of holding or throwing a ball. How many of you learned to drive an automobile by driving at once through a busy street? Most of us preferred to be drilled by an expert until he assured us we were competent to attempt a real drive. I can find nothing intrinsically wrong with drill. Under \ right conditions and done with the proper motives, it is one of the most efficient forms of educational activity. It is true that/V. all persons do not need drill. Even in Gary in all the elementary grades there were children who had spent their entire educational lives in the Gary schools, yet who were able to spell perfectly the tests for their grade. There are individuals who without drill are able to drive an automobile or an aeroplane the first time they try it, who, in other words, learn so readily by doing that they need no other training. The essential point to notice, however, is that the number of such individuals is small. On the basis of such measurements as have been made we can say with some definiteness that the number of children who are "natural-born" spellers is approximately ten per cent of the total. For the other 90 per cent the acquisition of adequate skill involves either a pro- longed period of purposeful activity or some form of direct drill. TEACHING THROUGH THE USE OF PROJECTS 147 For instance, in Detroit, for one experiment, we found by testing, five common words which no child in a certain second grade class could spell correctly. They were picture, circus, pencil, knife, and umbrella. The class then used these words in a spelling game each day. There was no study except that which came from the use of the words in the game. The children probably were not interested in the spelling, but they did enjoy the fun. As a result of this incidental drill the first day two chil- dren learned to spell the words correctly. At the end of 5 days 12 children could spell the words, in 10 days the number had risen to 17, while at the end of 16 days, when the experiment was discontinued, there were still 13 children out of 38 in the class so limited in ability to learn spelling that opportunities adequate for most of the children were not sufficient for them. Similar data could be shown in any amount, but there is no need. There is no individual in this room who cannot supply from his own personal experiences instances of differences in capacity to learn. For all but thfe specially gifted, therefore, artificially created conditions which enable ordinary individuals who really wish to learn to repeat over and over again special phases of some purposeful activity are necessary and of vital benefit. For the present discussion the important fact is that drill is not only a natural way of learning, but an economical way for a v very large percentage of our school population. The essential ele- ment, however, is not primarily the number or character of the repetitions, but the wholeheartedness of the desire of the indi- vidual to profit by the practice. It cannot be too much em- phasized that drill may thus be as much a self-directed, purpose- ful activity as any other occupation. It is for this reason, I take it, that drill finds a place among Professor Kilpatrick's four types of projects. May I say something, also, about the social aspects of drill? ^ I have heard ardent advocates of the project method disparage class drills as non-social. I can find nothing in the nature of drill to prevent the motive from being the highest that can move man to action, namely, the desire to be of service to his fellow men. If a child drills himself in addition because he has come to see that skill in addition is essential to the achievement of a social purpose, what element of harm, or evil, is there in the situa- 148 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD tion? None, I think; and if it so happens that of necessity forty children agree to carry on their individual practice in the same room at the same time and under the same conditions, the ap- parent outward uniformity is no handicap, provided each child really drills himself on his own material, at his own rate, and in his own way. In fact, the reverse is true. The social setting operates to raise to a higher level each individual's appreciation of the meaning of his drill project. The success achieved by others will be just as truly an inspiration to effort as it is in any other social situation, and the individual's personal success may be recognized as a contribution to social progress of the group. The last element I shall present for your consideration is the possibility of there being critical steps or phases in the develop-^ ment of skill. ' In such a case careful organization of procedure, and scientific determination of the best sequence may mean de- creased teaching effort, decreased learning time, and increased final efficiency. In industry this step has already been taken. For instance, I heard an efficiency engineer describe the process- of building up a proper method of drill in typewriting. Moving pictures were taken of ten of the most expert operators that could be found. These pictures constituted an analysis of the activity into minute elements. For example, my friend had nine separate pictures showing every movement of one finger from the time it started to press one key until it was ready to strike the next. These films were cut apart and each section compared, motion by motion. Selection was made of the best, and, motion by mo- tion, a perfect expert operator was built up by a combination of the best elements in each of the ten expert performances. When the composite film was completed it was used to train new operators. That is, in teaching typewriting it has been found wasteful to learn by doing. The beginner is shown objectively from the very first how to make each motion correctly. The result seemed to me incredible. I hesitate to quote because I dare not trust my memory, and the figures, so far as I know, are not in print; but I know that expert operators were made in a very small number of lessons. This is but one of many similar cases in the commercial field. Are there no lessons for us in this? There are best habits of adding, and a best sequence of effort in developing these habits. The same is true of every other educational skill. Formally or- TEACHING THROUGH THE USE OF PROJECTS 149 ganized drill material embodying the results of extensive investi- gations makes it possible for the person who desires to learn to achieve his goal quickly, efficiently, and with the least possible effort. For the organization of the drill material places at his disposal the experience of others more gifted and more expert than himself. I have said enough to show that the problem of providing for the development of fundamental skills is no simple one to be- left to take care of itself, or to be dismissed with a magic formula- "learn to jo by doing." We need to pick and choose among con- flicting elements, only a few of which I have presented here/ By way of conclusion let me ask you to imagine a school in which the central core of the work was a series of projects drawn fro the social life of the day, but so based upon the elemental pulses and desires of child life that they elicited from the childre whole-hearted, self-directed effort. Suppose, further, that each of the projects was so objectively defined that each child could judge of his own success or failure. Finally, suppose that in event of failure, or of poor work, there was available drill material, perfectly and scientifically organized, so that it was possible for each child to give himself just the amount and type of drill whicrr was required for each need as it arose. Would there not be pro- \ vision for adequate drill, and would not final abilities be adequate ,' for efficient social living? It is toward such an ideal that we are working in Detroit. We have not gone far, it is true. We have the machinery for the drill work in arithmetic completed, and that for writing nearing completion. The work on the spelling drills is under way. These are the easier phases of our problem. We are just beginning on the selection and organization of suitable projects. The most important problem of all has scarcely been touched, namely, that of so adjusting the viewpoint of more than 3,000 teachers that our educational machinery may be administered democrati- cally and with due respect for the inherent dignity of the per- sonality of the individual. True project teaching takes time; we propose to get that time by eliminating the waste in useless drill. We shall have succeeded only when the attainment of standard degrees of the fundamental skills conies as a result of self-directed drill projects. 7 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE PROJECT METHOD By JOHN P. HERRING Graduate Student, Teachers College The purpose of this bibliography is to spread such knowledge of the project method as now exists. To this end titles which present this knowledge have been sought, and others, often despite claims to relevancy, have been avoided. Time has unfortunately prevented collection in some fields where contribu- tions have been made. A discriminating annotated biliography of the project method in agriculture is needed but is not in- cluded. Titles in other special fields of education have not been exhaustively obtained. No work, however, of general interest to the philosophy, the psychology, or the practice of the method has been intentionally omitted. Indebtedness is acknowledged to Professor William Heard Kilpatrick of Teachers College, for suggesting that the bibliog- raphy be made, for beginning the collection of titles, and for criticising the annotations. The writer holds none but himself responsible. ADAMS, M. G. "Home Project Work in Vocational Home Economics in Secondary Schools." Journal of Home Econom- ics, 10:358-62 (1918). Suggests projects in food, textiles, and clothing, giving general directions, steps of preparation for the teacher, projects for different years of the course, and pupil outlines. ALLEN, I. M. Notes in the Proceedings of the Illinois State Teachers Association, pp. 126-33 (1917)- Reviews C. H. Johnson's philosophy of education as to discipline, method, socialized recitation, and supervised study. The absolutist's and the experi- mentalist's positions are stated antithetically for each of the topics named. < BATCHELDER, M. I. "Materials and Activities in the Second Grade." Teachers College Record, 20:205-10 (1919). A typical day's program is described and an account given of activities in an experimental room largely dominated by the spirit and method of the project. ISO BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE PROJECT METHOD 151 BOGARDUS, E. S. Essentials of Social Psychology. I59pp. Univ. of Southern California (1918). Written to develop the "problem getting" method of education in the student of psychology. At the close of each chapter is a list of problems. BONSER, F, G. "Industrial Arts." In Teaching Elementary School Subjects (Rapeer, L. W., ed.). pp. 281-98. Scribner (1917). The need, values, organization, and content of a curriculum in industrial arts, with provision for projects. Will repay analysis by any one purposing to make curricula. BRANOM, M. E. Project Method in Education. 282pp. R. G. Badger (1919). Should be generally available. A full and systematic presentation. Excel- lent criticism of definitions thus far proposed ; relation of method to instincts and to adult activities; illustrative material. The first book in its field. . "Project-Problem Method in History." Historical Outlook, 11:107-10 (1920). Information projects, enjoyment projects, and problem projects. Effect- to-cause and cause-to-effect problems in history. Illustrations. The initiation of projects. Steps in the project process. v _ . "Project- Problem Method in the Teaching of Geog- raphy." Journal of Geography, 16:333-38 (1918). A general discussion of the nature of solutions, the advantages, the difficul- ties, and the dangers of the method, with a number of illustrations. - . "Value of the Problem-Project Method in Elemen- tary Education." Elementary School Journal, 18:618-22 (1918). Treats of four steps and nine advantages. Says the teacher can no longer afford not to be master of the method. The illustrative material is excellent. BURKS, J. D. "Environment of the School." Teachers College Record, 3:273-91 (1902). The environment is that of the Speyer School. This article admirably illustrates one kind of knowledge needed in education through projects. 1 BURNS, H. F. "Group Socialized Recitation." Education, 39:176-81 (1918). Develops somewhat elaborately a plan of discussion in small groups as prep- aration for recitation. The plan is reported as having been warmly approved by certain high school pupils, who say that it is broadening, it is interesting, it develops coherent expression and codperation, and that it provokes thought. 152 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD CARMAN, K. V. "Basing Work in Industrial Arts on the Con- struction of a New Building." Teachers College Record, 17:247-62 (1916). "In basing the larger portion of a year's work in industrial arts upon the erection of a new high school building, he has given a practical demonstration in the enrichment of school work by deriving its motives from community activities. . . Cooperation of the teachers came as the most natural thing. Mr. Carman's successful experiment should stimulate other teachers to similar effort." F. G. Bonser. CHARTERS, J. A. "Problem Method of Teaching Ideals." Eng- lish Journal, 8:461-73 (1919). It is recommended that children be given problems the solution of which will develop appreciation for the ideals to be taught. CHARTERS, W. W. Methods of Teaching Developed from a Func- tional Standpoint. 255pp. Rowe, Peterson (1909). A suggestive reading on the multiplicity and relativity of aims, the relations of method and content, the intrinsic function of subject-matter, structure and subject-matter, motives, control of values, methods, order, concreteness, and drill. . "Projects in Home Economics Teaching." Journal of Home Economics, 10:114-19 (1918). Definition, relation to curriculum, advantages and limitations of projects. CHICAGO NORMAL COLLEGE STUDENTS. "Suggestive Outline for Project- Problem Teaching." Chicago Schools Journal, 2:17-20 (1919). Questions to stimulate interest and bring out the suggestion by the group that a club be formed to study Chicago's achievements and needs. The plans made by the group are presented as well as plans made for the organization of a dramatic club among the pupils. CLARK, A. B. "Experiment in Problem Teaching." English Journal, 6:535-38 (1917). Describes the writing and production of a play in one year by seventeen high school pupils. Preliminary writing of plots and plays; earning money to see Forbes- Robertson; interviewing the great actor; conversations with miners and mining experts; community suggestions; type- writing, producing, and printing. A long, complex, but well sustained problem-project. CLARK, L. A. "Good Way to Teach History." School Review, 17:255-66 (1909). A record of events in a high school with evidence of keen interest and suc- cessful outcomes. "No teacher is equal to the dynamic force of the class before her." BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE PROJECT METHOD 153 COLVIN, S. S. Learning Process. 