UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 AT LOS ANGELES
 
 LECTURES 
 
 UPON 
 
 PORTIONS OF HISTORY, 
 
 WITH 
 
 HISTORICAL OUTLINES 
 
 FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS, 
 
 COMPILED FROM THE PRINTED CHARTS AND 
 UNPUBLISHED MANUSCRIPTS 
 
 OF THE LATE 
 
 HENRY^OSTWICK, 
 
 LECTURER ON HISTORY IN THE CITY OF NEW-YORK. 
 
 N E W - Y O R K : 
 PRINTED BY HENRY LUDWIG, 
 
 WO. 72, V E S E Y - S T R E E T. 
 
 1 838.
 
 ENTERED, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1833, 
 
 By Samuel B. Ruggles, Esq. 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern 
 
 DISTRICT OF NEW-YORK.
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 ~J 
 
 IN the accompanying volume the reader is presented with 
 
 Three Historical Lectures, prepared for the press by the late 
 
 HENRY BOSTWICK, for many years an eminent lecturer on History 
 
 in the city of New- York. Strongly marked by the accurate 
 
 thought and spirited expression which characterized Mr. Bost- 
 
 wick's style, they present a rapid and singularly original outline 
 
 of History from the creation of the world to the time of Philip 
 
 of Macedon, intended as the introduction to an etxensive series 
 
 [ which the author unhappily did not live to complete. He died 
 
 < in the city of New T -York, deeply lamented by his numerous 
 
 Q pupils and friends, June, 1836, in the 49th year of his age. 
 
 These lectures are followed by 
 
 1. An Epitome of Ancient Geography. . 
 
 2. An Outline of History from the creation to 3500 A. M. 
 
 3. A continuation of the Outline from 3500 to the time of 
 Augustus. 
 
 4. A Chronological Index of the most important events from 
 A. M. 3250 to 4004. 
 
 5. A further continuation of the Outline, &c., to the reign of 
 Charlemagne, A. D. 800. 
 
 6. A Chronological Index from the birth of Christ to the reign 
 of Charlemagne.
 
 IV PREFACE. 
 
 7. Fragments of History of Spain, Gaul, Italy, after the 
 time of Charlemagne. 
 
 8. A Table of European Sovereigns from 800 to the present 
 time. 
 
 This portion of the volume is a compilation in part from Mr. 
 Bostwick's printed historical charts, and in part from notes of his 
 unwritten lectures, taken by his pupils. 
 
 The Appendix contains a Synchronistic Table of events of 
 ancient history ; a table of ancient kings, fabulous and historical, 
 with the Roman emperors divided into classes ; a Brief Sketch, 
 of the Schools of Philosophy among the Greeks ; with an account 
 of the Origin and Division of the Hellenic races ; the whole 
 designed to accompany and illustrate Mr. Bostwick's Historical 
 Atlas for the use of classes and schools. 
 
 Two Charts have been superadded, the first comprehending a 
 combination of HISTORY AND CHRONOLOGY, corresponding with 
 Chart No. 1, and the second with Chart No. 5, of Mr. Bost- 
 wick's Atlas. 
 
 '
 
 OUTLINE OF HISTORY, 
 
 FROM THE 
 
 Creation of the World to the time of Philip of Macedon, 
 
 IN THKKE LECTURES. 
 
 LECTURE I. 
 
 THE history of the early ages of the world is involved in the gloom 
 of uncertainty, that necessarily results from the infancy and ignorance 
 of nations, when letters are unknown, and events pass unrecorded. 
 The sacred annals have preserved from oblivion the transactions of 
 one small nation, the Hebrews, with slight and occasional notices of 
 the bordering States; but even these annals, adequate, indeed, to their 
 grand design, fail, in a thousand particulars, to satisfy our busy curi- 
 osity. We are left in irretrievable perplexity in attempting to adjust 
 the doubtful points of chronology. 
 
 In this dilemma, since we must not overlook such a lapse of centu- 
 ries, we have to resort to those faint gleams of light, which barely re- 
 deem us from total darkness ; and we must often submit to reiterate 
 the mere conjectures of others, instead of delivering the convictions of 
 our own minds. Curiosity expects it, and deference for others author- 
 izes it. 
 
 Adopting the received chronology, a period of four thousand and 
 four years fills the dreary interval from the creation to the birth of 
 Christ; and, excepting the last five hundred years of this period, pro- 
 fane history is either silent or doubtful for all the rest. 
 
 A cloud of uncertainty obscures the most important transactions ; 
 and even where the leading events can be traced, the detail only pre- 
 sents a field for vague conjecture, and absurd romance. 
 
 The first two thousand years defy the research of the profane histo- 
 rian, and expose his curiosity to ridicule. From the Mosaic account, 
 admitting the Hebrew copy, Adam, commencing with the world, mea- 
 sures off 930 years of the first thousand. From the death of Adam, in 
 930, one hundred and twenty-six years carry us down to the birth of 
 Noah, in 1056, whose protracted years, descending to 200(5, roll us 
 through the second thousand years, marked only by two great events, 
 the flood in 1650, and the dispersion, one hundred years after the flood 
 in 1756. The events of the Flood, when Noah was six hundred years 
 old, are distinctly recorded; but the scriptural, as well as profane ac- 
 counts, shed but a faint glimmering light on the particulars of the 
 Dispersion in 1756. 
 
 1
 
 2 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. [LECT. I. 
 
 A majority of critics agree in fixing the scene of man's creation in 
 Chaldea, on the Euphrates : but, since the sacred volume has not de- 
 cided, we may safely abandon the inquiry to the vain ambition of men, 
 who, disdaining the road that lies open to truth, delight to roam in the 
 regions of novelty and conjecture. The example of others, and many 
 passages in Scripture, warrant our assuming Chaldea as the centre 
 from which the scattering sons of Noah, and perhaps that patriarch 
 himself, were dispersed after the confusion of tongues, into different 
 regions and climes, to people the unknown countries of the earth. 
 
 In this important migration, we have distinct authority, in the sacred 
 books, to follow Ham and his posterity into Arabia, Canaan, and 
 Egypt. The name of Canaan, the accursed son of Ham, was commu- 
 nicated to the little country where his eleven sons settled, the proge- 
 nitors of eleven Canaanitish tribes ; (see chart.) Three centuries 
 (327 years) after the Dispersion, the appearance of Abraham in this 
 land, and the promise of God to him, fixed upon it the name of " Pro- 
 mised Land." The conquest of the land by Abraham's descendants, 
 the Israelites, gave it the name of Israel, while it transferred the whole 
 country from the posterity of Ham to the posterity of Shem, from 
 whom -Abraham descended, the chosen father of a peculiar people. 
 
 With respect to Japhet, we must be content to despatch him into 
 Asia Minor and Europe, and adopt him as the father of the early na- 
 tions dispersed through those countries, without entangling our narra- 
 tive with minute genealogy, or putting credulity to the severe test of 
 etymological refinement. 
 
 Shem, as the particular ancestor of Abraham, stands, of course, in 
 the patriarchal line, and claims more attention : we distribute his sons 
 between those of Ham and Japhet, through a succession of states, 
 reaching from the Levant, indefinitely into the East. Aram gave his 
 name to the little country since called Syria, north of Canaan, and to 
 Padan-Aram, distinguished from this, another country between the 
 Euphrates and Tigris, since called Mesopotamia, Ashur is now As- 
 syria ; Elam is Persia; and Shinaar, or Chaldea, seems to have de- 
 rived its inhabitants from Arphaxad, without assuming his name. 
 This last son of Shem was the ancestor of Abraham, and Abraham is 
 expressly said to have come from Chaldea. 
 
 A thousand years, (from 2000 to 3000,) commences with the birth of 
 Abraham, in 2008 ; and its close witnesses Solomon arrayed in all 
 his glory, swaying the sceptre of Israel, and the nations conquered by 
 David. Moses flourishes; and the Grecian States were founded half 
 way between Abraham and Solomon, aboyt 2500. The peaceful resi- 
 dence of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, among the Canaanites, from 
 2083 to 2298, a period of two hundred and fifteen years, added to the 
 residence in Egypt of the same number of years, makes the sum of 
 430, from the calling to the Exodus, or deliverance from Egypt by 
 Moses, in 2513. Moses had lived forty years in Egypt at the court of 
 Pharaoh, forty years with his father-in-law Jethro, in Midian, when 
 he commenced his journey through the wilderness, which lasted ano- 
 ther forty years. He died on the east side of the Jordan, having con- 
 quered the country on that side, and Joshua crossed the Jordan, and 
 completed the conquest of Canaan.
 
 LECT. I.] OUTLINE OF HISTORY. 
 
 The country took the name of Israel, being divided into twelve 
 tribes, corresponding to the number of Jacob's sons. No particular 
 form of government was instituted ; the laws of Moses established at 
 Sinai were in force, and the authority of the priests was respected. 
 Extraordinary circumstances raised up extraordinary personages to 
 deliver the nation from the bondage and servitude into which they were 
 frequently reduced by the idolatrous nations around them. These ex- 
 traordinary persons were styled Judges ; their authority usually ex- 
 pired with the occasion that called it forth. From the historical book 
 called Judges, we derive our imperfect knowledge of this loose and 
 disorderly period of more than three hundred and fifty years, from 
 Joshua to Saul, the first king of Israel, whose reign is computed to 
 have commenced in 2909. 
 
 The idolatry of the neighbouring tribes corrupted the children of 
 Israel ; discord and degeneracy among themselves exposed them to 
 the snares of their enemies, and they often groaned in cruel bondage. 
 The Philistines on the south-west, sprung from Misraim, a son of 
 Ham, who settled in Egypt. The Syrians, or Aramites, on the north, 
 descended from Aram, a son of Shem. Six other surrounding tribes 
 branched from the same stock with Abraham, and, of course, arose 
 after his removal into this land. The Moabites and Ammonites from 
 Lot ; the Ishmaelites and Midianites from Abraham directly ; the 
 Edomites and Amalekites from Esau, the grandson of Abraham. 
 
 Saul, the first king of Israel, was unable to remedy the disorders 
 and distress into which the transgressions of his countrymen had 
 plunged them. The sceptre that fell from his feeble hands, passed 
 into those of his illustrious rival and successor, David. In a busy 
 reign of forty years, that great and warlike monarch introduced order 
 into the government, established commerce, subdued the tribes that 
 had so often opposed Israel, and erected a splendid monarchy. The 
 reign of his son, Solomon, was peaceful and splendid ; commerce still 
 flourished, and the most magnificent structure arose to adorn his capi- 
 tal. But the glory of Israel expired with the son of David, in 3029 ; 
 discord and dismemberment rent the kingdom, and disgraced the reign 
 of Rehoboam, the son of Solomon. Desolation and captivity will fol- 
 low ; but we must turn from the disgusting picture, to trace the origin 
 and revolutions of other States. 
 
 The early origin of the Egyptian monarchy is attested by the Jew- 
 ish annals ; a remote and fabulous antiquity is the vain boast of Egyp- 
 tian priests. We can imagine every thing for early ages ; nothing 
 can be denied ; nothing can be authenticated. Wisdom is silent; but 
 the prerogatives of loquacious folly may be indulged without harm. 
 We need not wage war against the random speculations about un- 
 searchable things, merely because we choose to decline them. Let us 
 be employed about known realities ; freely resign to others the honour 
 of guessing, precisely, when each early throne was established, and of 
 divining the names of a race of monarchs, their joys, their griefs, their 
 glories, their disgraces, their conquests, and their overthrows. The 
 curiosity must be ardent in pursuit, that is not sobered by reading and 
 research. Let it rage. 
 
 Independent of Jewish testimony, the proud structures of Egypt are
 
 4 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. [LECT. 1. 
 
 monuments of time and labour, as they are of the absurd ambition of 
 kings, and the slavish stupidity of their people. There is no doubt 
 that the country was early populous. Rich in soil and spontaneous 
 resources, men could not fail to multiply. The increase of the Israel- 
 ites during 1 the bondage, exceeds the bounds of imagination. Many 
 events must have happened in such a country ; but who now can re- 
 claim such events from the oblivion to which the ignorance of the age 
 consigned them. Yet many authors have pursued the subject, and un- 
 folded many wonders with an air of confidence, and we need not choose 
 to deprive them of their pleasure or their laurels. 
 
 Shall we let Semiramis sleep? the conquering heroine of those re- 
 mote ages, the mighty monarch of Assyria? It is doubtful whether her 
 first conquest was over her husband or her son. After that, her bio- 
 graphers seem to think that her conquests knew no bounds. The de- 
 serts, rivers, mountains of the distant east, could not withstand her in- 
 vading hosts. Where she found armies to lead forth, or people to con- 
 quer, could not be easily determined, as her time is fixed before that of 
 Abraham, who conquered four eastern kings with four hundred men ; 
 and one of these kings must have been a successor of Semiramis. The 
 people seem to have been thinly scattered over the face of the earth, till 
 long after the time of Abraham ; and it is obvious from the Jewish re- 
 cords, that no great eastern monarchy could have existed till after the 
 time of Solomon. The conclusion is, that from Abraham to Solomon, 
 men were emigrating, and forming new settlements and petty king- 
 doms, but that no great eastern monarchy yet existed. 
 
 The foundation of Rome was laid in a later period, 3250 ; but the 
 Grecian States rise in the days of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, 
 Moses. In their days the Grecian gods probably lived or reigned on 
 earth : their offspring were too numerous to accompany their divine 
 parents to their celestial abodes ; but on earth, the descendants of Ju- 
 piter, Mars, Vulcan, Venus, with the inferior lustre of demigods, heroes, 
 kings, &c., enjoyed and indulged the prerogatives due to their illus- 
 trious pedigree. 
 
 From Moses to David, Israel, under its Judges, presents a gloomy 
 picture of brutal manners, and human depravity. The same^age in 
 Greece, while it shocks us with the most horrid exhibitions of savage 
 ferocity, and licentious pleasure, at the same time confounds our ima- 
 ginations with the most brilliant displays of wild and heroic adventures, 
 that the frantic rage of ambition could suggest to disordered minds! 
 The Grecian heroes directed their fierce attacks with equal fury* 
 against men and devouring monsters. Glory prompted, passion spur- 
 red them to the slaughter; generosity, sympathy, revenge, might often 
 supply the motive or excuse ; but no consideration could ever abate 
 the rage of battle, or assuage the fierceness of the savage bosom. 
 
 These wild adventures come down to us in the dress of the Grecian 
 muses, adorned with fiction engrafted upon fiction, by successive bards, 
 whose raptures confound the calm serenity of a mind composed to suit 
 the settled state of modern times. 
 
 We may weep or laugh at the follies of man, according to our con- 
 stitutional bias or occasional mood. It is certain, that without a sub- 
 ject and an impulse, Homer's muse would have been silent.
 
 LECT. I.] OUTLINE OP HISTORY. 5 
 
 We are unable to name the son of Japhet, who first crossed the 
 narrow seas, and trod the enchanted shores of Greece. We may pre- 
 tend to tell the year when the several monarchies began ; but the foun- 
 dation of a monarchy supposes a previous population. Perhaps the 
 kingdom of Sicyon was erected as early as the 1915th year of the 
 world, ninety-three years before the birth of Abraham. Who can dispute 
 that Argos was founded in 2183, the very year of Abraham's death ? 
 
 It is at least harmless to believe with the Greek writers, that the 
 Athenian, Spartan, Theban, Trojan monarchies, commenced in the 
 time of Moses, about 2500. 
 
 We need not quarrel with the fifty daughters of Danaus, married to 
 the fifty sons of his brother Egyptus; and it would be useless to la- 
 ment the fate of forty-nine, out of the fifty bridegrooms sacrificed by 
 their brides, since one was spared to propagate the royal line. 
 
 The throne of Argos, founded 2183, was usurped in the time of 
 Moses, by this same Danaus, an emigrant from Egypt, from whom 
 sprang Perseus and Hercules. Cecrops, another Egyptian emigrant, 
 was the founder of Athens. The Phenician Cadmus, in pursuit of his 
 sister Europa, if you please, built Thebes, in Boeotia, and perhaps in- 
 troduced into Greece an alphabet, before unknown to the savage nations. 
 The blaze of glory and splendour that broke out in Greece in a 
 later period, and illumined the two centuries, from 3t500 to 3700, 
 arouses our ardent curiosity to investigate their early history, and ex- 
 plore the various causes that were then conspiring to their future lustre. 
 Bold fictions, or ridiculous conceits, may satisfy credulity ; but they 
 disgust the sober inquirer, who demands well-attested facts, and pro- 
 bable conclusions. Herodotus, the first profane historian, begaa to 
 write when the glory of Greece was nearly at its summit. When he 
 records the events that passed before him, he commands our implicit 
 belief. When he relates the tales of antiquity, painfully collected in 
 his travels and researches, we scrutinize, and adopt only what is pro- 
 bable. In investigations of this nature, we ought to ascertain, as soon 
 as possible, what lies hidden from human research, and direct our faith- 
 ful aim to the discovery of useful and probable facts. This rigid prin- 
 ciple rejects at once, a cumbrous mass of fiction and folly, and advances 
 us directly forward in our pursuit. Let us not be understood as dis- 
 paraging the reading of fiction, because the creeds and superstitions 
 of mankind form a necessary branch of study, and make a part of 
 history. It is only a rigid criterion that we recommend, by which, 
 while we read, we can separate truth from falsehood or folly. 
 
 That Greece was peopled by emigrants from Asia, seems to be uni- 
 versally conceded; the exact time is unknown and unimportant. We 
 care not whether whole colonies passed over at different times, or whe- 
 ther there was a constant tide of emigration. The emigration of Dan- 
 aus, Cecrops, and Cadmus, in the time of Moses, presents an inquiry 
 of more importance, as they are said to have imported with them into 
 Greece, the arts, institutions, and superstitions of Egypt and Phenicia ; 
 but the tale is incumber-d with fiction, and perplexed with difficulties. 
 As Greece was a country that offered great allurements to strangers, 
 the most sober conclusion seems to be, that emigration flowed to it from 
 Asia unceasingly, till the different communities were filled, the national 
 character formed, and national jealousies imbibed. Some foreign su-
 
 6 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. [LECT. I. 
 
 perstitions may have blended with their own ; but we'may venture to 
 advance the opinion that the whole structure of Grecian mythology 
 was conceived and reared in Greece, in the face of all the vague specu- 
 lations of writers who would derive it from Egypt and Asia. The 
 Grecian character, as well as Grecian transactions, arose, naturally, 
 from the enterprise of emigrants, the constant intercourse of strangers, 
 the facilities that sea and land offered for such intercourse, soil, cli- 
 mate, face of the country, &c. ; and their fiction naturally sprung from 
 their ardent character, and wild adventures. 
 
 From the time of Cadmus, 2500 to 3000, we have the Calydonian 
 chase, Argonautic expedition, Theban wars, expulsion of the Herac- 
 lidae, or race of Hercules, from the Peloponnesus, by the race of Pelops; 
 the Trojan war, the recovery of the Peloponnesus by the Heraclidae, 
 the migration of ^Eolian, Dorian, and Ionian Greeks into Asia Minor, 
 and the abolition of monarchy in many States of Greece. To pro- 
 nounce all these adventures mere fiction, is as absurd as it is difficult to 
 separate truth from embellishment. The Argonautic expedition from 
 Greece to Colchis, is an enigma, to exercise the sagacity of men who 
 can find no other employment. The Calydonian chase terminated in 
 the tragic death of a furious wild boar, sent by the gods to ravage JEto- 
 lia, and chased by all the princes of the age, afford ing a sublime theme 
 for heroic song. The two Theban wars signify the mutual slaughter 
 of Theban and Argive heroes, breathing vengeance for mutual inju- 
 ries; and happily, the muses have perpetuated the bloody scenes. The 
 expulsion of the Heraclidas descended from Danaus and Perseus, was, 
 indeed, a lamentable injustice done to that illustrious race, to be expi- 
 ated afterwards by the descendants of Pelops, the guilty offenders. 
 Agamemnon, king of Argos, Menelaus, king of Sparta, in right of 
 queen Helen, these were of the race of Pelops, heroes of the Trojan 
 war. Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy, ought to have been ashamed 
 to abuse the hospitality of Menelaus, by bearing off in triumph the will- 
 ing spouse of the Spartan king. This injury was enough to kindle 
 the flame of war, and provoke a wasting siege of ten years, that laid 
 proud Troy in smoking ruins. The closing scene of this tragedy 
 occurred in 2820. 
 