336pp. Macmillan (1915). Chapters XX-XXII analyze logical thinking, judgment, and reasoning and discuss instruction in the form of the problem. COOK, E. C. "Experiment in the Teaching of College English." Teachers College Record, 19:131-46 (1918). Designed to ascertain whether freedom in class work develops more genuine literary taste and judgment than regularly imposed lessons. The quality and quantity of result are tentatively regarded as favoring freedom. COOKE, F. J. and others. Francis W. Parker School Year Book. (Chicago.) Vol. i: Social Motive in School Work. I39pp. (1912.) Vol. 2 : Morning Exercise as a Socializing Influence. I98pp. Vol. 3: Expression as a Means of Training Motive. i88pp. (1914.) Vol. 4: Education Through Concrete Experience. Vol. 5: The Course in Science. i68pp. (1918.) There is as yet, perhaps, no fuller single source of clear and sound illustra- tions of education that has been accomplished through projects. COOK, H. C. Play Way: An Essay in Educational Method. 367pp. Stokes (1917). Unique, undoubtedly possessing style, full of epigrammatic wit and pedagog- ical wisdom. Discusses principles and methods of education; as play, self- government, "littleman lectures," a play town, acting, and play making. Easily skimmed for its kernels, yet sustained in quality. "The basis of educational method is regard for the interests of children," suggests a dominant attitude. ' COURTIS, S. A. "Teaching Through the Use of Projects or Pur- poseful Acts. How Provide for the Development of Funda- mental Skills?" Teachers College Record, 21: No. 2 (March, 1920). Faces squarely certain considerations very often urged as limitations of the project method. Searching positive and negative criticism both of project method and of drill methods; of existing practice and theory. The broad out- line of a constructive program synthesizing project and drill. CRAIGO, R. T. "New Idea in Trade Training." Artisan, 1:6-7 (1919). At Dunwoody Institute interest in learning is said to be created by a little participation in actual industry at the outset. Students about to study framing, rafter-cutting, and flooring, first build a small building. 154 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD DAVIDSON, P. E. "Educational Reform and the Manly Virtues." School and Society, 8:361-67 (1918). Discusses Flexner's Modern School, raising questions regarding modern education, particularly regarding the relation of interest and effort to prepara- tion for life. The author feels the need of a legitimate compromise between interest and effort. DEARBORN, G. V. N. How to Learn Easily. 221 pp. Little (1916). One of the how-to-study books from which one may take helpful suggestions for his own method in its general aspects. DETRAZ, M. J. "Materials and Activities in the Third Grade." Teachers College Record, 20:210-18 (1919). Tells of the social difficulties in a self-directed group, of which the teacher is an influential member, and of their solution by the group. The narrative is vivid, dignified, and convincing. The curriculum content is given. DEWEY, E. New Schools for Old: the Regeneration of the Porter School. 337pp. Dutton (1919). A solution of difficulties typical of rural education through means typically accessible in the country. The things done in the school were done with an eye to the education of the community. School and community interest were made one. DEWEY, E. and DEWEY, J. Schools of To-morrow. 31 6pp. Dutton (1915). A contemporary source of current thought on purposeful activity in educa- tion, as related to natural development, freedom, individuality, play, education through industry, and democratic education. Certain "schools of to-morrow," now famous, are here described. DEWEY, J. "Activity." In MONROE: Cyclopedia of Education, Philosophy, psychology, logic, practice, and equipment as related to the concept of activity. - . Child and Curriculum. 4Opp. Univ. of Chicago (1902). From the point of view of Dewey's philosophy of education, the basis and background of project learning are presented in relation to the learner and what is learned. Principles for the guidance of teaching; education as its own end; society as its own end; interest and motive. - . Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education. 434pp. Macmillan (1916). The general philosophic background and basis of the problem-project method. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE PROJECT METHOD 155 DEWEY, J. How We Think. 224pp. Heath (1910). A main source of the philosophy and psychology of education through problems, with much specific advice as to procedure in the school. . Interest and Effort in Education. loipp. Houghton Mifflin (1913). An integral portion of the Dewey philosophy and psychology of education that is the basis and background for the project method. Deals with ethical educational problems sure to arise in the earlier stages of experiment with the project method. Virtually a later edition of the author's Interest as Related to Will. . Interest as Related to Will. Second supplement to the Herbart Yearbook. 4Opp. Univ. of Chicago (1895). A philosophic consideration of the first rank, dealing with certain illogical and harmful dualisms frequently held as true and of certain logical and benefi- cial monistic aspects of the problem of interest as related to will. Propulsive, objective, and emotional phases of interest, work, and drudgery; pleasure, desire, ends, ideals, effort, strain, and discipline are treated. . "Method." In MONROE: Cyclopedia of Education, IV 1202-5 (1913)- An exposition of a part of the philosophy fundamental to the project method. Method as related to institutional agencies and to subject matter; educational method; logical method; general method; method as an aspect of content; purpose and interest; relation of scientific method to educational method. . "Method in Science Teaching." General Science Quarterly, 1:3-9; N.E.A. Proceedings , 54729-34 (1916). Stages of the educational development of science. The dynamic point of view contrasted with the merely informational. The extremes of memorizing for task-masters and of aimless freedom are to be avoided. . Moral Principles in Education. 6opp. Houghton Mifflin (1909). Morality as an aspect of method and of content; moral purpose of the school; moral training given by the school community; social nature of the course of study; psychological aspect of moral education. The philosophic source, as opposed to the dualism of much that is common in practice. . "Nature of Method." Chap. 13 in Democracy and Education, pp. 193-211. Macmillan (1916). Treats of method as an aspect of content, as general and individual; of self- consciousness, open-mindedness, single-mindedness, and responsibility as traits of individual method. A piece of philosophy fundamental to the problem-project method. 156 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD DEWEY, J. "Problem." In MONROE: Cyclopedia of Education, 5:47 (1913). A brief statement of the philosophy of the problem as fundamental in educa- tional method. . "Prospective Elementary Education." In Teaching Elementary School Subjects (Rapeer, L. W., ed.). pp. 552-69. Scribner (1917). Such topics as pragmatism and intelligence, former theories, the new theory of mind, thinking, method, subject matter, occupation, and values are pre- sented from the point of view of education through purposeful activity. . "Reasoning in Early Childhood." Teachers College Record, 15:9-15 (1914). The improvement of reasoning power is perhaps impossible through teach- ing, but the conditions which permit its development may be provided. Three constant conditions of thinking: end, means, discovery. A writing of impor- tance as showing through what means reasoning capacity may grow and through what means it will not. . School and Society. i64pp. Univ. of Chicago (I9I5)- Treats of the relation of active occupation to the development of spirit in the school, and of certain projects as recapitulations of race experiences. A fundamental discussion of the psychology of occupation for common ends. DOPP, K. E. Place of Industries in Elementary Education. 27Opp. Univ. of Chicago (1913). Suggestive in many parts, but especially in Chap. V, which treats of the problem of the teacher who is not furnished with the equipment needed for in- dustrial projects. EARHART, L. B. "Experiment in Teaching Children to Study." Education, 30:236-44 (1909). Can fourth grade pupils be taught to study a reading lesson independently? The question is answered affirmatively, and a detailed account of the method of investigation is presented. Very useful on the problem side of the project method. . Systematic Study in the Elementary Schools. 97 pp. Teachers College, Columbia University (1908). Treats of the usual lack of effective study by children and of its possibility, of the recognition of problems, collecting data, scientific doubt, verification, memorizing, and of recognizing individuality. Illustrative material is in- cluded. An excellent analysis of the educational situation as to children's study, and of valid methods. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE PROJECT METHOD 157 EARHART, L. B. Teaching Children to Study. iSipp. Hough ton Mifflin (1909). Treats of the inductive and deductive methods of study, of the text-book in study, of children's abilities for study, and of present attainments. Very useful on the problem side of the problem-project method. . Types of Teaching. 277pp. Hough ton Mifflin (1915). See especially Chap. XIV on "Training children to study." Treats of finding the aim, judging of hypotheses, collecting and evaluating data, organizing data, suspending judgment, testing conclusions, and thoughtful memorizing. Valuable for the problem aspect of the problem-project method. FELL, E. E. "Socializing the School and the Community." Moderator-Topics, 38:453-55, 469-71 (1918). Describes the organization, subsequent management, and benefits of clubs for parents and teachers. FINLAY- JOHNSON, H. Dramatic Method of Teaching. 199pp. Jos. Nisbet (London, 1917). History, geography, arithmetic, composition, nature study, and manual arts taught through plays written or adapted to purpose by the pupils. FOULKES, T. R. and DIAMOND, T. "Argument for Larger Pro- jects Suggestive of Community Activity." Manual Training Magazine, 21:5-8 (1919). Study of projects, made and used by 1532 pupils in Wisconsin, showed that many articles made are not used. Such projects as the summer cottage, the garage, the highboy are suggested. FRITZ, J. A. "How a Project was Worked out in a iB Room." Kindergarten and First Grade, 4:20 (1919). A good illustration of the rise and leads of a simple project. GASTON, C. R. "Social Procedure in the English Class-room." English Journal, 8:2-7 ( I 9 I 9)- Reports work done by a socially active group, the advantages for teacher and pupil, and a number of questions to be used as criteria for this type of work. GATES, A. I. "Psychological vs. the Chronological Order in the Teaching of History." (To appear in Historical Outlook.) An important contribution to the psychology of the project method in history, from the point of view of Thorndike's psychology of bonds between situations and responses. Aims. Desirable habits in intellect, emotion, and attitudes. Relevant situations and responses, optimum order of development, recapitulation, chronological order, reverse chronological order, logical order, and the order of utility. 158 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD HARRINGTON, H. F. "Teaching Journalism in a Natural Setting." Educational Administration and Supervision, 5:197-206 (1919). Describes the organization of college into a working force in journalism. The goal is reached in publication in the college newspaper. Training in observa- tion and truth-telling in journalism is emphasized. HATCH, R. W. "Adaptation of the Project as a Basis for Teaching History." (To appear in Historical Outlook.} One of the most illuminating of the contributions to technique and practice. Detailed account of two or three projects. The reader is struck with the feasibility of a method admittedly difficult to employ. Natural rise of new projects. Correlation of geography, history and civics. Arguments for and against the project method in history. Results. . "Adaptation of the Project at> a Basis for Teaching History." (To appear in Teachers College Record.) The method of setting the project, the materials used, pupil charts and sum- maries, as well as typical answers to test questions will appear in some detail. HAUSMAN, L. A. "Making Relief Maps." Journal of Geography, 16:97-100 (1917). A method by which pupils who are developing projects in geography or history may build contour or relief maps. HENRY, T. S. "Problem Method in Teaching." School and Home Education, 36:162-68 (1917). Education as problem solving; characteristics of real problems; developing the problematic situation ; scope and limitations; dangers. A comprehensive discussion from the point of view of the Dewey philosophy. HERRING, J. P. "Measurements of Some Abilities in Scientific Thinking." Journal of Educational Psychology, 9:535-58 (1918) and 10:417-32 (1919). Intimate relation of project method and scientific method; definition of certain phases of scientific method ; a test composed of 33 problems designed as measures of defined aspects of scientific ability; aim, history, and limitations of the test. The text of the test is presented, and a scale is developed. HEYLE, E. M. "School Lunch as a Project in Teaching Cookery in the Elementary Schools." Journal of Home Economics, 9:205-10 (1917). Describes and evaluates a method in which the preparation of the school lunch is at once educative and efficient. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE PROJECT METHOD 159 HINCHMAN, W. S. "Reading Clubs Instead of Literature Classes." School and Society, 4:417 (1916). Each boy reports upon a book he has read from time to time, the report being followed by class discussion. The fact that the teacher is never quite prepared is one of the educative features of the plan. Boys are found to read about two and one-half times as much under this scheme as before its use. Hosic, J. F. "Outline of the Problem- Project Method." English Journal, 7:597-602 (1918). Treats of the definition, name, nature, value, procedure, pit-falls, and dif- ficulties of the problem-project method. Project is defined as a single complete unit of purposeful experience. A very compact and usefully suggestive series of theses. HOWE, C. M. "What Eighty Teachers Think as to the Aim and Subject Matter of General Science." General Science Quarterly, 2:445-58 (1918). An analysis of responses to a questionaire. % JACKSON, L. L. "Project Sinning and Sinned Against." In- dustrial Arts Magazine, 7:138-39 (1918). An application of certain criteria of project education to a typical indus- trial arts project. JOHNSON, A. "Written Composition in the Fourth Grade." Central Normal Bulletin, 15:7-8 (1919). Through group criticism and incidental teaching of minimum essentials in composition, high standards in paragraphing are attained. JONES, W. H. S. How We Learn. 64pp. Putnam (1916). The psychology and practice of scientific method as employed by boys. Induction, deduction, examples of scientific discoveries, the method of dis- covery, analogy, fallacies, learning, and authority. The illustrative material is well developed. KEATINGE, M. W. Studies in the Teaching of History. 232pp. Macmillan (London, 1913). A most suggestive work on the use of problems in teaching history. A masterly discussion of the difficulties inherent in historical problems. Many illustrations of the quality of criticism of which students are capable. KERR, W. H. "Problem Method and Its Library Correlation. A Librarian's Reaction." Library Journal, 42:686-87 (1917). The writer approves the problem method of study and plans generously to adapt library methods to the needs of children who use the method. 