 At length, just eighty years later, in 2900, the exiled Heraclidae, 
 after countless misadventures, poured into the Peloponnesus at differ- 
 ent points, accompanied by their Dorian allies, in superior numbers, 
 and recovered their ancient thrones and hereditary territories. Their 
 triumphant return was fruitful in events, commotions, and emigrations, 
 which we should mark with careful attention. From this time the 
 Doric population and character prevailed in the Peloponnesus, and the 
 descendants of Hercules swayed the sceptre, while those who fled 
 formed new intermixtures, and new colonies, of stupendous fame. The 
 Achaians, oppressed by the invading host, fell upon the lonians, their 
 neighbours, and drove them to seek new settlements. The Athenians 
 received the fugitives in such numbers, that the Ionian character and 
 dialect prevailed. About thirty years later, 2930, Codrus, the last king 
 of Athens, following the suggestion of an oracle, rushed. into battle, and 
 sought death, to save his country from the fierce attack of the Herac- 
 lidae, who, not satisfied with the recovery of the Peloponnesus, aimed to 
 subdue their neighbours. With Codrus, monarchy ended at Athens ;
 
 LECT I.] OUTLINE OF HISTORY. 7 
 
 the office of hereditary archon was instituted in favour of one of his sons; 
 the others withdrew in disgust, and drawing many others with them, 
 passed over into Asia Minor, and founded an Ionian nation. The 
 JEolians had already seated themselves further north, on the same 
 coast ; and not far from the same time, some wandering Dorians occu- 
 pied the coast south of the lonians. 
 
 To recapitulate these important events. The Achaians dispossessed 
 the lonians, and remained in the Peloponnesus, where we shall see 
 them in the last stage of Greece, then, for the first time, the leading 
 power, making the last stand against the Romans. The banished 
 lonians, received at Athens, impart their character and language. On 
 the death of Codrus, a portion of them settle in Asia Minor, where 
 they, as well as the ^Eolians and Dorians, after many vicissitudes, 
 will become a numerous, flourishing, and magnificent people. From 
 this time, an impulse of busy enterprise diffused the Grecian name 
 and nation throughout every coast and island of the Mediterranean. 
 From this time we no longer estimate the greatness of Greece by the 
 narrow limits that the name implies. 
 
 For five hundred years after 3000, Greece is not inactive ; and yet 
 we say the whole five hundred years is nothing but preparation and 
 approach to the splendid scene which bursts forth in 3500. 
 
 We stand at 3000, and take a rapid review of five hundred years, a 
 period that affords only glimmering light ; but it is the dawn of a 
 bright day. For half the period before us, that is, for two hundred 
 and fifty years after 3000, the Greeks claim but a small share of our 
 notice. In this interval, emigration continues, and some of the States 
 new model their government and laws. Aristocratic or democratic 
 institutions are substituted for monarchy in almost every State except 
 Sparta. In that celebrated city reigned jointly, two kings of the race 
 of Hercules. Lycurgus, of the younger branch, established his fa- 
 mous code of laws, the most odious and pernicious system ever devised 
 by man, yet the theme of endless, and almost unqualified praise, from 
 the days of Herodotus to our own time. 
 
 Temperance in eating and drinking, and severity of manners, are 
 poor apologies for virtue, when they are cultivated for purposes of 
 lawless ambition. We must admire the health and hardihood that are 
 the fruits of useful industry; but the labour of the Spartans was in the 
 field of blood and battle, or in the painful exercise that prepared them 
 to brave death for the lust of dominion. Unhappy captives reduced 
 to wretched slavery, performed those necessary labours in the field, 
 and in the household, which their Spartan lords despised. We 
 all admit that intemperate luxury was banished from Sparta; so 
 was every liberal art, and every liberal thought. Who can name a 
 Spartan poet, philosopher, orator, historian, or artist? But we are told 
 that Spartans loved their country ; that is a vulgar merit, common to 
 all mankind. But how did they treat their neighbours ? Let the poor 
 Messenians, and all the States of Greece give the reply- 
 
 3228 is the vulgar era of the Olympic games. Their real origin is 
 concealed in the mist of antiquity. We know not the time of their 
 commencement, nor at what particular periods they were modified, to 
 embrace new objects. We do know that they were an institution 
 formed in a barbarous age, and rude in its nature ; we know, also, that
 
 8 OUTLINE OF HIS TORY. [LEt T. 1 . 
 
 the contagious example spread to every state, and almost every city of 
 Greece. The effects of these games on the Grecian morals, manners, 
 and characters, are worthy of philosophic attention. Intercourse, emu- 
 lation, opportunity and success, were the fruits realized. Humanity 
 laments the wild barbarity of some of the exercises, and the ridiculous 
 folly of others; but sense and reason accept the final good, and ac- 
 quiesce in the shame from which no barbarous age was ever exempt. 
 The Grecian games did not, like Spartan laws, entirely subject the 
 soul to the body, but rather cultivated the powers of both. 
 
 The precise age of Homer and Hesiod, is easily fixed by men who 
 boldly resolve to decide every thing. Homer lived after the Trojan 
 war, in 2820, perhaps three hundred years after, in 3120. He lived 
 so long before the time of Herodotus, that neither the age in which he 
 lived, nor the island or coast which gave him birth, could then be as- 
 certained. Here common minds must rest, and be satisfied. We need 
 not try to suppress our admiring wonder at the appearance of such a 
 man, in such an age. Poetic inspiration would naturally flow from the 
 ardour, enterprise, and commotion exhibited around; but the design of 
 the poem, the perfection and purity of style, the first ever produced, 
 yet a model for all succeeding ages, the early period, between 3000 
 and 3150, all these considerations exercise the mind with prodigious 
 astonishment. 
 
 The successors of Solomon for this same two hundred and 'fifty 
 years, with some illustrious exceptions, exhibited a sad picture of de- 
 generacy, which the fidelity of the sacred narrative has painted for our 
 admonition and instruction. The wisdom of Solomon preserved entire 
 the monarchy which the valour of David had established. Rehoboam, 
 the son of Solomon, provoked a rebellion which rent his kingdom. 
 After this fatal mischief, the line of David was confined to the south- 
 ern of the Jewish tribes; and this limited kingdom bore the name of 
 Judah, the principal tribe, from which the royal line had sprung, and 
 the Messiah was to be derived. Israel, which v,-as before the name of 
 the whole kingdom, was from that time appropriated to the northern 
 and eastern tribes that revolted. The kings of Israel took the lead in 
 wicked and idolatrous practices; but Judah was not far behind in 
 adopting or imitating the most absurd and abominable customs of their 
 idolatrous neighbours. To the north, the kings of Syria recovered 
 and abused the independent power which David and Solomon knew 
 how to curb, or crush. The nations conquered by David breathed 
 continual sedition, and often set the kings of Judah and Israel at de- 
 fiance. Behold the elements of perpetual discord, and wasting wars. 
 Barbarians all fierce, corrupt, hostile : in nothing united but in vi- 
 cious propensities, and lawless indulgence. Jezebel, a princess of 
 Tyre, married Ahab, one of the kings of Israel, and inundated the land 
 with her priests and gods. Her daughter, Athaliah, married Jeho- 
 ram, king of Judah, and imported her mother's mischiefs into that 
 kingdom. It was in vain that now and then a good king arose in 
 Judah, (not one in Israel,) to cleanse the polluted altars, and^purify the 
 defiled temple. Headlong successors would urge on the destiny of a 
 nation, eagerly rushing into ruin and captivity. The royal families of 
 Israel were frequently swept off by a bold stroke of treason and usur-
 
 LECT. I.J OUTLINE OF HISTORY. 9 
 
 pation ; five reig-ned of one family ; four of another; of several dynas- 
 ties, only three ; and besides these, several usurpers were succeeded 
 by other usurpers. It was different in Judah, where the line of David 
 continued unbroken till the destruction of the kingdom. 
 
 Israel and Syria were finally desolated by the armies of Nineveh, 
 and the captive people distributed into the eastern cities in 32fe3. This 
 event is called the first captivity. The captivity of Judah, or second 
 captivity, took place more than a century later. These events call for 
 the consideration of the ancient kingdoms of Nineveh and Babylon, so 
 celebrated in history, sacred and profane; so imperfectly known to 
 those who wait for authority and evidence ; so well understood by all 
 who are fond of the marvellous. Sacred and profane history attest the 
 existence of those ancient cities. We have direct authority for the de- 
 struction of Nineveh by a king of Babylon, perhaps about the year 
 3379. We know that Babylon long after existed, and gradually sunk 
 into ruin. All the wonders that are related of both, before the year 
 3250, are the mere creatures of wonder-searching brains. The Jew- 
 ish annals are silent till 3250. Fiction is fluent 1300 years earlier. 
 If an immense monarchy all that time bordered on the Jewish, and 
 overshadowed it, we derive not a word of it from the Jews themselves. 
 Of the famed Semiramis, before the time of Abraham, we have already 
 spoken. Sardanapalus was 1200 later about 3200. We certainly 
 could not refuse to pity the cruel fate of that misguided monarch; but 
 the last catastrophe is the only point in which his biographers can 
 agree, except that Nineveh was his capital. Whether Babylon, or 
 Media, or Persia, or Armenia, belonged to his domains, is matter of 
 contradiction and doubt, in which every man must form his opinion 
 without record or evidence to guide. The twelve hundred years from 
 Semiramis to Sardanapalus, is the term and duration of that prodigy of 
 fiction, called the First, or the Ancient Assyrian Empire. About 
 3250, we enter upon the period of the Second Assyrian Empire, less 
 interesting than the first, because more known and more real ; yet here 
 again all is doubtful, except what we gain from the sacred writers, 
 whose province only required them to relate the transactions that 
 passed between their own people and the kings of Nineveh or Assyria. 
 The two captivities, first of Israel, in 2383, second of Judah, in 3416, 
 have been already mentioned. Tiglath-Pileser, and Shalmanazar, are 
 the names of'the two monarchs of Nineveh or Assyria, who began and 
 completed the captivity of Syria and Israel, in 3283. The treasures of 
 the holy temple were profanely lavished by wicked Ahaz, king of 
 Judah, to purchase the assistance of Tiglath-Pileser against the kings 
 of Israel and Syria, who had invaded Judah with immense armies, 
 and reduced the kingdom to the brink of destruction. Ahaz had the 
 satisfaction to see his enemies afflicted with greater calamities than 
 they had so wantonly brought upon him. The Syrians, and all the 
 tribes of Israel, except Ephraim and Manasseh, were carried to Nine- 
 veh and other eastern cities. Hezekiah, son of Ahaz, king of Judah, 
 did not imitate his father's weakness or impiety, in purchasing foreign 
 assistance; but he saw the first captivity completed by the ruin of Sa- 
 maria, and the two remaining tribes of Israel. This was the age in 
 which Isaiah lived uid prophesied. 
 
 2
 
 10 OUT LINE OF HISTORY. [LECT. I. 
 
 Before the second captivity, proud Nineveh was prostrate in ruin, 
 and Babylon had become the seat of empire, as some say, in 3379 : but 
 the chronology cannot be ascertained within many years ; and the de- 
 tails of this "event can only be furnished by fabulists, whose liberal 
 treasures are always at our service. Were Media and Persia subject 
 to the kings of Nineveh ? Did they assist the king or governor of Ba- 
 bylon in the enterprise against Nineveh? All is conjecture; all is con- 
 tradiction. Evidence merely warrants our saying, that kings reigning 
 at Babylon, reigned also over the same territories that were subject to 
 the kings of Nineveh at its destruction. Then commenced the Babylo- 
 nish, or Third Assyrian Empire. The first, or most ancient Assyrian 
 empire, a prodigious fiction, lasted twelve hundred years, from Semi- 
 ramis to Tiglath-Pileser, from 2000 to 3250. The second Assyrian 
 empire, indifferently known, lasted little more than a century ; and the 
 Third Assyrian Empire is the Babylonish Empire. Nabopolasser was 
 the founder ; Nebuchadnezzar was his son, and the author of the second 
 captivity. He began to reign 3400 ; he took Daniel two years before, 
 acting then as the general of his father, Nabopolasser, in the siege of 
 Jerusalem. Ezekiel was taken eight years later than Daniel, 3406 ; 
 Jerusalem, and the temple destroyed, and the people of Judah carried 
 captive 3416. This completes the second captivity. Daniel and Eze- 
 kiel, who were carried to Babylon, and Jeremiah, who was taken to 
 Egypt, were the prophets of this day. Nebuchadnezzar also destroyed 
 Tyre, after a siege of thirteen years, and then overran Egypt. This 
 monarch is said to have enlarged and embellished Babylon. We 
 know nothing of him except from Holy Writ ; of his successors we 
 know still less. They seem to have been embroiled with the kings of 
 Media; but no two historians can tell the same story of their wars. 
 Cyrus, the Persian arose, long before foretold by Isaiah. His father 
 was Cambyses; whether king or governor of Persia, we know not. 
 His mother was Mandane, daughter of Astyages, king of Media. Cy- 
 axares, son and successor of Astyages, was, of course, the uncle of Cy- 
 rus. These personages have been made the subjects of moral and pa- 
 thetic tales, by Herodotus, Xenophon, &c., but they all contradict one 
 another; none had the light of evidence, and we are reduced to be 
 satisfied with the simple and certain truth, that Cyrus, the Persian, 
 conquered immense territories, and at last took Babylon by stratagem, 
 and founded the Persian empire. Whether Cyrus waged war against 
 the Assyrian provinces in alliance with his grandfather and uncle, 
 kings of Media, or whether he first conquered them, and afterwards 
 led his forces against the Assyrians, must be decided by somebody who 
 has a better opportunity to investigate the truth than Herodotus and 
 Xenophon, who give these contradictory stories. It is pretty certain 
 that Cyrus conquered Croesus, king of Lydia, in 3456, and that he took 
 Babylon in 3466. The kingdom of Lydia then embraced nearly the 
 whole of Asia Minor, and Croesus, its king, fell a sacrifice to the re- 
 sentment of Cyrus, for having entered into an alliance with the king 
 of Babylon. The numerous and flourishing Greek cities on the coast 
 of Asia Minor, of the ^Eolian, Ionian, and Dorian names, had been 
 subjected to the kingdom of Lydia, and they now struggled in vain to 
 escape the yoke of Cyrus. They submitted to the Persian king, and
 
 LECT. I.J OUTLINE Of HISTORY. 11 
 
 will soon be found acting a consp cuous part in the grand transactions 
 between Greece and Persia. 
 
 Nineveh was the first seat of eastern despotism : its destruction trans- 
 ferred the pre-eminence to Baby on. Cyrus reduced Babylon to a pro- 
 vincial and dependent city, and Susa becomes and remains for two hun- 
 dred years the capital of the Persian empire. 
 
 The captive, Daniel, found favour with Cyrus, who permitted the 
 Jews to return to their own country, and rebuild Jerusalem and the 
 temple. Many Jews, particularly of the first captivity, chose to re- 
 main in the eastern cities, where they long enjoyed distinguished privi- 
 leges, and made a considerable proportion of eastern population. Those 
 who returned to Jerusalem experienced various delays and difficulties 
 in rebuilding their temple and walls. The Samaritans, an inveterate 
 race, who had been transplanted into the tribes from the east, to repeo- 
 ple the country after the first captivity, having embraced the Jewish 
 religion, claimed to participate in the privileges of the temple, to the 
 expense of which they had to contribute by the decree of Cyrus. Be- 
 ing disdainfully rejected by the Jews as a spurious race, they carried 
 their clamor and opposition to a degree of frantic rage, which, for 
 twenty years baffled and retarded the labours of the Jews; and in this 
 they were countenanced by the decrees of Cambyses, son of Cyrus, and 
 Smerdis, the usurper. At length Darius Hystaspes, third king of Per- 
 sia, effectually exerted his power in behalf of the temple and city, and 
 they arose with much of their former splendour and magnificence. 
 From that time, they received continual additions and improvements, 
 till their total destruction by Titus, the Roman emperor, six hundred 
 years after, seventy years after the birth of Christ. 
 
 During the captivity, the common people among the Jews lost their 
 own language, and spoke only that of the Chaldeans ; so that, from 
 their restoration, the Hebrew was only cultivated and understood by 
 the Rabbis. The Hebrew copy of the Bible was still read in the syn- 
 agogues, but an interpreter was always employed to render every verse, 
 as soon as read in Hebrew, into Chaldee. 
 
 The line of David enjoyed only titular honours, after the captivity, 
 without real power. A prince of that line, with the High Priest, re- 
 turned at the head of the Jews to Jerusalem ; but the restored Jews 
 were subject to the Persian empire; and whatever authority they were 
 allowed to enjoy was engrossed by priests and rabbis ; the prince sunk 
 into obscurity and insignificance. Ezra and Neherniah were the con- 
 spicuous prophets of the second temple. After them, prophets and sa- 
 cred historians cease their functions, and about the same time Hero- 
 dotus, the first profane historian, begins to write. 
 
 Cyrus had erected an immense monarchy, extending from India to 
 the Grecian seas. His son and successor, Cambyses, a frantic despot, 
 marched into Egypt, conquered the whole country, and added it to the 
 Persian empire. He sacrificed immense armies, in trying to conquer 
 the burning deserts of Lybia and Ethiopia : he threatened Carthage ; 
 but while he breathed vengeance and fury equally against foreigners 
 and his own unhappy subjects, a usurper, by the name of Smerdis, oc- 
 cupied his throne at Susa, under the assumed character of his brother. 
 Death arrested him as he was setting out to return to his capital
 
 12 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. [LECT. II. 
 
 and punish the usurper. After seven months, the imposture was de- 
 tected, and Darius Hystaspes reigned the third lawful king of Persia, 
 in 3483. Before 3500, he conquered Thrace, in Europe; and India, in 
 the East. His celebrated wars with Greece, begin in 3500 precisely, 
 and that is the point of time at which authentic history begins. 
 
 The history of Egypt is known from the time it became a part of the 
 Persian empire. Before that time, and after Solomon, we can ascertain 
 but little, except a few expeditions into Israel, and the irruption of Ne- 
 buchadnezzar into Egypt. Chronologers must fix the time of Sesos- 
 tris within five hundred years before \ve can follow him all over the 
 world with his conquering armies. 
 
 The affairs of Greece have been brought down to 3250, the era of 
 the foundation of Rome, and of the second Assyrian empire. From 
 3250 to 3500, colonization goes on, and the Grecian nations gradually 
 assume a more calm and settled condition. Two ferocious wars, called 
 first and second Messenian wars, subjected the Messenian state and 
 nation to the Spartans. The result of these wars gave the Spartans a 
 complete ascendency in the Peloponnesus. The third Messenian Avar 
 lies much later. Argos was governed by an aristocracy. Corinth 
 changed from monarchy to aristocracy, and from that again to mo- 
 narchy, and from that again to aristocracy. We have seen the aboli- 
 tion of monarchy at Athens, 2930, succeeded by hereditary archons. 
 The archons became decennial, or for ten years, about 3250, and final- 
 ly annual, about 3320. The archon, Solon, is famous among the 
 ancient lawgivers. He appears at Athens, about 3430, three hundred 
 years later than Lycurgus, at Sparta. His laws were silly enough, 
 but they did not, like those of Lycurgus, prefer the body to the soul ; 
 they left free scope to intellectual energy. He was one of the seven 
 wise men. Their wisdom and their maxims have been the theme of 
 praise. Pity that it was all folly. However, it answers for talk. In 
 the face and eyes of Solon, Pisistratus, an artful demagogue, usurped 
 sovereign power at Athens. The history of his sons connects with 
 important events, not now to be considered. A succession of elegant 
 Greek poets flourished in this age; Pythagoras, and others, called 
 philosophers, appear. They had talents, but their philosophy was 
 such as we should expect from the age. 
 
 LECTURE II. 
 
 A PRECEDING Lecture has hurried us over thirty-five centuries; 
 from the creation to the year of the world 3500 ; a long interval, pre- 
 senting always a gloomy stillness, or savage scenes of wild commo- 
 tion. Throughout, the picture is shaded with the darkness of primi- 
 tive ignorance, or faintly illuminated by a few rays of scattered light. 
 At the close of this dreary lapse, the change to us is instantaneous" a 
 memorable era commences ; we seem to pass suddenly from the shades
 
 LECT. II.] OUTLINE OF HIS TORY. 13 
 
 of night to meridian brightness. The arms of Cyrus had consolidated 
 the East into one stupendous monarchy, in 3466. The frantic ambition 
 of his son, Cambyses; theignoble, but momentary reign of the usurper, 
 Smerdis, clouded, for awhile, the eastern aspect; but even Cambyses 
 stretched the Persian sceftr* over the rich vales of the. Nile, and the 
 magnificent cities of Egjpt. Darius soon succeeded ; Thrace and 
 India swelled the list of provinces, and poured their treasures into the. 
 palaces of Susa. The ambition of that monarch clashed with the liber- 
 ties of Greece. Victoriots before, baffled now, his name still gains 
 lustre or renown from the unfortunate encounter. 
 
 The acquisition of Thrace had destroyed the natural barrier be- 
 tween the Persian doma ns and the Grecian States, and planted the 
 seeds of future discord. The memorable conflict was hastened on by 
 the sullen submission, arc at length the open revolt of the Greeks of 
 Asia Minor, assisted by their kindred race of Athens. In that city the 
 spirit of liberty had recent, y triumphed over its tyrants, the sons of 
 Pisistratus. A daring bio v .iad despatched Hipparchus ; a general 
 revolt drove Hippias, the otha - , into exile, to the court of Darius, who 
 cherished the complaints of the banished monarch, and resolved to 
 cloak his own ambition under the specious pretext of espousing the 
 common cause of injured kings. The opposite passions of men kin- 
 dled into a flame that spread over the face of the earth, and dissipated 
 the gloom of ages. 
 