160 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD KILPATRICK, W. H. "Education of Adolescents for Democracy: A General View and Evaluation of Present Methods." Relig- ious Education, 14:123-35 (1919). A contribution of the very first importance as proposing that we agree upon criteria and proceed to evaluate the organizations in which our adolescents are educated. Phases of educational psychology are related; criteria are proposed; a long list of institutions such as the Boy Scouts, high schools, technical schools, Y. M. C. A., and school fraternities are evaluated and ranked. . "Problem-Project Attack in Organization, Subject- matter, and Teaching." N.E.A. Proceedings, 56:528-31 (1918); School, 29:396-97 (1918). Since the unit of worthy living is the project, the project should be the unit of school procedure; it utilizes the laws of learning; it leads to moral living. Four types of project are distinguished. . "Project Method. The Use of the Purposeful Act in the Educative Process." Teachers College Bulletin, loth Series, No. 3 (1918). A philosophic and psychologic base of the problem-project movement. A contribution presenting the psychology of the project, a concept which serves to unify three factors of education: activity, the laws of learning, and con- duct. Effective purpose is the essence of project method. The purposeful act is the typical unit of worthy life and should be that of school procedure. Four types of project are distinguished. . "Project Teaching." General Science Quarterly, 1 :6;- 72 (1917). A compilation from notes by several persons who heard the author speak. . "Theories Underlying the Experiment." Teachers College Record, 20:99-106 (1919). What children are to learn : of common affairs, of social ideals and skills, of self-reliance, and of school arts ; learning to do by doing ; the child's method ; child doing under teacher guidance. A presentation before patrons of the Horace Mann School of the theories of a significant experiment. and others. "Horace Mann Studies in Primary Education." Teachers College Record, 20:97-125 (1919). Introducing a series of articles of first importance as describing the planning and executing of project experimentation of the thoroughgoing kind in the Horace Mann School. Theories, specimen activities, materials, and stimuli. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE PROJECT METHOD 161 KITSON, H. D. How to Use Your Mind. 2iypp. Lippincott (1916). One of the how-to-study books from which one may take helpful suggestions for his own method in its general aspect. KRACKOWITZER, A. M. Projects in Primary Grades. 221 pp. Lippincott (1919). A presentation from the point of view of the Dewey philosophy; play, construction, social ethics, nature, and the formal subjects are all treated as "purposeful activity." Discussion of problem and project, and of criteria. Rich with illustrations of projects for the primary grades. A type of book bound to appear more and more frequently. LASHER, G. S. "English and the Project Method." Journal of the Michigan School Masters 1 Club, 53:61-67 (1918). Describes the writing of a book about Chicago by a Freshman high school class, and other projects. LEONARD, S. A. "Social Recitation." Chicago Schools Journal. i:No. 10, 2-9 (1919). The project method is not soft pedagogy. The teacher must strongly influ- ence the purposing of the pupils. A sound discussion of certain points of modern method which are frequently called into question. LOTT, D. W. "Twenty Minute Project." General Science Quarterly, 1:122-26 (1917). Contains the quoted conversation of the class room, illustrating one project which left the pupils with drives toward other projects. LULL, H. G. "Observation and Score Card. Project-Problem Instruction." (May be obtained from J. C. DeVoss, Kansas State Normal School, Emporia, Kansas.) Six excellent cards presenting an elaborate analysis of project-problem abilities: (i) and (2) Pupil activities and teacher activities in the recitation period; (3) and (4) Pupil activities and teacher activities in the supervised study period; (5) Drill projects; (6) Appreciation activities. . "Problem of Method of Instruction and Its Prob- able Correlation in Library Service and Administration." Library Journal, 42:683-85 (1917); N.E.A. Proceedings, 55: 562-66 (1917). Problem instruction requires the pupil to seek information from a variety of sources, among which the library is important. The modification of the library 1 62 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD service in equipment and methods is suggested, and the creation of a new type of service, that of the teacher-librarian, is proposed. The author makes it appear that our libraries might become vitally concerned with project teaching. LULL, H. G. "Project- Problem Instruction." School and Home Education, 38:79-82 (1918). Definition of the term project. A thorough treatment, covering much of the ground of the author's "What are Projects and Problems?" (q. t>.), and in addition presenting a very comprehensive and detailed score card analysis of the activities involved. This analysis does much to suggest the technique of the method. . "Relation of Project- Problem Instruction to the Curriculum." School and Home Education, 38:114-15 (1919). The boundaries between subjects. Drill subjects and use subjects (applied technique) in elementary and junior high schools. Acquisition of the technique of subjects of the curriculum. . "Schoolroom Technic in Problem Instruction in Grammar Grades." School and Society, 5:496-99 (1917). Socialization, motivation, problem instruction, supervised study, changed relationship of recitation to study, and suggestions as to what to avoid are discussed from the point of view of education through purposeful activity. . "Socializing School Procedure." American Journal of Sociology, 24:681-91 (1919). The free play ways of children utilized in teaching. Two assignments are presented, one that hampers the free purposeful attack of pupils and one that furthers that attack. Stenographic report of class conversation. Application of the project way to discipline and planning. . "University How-to-Study Class." School and Soci- ety, 4:961 (1916). How the author in cooperation with instructors in the engineering depart- ment of a university taught engineering students how to study. Suggests a type of work probably much needed in many schools. . "What are Projects and Problems?" Teaching, Vol. I, No. 57 (1919); Chicago Schools Journal, 2:19-25 (1919). Treats of the definition, stimuli, processes, relations to the study period, the recitation, the teacher, facilities, and examples of projects. Contains an ade- quate and detailed manual of practice. Twenty pages are devoted to the reproduction of children's notes, plans, revisions, outlines, and expositions of BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE PROJECT METHOD 163 projects in geography, English, arithmetic, and science. An attempt to define certain details of procedure implicit in Dewey's philosophy of education. LULL, H. G. and others. "Project Method of Instruction." Teach- ing, 5, No. i, 3-31 (1920). The January number of Teaching is devoted to the project method. Func- tion, types, descriptive illustrations, verbatim reports, means of measuring progress in project education in widely different fields. A large range of sug- gestion and concrete help useful to those experimenting with the method. LUNT, J. R. "Illuminating Gas Project." General Science Quar- terly, 1:213-5 (1917). A detailed account of a project. McCALL, W. A. and others. "Experimental Measurements." Teachers College Record, 20 :2 1 8-28 (1919). The measurement of experimental groups using the project method and of control groups not using it justified the conclusion that the project method secured the conventional "intelligences" of the primary grades almost as well as the older methods. The project method, being new, it is suggested, may or may not later outstrip the more formal methods in the intellectual requirements of minimum essentials, and may or may not outstrip them in certain, as yet unmeasurable, qualities. . "Measuring the Horace Mann Elementary School." Teachers College Record, 19:472-84 (1918). Reports measurements in an experimental school where the project method is used in several rooms. MclNTYRE, MRS. H. I. "Giving Purpose to Students of High School English." English Journal, 6:539-41 (1917). Describes the beginning of an attempt to increase the interest of Freshman and Junior English students by surveying their needs and organizing the course to meet the needs expressed. MCLAUGHLIN, K. "How to Study." Elementary School Journal, 15:22-24 (1915)- Three common difficulties are presented and remedies proposed. McMuRRY, C. A. Teaching by Projects. A Basis for Purposeful Study. 257pp. Macmillan (1920). Treats of the growing tendency to adopt large projects and of the simplifying and enriching of study through large projects. Presents in detail a number of such projects. Relations of projects to classroom method. 1 64 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD McMuRRY, F. M. Elementary School Standards. 21 8pp. World Book Co. (1914). Interesting, searching, qualitative criticism of a school system in the light of four standards, which are standards for problem teaching: provision for motive on the part of pupils, consideration of values by pupils, attention to organization by pupils, and initiative by pupils. This book will long be vitally pertinent. . How to Study and Teaching How to Study. 324pp. Hough ton Mifflin (1909). Nature of study; provision for specific purposes; supplementing thought; organizing ideas; judging soundness and worth; memorizing; using ideas; tentative attitudes; individuality. An important early contribution to the project method, with special emphasis on the problem. and others. "Symposium on Study in the Elementary School." Education, 30:242-44 (1909) and 30:311-15 (1910). Opinions of a score of educators in response to pertinent questions. MEISTER, M. "Guiding and Aiding the Pupil in His Project." General Science Quarterly, 3:209-15 (1919). Suggestions are made as to certain elements of the technique of project method, such as use of references, card indexes, conferences, questions, lists of experiments, etc. . "Method of the Scientists." School Science and Mathematics, 18:743 (1918). The method of scientists is essentially like that of the project. An analysis of the processes of scientific investigation and discussion of the methods used by many scientists. . "Science Work in the Speyer School." General Sci- ence Quarterly, 2:429-45 (1918). Thoughtful, detailed outline of the project method with concrete suggestion on certain methods in class work in the high school. MERRIMAN, E. D. "Technique of Supervised Study." School Review, 18:35-38 (1918). Very helpful, detailed, concrete outline for this phase of problem study. MILLER, H. L. "University of Wisconsin Plan for the Preparation of High School Teachers." N. S. S. E. iSth Yearbook, I 7-165. A vigorous, suggestive presentation of the plan of preparation through par- ticipation, in which the project method is central, and from which one may learn much of the actual working of the method in one school and almost sense how it feels to learn to teach well. The earnest daily reports of the college seniors who are preparing to teach are illuminating. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE PROJECT METHOD 165 MILLER, I. E. Psychology of Thinking. 298pp. Macmillan (1910). Useful as an analysis of the physiological and psychological bases of think- ing. Includes many specific suggestions as to procedure in guiding children in their thinking. MILLIS, J. F. and others. "Report of Committee of Mathematics Section of the Central Association of Science and Mathematics Teachers on Real Applied Problems in Algebra and Geometry." School Science and Mathematics, 9:78898 (1909) . Analysis of problem method. Method and results of the investigation of the committee. Illustrative problems. Bibliography of sources of problems. MINOR, R. "Project Teaching in Grade Six." Elementary School Journal, 20:137-45 (1919). The rise of problems; lists of problems and of pupil activities; titles of compositions; relationships among subjects of the curriculum; results; how the work of the grade as a whole was handled. Concretely helpful. . "Supervision of Project Teaching." Educational Administration and Supervision, 5:357-63 (1919). Several definitions are presented; the value of the method is considered; a very detailed analysis of the values is presented. Selected bibliography. MOORE, A. E. "Use of Children's Initiative in Beginning Read- ing." Teachers College Record, 17:330-43 (1916). . The purpose of the experiment was to "see what could be accomplished in beginning reading through self-directed individual effort," and to select those reactions which were most effective. A most promising first-grade project, with a list of pictures, apparatus and books used. MOORE, E. C. What is Education? 357pp. Ginn (1915). A very live presentation in everyday terms from the point of view of the Dewey philosophy and the Thorndike psychology. Presents strikingly the relativity of process, concept, etc., and the project idea of education. Espe- cially chapters on the place of method in education and on learning by problem getting. MOORE, J. C. "Projects." General Science Quarterly, 1:14-16. Proposes for teachers of science a card catalogue system of projects in out- line accompanied by references to literature. One illustration is given. . "Project Science, Progressive." School Science and Mathematics, 16:686-90 (1916). "The results of science teaching do not measure up to reasonable expec- tancy." Project method is analyzed and discussed. 1 66 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD MORRIS, M. "Third Grade Project." Central Normal Bulletin, 15:1 (1919). Valuable as suggesting that teachers who move to new fields may put their new pupils into communication with their former ones. Leaves of timber trees, peanuts on the stalk, cotton, etc., were exchanged and utilized as drives for letter-writing, spelling, and geography. NEWBY, M. I. "The Socialized Recitation." The Sierra Educa- tional News, 15:70-72 (1919). A school magazine published by pupils, debating clubs for oral language, imaginary ownership of real estate, and oil prospecting are used to socialize the curriculum. Suggestive of projects possible in most communities. OWEN, W. B. "Problem Method." Chicago Schools Journal, 1:3-4 (1918). Treats of the problem method as a synthesis of the philosophy of experience, the logic of purpose, the psychology of the act, the method of science, and the processes of industry. Discloses clearly the vitality of relationship between the method and certain contemporaneous phases of thought and life. The psychology of purpose is dominant. PARKER, E. P. "Partition of Africa, a Seventh Grade Geography Unit." Elementary School Journal, 20:188-202 (1919). Nine periods of sixty minutes each sufficed to develop this project. Each child chose his own part. Vivid narrative of how problems lead to solutions and solutions to problems. - . "Sixth Grade Science Projects." Elementary School Journal, 20:297-307 (1919). Describes the making of telegraph instruments and magnetic toys, and the wiring of a toy theatre for electric lights. PARKER, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. 529pp. Ginn (1915)- Contains much that is pertinent to the technique of supervised problem study and to the difficulties of transition from other methods to the project method. Well organized. PAYNE, E. G. "Experiment in Motivation." Elementary School Journal, 17727-33 An experiment undertaken with boys. The plan was of two parts: visits to factories, and study and discussion growing out of the visits. Contains a general detailed outline for the study of any industry. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE PROJECT METHOD 167 PEARSON, K. Grammar of Science. 548pp. Macmillan (Lon- don, 1900). A work of the first rank dealing with the facts, conditions, concepts, and conclusions of science, and with the relations of the sciences. Pertinent be- cause of the intimate relation of scientific method with problem-project method. QUICK, H. Brown Mouse. 3iopp. Bobbs Merrill (1915). Fascinating fiction of a farmer lad with a country education, who was inveigled to teach the country school and who quasi-instinctively based his procedure upon an informal survey of community needs. A book that makes its own educational appeal on a basis of common sense and plain humor. The ways of the novice here strikingly suggest project method. RAPEER, L. W., ed. Teaching Elementary School Subjects. 569pp. Scribner (1917). A symposium of more than a score of leaders of thought and practice in education. Each author treats of a subject of the curriculum. In numerous places content is related with projects. REAVIS, W. C. "The Social Motive in the Teaching of Arith- metic." Elementary School Journal, 18:264-67 (1917). Describes a plan of teaching stocks and bonds to an eighth grade class. A mock bank was organized, in which each member of the class became a stockholder. ROBERTS, A. C. "An Experiment in Socialization." School Review, 26:25-34 (1918). Details an experiment in the adaptation of high school education to certain purposeful community demands. SANDWICK, R. L. How to Study and What to Study. i7Opp. Heath (1915). A how-to-study book that repays reading. Discussion; pithy summary; positive recommendation; analysis of process, aspects, types, and factors of study. Good for junior and senior high school students and for adults who feel the need of help on the technique of their study habits. SCOTT, C. A. Social Education. 298pp. Ginn (1908). Describes certain atypical schools, such as the George Junior Republic and the Dewey School. Discusses self -organized group work. . "Social Significance of Self-Organized Group Work." In KING, L: Social Aspects of Education, pp. 377-93. Mac- millan (1912). Presents a method of initiating the project plan in a school room to which it is new, and describes a number of projects. Socialization is seen intimately related with project. A most interesting, vivid, and frank narrative concern- ing certain difficulties and solutions in socialization. 1 68 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD SEMPLE, E. C. Influences of Geographic Environment. 683pp. Henry Holt (1911). An invaluable source of problems and their solutions, for the teacher who realizes the necessity of being, upon her own level, a student, if she is to guide students. SHUTE, M. C. "The Practice of Democracy in the Kindergarten." Kindergarten and First Grade, 3:89-94 (1918). Usefully suggestive discussion of the problems of democratic education, e. g., that of the individual and society. SIMPSON, J. H. Adventure in Education. 2oypp. Sidgwick (London, 1917). An interestingly written and carefully analytic description of an experiment in the educative effect of self-government in one of the lower forms of Rugby School, England. SMITH, E. L. "Project of Everyday Machines." General Sci- ence Quarterly, 3:31-33 (i9 J 9)- An introduction to physics through everyday machines like doorknobs, crowbars, and egg-beaters. Complex machines are finally analyzed into the simple machines of which they are composed. SNEDDEN, D. "Project as a Teaching Unit." School and Society, 4:419-23 (1916). Discussion of various units: the question and answer, the lesson, the topic, and the project. Characteristics, definition, history, and classification of projects. . "Project Method of Teaching Home Making." Educational Administration and Supervision, 5:94-96 (1919). Notes of an address which are suggestive as to method and contain a list of relevant projects. SPEYER SCHOOL CURRICULUM. By the staff and supervisors of the experimental and demonstration school of Teachers College, Columbia University. iSopp. Teachers College, Columbia University (1913). The interrelation of the content of the subjects of the curriculum, with pro- jects and sources of data. Projects and sources accompany each grade cur- riculum. Projects are found most frequently with the subject of industrial arts. Rich in concrete suggestion from the kindergarten through the eighth grade. Excellent lists of books needed by children and teachers. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE PROJECT METHOD 169 STEVENSON, J. A. "Problems and Projects." School and Home Education, 38:209-15 (1919). Method; definitions; projects and problems differentiated and classified; summary. . "Project and the Curriculum." School and Home Education, 38:146-51 (1919). Some principles of curriculum making. An analysis of a first grade project: making a flower garden. "Projects need not cut across subjects of the cur- riculum." Project as the basis of curriculum organization. . "Project in Science Teaching." School Science and Mathematics, 19:50-63 (1919). School and Home Education, 38:110-14 (1919). General Science Quarterly, 3:195-209 (1918). Concept, implications, and description of the project; standards; related concepts in common use, including that of scientific method. A sound, com- prehensive, suggestive study, in which Dewey's philosophy of purpose is central. STONE, C. H. "Making a Match, a Project." General Science Quarterly, 3:89-90 (1919)- The process of making a match and its meaning in education. STRAYER, G. D. and NORSWORTHY, N. How to Teach. 297pp. Macmillan (1917). The chapters entitled "How Thinking may be Stimulated" and "How to Study" are especially relevant and worth careful reading by those who teach. Our scientific knowledge of learning and of the improvement of functions is here related to the processes of education. TALLMAN, L. "New Types of Class Teaching." Religious Edu- cation, 12:271-80 (1917). Discussion of project method. Illustrative material. Emphasis on real life situations, and upon natural method and socialized activity. Bearing of project method upon religious education. TAYLOR, W. S. "Project Methods in Teacher-training Courses." School and \Society, 8:487-90 (1918). N. E. A. Proceedings, pp. 276-78 (1918). Instruction in agriculture in the secondary school was lifeless until projects were used. The beneficial results and the criteria of the method in agriculture are discussed. 170 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD THOMPSON, C. J. "Study of the Socialized versus the Academic Method of Teaching Written Composition." School Review, 27:110-133 (1919). An experimental and a control group are compared through measurements, with the conclusion that the method which utilizes the social elements of the composition and group stimuli gives decidedly better results. Recommenda- tions as to procedure are included. THORNDIKE, E. L. Education, A First Book. Chap. IX and X, pp. 168-202. Macmillan (1912). Really, if not professedly, concerned with aspects of project method. Assuming the scientific attitude and the relevancy of purposes in educative processes, these chapters give concrete and illuminating direction. . "Education for Initiative and Originality." Teachers College Record, 17:405-16 (1916); Teachers College Bulletin, nth Series, No. 4 (1919). Two virtues basic in project method, in ethics in use, and in civic practice. "From the standpoint of education in a democratic state and for the sake of efficient democratic citizenship." The definitions proposed do much to clarify ethical educational thought. Certainly one of the best analyses of these traits . . Educational Psychology. 3 vol., 327; 452; 408 pp. Teachers College, Columbia University (1913-14). Pertinent to project study because every method of education must concern reflexes, instincts, capacities, laws of learning, and the factors and conditions of improvement. A scientific correlate of the John Dewey philosophy of educa- tion as a base of the problem-project method. . Principles of Teaching. 293pp. A. G. Seiler (1906). Invaluable for teachers making the transition to methods involving reason- ing by children. Very helpful on the technique of handling the element of interest, on habit formation, and on much else. TRANER, F. W. "Socializing the Study of History." School Review, 25:714-21 (1917). Presents criteria for the selection of content. Favors the "topical or problem method." The aim of education is stated to be adjustment to social environ- ment. Twiss, G. R. "Outlook for the Application of Scientific Method to the Problem of Science Teaching." N. E. A. Proceedings, 52:723-28 (1914)- Contains a series of theses bearing upon the project method. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE PROJECT METHOD 171 Twiss, G. R. A Textbook in the Principles of Science Teaching. 458pp. Macmillan (1917). A thoroughgoing text on scientific method as fundamental in the progress of the race and of the child's education; replete with excellent suggestions of method in teaching and of the materials of equipment. Many principles of scientific method and subjects of the curriculum are treated. Problem- project method is in the last analysis scientific method. UPTON, S. M. and CHASSELL, C. F. "Scale for Measuring the Importance of Habits of Good Citizenship." Teachers College Record, 20:36-65 (1919). A scale in which certain virtues important in project method find prominent place. VAN BUSKIRK, E. F. and SMITH, E. L. Science of Everyday Life. 4i6pp. Houghton Mifflin (1919). A book of projects for the junior high school: air, fire, breathing, health, water, soil, foods, control of nature, homes, clothing, lighting, heating, ma- chines, transportation, and the origin and betterment of life. A goodly wealth of the matter and spirit of projects in general science, with many and excellent illustrations. Of undoubted value for the courses in general science in junior high schools. VON HOPE, G. D. "Development of a Project." Teachers Col- lege Record, 17:240-46 (1916). "The sixth grade in the Horace Mann School are studying science regardless of every artificial division. The class chooses a project . . . the teacher then presents the information to follow . . . the trend of the thought of the pupils." One project is presented. . "Giving the Project Method a Trial." School Sci- ence and Mathematics, 16:763-67 (1916). Certain aims are erected and cautions suggested. WAKE, W. S. "Project in General Science." School Science and Mathematics, 19:643-50 (1919). A stimulating, well-organized article dealing with aspects of the project method as follows: need of the method; laboratory; definitions by nine authors with the author's criticisms; approaching, beginning, developing, culminating, and closing projects; attitude; twelve types of projects; induc- tion and deduction; the text-book. WATSON, C. W. "School Home-Garden Project." Nebraska Teacher, 20:293-97 (1918). Presents the organization and results of a project involving the cooperation of boys and girls of a state. 172 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD WHIPPLE, G. M. How to Study Effectively. 44pp. Public School Pub. Co. (1916). Clear, sound, detailed directions for guidance of children's study in the elementary school, high school, and college. Contains much that will help many an adult. WIECKING, A. "Some Suggestions for Primary Industrial Projects." School Progress, 1:3-6 (1919). WILLIAMS, R. H. "Introductory Fire Lesson." General Science Quarterly, 1:216-21 (1917). Detailed account of a project and of class conversation connected with it. WILSON, G. M. "Motivation of Seventh and Eighth Grade History Work." Elementary School Teacher, 13:11-16 (1912). A very interesting suggestion. An 8B class in United States history used Madison's Journal of the Constitutional Convention and organized itself into such a convention, the teacher being elected to play the roll of Washington. Other members of the group played other rolls. The dramatic treatment aroused undoubted interest. WILSON, H. B. and WILSON, G. M. The Motivation of School Work. 265pp. Houghton Mifflin (1916). Treats of the basis of motive, and of motivation in school subjects and in extra-curricular activities. Much concrete illustration. Very helpful. . "Problem Attack in Teaching." Elementary School Journal, 17749-55 (191 7)- The problem attack in the presence of conscious difficulty is requisite to good school work, and results in real learning and economy. Two types of problems are presented and one illustration from history is given in some detail. WOODHULL, J. F. "Aims and Methods of Science Teaching." General Science Quarterly, 2:24950 (1917). An analysis of the project method as that used by the masters of investiga- tion of all time. Its advantages as against topical methods. A convincing presentation. . "General Science." School Science and Mathematics, 13499-500 (1913)- Correspondence is invited with reference to suggestions as to a survey of children's interests, the ignorances of adults, etc. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE PROJECT METHOD 173 WOODHULL, J. F. "General Science, Summary of Opinion under Revision." School Science and Mathematics, 14 1600-602 (1914) ; Educational Review, 48:298-300 (1914). Some unusually significant conclusions regarding children's interests, with implications regarding method. A drastic but sound arraignment of "prepara- tory science." "Natural Method." School and Society, 3:64-65 (1916). We can teach concepts only through experiences. Intimate relation of projects in physics with life. The presentation is suggestive and forceful. . "Project Method in the Teaching of Science." School and Society, 8:41-44 (1918). What the method is and is not. The method is that of the masters of all time. It must be thoroughly acquired by teachers and used habitually by them; then we may expect results from their pupils. Sound and suggestive. . "Projects in Science." Teachers College Record, 17:31-39 (1916). Certain problems were solved and projects done by five university professors. Three other projects are described in some detail. All were from real life and were really problems. Valuable as suggesting the compelling character of real problem-projects. The philosophy of purpose is assumed. . "Project of a Frozen Water-pipe." General Science Quarterly, 3:107 (1919)- Edited from a boy's note-book. A piece of education in a natural setting. . "Science Teaching by Projects." School Science and Mathematics, 15:225-32 (1915). Project method is presented as research, scientific method, the method of the masters, and the method of everyday effective living. There is a considerable range of pertinent quotation. The absurdities of certain commonly used methods are rehearsed. A widely suggestive and important reading. . Studies of the Masters -"Lyell." General Science Quarterly, 3:141-46 (1919). "Scientific Orthodoxy." General Science Quarterly, 3:216 18 (1919). "Darwin." General Science Quarterly, 4:275-82 (1919). Evidence is here adduced to prove that the method of work of certain mas- ters of investigation is that since called project method. 174 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD WOODHULL, J. F. Teaching of Science. 