 We have plunged Greece and Persia into a contest that will long en- 
 dure. The era of its commencement is imposing, though less import- 
 ant, immediately, in othtr parts of the world. The expulsion of the 
 kings of Rome, was almst simultaneous with that of the Pisistratidoe 
 from Athens, about 3500. The downfall of a tyrant is an event always 
 viewed with interest by mankind, though commotion, instead of calm, 
 generally succeeds, and some new adventurer converts the disorder to 
 his own aggrandizement, and tha unhappy people behold new chains 
 forged, new snares laid, perhaps by the very idols who struck the first 
 blow, or led the attack agains: their former tyrants. In such cases, the 
 second tyrant is usually more dangerous than the former, since the same 
 deceit and dissimulation which associated his name with the cause of 
 freedom, may still be successfully practised to impose upon undiscern- 
 ing minds, who continue to identify their hero with the sacred cause 
 which he has abandoned and betrayed. At Rome, the magistracy 
 passed from the king to the patricians, a jealous aristocracy, who 
 dreaded equally a monarch and all plebeian encroachments. The an- 
 nual election of consuls flattered the expectations of every senator, and 
 during his year the consul was hvested with sufficient power to sup- 
 press ordinary tumults in the city, and meet the common exigencies of 
 war. When unusual dangers pressed, the temporary appointment of 
 a dictator, with absolute power, served to restore order, and insure the 
 public safety. The rights of the people were in some measure guard- 
 ed by their own annual magistrates, called tribunes of the people, who 
 had power to arrest any public measure, though they could not pro- 
 pose any thing. In process of time, the privileges of the people were 
 enlarged ; but at no period was the Roman constitution well defined ; 
 the contradictory pretensions of plebeians and patricians, of consuls
 
 14 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. [LECT. II. 
 
 and tribunes, filled the city with perpe:ual tumult and disorder. No- 
 thing, however, could ever check the Roman ardour for war and con- 
 quest ; enemies in the forum were friends h the field of battle ; the 
 majesty of Rome filled every mind, swelled every haughty soul, and 
 warme'd every imagination. In the eye of a Roman, conquest and do- 
 minion were the peculiar prerogatives of kis sacred city. In all ages, 
 to resist Roman arrogance was rash presunption. After the submis- 
 sion of a people, policy alone dictated waetler the vanquished should 
 share the full privileges of citizens, or submtto cruel slavery. If this 
 policy was often disguised under the specie is names of generosity or 
 justice, a fair scrutiny will reject the excuse or pretence. The Roman 
 treasury was not drained in early ages to reward the soldiers; but the 
 license of plunder was unbounded ; exemptiors and privileges increas- 
 ed in proportion as the contributions were multiplied from vanquished 
 territories. Successful valour seized its own reward, and the pride of 
 conquest soothed and flattered every cit.ze.i, from the highest to the 
 lowest degree. 
 
 For the two hundred and fifty years now lefore us, while we see 
 Greece in its meridian splendour, Rome is still confined to the wars 
 and conquests of Italy. For the next succeeding two hundred and fifty 
 years, from 3750 to 4000, we shall see Rome striding over every sea, 
 and embracing Greece, Asia, Egypt, and Africi, in its dominions. We 
 now take our leave of Rome for two huncred tnd fifty years. 
 
 We left Greece and Persia in the commencement of their celebrated 
 struggle, 3500. The nature of the war laid the first scene in Asia 
 Minor, where the Ionian Greeks, inadequate!/ assisted by the distant 
 Athenians, after a brave resistance of six years, were compelled to sub- 
 mit again to their haughty and indignant masters. Darius Hystaspes, 
 elated with former success, now resolved to carry his victorious arms 
 over the ^Egean sea, and subject all Greece to his imperial sway. The 
 Athenians had given him cause of complaint, by assisting their revolt- 
 ing brethren. Hippias, the exiled son of Pisistratus, urged every to- 
 pic ; and lust of dominion closed the monarch's eyes to all considera- 
 tions of justice or prudence. One blew from a mighty realm seemed 
 enough to crush a little state; but a fleet and army perished in Thrace, 
 and on its coast, the one a victim to the tempests, and the other to sud- 
 den surprise from a barbarian host. New preparations arrayed a for- 
 midable host for a new invasion. Avoiding the stormy coasts, and 
 fierce barbarians of Thrace, his fleet ana transports deliberately tra- 
 versed the ^Egean sea, and after subduing the islands that lay in the 
 way, reached the coast of Attica. 110,000 Persians, poured forth into 
 the plains of Marathon, a name often pronounced with swelling 
 pomposity by boys, pedants and politicians, 10,000 Athenians, 
 advantageously posted, and skilfully commanded, bravely withstood 
 the Persian onset, broke the ranks, turned the wings, routed, pursued, 
 and slaughtered. Flight favoured a few, who, in wild panic, began in 
 better season, to seek the fleet ; but that refuge was soon cut off; the 
 license of victory gave free career to the havoc of avenging slaughter, 
 and the sounding name of Marathon, long served to rouse, rally, and 
 urge on the Greeks to certain victory. 
 
 The glorious battle of Marathon took place in 3515, ten years after
 
 LECT. II.] oUTLINjE OF HISTORY. 15 
 
 the suppression of the Ionian revolt by Darius: ten years before the 
 entrance of Xerxes into Greece. Darius died, and Herodotus was 
 born in the year 3520. This Darius was the third lawful king of Per- 
 sia Cyrus, Cambyses, Darius. From his death, in 3520, eighty 
 years more were occupied by the successive reigns of Xerxes, Arta- 
 xerxes, Darius Second, or 5jothus 20, 40, 20. Before his death, 
 Darius Hystaspes had strained the nerves and sinews of his royal and 
 imperial might to collect a force, ard aim a blow that would mock the 
 hope of resistance, and efface the stigrna of his former defeat. 
 
 The revolt of Egypt, just before his death, delayed and divided his 
 noisy expedition. He left his son Xerxes to inherit his preparations, 
 his embarrassments, and his resen:ments. The prudence of the son 
 declined the contest with Greece, till his undivided strength had 
 crushed the revolt in Egypt. Nev preparations postponed the doubt- 
 ful trial, till the fifth year of his r^ign, 3525. The idea of trampling 
 a little community of freemen :o death, instead of facing them, man- 
 fully, in equal combat, was natura. to the proud lord of Persia, stung 
 with the fresh recollections of the field of Marathon. The numerical 
 exaggerations of Greek historians have feasted the lovers of the mar- 
 vellous in all succeeding ages. An immense, but indefinite multitude, 
 was very conveniently expressed ty round millions, when muster rolls 
 were wanting, and all descriptive l ,erms considered inadequate. The 
 universal expressions of wonder, satisfactorily attest the prodigious 
 numbers of men and ships that composed the expedition. Seven days 
 and nights would pour a countless host into Europe over a spacious 
 bridge of boats constructed across the Hellespont ; and twelve hundred 
 vessels, besides transports, would require and contain a multitude. A 
 train of women, slaves, cooks, comedians, courtezans, served to swell 
 and encumber the ranks. The whole, perhaps, provokes a strain of 
 ridicule which has not been spared by adequate pens; but it seems ra- 
 tional to measure the follies of Xerxes, as well as of other men, by the 
 standard of truth and probability. We may even lash his real follies 
 without descending to represent the enraged monarch in the idle atti- 
 tude of lashing the waves of the Hellespont for dashing to pieces his 
 bridge of boats. 
 
 A minute historian would follow the fleet and army as they slowly 
 moved along the coast ready to co-operate in case of attack. The bat- 
 tle of Thermopylae, and simultaneous encounter of the Greek and Per- 
 sian fleet the rage and purple glory of three successive days, open a 
 noble field for the inspiration of the muse, and the expansive declama- 
 tion of history. But speed is our province ; a month for Xerxes is not 
 a minute for us. If this haste would allow us to feed our amazement, 
 and gaze at the deliberate victims of heroic ardour, we might, perhaps, 
 catch some faint impression of the all-inspiring, all-appalling scene ex- 
 hibited by the Spartan Leonidas, and his three hundred brave compa- 
 nions. Ten thousand men had been conducted by the Spartan king 
 to defend the pass. For three days, Xerxes witnessed with terror and 
 dismay the fruitless slaughter of his men ; at last treason betrayed to a 
 detachment of his army a secret pass, which led them into the rear of 
 the Greeks. Any longer defence was hopeless ; but despair produced 
 a voluntary and animating example : Leonidas, after dismissing all his
 
 16 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. [LECT. II. 
 
 troops but three hundred chosen and villing victims, sold his life to 
 encourage and save Greece. 
 
 From the Hellespont to Thermopylae, Thrace, Macedonia, and 
 Thessaly, submitted, to increase the enenv's ranks. After the passage 
 of Thermopylae, the exulting- victor paraded through Phocis and Bceo- 
 tia into Attica, the grave of his tovrering- hopes, the scene of his deep- 
 est humiliation. The vine and the vegetable withered under the tramp 
 of brutal men; temples and sacred places yielded their treasures to 
 impious and rapacious hands. 
 
 Torches and firebrands kindled a devouring element, and consumed 
 every citv, tower, or dwelling. Xerxes calmly surveyed the scene of 
 submission and desertion, regarding the contest as already finished. 
 His fleet had pursued that of Greece into the Saronic Gulf, and finally 
 into the narrow strait of Salamis, a josition which the Spartans wished 
 to avoid, but which the sagacity of Themistocles sought with artful 
 care. From an eminence, the kinj was witness of a scene that baf- 
 fled all his fond expectations, and chased him trembling out of Greece. 
 Grecian skill and valour prevailed ver superior numbers, and a mere 
 remnant of the Persian fleet prolonged by flight the day of their cer- 
 tain destruction. After the glorious battle of Salamis, the decision by 
 land was delayed about three months ; the battle of Platea crowned the 
 triumphs of Greece; very few Persians escaped. On the same day, 
 the remnant of the fleet that escaped from Salamis, was suddenly at- 
 tacked by the Athenian Xantippus, and utterly ruined. 
 
 Thus, in the compass of less than four months, the millions that fol- 
 lowed Xerxes into Europe, perished ignobly in the battles of Thermo- 
 pylae, Artimisium, Salamis, Platea, and Mycale ; and with them ex- 
 pired every future hope, or even thought, of conquering Greece. An 
 edifying lesson to grasping and rapacious monarchs, if monarchs were 
 composed of materials upon which the lessons of experience could pro- 
 duce any impression. From Xerxes to Buonaparte, the lust of power 
 that has sought to domineer over all mankind, has experienced almost 
 one uniform result of disappointment and disgrace. But that is 
 preaching. 
 
 The island of Sicily had been colonized from Greece ; and Syracuse, 
 its capital, was a Corinthian colony. Xerxes, knowing that the Greeks 
 of Sicily would be inclined to send aid to their brethren in Greece, en- 
 tered into an alliance with the Carthaginians, by which they engaged 
 to pass over into Sicily with three hundred thousand, while he invaded 
 Greece with his millions. The Carthaginians had long kept a wish- 
 ful eye turned on that fertile and important island, but they fared no 
 better than Xerxes. In one moment of surprise they were all cut off 
 by an artful stratagem of Gelon, the first tyrant, or king of Syracuse. 
 
 The principal actors in the battle of Marathon, 3515, were Miltia- 
 des, Aristides, and Themistocles. Miltiades died in prison the next 
 year, leaving a son, the illustrious Cimon, to perpetuate the honours of 
 his family. Aristides and Themistocles were the chief fountains of 
 wisdom and counsel, and the souls of action during the invasion of 
 Xerxes. Aristides returned from banishment to participate in the 
 glory and danger of his rival. Themistocles experienced the caprice 
 and ingratitude of his countrymen ten years after, and took refuge with
 
 LECT. II.] OUTLINE OF HISTORY. 17 
 
 the king of Persia. Fickleness and ingratitude formed a striking trait 
 in the licentious democracy of Athens. Brilliant talents and patriotic 
 services invariably exposed eminent Athenians to odium, banishment, 
 or death. 
 
 Mutual jealousy rankled in the breasts of the Spartans and Athe- 
 nians. The absence of the Spartans from the field of Marathon, was 
 excused by a religious scruple, that delayed the march of their army 
 till the horn of the moon was filled to a requisite measnre. Valour 
 and fortune saved the state, and the Athenians engrossed the honour. 
 The Spartans were promptly in the field in opposition to Xerxes. At 
 Thermopylae the glory was theirs; and in every trying scene of the 
 war, their valiant co-operation was essential and adequate. But they 
 uniformly persisted in arrogating the chief command by land and sea, 
 when it was evident to all mankind that the salvation of the state de- 
 pended on the superior abilities of the Athenian commanders; and 
 they even seemed resolved to abandon a cause which involved their 
 own political existence, sooner than relinquish a vain point of honour. 
 The Athenian generals yielded to the vain punctilio, and yet posterity 
 has awarded to Themistocles and Aristides the honours due to the con- 
 summate art and skill which they displayed. We shall see this spirit 
 of jealousy rise into a flame that will consume the liberties of Greece. 
 
 After the defeat of the Persians, a misunderstanding arose, very lit- 
 tle to the honour of Sparta. That haughty people interposed to pre- 
 vent the Athenians from rebuilding their citadel and walls, recently de- 
 molished by the Persians, alleging that it was dangerous for such 
 works to fall into the enemy's hands, in case of a more successful inva- 
 sion. Protected themselves from foreign invasion, by their peninsular 
 situation, they showed a jealous and ungenerous indifference to the 
 safety of their most exposed neighbours. By artful delays, and pro- 
 tracted embassies, Themistocles caused the walls and citadel to rise, be- 
 fore the Spartans could effectually oppose the progress of the work. 
 Notwithstanding this early and continued jealousy, a variety of cir- 
 cumstances will delay the fatal conflict about fifty years; a period 
 which we now proceed to review in a brief outline. 
 
 The facts to be related, develop the causes which raised Athens to 
 a decided and dangerous ascendency in Greece, and provoked that de- 
 solating war which proved so fatal to all the states, and more imme- 
 diately disastrous to Athens herself. The victory of Marathon, and 
 the conspicuous services of Aristides and Themistocles in the late bat- 
 tles, imparted to Athens a new lustre, and gave her a more imposing 
 attitude among the states of Greece than she ever assumed before. The 
 character of Cimon, and his conduct at the head of the fleet, gained for 
 his country the homage or alliance of all the coasts and islands of the 
 ^Egean sea. 
 
 No sooner were the Persian armies chased out of Greece, and de- 
 stroyed, than the Athenians resumed their original intention of setting 
 at liberty the Greek colonies of Thrace and Asia Minor, who detested 
 the Persian yoke, and implored the aid of their victorious brethren. 
 The Spartan fleet united with that of Athens, and the Spartan Pausa- 
 nias, still arrogated to himself the chief command, notwithstanding the 
 
 3
 
 18 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. [LECT. II. 
 
 superiority of the Athenians. His haughty and disdainful deportment, 
 and at length his treasonable correspondence with the king of Persia, 
 to whom he was pledged to betray that freedom for which he had late- 
 ly fought, alienated the minds of all the allies, and actually transferred 
 the command of the fleet to Aristides and Cimon, the Athenian gene- 
 rals. From that time, the great Cimon prosecuted the patriotic work 
 of deliverance, and enjoyed an almost uninterrupted career of glory for 
 thirty years, from about 3535 to 3555. He flew from one scene of 
 victory to another ; delivered the cities of Thrace, of the Hellespont, 
 and of Asia Minor, from the despotism of the great king, and brought 
 them all into a close and honourable alliance with Athens. On two 
 occasions, first in 3535, again in 3555, the year of his death, he defeat- 
 ed a Persian fleet of superior numbers, and instantly rushed upon the 
 land, and attacked and routed a superior army the same day. Ci- 
 mon did not derive the lustre of his name solely from his warlike 
 achievements. His popular manners, and the generous use he made 
 of the riches acquired by the plunder of the enemy, endeared him to 
 all his fellow-citizens, who saw with gratitude and delight his private 
 walks and splendid gardens thrown open for public amusement, and 
 his plentiful table spread for the use of the indigent. He was once 
 banished for a short time, by the powerful influence of his rival Peri- 
 cles ; but Pericles himself was the first to propose his recall ; and this 
 great and noble character died in a blaze of glory, adorned with recent 
 laurels, after having, by a long career of unexampled success, extended 
 the influence and alliance of Athens over an immense extent of sea- 
 coast, that before groaned under a distant despot. 
 
 Pericles was the son of Xantippus, who achieved the victory of Myc- 
 ale, 3525. The mother of Pericles was also of the most illustrious 
 lineage, and his early education and promise were equal to his other 
 pretensions. He first began to figure at Athens about 3535, when 
 both Aristides and Themistocles had disappeared from the stage of 
 action. He was the rival of Cimon in fame and in power ; but he 
 survived his rival twenty years, and enjoyed unbounded sway at 
 Athens, in spite of Thucydides, who took the place of Cimon. If 
 there was no particular department of public or private life in which 
 Pericles excelled all other men, so there have been few men supe- 
 rior to him in any respect whatever. A consummate statesman, a 
 tnundering orator, a persuasive and eloquent advocate, a citizen of the 
 most obliging condescension and address; as a commander, deliberate 
 in council, prompt and successful in execution; a man of exquisite 
 taste, devotedly fond of the elegant arts, which flourished in his age 
 more than in any other period of Grecian history. Statues, edifices, 
 and pictures were multiplied and employed to adorn every part of 
 the noble city. 
 
 The popular affability and address of Pericles, his eloquence, taste, li- 
 berality, and profound sagacity, would now command our unmingled ad- 
 miration, had they not then been too much employed as the engines of 
 an inordinate ambition. Almost without regular appointment, Peri- 
 cles engrossed for himself the government of Athens, and gained for 
 Athens the government of all Greece. His wonderful talents com-
 
 LECT. II.] OUTLINE OF HISTORY. 19 
 
 manded deference ; his compliance, caresses ; and general indulgence 
 to the people, soothed their minds, and secured their suffrages. This 
 eminent statesman has been severely censured, for fanning the flame of 
 discord between Athens and Sparta, and precipitating them into a fatal 
 war, at a time when his influence was capable of moderating and com- 
 posing the jealous irritation of the parties. 
 
 The remote and immediate causes of the famous Peloponnesian 
 war have been accurately traced, and stated by the historians of that 
 age. The character and institutions of the Spartans seemed to insure 
 their superiority over the other states of the Peloponnesus ; and the 
 jealous hatred of those states was the natural consequence of their forced 
 submission. The Athenians extended their milder influence over the 
 coasts and islands of the ^Egean, by the generous enterprise of Cimon, 
 and the profound policy of Pericles. This refined system was less of- 
 fensive than the morose despotism of Sparta; and yet the Athenian al- 
 lies could not fail to discover that the arts of Pericles would ultimately 
 leave them no more than the shadow of freedom. The intrigues of 
 each party carefully infused the venom of jealousy into the suspicious 
 minds of the allies and subjects of the other; and the symptoms of fu- 
 ture war were manifested or suppressed during fifty years, as the caprice 
 of men, and the accidental tide of fortune occasionally prompted. The 
 pacific offices of Cimon, several times suspended or healed an open 
 rupture. The contrary bias of Pericles opposed the pacific policy ; 
 and as the evil passions of men are more easily aroused than appeased, 
 Pericles oftener prevailed than Cimon, who made his appeal to the 
 calm sense and reason of his countrymen. On one occasion, Cimon 
 was banished for having persuaded the Athenians to send him at the 
 head of some forces, whose assistance had been implored by the Spar- 
 tans, assailed by their slaves amidst the ruins of an earthquake, which, 
 convulsed their city, and precipitated the impending rocks of Taygeta 
 into its streets. The minds of men were soured by real or supposed 
 provocations ; the busy embassies that professed to negotiate peace, 
 only entangled the parties in new difficulties : indeed, all foresaw the 
 certainty of a struggle; and years of seeming negotiation, were actual 
 delays for preparation, for gaining allies by intrigue, and for setting a 
 keen edge to resentment. For thirty years after the expedition of 
 Xerxes, Cimon was gaining new allies for Athens, by delivering new 
 islands and new cities from the Persian yoke. In 3555, the last vic- 
 tory of Cimon compelled Artaxerxes to submit to the terms dictated by 
 the Grecians ; and a peace was concluded. If the policy of Pericles 
 could have brought Athens and Sparta to an immediate trial of strength, 
 the gratitude of the Athenian allies for recent deliverance, would have 
 insured their ardour and fidelity in the struggle. But the experience 
 of twenty years had developed the ambitious views of their protectors, 
 and disclosed their own subservient condition : fidelity faltered, 
 jealousy was awakened, and resentment kindled. The states conti- 
 guous to Sparta, and most exposed to its odious encroachments, espous- 
 ed the cause of Athens ; and those bordering on Attica joined Sparta 
 for similar reasons. The inferior states, which had no hopes of domi- 
 nion, would have been satisfied with independence. Athens and Sparta 
 could brook no independence but their own, and both lusted for domi-
 
 20 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. [LECT. II. 
 
 nion. The result of their silly contest will display the madness of 
 such ambition ; but a similar result in every instance, from that time 
 to this, has not yet convinced or instructed minds that court misery 
 under the guise of glory and ambition. It is the same stupid delusion 
 which be-addles the brains of murderers, robbers, thieves, perjurers, and 
 traitors, and abandons them to the fatal conviction that they are exempt 
 from the exposure, infamy, condemnation, remorse, and horror, that 
 have inevitably overtaken all others involved in similar guilt. It is 
 the same pitiful delusion that makes men strive and strut out of the 
 sphere for which they were designed ; waste their substance, and 
 plunge into debt to be respectable, and court the company of those who 
 despise them. The folly is the same in all ; it is the iblly of expecting 
 the irreversible decrees of heaven to be reversed in our behalf alone. 
 