249pp. Macmillan (1918). Chap. XIII. Science Teaching by Projects. A sound view and a wealth of pertinent quotation. Chap. XIV. Projects in Science. Chap. XV. Natural Method. WORKMAN, L. L. "Project in Ventilation." General Science Quarterly, 3'-33-34 (1919)- An interesting project described. WRIGHT, W. R. "Some Effects of Incentives on Work and Fatigue." Psychological Review, 13:23-24 (1906). One of the few experimental studies bearing on the arousing of initiative. The conclusions are of prime interest in their bearing upon the problem-project method. WRITE, R. "Socialized Recitation." Atlantic Educational Jour- nal, 13:175-81 (1917)- A socialized recitation in geography. ZIEGLER, C. W. "Laboratory Method in English Teaching." English Journal, 8:3 (1919). Describes, as in a friendly interview, aspects of a new method in high school English: lengthened school day; supervised study; equipment; relations in the curriculum; content; spirit of industry; responses in educative activities beyond school requirement; aim and method in poetry; difficulties; text- books. COLLEGE NEWS AND DEPARTMENTAL NOTES TRUSTEES At a meeting of the Trustees of Teachers College on Thursday, February 19, Frank P. Graves, Ph.D., Litt.D., LL.D., dean of the School of Education of the University of Pennsylvania, was unanimously elected alumni trustee. Dean Graves will begin - the customary two years of service at the next meeting of the Trustees in April. The following new appointment to the Faculty of Education was made at the direction of the Trustees : Harold Ordway Rugg, Ph.D., to be associate professor of education, with a seat in the Faculty of Education. Dr. Rugg has been connected with the University of Chicago since 1915, first as instructor in education, then as assistant professor, and in 1918 as associate professor. He will have charge of the work in psychological measurements in The Lincoln School, with which institution he has been con- nected since the first of January. The following promotions of members of the Teachers College staff were announced: Thomas Henry Briggs, Ph.D., from associ- ate professor to professor of education; Walter H. Eddy, Ph.D., from assistant professor to associate professor of physiological chemistry; Edward S. Evenden, Ph.D., from associate in educa- tion to assistant professor of education; Arthur I. Gates, Ph.D., from instructor in psychology to assistant professor of education. The resignation of Dr. Virgil Prettyman, for twenty-five years principal of the Horace Mann School for Boys, was accepted with regret. Dr. Prettyman's resignation will take effect June 30, 1920. As a mark of their appreciation, the Trustees granted him leave of absence from December 31, the date of his withdrawal from the School, until June 30. Dr. Prettyman has accepted a business call of an attractive nature, and the best wishes of his 175 1 76 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD associates in the College and the School go with him into his new work. The eminent success he has attained as a leader of boys, his integrity of character, his devotion to a trust, and his loyalty to his co-workers will surely make him a leader of men. The conduct of the School is now in the hands of Professor Frank- lin W. Johnson, formerly principal of the University of Chicago High School, now associate professor of education in Teachers College. Leave of absence has been granted for the Winter Session of the next academic year to Professor Mary T. Whitley, and for the Spring Session to Professors Broadhurst, Nutting, Winchell, and Strayer. The many graduates of the College in the departments of household arts will be glad to know that the Trustees have given to the Household Arts Building the name of Grace Dodge Build- ing. That building was a gift to the College in 1909 by Miss Dodge in memory of her mother. The Trustees sanctioned also the change of name of The Ban- croft and Janus Court, the apartment houses recently acquired by purchase by the College for use as dormitories, to Bancroft Hall and Seth Low Hall, respectively. EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION One of the greatest needs in education to-day is to secure a more intelligent public interest in the work, aims, and methods of our public schools. Realizing this, Dean Russell suggested at the recent Alumni Conferences that the College should provide training in this work. It was his opinion that the task was pri- marily the school administrator's, and he recommended that courses be organized to train school superintendents for it. These courses are now being arranged in the department of educational administration where they will be given under the direct supervision of Professors Strayer, Engelhardt, and Even- den. It will be the purpose of the courses not only to acquaint students with the best publicity methods, but also to give them actual practice. The publicity campaign for Teachers College and the work of its various departments and schools will furnish the laboratory material. EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION 177 "How to secure citizen cooperation through public information" was the problem which caused Professor Strayer to meet early in January with Superintendent H. S. Weet, of Rochester, N. Y.; Superintendent Henry Snyder, of Jersey City, N. J.; Superin- tendent Frank V. Thompson, of Boston, Mass.; Superintendent- elect R. G. Jones, of Cleveland, Ohio; Mr. W. J. Donald, secre- tary of the Chamber of Commerce, Buffalo, N. Y. ; Mr. Harold S. Buttenheim, president and Mr. F. A. Richardson, secretary of the American City Bureau. It was decided at this meeting that one of the necessary steps in giving publicity to facts about the public schools in the United States was to enlist the cooperation of civic and commercial organizations in cities throughout the country. Accordingly, a group of school superintendents and secretaries of chambers of commerce were invited to meet at Cleveland during the meeting of the Superintendence Section of the N. E. A. Those who attended the meeting at Cleveland represented cities of all sizes in all sections of the United States. They unanimously decided to undertake, through the cooperation of school officials and civic and commercial organizations, a publicity campaign which would present the facts about school conditions to the people of the United States. An executive committee was chosen to plan the execution of this publicity campaign. This committee consists of Dr. George D. Strayer, president, Mr. F. A. Richardson, secre- tary, Superintendents H. S. Weet, of Rochester, N. Y. ; J. H. Beveridge, of Omaha, Neb.; R. G. Jones, of Cleveland, Ohio; Henry Snyder, of Jersey City, N. J.; Messrs. H. H. Davidson, secretary of the Chamber of Commerce, Erie, Pa.; W. J. Donald, secretary of the Chamber of Commerce, Niagara Falls, N. Y. ; F. B. Pierce, secretary of the Chamber of Commerce, Bridgeport, Conn. ; and E. L. McColgin, secretary of the Chamber of Com- merce, Dayton, Ohio. The executive committee met at Teachers College on March 18 and perfected plans for carrying out a nation-wide campaign through the efforts of school officials and civic and commercial organizations. Information is to be collected and published along these five lines: i. What sort of teachers do American cities employ and how well do they reward them? 178 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD 2. How well do American cities house their school children? 3. How adequately is the health of school children safeguarded? 4. How will the rising costs of education be met? 5. What is to be the future educational program in American cities? The inquiry relative to the teacher situation is already under way, and it is expected that the information coming from this investigation will be of great assistance in educating public opinion on the work which must be done in order to get and keep good teachers. The department has been engaged in making a school building survey and developing a school building program for the school system of Greensboro, N. C., under the direction of Professors Strayer and Engelhardt. The group of graduate students from the practicum in educational administration who were engaged in this survey include the following: P. R. Stevenson, dean and director of research, University of Omaha, Neb.; W. S. Hertzog, formerly principal of State Normal School, California, Pa.; R. G. Reynolds, of the Vermont State Education Depart- ment; F. B. Knight, formerly superintendent of schools, Danvers, Mass.; A. J. Lang, principal of elementary school, Kingston, N. Y.; J. C. Morrison, superintendent of schools, Leonia, N. J.; M. W. Longman, of the Western State Normal School, Kalama- zoo, Mich.; W. W. Curfman, formerly superintendent of schools, Mulvane, Kan. The survey party left New York January 18 and spent the following week collecting data to be put into report form and made available for an extensive publicity campaign in Greens- boro before March 15. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Twelve graduate students of psychology have undertaken a mental survey of Public School 1 1 (Manhattan) during the cur- rent semester. The work is under the immediate direction and supervision of Miss Elizabeth Farrell and Professor Leta S. Hollingworth. Mr. Benjamin B. Greenberg, principal of Public School 1 1, is a former student of Teachers College. FOODS AND COOKERY 179 Professor William A. McCall will be engaged during the spring and summer in the construction of a series of reading scales and in the study of public school problems in silent reading. FINE ARTS Miss Sallie B. Tannahill, instructor in fine arts, has been giving a series of four lectures, with lantern slides, on the subject of "Lettering in Decorative and Commercial Art" at the Metro- politan Museum of Art to high school boys and girls who are especially interested in the subject of lettering. Miss Tannahill designed and made the book which was presented to Mr. and Mrs. V. Everit Macy containing the signatures of those present at the opening of the Teachers College Country Club, in appreciation of the generosity and though tfulness of Mr. and Mrs. Macy. The book was presented by Professor Henry C. Pearson. Professor Grace Cornell opened the course at the New York Public Library on The Art of the Book with a lecture on "The Principles of Design." FOODS AND COOKERY The department of foods and cookery is planning to issue a Teachers College Cook Book in the course of the next academic year. The department held a conference at the College on March 23. The subject was "The Relations Between Teachers of Home Economics and Certain Phases of the Business World." On March 24 delegates from the Community Councils of New York held a meeting regarding marketing conditions. Professor Van Arsdale spoke on "How the New York State Department of Farms and Markets Can Help the New York City Consumer," and Miss Anna Barrows gave a demonstration on potatoes. Miss Marion E. Dickenson, instructor of the class in large quantity cookery, died very suddenly early in January. Miss Elizabeth H. Bohn is conducting the class this semester, assisted by Miss Alice Conway. During the annual reunion and conferences of the Alumni Association the department served the household arts luncheon. About one hundred and fifty were present. ISO TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD Interesting experiments are being carried on in experimental cookery in cooperation with the department of physiological chemistry. Miss Anna Colman and Miss Mary Barber, instruc- tors in experimental cookery, are working on problems in cookery with Professor Walter H. Eddy, of the department of physiologi- cal chemistry. This cooperation indicates an interesting growth for the future of this work. HOUSEHOLD AND INSTITUTION ADMINISTRATION Miss Katharine A. Fisher, instructor in household arts, has completed a bulletin on school lunches for the Child Health Organization. The bulletin will be published by the Federal Bureau of Education. Miss L. Ray Balderston, instructor in household arts, has prepared a bulletin on laundering to be published by the Federal Department of Agriculture. A recent round table conference was held for household administration students. The following students, former gradu- ates of the department, took part in the discussion: Miss Mary Elizabeth Cooley, director of The Home Efficiency School; Miss Eleanor Wells, social service dietitian, Post Graduate Hospital, New York City; Miss Alice Bough ton, director of statistical department, J. Walter Thompson Company, New York City; Miss Doris Tisdale, director of lunch room, Horace Mann School for Boys; Miss Stella Sondheim, manager of Wayside Coffee House, Richmond Hill, New York. Mrs. Louise Nellis, M.A., 1916, has recently completed in Greenwich Village a survey of activities linked with the home. Teachers of household arts, visiting nurses, settlement workers, and others have formed a Greenwich Village Home Conference. The slogan at present is "Every Child in Greenwich Village up to Par." A conference on problems of the industrial canteen was held recently for students in public health nursing and institution administration. Talks were given by Miss Grace Billings, direc- tor of employees' lunch room at the Federal Reserve Bank; Mrs. Pendergast, of National Cloak and Suit Company; Miss Pren- tice, of Lord and Taylor's. A conference is being arranged on "Group Living" to be held at Lake Placid, May 26 to 31. Organizations cooperating in- HOUSEHOLD ECONOMICS l8l elude the Institution Section of the Home Economics Associa- tion; American Dietetic Association; Conference of Deans of Women; Economic Secretaries of the Y. W. C. A. Topics to be discussed include community service, cooperative buying, personnel problems of employees. There will be an important session on research, at which methods now used at the Harvard School of Business Research, Bryn Mawr, and bureaus of social and industrial research will be discussed. Professor E. H. Gunther is acting as chairman of the program committee. HOUSEHOLD ECONOMICS The department of household economics is being constantly called upon for advice regarding individual and family budgets of expenditure, and has started a considerable service of consultancy on problems of this sort. Such questions come not alone from persons of small income. The problem of making ends meet seems to be acute with incomes that would ordinarily be called very liberal. In some cases graduate students of the department are working with individual families, studying their expenditure problem. In other cases the matter has been presented before clubs of women or mixed groups of men and women followed by individual conferences. Recent addresses have been made by Professor Benjamin R. Andrews before the State Conference of Extension Workers of New York State, at the State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y.; the Massachusetts Conference of Extension Workers, at Amherst, Mass.; the Women's Club, Elizabeth, N. J.; the Book Club, Edgewater, N. J.; the Homemakers Club, Hartford, Conn.; the Homemakers Association of the Oranges at East Orange, N. J. Professor Andrews has also continued an informal relationship as adviser on thrift problems with the Savings Divi- sion, United States Treasury Department, Washington, D. C., where he served as associate director during 1919 while on leave of absence from the College. Professor Andrews has been appointed chairman of the Com- mittee on Home Economics of the Charity Organization Society of New York for the year 1920. This committee is supervising the development of household arts in the social work field, both 1 82 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD in the activities of the Charity Organization Society and in the field of social work generally. The secretary of the committee is Miss Emma A. Winslow, who is director of home economics social work for the Charity Organization Society and who, as a member of the staff of Teachers College, gives courses in Home- making Adjustments in Social Work, Field Work in Family Visiting, and Social Work in Household Arts. Under this com- mittee several important studies have been made in the past few years in the field of budgets and homemaking and of the application of home economics to social work. This committee, through a sub-committee of which Professor Cora M. Winchell is chairman, organized in June, 1919, a month's course in Homemaking Adjustments which was taken by twenty- five leading home economics workers from various parts of the country. This course will be offered in a more extended form in June, 1920, and Teachers College will give credit for it to those registering. MATHEMATICS Professor David Eugene Smith was elected president of the American Mathematical Association at its meeting during the Christmas holidays. This association is composed of more than 1 200 mathematicians in this country. Professor Smith addressed the mathematics students at Hunter College on January 9. The department of mathematics held a round table on the occasion of the Alumni Meeting February 21 ; Miss E. L. Noonan, of Teachers College, was chairman. The general topic discussed was the work of the Committee on Mathematical Requirements established by the Mathematical Association of America, with addresses as follows: "The General Nature and Progress of the Work of the Committee," by Professor J. W. Young, Dartmouth College. "The Tentative Report on the Reorganization of the First Courses in Secondary School Mathematics," by Miss Vera Sanford, Berkeley Institute, Brooklyn. "The Status of the Work with Respect to Demonstrative Geometry," by Pro- fessor Smith. "The Nature of the Investigation being Carried on with Respect to Mathematics in Experimental Schools," by Mr. Raleigh Schorling, The Lincoln School. RECREATIONAL LEADERSHIP 183 MODERN LANGUAGES Professor E. W. Bagster-Collins has recently been appointed to serve on the executive committees of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers, and the Modern Language Asso- ciation of the Middle States and Maryland. He is also a member of the Committee of Fifteen appointed by the National Federa- tion to cooperate with a similar committee of the Modern Language Association for the purpose of drafting resolutions ex- pressing the guiding principles of these two leading associations of modern language teachers. Mr. M. A. Bach, instructor in German, is to give on March 20, a lecture before the Association for Social Service on "The Social and Cultural Background of German-Austria." Miss Helene Harvitt, instructor in French, has obtained a fellowship awarded by the Society for American Fellowships in French Universities for 1920-1921. RECREATIONAL LEADERSHIP The department of scouting and recreational leadership, under the direction of Professor Elbert K. Fretwell, and in cooperation with the New York State College of Forestry, the Camp Depart- ment of the Palisades Interstate Park, and various other organiza- tions interested in camping, is conducting, from March 8 to May 3, a series of eight meetings designed to promote camping, train camp leaders, and increase the efficient utilization of the camper's time while in camp. The meetings will be held at Teachers College. The week of March 27 will be devoted to actual camp life in the Palisades Interstate Park. Regular direc- tors of the course will be assisted by specialists from the New York College of Forestry and others, who will lecture, lead discussions, and conduct daily instructional, recreational, and exploratory hikes in Interstate Park. Among the special leaders taking active part in the course are Dean James E. Russell, Professor Elbert K. Fretwell, Dr. Jesse F. Williams, Mrs. Charles H. Farnsworth, Dr. George L. Meylan, and Mr. Abraham Rosenthal. 1 84 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD SECONDARY EDUCATION The Speyer Junior High School is continuing as a cooperative experiment under the direction of Teachers College and the City of New York, with approximately 550 pupils, mostly boys. The school is now an annex of Public School 43, Dr. J. K. VanDen- burg, principal. Professor Thomas H. Briggs, the educational adviser, holds weekly meetings with the teachers for the purpose of improving the instruction ; and all activities are directed by the regular staff of the school. The homogeneous grouping of pupils, which began with the opening of the school in 1915, has proved so successful that it has spread to a number of other public schools in the city. The Otis tests have been used during the past year for the preliminary classification of pupils when they are pro- moted to the seventh grade; after work has progressed for several months pupils are transferred according to the ability and indus- try that they have manifested. The social work of the school, described by Professor Fretwell in the TEACHERS COLLEGE REC- ORD for September, 1919, is continued with the pupils in the school and also with the alumni, both those who are in high schools and those who have gone to work. Each group holds monthly meet- ings, and the entire alumni body meets twice a year to report how they are carrying out the traditions of the school. The alumni are also publishing a monthly paper, called the "Creedonian," the name suggesting the purpose of the association, the popularizing of the Speyer Creed. Under the direction of Professors Briggs and Fretwell, the students in the department of secondary education are conducting a survey of the Boys High School of Reading, Pa. Five students assisted Dr. Briggs and Dr. Fretwell in the field work; and all of the students in Education 481-82 are participating in writing the report of the survey. On January 29-30, Professor Briggs spoke twice before the Conference of Secondary School Principals of Maine, at Augusta. Practically all the principals of the state and a number of the superintendents were in attendance. At the January meeting of the Secondary Club Dr. F. J. H. Paul, principal of the DeWitt Clinton High School, spoke on the work of a city cosmopolitan high school. He told with interest- HORACE MANN SCHOOL 185 ing detail of the organization of his school, which enrolls more than 5000 pupils, and of the various means used to look after the interests of the individual boy. The club members were espe- cially interested in the account of the General Organization, which under the direction of the faculty takes charge of the major extra-classroom activities. At the February meeting of the Secondary Club, Professor Arthur W. Dow gave a lecture before a large and appreciative audience on "The Appreciation of Art." The lecture was illus- trated by lantern slides of masterpieces, both ancient and modern. TEXTILES AND CLOTHING An exhibition of ready-to-wear clothing is being shown by Professor Jane Fales in the Grace Dodge Building. The clothing, which includes as nearly as possible a complete wardrobe for a college girl, is of good wearing material, simple in design, and from the standpoint of present prices 'inexpensive. Two cloth- ing budgets are posted, one showing figures compiled in Wash- ington, D. C., during August and September, 1919, by the Bureau of Labor Statistics for a wardrobe for a government employee; the other giving the 1920 figures in New York for the same list of articles. In addition, various garments and their prices are shown, making the budget more directly applicable to the college girl's requirements. Copies of these budgets will be sent upon application to Pro- fessor Fales. Suggestions and discussion regarding the exhibit and the budgets are requested, in order that the work done may fulfil its purpose, which is primarily to give assistance to the college students who find it necessary to do some buying this spring. HORACE MANN SCHOOL Principal Henry C. Pearson, who has been in constant service both summer and winter for a number of years, had a leave of absence for the month of February, spending his vacation in the South. Miss M. E. Carroll, teacher for the past year and a half of the class for exceptional children, has resigned to accept the position of assistant local director of the Manhattan Council of the Girl 1 86 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD Scouts of America. Miss M. H. Holmes, who has been acting as the primary assistant, is now teaching the class for exceptional children. The school auditorium has been equiped with two Simplex motion picture machines, and films illustrating geography, his- tory, science, and fairy stories have been shown. It is planned to use the school as a laboratory to test the possibilities of the motion picture for various school purposes. The teachers of the school have conducted a course in Yonkers during the winter under the auspices of the Department of Ex- tension Teaching of Columbia University. The course has dealt with the theory and practice of project teaching and has been under the direction of Mr. Charles W. Hunt, vice-principal of the School. After a preliminary discussion of the underlying theory, the following members of the staff gave lectures: Miss Agnes Burke, "The Reorganization of the First Grade"; Miss Mildred Batchelder, "The Materials and Objectives of the Second Grade"; Miss Marie Hennes, "The Program and Method in the Fifth Grade"; Mr. Roy W. Hatch, "The Teaching of Civics"; Miss Mary Kirchwey, "The Teaching of Composition"; Miss Caroline W. Hotchkiss, "The Teaching of Geography"; Principal Pearson. "The Teaching of Silent Reading." TEACHERS COLLEGE COUNTRY CLUB In June, 1919, Mr. V. Everit Macy, chairman of the Board of Trustees of Teachers College, and Mrs. Macy offered to the staff of Teachers College the grounds and buildings of the former Holbrook School at Scarsborough, N. Y., to be used as a country club. The offer included $7500 for remodeling and equipping the buildings. The generous gift was accepted, and the buildings were opened on September i. The club affords rest and recreation in one of the most beautiful spots in Westchester County. Its location commands an impres- sive view of the Hudson and of the Jersey highlands beyond. At present about twenty guests can be accommodated but there will be room for many more as other parts of the building are equipped. The permanent officers of the club are Professor H. C. Pearson, president; Professor M. A. Nutting, vice-president; Mr. Raleigh THE ADMINISTRATION CLUB 187 Schorling, secretary; Professor N. L. Engelhardt, treasurer. The chairmen of the committees are Miss Bertha E. Shapleigh, house committee, Professor E. K. Fretwell, recreation, and Mr. C. W. Hunt, membership. THE ADMINISTRATION CLUB The Administration Club held its first meeting of the new year on January 16 at the home of Dr. and Mrs. George D. Strayer. The meeting took the same form as those held during the fall. Five of the members of the club acted as the school board of the city of Acheron. Others present took the part of the superin- tendent and strenuously endeavored to persuade the school board to make certain changes in the curriculum of the public schools. The board was just as strenuously opposed to any changes; and the point was carried only after the superintendents had summoned to their command all the knowledge and experi- ence available. On Friday, February 13, Professor Frank M. McMurry ad- dressed the club on "The Responsibility of the Superintendent for Quality of Instruction." Milbank Chapel was filled, and the address was followed by an hour of vigorous discussion. A large contingent of members of the club attended the meet- ings of the Department of Superintendence of the N. E. A. at Cleveland, February 21 to 27. Past and present members were well represented on the program. On Friday, March 12, the club cooperated with other student organizations in arranging a meeting to be addressed by Dr. Albert E. Winship, editor of the Journal of Education, which proved highly profitable. ALUMNI ACTIVITIES THE ENDOWMENT CAMPAIGN Following the suggestion made by the retiring alumni trustee, Commissioner Milo B. Hillegas, a committee of Alumni was appointed at Cleveland to determine methods of participation by Teachers College graduates in the campaign for endowment. One of the first and most important suggestions which came to members of the alumni committee was that the Alumni them- selves suggest to the Trustees a larger objective than the Trustees had fixed. It was felt that while other institutions of learning are asking for ten, twelve, or fifteen million dollars endowment, Teachers College ought certainly to attempt more than three million dollars. This point is important when one realizes that approximately only fifteen per cent of the expenses of the College can be met from the endowment at present available. The com- mittee made, therefore, as its first recommendation the suggestion that we organize and undertake a campaign for not less than six million dollars. The committee recommended, in the second place, that the primary appeal to our alumni and graduates be for information and assistance rather than for money. Those who feel able to contribute something to the endowment fund will have the opportunity, but every former student of the College is asked to furnish helpful information about people who may be interested in contributing to a nationally important educational institution. An alumnus might, for example, report that Mr. John Smith, engaged in a certain business in his locality, is greatly interested in Boy Scout work and may possibly be persuaded to give largely to an educational institution where this type of work is empha- sized. The further information might be given that Mr. Smith is a special friend of Mr. Jones, who in turn is a friend of a certain member of the Board of Trustees of Teachers College. With such information at hand, the member of the Board of Trustees might seek and obtain an introduction to Mr. Smith and possibly secure a large subscription. 1 88 NEW OFFICERS OF THE ALUMNI ASSOCIATION 189 It is suggested by the committee that a responsible administra- tive head be selected to conduct this campaign among the alumni, and that sub-heads throughout the United States be appointed by the executive in general charge. Teachers College clubs throughout the country could contribute extensively to the effectiveness of the campaign by discussing in their next meetings possible sources of revenue in their own local communities. All available information regarding men who may be interested in placing their wealth at the service of the educational profession should be obtained; such as what newspapers they read, what their favorite sports are, to what enterprises they have con- tributed in the past, through what sources they were brought to contribute to any of these philanthropies, to what community activities they contribute, facts which might give us a basis for deciding how to make an approach for Teachers College. Every reader of the RECORD who has enjoyed the benefits of even one summer session at Teachers College should make this a personal matter and contribute, at once, without waiting for further invitation or urging all the information he can secure. Here is an opportunity for you to prove your loyalty to the College by rendering a tremendous service at very slight expense to yourself. If you have suggestions to make, write to Professor M. R. Trabue, director of the Bureau of Educational Service. NEW OFFICERS OF THE ALUMNI ASSOCIATION At the annual business meeting of the Alumni Council of the Teachers College Alumni Association, held Friday, February 20, the election of the following new officers of the association was announced: First vice-president, Miss Wilhelmina Spohr, pro- fessor of household arts, Teachers College; second vice-president, Mr. J. Cayce Morrison, superintendent of schools, Leonia, N. J; treasurer, Dr. M. R. Trabue, director of educational service, Teachers College; recording secretary, Miss Ethel C. Bratton, principal of elementary department, Ethical Culture School. Each of the above officers is elected for a term of two years beginning March I, 1920, except the treasurer whose election is for a term of one year beginning March I, 1920. 