 Ten years after the peace with Persia, a war broke out between Co- 
 rinth, and Corcyra, her colony. The interval had been devoted to 
 secret intrigue and preparation; the war unveiled at once all the bit- 
 ter passions that policy or dissemblance had concealed. The Corcy- 
 reans appealed to the Athenians for aid; and all the interest and elo- 
 quence of Pericles were exerted to procure a decree favourable to their 
 application. The deputies from Corinth and Sparta opposed the inter- 
 ference of Athens, but the voice of Pericles prevailed, and aid was sent 
 to Corcyra. A series of strange vicissitudes attended the operations of 
 this war. Two factions of Corcyra alternately prevailing, butchered 
 and destroyed each other with every circumstance of atrocious perfidy 
 and savage cruelty. The Spartans were not indifferent spectators of 
 events that might result in bringing the Ionian islands into a close al- 
 liance with Athens, whose power and ambition already threatened the 
 liberties of Greece. Embassy after embassy only served to disclose the 
 jealousy of the parties, and sharpen their resentment. The pride of 
 Athens was as pernicious as the ferocity of Sparta. Gratuitous pro- 
 vocations were added to wanton mischief, and a convulsive struggle 
 was hurried on by the perverseness of individuals, abetted by the licen- 
 tious humours of a turbulent democracy. The keen eye of a discern- 
 ing statesman might, perhaps, have discovered the seeds of inevitable 
 war, and the present advantages, which delay might jeorpardize. The 
 ambition of Pericles has been arraigned; but his motives are inscruta- 
 ble to us at this time. Perhaps he calmly and honestly surveyed the 
 restless allies of his country, equally ready to revolt, or engage in any 
 expedition that was set on foot. At any rate, while he lived, he stood 
 erect in war, and magnanimous in counsel, stemming the tempest when 
 he could no longer direct it. The rage of plague and pestilence was 
 not obvious to human foresight, nor one of the chances which a states- 
 man of Greece was bound to estimate. From Egypt, through Asia, the 
 fatal infection made its circuit to Athens and Attica. The Spartans 
 had invaded and laid waste; and the Athenian navy recalled them to 
 the defence of their own coasts and seaports : but the arm of valour 
 could not resist this new enemy ; it withered and perished. Medical 
 skill was equally unavailing. Instant distraction and despair seized 
 the victim, and torment finished the patient before the physician arriv- 
 ed. Pericles, with horror, saw his children seized and hurried into 
 the common grave. His public and private griefs could not unman his
 
 LET. II.] OUTLINE OF HISTORY. 21 
 
 great soul ; but disease and death preyed upon his mortal powers, and 
 he sunk down in the midst of his country's affliction. This melan- 
 choly tragedy closes the second year of the war. 
 
 Wha*. a crowd of reflections attend us in pursuing the sad narrative 
 through the vicissitudes of twenty-seven years, to the close of the grand 
 drama. Lately, Greece united defied and humbled the giant of east- 
 ern despotism. The sons of freedom stood amazed at their own achieve- 
 ments; their adventurous spirits sought distant scenes of danger and 
 glory. Assailed on his own coasts, menaced or surprised every mo- 
 ment at some new point of attack, the Persian trembled on his remote 
 throne of Susa, and sought peace by humble submission. The first calm 
 of peace displays the genius of man, devoted to every elegant art. The 
 mind tries to dwell on the pleasing picture ; but impending clouds ob-" 
 scure the view, and exhibit the elements of future tempests and final 
 ruin. Greece was fatally impelled to its own destruction. 
 
 The Peloponnesian war commenced 3573, two years before the 
 death of Pericles. For six successive campaigns, the Spartans uni< 
 formly invaded Attica, laying waste the country, insulting the capital, 
 seeking the combat. Unequal to their enemies in the field, the Athe- 
 nians sallied out with their superior fleet, and sailing round the Pelo- 
 ponnesus, spread terror and desolation on the whole coast. Even dur- 
 ing the plague at Athens, the Spartans did not insult the miseries of 
 their antagonists with impunity. Mutual waste and distress was the 
 only result of these six campaigns. From that time, the scene of the 
 war was shifted to different parts of Greece. A little island on the 
 west of the Peloponnesus became the theatre of a most obstinate and 
 bloody conflict, which, after many turns of fortune, terminated in favour 
 of the Athenians, and reduced the Spartans to sue for peace. Elated 
 with this success, the Athenians declined all reasonable terms; the 
 negotiation ended, and the seat of war was removed to Thrace, where 
 the Athenians possessed a number of large and flourishing cities. Bras- 
 idas, the brave Spartan, gained a decisive victory over the boastful 
 Cleon ; both fell in the action, and this event was improved by the 
 friends of peace to hush up the war. A peace for fifty years was soon 
 concluded, called the peace of Nicias, on account of the decided inter- 
 est and influence of Nicias, the Athenian, in the adjustment. The 
 peace of Nicias took place in the tenth year of the war, 3583. By this 
 treaty, the fury of the war was suspended about six years ; but the 
 animosity of the parties never subsided in the least : infractions of the 
 treaty were mutually alleged, and vehemently urged ; partial hostili- 
 ties were carried on by the minor parties, and so little did the times 
 wear the aspect of peace, that the doubtful respite is actually reckoned 
 as a part of the famous twenty-seven years ; beginning 2573, and end- 
 ing 3600. The headstrong passions of the famous Alcibiades, are 
 justly accused of replunging the states into the horrors of active war, 
 3589, six years after the peace of Nicias. This extraordinary young 
 man was a spoiled child ; he was the idol of the mob, and eclipsed 
 every rival in every debauch ; and being cast in beauty's perfect mould, 
 he was every thing that the most languishing damsel of modern times 
 could wish to see depicted in a romance. We can wish a licentious 
 rabble no greater punishment, than to be the sport of such a leader.
 
 22 OUTLINE OP HISTORY. [LECT. II. 
 
 Even if we excuse his youthful sallies, the pupil of Socrates can find no 
 honest apologist for the debasing follies and corrupt practices of riper 
 years. Commotion was the only element in which such a man could 
 live ; and he saw with painful anxiety the misunderstanding of Greece 
 about to be reconciled by a new treaty of peace. The Spartan ambas- 
 sadors arrived at Athens with full powers to grant advantageous terms. 
 With profound dissimulation, Alcibiades, assuming the language of 
 impartial frankness, advised them not to increase the arrogance of the 
 Athenians by declaring their full powers. Easy dupes to this base 
 artifice, the ambassadors witnessed with shame and confusion, the in- 
 dignation of the Athenian assembly, inflamed by Alcibiades himself, 
 who exclaimed with vehemence against the Spartan state, and urged 
 an immediate declaration of war. Unable to expose the perfidy of Al- 
 cibiades, without disclosing their own credulity, the ambassadors with- 
 drew in silence, to render an account of their fruitless mission at Spar- 
 ta. Still, the cause of peace found so many able advocates, that no se- 
 rious war would have ensued, had not Alcibiades seized a favourable 
 occasion to persuade the populace, who decided all questions in the as- 
 semblies, to engage in a distant enterprise, which he well knew would 
 at once involve all Greece in the flame of war. 
 
 The kindred Greeks of Sicily often appealed to their brethren of the 
 mother country, to aid them in distress, or redress their grievances. 
 They sometimes solicited succour against the Carthaginians, their in- 
 veterate persecutors ; at other times, implored assistance against a do- 
 mestic tyrant. In this instance, one city prayed to be delivered from 
 the vexatious yoke of another. The eloquence of the great orator Gor- 
 gias, was employed by his citizens, the Leontines, to plead their cause 
 against Syracuse, in the Athenian assembly. The business was 
 weighty ; the eloquence was manly and pathetic. Nicias, and the 
 other friends of peace saw with trembling anxiety the passions of the 
 multitude inflamed ; but the cool admonitions of aged and considerate 
 men, were spurned as the counsels of timid and indolent minds. The 
 impetuous voice of a young man, the darling of a licentious faction, ris- 
 ing up, with grace and dignity in his mien, and rolling a torrent on 
 his tongue, communicated an impulse that hurried the people on be- 
 yond the control of council and wisdom. 
 
 The disastrous expedition against Sicily fills a little more than two 
 years. The whole interval is darkened with stormy vicissitudes, and 
 closed with the most frightful catastrophe. Alcibiades, who urged the 
 enterprise, and Nicias, who opposed it, were associated in command. 
 The embarkation was an imposing spectacle. The arrival in Sicily 
 was succeeded by a well-directed blow against a small city. The pro- 
 mise of success seemed fair, when messengers arrived from Athens, 
 commissioned to recall and arrest Alcibiades on a charge of having 
 mutilated the statues of the tutelar Minerva, in a midnight frolic, before 
 his departure. His demand of a trial before he embarked had been re- 
 fused by the same capricious mob that now so soon demanded his re- 
 turn and condemnation. On his way home he escaped from his keep- 
 ers, and flew to Sparta, where his former antipathy was forgotten, in 
 consideration of his fresh resentment, and hostile measures against his 
 own country. In the apprehension of a modern, the mutilation of a
 
 LECT II.] OUfLINE OF HISTORY. 23 
 
 statue, even of Minerva, would be less criminal than deadly hostility to 
 one's own country. In that age the distinction was not so clear. 
 
 The lovers of tragedy may enjoy an ample repast in any minute his- 
 tory of the siege of Syracuse, besieged by the Athenians, and assisted 
 by the Corinthians and Spartans. The vicissitudes of the war were 
 sudden and frequent. The party that triumphs in success, and exults 
 in plenty to-day, to-morrow sinks into despair and famine. The last 
 sudden reverse was fatal to Nicias and his whole army ; though the 
 recent arrival of Demosthenes with a reinforcement, had seemed only 
 the day before to insure the Athenians a certain triumph, and actually 
 struck the besieged with panic terror. The execution of the two Athe- 
 nian generals, and the destruction of the whole army, disgraced the 
 character of Syracuse, and threw Athens into consternation. The ge- 
 neral panic was soon succeeded by an activity and enterprise suited to 
 the occasion. The late misfortune was a signal of revolt to some of the 
 discontented allies, who seized the favourable juncture to regain their 
 independence, or rather to throw themselves into the more cruel arms 
 of the Spartans. As they were soon reduced to submission, their re- 
 volt only drew upon them a more rigorous servitude. About twenty 
 years of the war were now accomplished ; the remaining seven years 
 carry us to a new scene of action, and introduce new parties. Darius the 
 Second, or Nothus, filled the throne of Persia from 3580 to 3600. His 
 father, Artaxerxes Longimanus, had submitted to a humiliating peace, 
 imposed by Cimon, in 3555. Darius, the son, lost Egypt by revolt, 
 about the middle of his reign, 3590 ; and that country remained inde- 
 pendent upwards of sixty years. The bloody contest between Athens 
 and Sparta, engaged the attention of the Persian monarch, who espous- 
 ed the cause of Sparta, and contributed in no small degree to the calami- 
 ties of Athens. The future operations were transferred to the jEgean sea., 
 and its numerous islands, the allies of Athens. History here announces 
 the Spartan Lysander, an odious name, or glorious, if a cold, bloody ca- 
 reer can make it so. Alcibiades comes upon the stage again. He escapee 
 now from the jealous rage of the Spartan king, who took no fancy to 
 the seducer of his queen, and disowned her son. The versatile genius 
 of Alcibiades had submitted to the soup and meagre diet imposed by 
 the laws of Lycurgus ; but history testifies that revenge was his mo- 
 tive, and that he found some compensation for compliance with rude 
 abstinence, in the favour of the Spartan queen. We shall soon see 
 him arrayed again on the side of his country. 
 
 Darius Nothus displayed the ancient grudge of his family against 
 the Athenians, by his steady adherence to the Spartan interest ; but his 
 palace of Susa was at an immense distance from the theatre of opera- 
 tions, which were necessarily left much to the discretion of his gover- 
 nors or satraps in Asia Minor. A jealous policy divided this appoint- 
 ment between two governors of equal authority, who might assist, op- 
 pose, or watch each other, as their respective instructions or inclina- 
 tions directed. Alcibiades, after his flight from Sparta, took refuge at 
 Sardis, the residence of the satrap of Lydia. 
 
 His resentment against his country was now cooled, or abated, by a 
 more recent injury from the enemy whom his advice had effectually 
 served for several years. His change of sentiment and purposes, how-
 
 24 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. [LBCT. II< 
 
 ever, must lurk in his own bosom, till it could be revealed with safety 
 and advantage. The character of the man was adapted to the delicacy 
 of the transaction. His rash, precipitate manner, veiled from common 
 penetration the duplicity and versatility of his nature. The circum- 
 stances of the day imposed the deepest dissimulation; and, as the ex- 
 ercise of that quality cost him nothing, the crafty Athenian still pro- 
 fessed to consult the interest of Sparta. Yet, in the eye of a Persian 
 satrap, it was no offence to consider the welfare of the Persian mo- 
 narch, and some subtle insinuations were well received. The policy of 
 humbling Athens, was praised as sound, since she had inflicted the se- 
 verest blows ; but the total ruin of Athens was incompatible with the 
 peace and safety of the world, since then the whole power of Greece 
 would concentrate at Sparta, and the throne of Asia might soon be 
 shaken by the combination of powers, that a just foresight would ba- 
 lance and divide. The wisdom of these suggestions, dimly apprehend- 
 ed by Darius and his ministers, was afterwards realized too late by his 
 successors, who will learn to tremble at the name of Sparta, and finally, 
 lie prostrate at the feet of a Macedonian, whose dominion over Greece 
 was supinely witnessed by the court of Susa. The success of Alcibi- 
 ades was sufficient for his own fame, and competent to save his coun- 
 trymen from every thing but their blind infatuation, which nothing 
 could cure, as the event will manifest. 
 
 A decisive blow had been meditated by the speedy co-operation of a 
 newly-raised Persian fleet with that of Sparta, then stationed in the 
 ^Egean. The inaction of that fleet would expose the Spartans, confi- 
 dent of its aid, to sudden surprise, and disconcert all their deep-laid 
 plans. The negotiation was perplexed with difficulties. The satrap 
 balanced with timid scruples ; his head was at the mercy of a despot, 
 whose instructions were ambiguous ; his motions were watched by the 
 eagle eye of a rival governor; the Spartans pressed his hearty co-ope- 
 ration, and partly penetrated his secret intentions. Alcibiades had a 
 wily game to play ; first, to enlist the Persian, and preserve him in a 
 steady purpose of mind; next, to apprize and consult his countrymen 
 without hazarding too free a publicity ; then to reconcile his exaspe- 
 rated countrymen to him, regain their confidence, and reap a suitable 
 harvest of honour and advantage from the conclusion of the whole 
 transaction. Prejudice, patriotism, mystery, all seemed to combine to 
 baffle the negotiation. No man precisely understood what he advo- 
 cated, or what he opposed. The armies were abroad; one thing 
 might be resolved in the camp, another in the city ; confusion pervad- 
 ed both. One of the conditions on which the state could command 
 the services of the exile, was a revolution in government which de- 
 prived the people of their tumultuary power in the assemblies, and con- 
 fided all authority to the aristocracy of four hundred. 
 
 Finally, every demand was literally complied with, and Alcibiades 
 was received with transports of joy at the head of the forces. The 
 Persian fleet lay inactive, and abandoned the Spartans to their fate. The 
 Athenians soon exulted in their repeated victories. The Spartans 
 either fled, or suffered inevitable defeat in every encounter. The Athe- 
 nian fleet from the ^Egean passed into the Hellespont, where the same 
 victorious career distinguished the new admiral. The enemies were
 
 LECT. II.] OUTLINE OP HISTORY. 25 
 
 were routed, and the cities recovered. These honourable deeds cover- 
 ed the hero with a transient glory, which reconciled his mind to revi- 
 sit his native city. His appearance at Athens was hailed by the 
 noisy acclamations of a gazing, shouting, and whimsical multitude. 
 The government, which had been changed to aristocracy by his re- 
 quest, was now again remodelled, on account of the excesses and usur- 
 pations of the new administration; but the aristocratic features were 
 still retained, and the same abuses were practised. At length, having 
 enjoyed the popular homage due to his late exploits, he set out to win new 
 laurels in the same field. The Spartans had collected new forces, but 
 prudently avoided the contest which Alcibiades eagerly sought. One 
 unhappy measure plunged him again into adversity, and hastened his 
 country's ruin. Confident of the friendship of the Persian satrap, he 
 ventured to visit him at Sardis, in hopes of pecuniary assistance. The 
 governor labouring under the displeasure of his master for the aid al- 
 ready lent, threw his imprudent visiter into prison, from which he with 
 difficulty escaped, and returned to his fleet. To crown the miseries 
 of his life, that fleet having engaged the enemy during his absence, 
 contrary to his express orders, had been defeated and shattered. His 
 endeavours to bring on a new engagement were fruitless ; murmurs 
 arose; his recent services were forgotten in a moment; the outcry was 
 irresistible; he was again driven into banishment for the slightest 
 fault of his guilty life, if his absence on such an occasion could be 
 esteemed a fault. 
 
 Ten new commanders were now appointed, and they were not long 
 without an opportunity of revenging the late defeat. Off the isles of the 
 Arginusae, they gained a complete victory over the Spartans. But a 
 sudden tempest defied all their endeavours to snatch their dead and dy- 
 ing companions from the waves, and perform the last pious offices. As 
 the tempest could not be called to any account, an enraged and sottish 
 multitude made the unhappy generals suffer the forfeit of their heads 
 for what human power could not prevent ; yet their heads were the 
 last resource of a falling and ill-fated city. Socrates was left. But 
 surely his sober lectures had been as well addressed to the raging tem- 
 pest that swelled the sea, as to a brutal populace, that stifled his sooth- 
 ing expostulations with their savage and tumultuous outcries. It re- 
 quires an effort of patience to forbear exclaiming in this place, Let a 
 speedy and vindictive judgment overtake this wrath-provoking people. 
 Reflection softens and sobers our indignation. Their folly accelerated 
 their fate, and a just pity for their ignorance, would even crave for 
 them the indulgence of a milder doom. 
 
 We may venture to assert that the spirit of Athens was broken, and 
 its strength nearly exhausted, since a single defeat decided the contest. 
 The cool and cunning Lysander declined the repeated challenges of 
 the Athenian fleet cruising in the Hellespont, but seized the first care- 
 less moment of his taunting adversaries, surprised them in disorder, 
 routed, and dispersed them. Conon, the Athenian commander, afraid 
 or ashamed to seek shelter at home, took refuge in the island of Cy- 
 prus, where he remained ten years, till he found a glorious opportu- 
 nity to efface the stigma of this defeat, and supply the means of re- 
 
 4
 
 26 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. [LECT. III. 
 
 building those walls, whose ruin were occasioned, or at least hastened, 
 by his imprudence. 
 
 Passing over intermediate transactions of inferior note, we follow the 
 victorious Lysander at once to the port and walls of Athens. The at- 
 tack was brisk and incessant ; the defence was fierce and desperate. 
 Famine soon added to the miseries of the besieged ; the surrender of 
 the city was delayed about three months, when perfidy within aided 
 the valour of the assailants. The ports and the walls were destroyed 
 by the rage and jealousy of the conquerors ; the citadel was preserved 
 to shelter a Spartan garrison from the fury of the people they were left 
 to oppress and harass. Thirty Athenian citizens, devoted to the inter- 
 ests of Sparta, were appointed to lord it over the city, to deride its 
 groans, and aggravate its miseries. We shall see these Thirty Ty- 
 rants hurled from their guilty eminence : but the narrative lies beyond 
 the limits of this Lecture, which do* ,-.s with the taking of Sparta, 
 in 3600. 
 
 The Greek philosophers that appeared in succession for the two 
 centuries before this great event, have been overrated individually ; 
 but their progressive excellence is a subject of pleasing inquiry. They 
 all possessed acuteness of thought, and a singular felicity and fluency 
 of language. Their temperance and activity invigorated their powers 
 both of mind and body. But their exercises, both mental and gymnas- 