190 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD DR. GRAVES ELECTED ALUMNI TRUSTEE At the meeting of the Trustees of Teachers College held on February 19 Dr. Frank P. Graves, dean of the School of Educa- tion, University of Pennsylvania, was elected alumni trustee for a period of two years beginning March i. Dr. Graves succeeds Dr. Milo B. Hillegas, commissioner of education for the state of Vermont. Dr. Graves is a graduate of Columbia University, having re- ceived the A.B. degree in 1890, the A.M. degree in 1891, and the Ph.D. degree in 1912. He also received the honorary degree of Litt.D. from Heidelberg (Ohio) University in 1897 and the LL.D. degree from Hanover College in 1897. Dr. Graves has had wide professional experience in univer- sities as follows: president, University of Wyoming, 1896-1898; president, University of Washington, 1898-1903; professor of history of education and acting dean (1906) of Teachers College, University of Missouri, 1904-1907 ; professor of history of educa- tion and dean of Summer Session, Ohio State University, 1907 1913; professor of history of education and dean of the School of Education, University of Pennsylvania, 1913 . Dr. Graves is also the president of the Society of College Teachers of Education for the year 1920. He is the author of the following publications: Great Educators of Three Centuries, History of Education in Modern Times, Peter Ramus and the Educational Reformation of the Sixteenth Century, A Student's History of Education. The Alumni Association and the graduates of Teachers College are very fortunate in having such an able representative on the Board of Trustees. ANNUAL ALUMNI CONFERENCES The Annual Reunion and Conferences of the Alumni Associa- tion of Teachers College were held at the College this year on Thursday, Friday, and Saturday, February 19-21. The first meeting was of the alumnae of the nursing and health department, which celebrated on Thursday afternoon, February 19, its twen- tieth anniversary. This celebration included addresses by Dean James E. Russell, Dr. C. E. A. Winslow, of Yale University, and ANNUAL ALUMNI CONFERENCES 191 Miss Lillian D. Wald, of the Henry Street Nurses' Settlement, with a report by Miss Sara Parsons, of Boston, on the "Services of the Department to Training Schools and Hospitals." This group of alumnae continued its meetings throughout Friday and Sat- urday with much enthusiasm and interest. A splendid audience was present on Friday morning at the meeting of the Administration and College Teachers of Educa- tion Section. The discussion in this meeting was opened by Superintendent Fred. M. Hunter, of Oakland, Calif., and Super- intendent Frank V. Thompson, of Boston, Mass., and dealt with the degree to which classroom teachers might be allowed to par- ticipate in the administration of public school systems. There seemed to be general agreement that teachers should be allowed a considerable voice in school affairs, but the different types of machinery for putting these policies into effect varied quite widely. The Secondary Education Section, on Friday afternoon, was of special interest on account of the emphasis placed by the different speakers on the idea that the training of a high school principal should be very definitely and distinctly for that par- ticular job. The idea of training a man for general school adminis- tration and then placing him, as a school superintendent if he does first class work, as a high school principal if his work is second rate, and as an elementary school principal if his ability seems to be third rate, appears to have been pretty thoroughly discarded, at least by the secondary school administrators. The first general alumni conference, held on Friday afternoon, preceding Dean Russell's reception to the alumni, was addressed by Professor Frederick G. Bonser on "The New Status of Prac- tical Arts Subjects in the Problem of Education" and by Professor Paul Monroe on "Review and Prospect in the School of Educa- tion." An unusually large number of the alumni was present to enjoy this excellent program. The Horace Mann Auditorium was filled Friday evening for the second general alumni meeting. The program for this meet- ing had been arranged by the Lower Primary Education Section and the Rural Education Section. Professor E. L. Thorndike gave a very interesting talk on the "Measurement of the Intellect of Children from 4 to 8 Years of Age," illustrated with samples of 192 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD the group tests now available for use with children and illiterate adults. President George H. Vincent, of the Rockefeller Foun- dation, then gave in his usual, brilliant style an address on "Public Health in Rural Communities." The Saturday morning sectional conferences were very well attended and very much worth while. More than usual interest was shown in the combined meeting of the Elementary Education and Lower Primary Education Sections. Mr. Robert E. Wolf, a consulting engineer of national reputation in the industrial world, spoke on "Control and Consent A Discussion of Instruc- tion, Initiative, and Individualism in Industry." Professor Bonser followed with a splendid paper showing the implications of these experiments in industry to the problems of elementary education. Professor Frank M. McMurry closed the formal part of the program with a much needed discussion of "A Teaching Technique Adjusted to the Project Method." Following the sectional luncheons at noon on Saturday, the third general alumni conference was held in the Horace Mann Auditorium, before a thoroughly loyal but unfortunately small group of the alumni. The president, Miss Roxanna A. Steele, reviewed the work of the Association for the year and called attention to the increased possibilities of alumni activities result- ing from the establishment of the Bureau of Educational Service. The retiring alumni trustee, Commissioner Milo B. Hillegas, and Dean Russell each spoke of the critical situation in which Teach- ers College now finds itself. Dean Russell emphasized the opportunity of the College for increased service to the profession in the years to come, while Professor Hillegas put special emphasis upon the unusual opportunity which is at hand for the Teachers College Alumni to repay the institution for some of the benefits they have derived from it. He suggested that although the members of the Teachers College alumni body might not be in financial circumstances which would enable them to contribute money to the institution in any large degree, it was, nevertheless, possible for them to furnish information and assistance to the Trustees in the discovery of sources from which large financial contributions might be obtained. It is hoped by members of the executive committee that every alumnus will contribute such information and assistance at once. TEACHERS COLLEGE DINNER IN CLEVELAND 193 ANNUAL TEACHERS COLLEGE FESTIVAL An unusual amount of interest was aroused this year by the Teachers College Festival, which was held on Thursday and Saturday evenings, February 19 and 21, during the week of the Alumni Conferences. This was the seventh year of the Festival, the fame of which seems to have spread far beyond the limits of Teachers College and its alumni. All tickets were sold and standing room was at a premium for a week before the first performance. "The Spirit of the East" was a very appropriate title for the performance this year, which opened with three episodes of the East, gotten up and produced by some of our own foreign students in native costume, with accompanying Oriental music. These three pictures a bit of home life from Japan, a Hindu wedding ceremony from India, and a symbolic pantomime of China (Old and New) were an interesting contrast to the imaginative inter- pretation of the Orient by our native American students which followed. This part of the program consisted of a romantic pantomime, full of color and movement, with symbolic dancing and interpretative music to add atmosphere. The usual academic procession of the seniors was this year for the first time led by the "College Spirit." Miss Marion Knighton, of the physical education department, represented "College Spirit," having been chosen for this office by popular vote. An- other feature of the program this year was a series of contests at the very beginning of the performance, which brought in some new elements of undergraduate rivalry and merrymaking. The freshmen carried away the honors in this part of the program. Refreshments were served and merrymaking by both participants and audience began immediately after the Grand Finale. A large measure of the success of this year's performance must be credited to Miss Belle Northrup, instructor in fine arts, under whose direction both students and faculty cooperated for the success of the festival. TEACHERS COLLEGE DINNER IN CLEVELAND At the Teachers College dinner, held on the evening of Febru- ary 24 at the Statler Hotel in Cleveland during the meeting of the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Asso- 194 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD elation, seven hundred and fifty Teachers College alumni were present. The big dining-hall was overtaxed, and many loyal Teachers College folk had to be accommodated in adjoining rooms. When the dinner had ended and the tables had been removed, all who could crowd into the dining-hall did so, while the rest flocked to the balcony to enjoy the program. From the center of the long table on the dais, Dr. Charles B. Keyes, president of the Skidmore School of Arts, seventy years young and primed for the occasion, conscripted the speakers at either side of him with rare cleverness. "White Hope" Jesse B. Newlon, superintendent of schools, Lincoln, Neb., told how the spirit of Teachers College had en- abled him so to impress his people in Lincoln with the gravity of educational conditions that they had even anticipated state legis- lation in order to pay teachers a living wage. Miss Mary Pennell, primary supervisor of schools in Kansas City, reviewed wittily the principles which Teachers College alumni carry with them into the educational field. Her remarks were followed by one of the most brilliant mixtures of satire and seriousness that has ever emanated from a Teachers College ban- quet table. Superintendent Geoffrey F. Morgan, of Athens, Ohio, in a spirit of exquisite drollery held a curved mirror before the College faculty, to the uproarious delight of the alumni. Suddenly he turned upon the alumni body and issued a challenge so vital and impressive that every heart was imbued with new courage and deeper resolution. Commissioner Milo B. Hillegas, of Vermont, retiring alumni trustee, made a farewell address in which he appealed to the loyalty of every alumnus to uphold the principles and work of Teachers College. Dean Russell followed with a review of the financial and educational situation in which Teachers College finds itself. His description of the unselfish devotion of members of the faculty to the interests of the college and the profession brought to the heart of every alumnus present the resolve to work as never before for the success of education as a profession and particularly of Teachers College as a source of professional training. Greetings were exchanged with the University of Chicago Alumni who were holding their annual dinner at the same time DR. OBRIEN S HIGH SCHOOL FAILURES 195 and in the same hotel. Professor Otis W. Caldwell acted as repre- sentative of Teachers College, while Professor Frank N. Freeman was the representative of the University of Chicago. Professor E. K. Fretwell led in a series of cheers and songs which interspersed the courses and addresses, and seasoned both with a spirit of youth and devotion. The alumni unanimously pledged their moral and financial support to their professional alma mater in this crucial moment. Devotion to education and dedication to service were the keynotes of the program ; and never have the alumni of Teachers College gone back to their work with a higher resolve or happier memories. TOLEDO TEACHERS COLLEGE CLUB On Saturday, February 28, sixty members of the Toledo branch of the Teachers College Alumni Association gave a dinner at the Woman's Building. Dean James E. Russell was the speaker of the evening. Other guests of honor were Mrs. James E. Russell, Professor and Mrs. Charles Russell, Dr. and Mrs. W. B. Guitteau, and Dr. George Johnson. Short after-dinner talks were given by Professor Russell, Dr. A. M: Stowe, and Professor D. W. Henry, of Toledo University. The places were marked by effective dinner cards, the work of Miss Mary McKinnon, a former student of Teachers College. DR. OBRIEN'S STUDY OF HIGH SCHOOL FAILURES A study of the failures of high school pupils, a recent disserta- tion by Dr. Francis P. OBrien published by the Bureau of Publi- cations as No. 102 of the Teachers College Contributions to Education, traces the records of more than 6,000 students from the time they enter high school to the time they either drop out or graduate. The pupils studied were found in the classes of eight different high schools of New Jersey and New York. Only public, coeducational schools with complete cumulative records were selected for the study. The facts recorded were studied in considerable detail regard- ing the failures in academic and commercial subjects as they pertained to time, number, age, subjects, graduation, repetition 196 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD and remedies, and they are reported separately for boys and girls, under the chapter headings: How extensive are the failures? What basis is discoverable for a prognosis of failure? How much is graduation or continuance in school conditioned by the occur- rence of failures or by their numbers? Are the school agencies employed in remedying the failures adequate for the purpose? Do the failures represent a lack of capability or fitness on the part of the failing pupils? There is also a final chapter in which the author suggests some of the probable educational impli- cations of the facts disclosed, but it is less an integral part of the study than an attempt to give more of meaning and interpreta- tion to the statistical facts, especially for the type of reader who is so often confused or repelled by tables of cold statistics. In the whole study there is no statistical feature employed that is more difficult than distribution tables and simple percentages. The initial chapter states the purpose of the study, the meaning of the term 'failure', the sources and extent of the data employed, and the classifications or arbitrary decisions made for the handling of the data. Each chapter is followed by its own concise summary. This feature is intended to relieve the oft-repeated criticism that the average teacher finds research studies of little direct value because they are too technical or involved to make much of an appeal to any but the student of research. Some very interesting and significant disclosures are made in this study, for Dr. OBrien finds that the percentages of the graduating and of the non-graduating pupils who have failed one or more times are almost identical; and that of the failing and the non-failing pupils, the same percentage of each finally graduates. According to the records of the schools studied, the non-failing students drop out much earlier than do those of the failing group. Even as the number of failures per pupil increases, his chances of graduating are not impaired, and the extension of time required by him is slight. The younger pupils at entrance are distinctly more successful than those older in years. Certain subjects are found to be especially fruitful of failures. It is made evident that much valuable time is wasted in the great number of subject repetitions. It is found that the percentages of failure by semesters do not show a decrease with the longer time period in school, but the reverse is found for the semesters RECENT ALUMNI APPOINTMENTS 197 up to the seventh. Thus by their own official records the schools appear to have been put more on the defensive than have the pupils who have failed. RECENT ALUMNI APPOINTMENTS The following recent appointments are announced by the Bureau of Educational Service of Teachers College. ARBOGAST, GERTRUDE, instructor in domestic art, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. ARMENTROUT, W. D., principal of Junior High School, Lawrence, Kan. AVER, GLENNA, instructor in domestic science, Atlantic City Vocational School, N. J. AVERY, EDNA I., associate professor of household arts, Washington State Col- lege, Pullman, Wash. BARBER, GENEVIEVE, instructor in physical education, Community School, Short Hills, N. J. BEECHER, EMILY S., supervisor of industrial arts, public schools, Seattle, Wash. BELTING, PAUL E., assistant professor of secondary education, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. BENNETT, BERTHA, head of department of physical education, State Manual Training Normal, Pittsburgh, Kan. BENNETT, IDA M., assistant supervisor of practice, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J. BENNETT, VIRGINIA C., instructor in physical education, The Lincoln School, New York City. BRINTON, GRACE, instructor in domestic science, Bradley Polytechnic Insti- tute, Peoria, 111. BROMLEY, ANNA O., instructor in psychology, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J. BUCK, BEATRICE, instructor in physical education, Summit School, St. Paul, Minn. BUSSE, FLORENCE, head of foods department, Iowa Agriculture College, Ames, Iowa. BEECH, MARY L., instructor in English, High School, Lakewood, N. J. CAMPBELL, BLANCHE, elementary supervisor, public schools, Atlanta, Ga. CAMPBELL, HARRIET, critic in Junior High School, Sam Houston Normal Institute, Huntsville, Tex. 198 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD CHAPLIN, EUNICE, instructor in domestic science, High School, Durham, N. C. CHAPLIN, ARDENIA, instructor in domestic art, College of Industrial Arts, Denton, Tex. CHAPPELL, CLEO, head of geography department, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J. CLEAVER, W. G., instructor in educational psychology and pedagogy, State Normal School, East Stroudsburg, Pa. COOK, SHERMAN R., superintendent of machine shops, Robert College, Con- stantinople, Turkey. CONDHEY, Lucius, head of manual training department, High School, Dover, Del. CRAIG, GERALD, instructor in mathematics and science, Oak Lane Country Day School, Philadelphia, Pa. CRANE, EDITH ADELAIDE, in charge of an orphanage, Armenian-Syrian Relief, Turkey. CRANOR, KATHERINE, professor of home economics, James Millikin Univer- sity, Decatur, 111. CUMMINS, ROBERT, director of teacher-training, State Normal School, Nat- chitoches, La. CURRIER, MILDRED, instructor in physical education, State Normal School, Natchitoches, La. DALGLIESH ALICE, first grade teacher, The Lymann School, Ardmore, Pa. DAVIS, MARY D., supervisor of kindergarten and primary grades, Public Schools, Duluth, Minn. DAVIS, SHELDON E., president of State Normal School, Dillon, Mont. DEMAREST, IRVING C., head of Latin department, Westport High School, Kansas City, Mo. DEVER, MARY M., instructor in physical education, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash. DOUGAL, MARGARET, P., instructor in French, High School, Bridgeport, Conn. ELLIOTT, RUTH M., instructor in fine arts, High School, San Antonio, Tex. EARHART, LIDA B., professor of elementary education, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb. FAULKNER, ELIZABETH, assistant professor of English, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kan. GIFFORD, WALTER J., head of department of education, State Normal School, Harrisonburg, Va. GRAY, ANNIE B., instructor in industrial arts, private school, Scranton, Pa. RECENT ALUMNI APPOINTMENTS 199 HAINES, EDNA E. f supervisor of kindergarten training, West Texas State Nor- mal School, Canyon, Tex. HAMILTON, F. R., president of Marshall College, Huntington, W. Va. HANCKEL, MARION S., kindergarten-primary supervisor, Public Schools, Rich- mond, Va. HAROUNIAN, FRANK J., instructor in French and Spanish, Western Military Academy, Alton, 111. HARRIS, MAUDE L., instructor in English, State Normal School, Salem, Mass. HARRISON, FLORENCE, director of home economics, State College, Pullman, Wash. HERSHEY, EDYTHE, extension work in domestic science, University of Texas, Austin, Tex. HOLDEN, BERTHA, state extension staff, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt. HOTCHKISS, E. A., director of training school, Colorado State Teachers College, Greeley, Col. HUBBARD, JULIA M., supervising critic, State Normal School, Winona, Minn. INKS, EDITH, instructor in mathematics, Arsenal Technical High School, Indianapolis, Ind. JAMES, LORETTA, head of department of domestic science, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J. KERN, FRANCES, supervisor of kindergarten and primary department, State Normal School, Willimantic, Conn. LA GANKE, FLORENCE M., director of home economics, public schools, Oak- land, Cal. LANGNER, HENRIETTA M., instructor in home furnishing, North Carolina College for Women, Greensboro, N. C. LAWTON, WILHELMENIA, instructor in household arts, State College, Pa. McNALLY, FRANCES M., instructor in home economics, Normal School, Stratford, Ontario, Canada. McGuiRE, GRACE A., instructor in domestic science, State Normal School, Harrisonburg, Va. McNEAL, WYLLE B., state supervisor of home economics education, St. Paul, Minn. MEDLAR, REBA M., instructor in French, High School, Yonkers, N. Y. MESEROLL, SARAH, supervisor of kindergarten and elementary grades, public schools, Cortland, N. Y. MILLER, NORMA M., instructor in household management, St. Andrews Priory School, Honolulu, T. H. 200 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD NAYLOR, JANE, supervisor of primary grades, public schools, Harford County, Md. O'NEALE, LILA M., assistant professor of domestic art, State Agricultural College, Corvallis, Ore. O'NEILL, HAROLD H., instructor in French, Montgomery School, Wynnewood, Pa. OSLER, FLORENCE, manager of tea room, Los Angeles, Cal. POTTER, SARAH E., director of dormitory and cafeteria, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria, 111. RAYNOR, ANNE W., head of modern language department, Trinity Univer- sity, Waxahachie, Tex. REIGART, CATHERINE M., instructor in English, American College for Women, Constantinople, Turkey. ROBINSON, WILLIAM M., principal of village school, Orleans, Vt. ROBSON, HELEN, instructor in domestic art, State College, Pullman, Wash. SALE, ANNIE E., instructor and manager of practice house, Industrial Institute and College, Columbus, Miss. SALE, SARAH F., instructor and manager of practice house, Industrial Institute and College, Columbus, Miss. SAUNDERS, AGNES, instructor in home economics, State Normal Manual Train- ing School, Pittsburgh, Kan. SAXMAN, ETHEL, instructor in physical education, State Normal School, Springfield, Mo. SEALOCK, W. C., head of department of history of education, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb. SIMMONS, NELLIA A., instructor in home economics, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. SMITH, ELVIRA T., instructor in domestic art, Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, Pa. THOMPSON, ALTA, grade teacher, Lenox School, New York City. TUTTLE, MARGARET, instructor in physical education, State Normal, Man- kato, Minn. WOODY, WALTER T., assistant professor of history of education, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. WILSON, SARAH M., instructor in home economics, State Normal School, Har- risonburg, Va. AD VERTISEMENTS BEST BY TEST THE HORACE MANN READERS at Los Angeles Is there a scientific way to tell good readers? There is. Ten series of readers were divided amongst 121 Los Angeles schools. After a year's trial Horace Mann Readers ranked first as to satisfactory service by a vote of the teachers themselves. They led the list on merit. Horace Mann Readers make children think; help them to help themselves; and develop resourcefulness in life as well as independence and power in reading. Thoroughly American in content and purpose. Widely adopted. Readers for every grade. Manuals for the teacher. Circular describing the method sent upon request. LONGMANS, GREEN & CO., Publishers New York, 449 Fourth Avenue Chicago, 2457 Prairie Avenue Keeping Up With the Profession AT EDUCATIONAL CONFERENCES someone always makes a speech about the problem of the teacher in keeping up to date in his educational ideas and practice. Teachers, we find, are always glad to be informed of recent books that will help them in their practice. They sacrifice much in time and money in "continuing their education" after hours. Teachers are professionally alive. Here is a list of most helpful books books for all educators. The titles are descriptive. CLOW: Principles of Educational Sociology .... $1.80 DAVIS: The Work of the Teacher 1.60 FINNEY AND ScHAFER: The Administration of Vil- lage and Consolidated Schools 1.60 FREELAND: Modern Elementary School Practice . 1.80 MCMURRY: Teaching By Projects 1.32 MUNROE: The Human Factor in Education .... 1.60 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO ATLANTA DALLAS SAN FRANCISCO AD VERTISEMENTS DYNAMIC PSYCHOLOGY By Robert Sessions Wood worth, Ph.D. Professor of Psychology, Columbia University Cloth 12mo, pp. ix + 210 Price, $1.50 net ECENT contributions to abnormal, social and animal psychology have brought in a number of new and important considerations especially relat- ing to the motivation of conduct and to the proper conceptions of psychology. The author here attempts some constructive criticism of these new ideas. While pointing out defects in the psychology of the Behaviorists, the Psycho- analysts and the Social Psychologists, he finds it possible to utilize their concep- tions along with the psychology of the more standard type, toward an under- standing of human conduct. The volume is, accordingly, a brief survey of the most interesting recent developments in psychology, and is recommended to teachers for use as additional reading in courses in this subject. COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS LEMCKE & BUECHNER, Agent* 30-32 EAST 20th STREET, NEW YORK CITY THE ENGLISH JOURNAL JAMES FLEMING Hosic, Editor Organ of the National Council of Teachers of English POETRY AND FREEDOM Edwin L. Miller SALVAGING FROM THE SCRAP HEAP J. C. Tressler MAKING OF A MODERN MINNESINGER Bertha Forbes Herring SUPERVISED STUDY Katherine Morse AN UNFENCED CORNER OF THE SPELLING FIELD John A. Lester Special Departments: The Round Table, Editorial, News and Notes, Digest of Periodical Literature, Book Reviews, and Book Notices. The ENGLISH JOURNAL appears monthly during the school year. Annual subscription $2.50. Single copy, 30 cents. Address: THE ENGLISH JOURNAL 68TH STREET AND STEWART AVENUE CHICAGO, ILLINOIS A D VER TISEMENTS TESTS AND SCALES ARITHMETIC Woody Scales Stone Tests DRAWING Thorndike Scale ENGLISH COMPOSITION Hillegas Scale Thorndike Extension of the Hille- gas Scale Nassau County Supplement to the Hillegas Scale HANDWRITING Thorndike Scale HISTORY Van Wagenen INTELLIGENCE Thorndike Examinations LANGUAGE Trabue Scales HIGH SCHOOL MATHEMATICS Hotz Scales Rogers Tests POETRY Trabue-Abbott Scales READING Thorndike Vocabulary Scales Thorndike Scale for Understand- ing of Sentences SEWING Murdoch Scale For complete price list of scales and their accompanying references address BUREAU OF PUBLICATIONS, TEACHERS COLLEGE NEW YORK CITY An important book on a subject of vital importance to every teacher Decoration of the School and Home By THEODORE M. DILL AWAY, Director of Manual Arts, Boston Here is a book that shows what a schoolroom may be made by the intelligent selection and artistic arrangement of its decorations. Mr. Dillaway has made an exhaustive study of this neglected phase of education. In this book he points out clearly common faults found in the average school arrangement, and then by text and illustrations of re-arrangement shows how these same schools may be made to reflect true artistic quality. The text of this book sets forth comprehensively the proper selection and arrangement of statuary, pictures, busts, bas-reliefs, prints in color and sepia, Japanese prints and vase forms, with a complete list of these decorations, showing just which are best co-related to the curriculum of each grade. Profusely illustrated with colored plates and half-tone reproductions. Beautifully printed and bound. Price, postpaid, $2.00. Send for illustrated circular. MILTON BRADLEY COMPANY SPRINGFIELD MASSACHUSETTS BOSTON NEW YORK PHILADELPHIA ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO A OVER TI SEMEN TS The World Book Organized Knowledge in Story and Picture in 10 Volumes Editor-in-chief, Professor M. V. O'SHEA, University of Wisconsin. A successful reference set, in simple lan- guage, covering all elementary and high school work. Written by real authorities. Recommended by the American Library Association as 'the best of its type.' Officially approved by eighteen State De- partments of Education. 1920 Edition just off the Press THE WORLD BOOK is the only reference work suitable for elementary school use which gives a satisfactory treatment on all sub- jects in the light of changes brought about by the World War and Treaty of Versailles. Write for sample pages and terms. W. F. QUARRIE & CO. 104 S. MICH. AV., CHICAGO Dept. M The Strayer-Englehart Score Cards for School Buildings 1920 Editions For City Schools: Score Card ...... 10 cents Bulletin giving detail and standards ... 50 cents For Rural Schools (i to 4 teachers) Score Card 10 cents Bulletin giving detail and standards ... 35 cents Published by Bureau of Publications TEACHERS COLLEGE Columbia University NEW YORK CITY FORTIETH YEAR, SEPTEMBER, 1919 "EDUCATION" $3.00 A YEAR 35 CENTS PER NUMBER The oldest high-class monthly educational magazine in the United States SAMPLE TESTIMONIALS "Enclosed find check for renewal of Education, the 39th remittance without a skip being one of Bicknell's charter members in 1879." Homer H. Seerley, President Iowa State Teachers' College. "Education is appreciated everywhere." Geo. E. Walk, Lecturer on Education, N. Y. Uni- versity. "As necessary to a teacher as a medical journal to a physician." M. T. Pritchard, Master Everett School, Boston. "Of greatest value to all who are trying to formulate an educational theory." President Faunce, Brown University, R. I. YOUR MAGAZINE LIST ! (LOWEST CLUBBING RATES) Please order all your magazines through us. It will save writing a lot of letters to separate publishers. Our motto is "Any Magazine Sent Anywhere." With forty years of history to its credit EDUCATION commands the confidence of the school world. We place our reputation behind all ' orders and guarantee satisfaction. THE PALMER COMPANY 120 Boylston Street Boston, Mass. Some Sugar-Saving Sweets for Every Day 57 Sugarless Recipes That are Tested, Palatable, and Economical for Cakes, Puddings, Jellies Price, 10 cents Complete list of practical arts bulletins will be sent on request Bureau of Publications Teachers College Columbia University New York *~S 9 CCNTS DU NOV/4 1932 C -- AP /3 1939 m. as 1 03644 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY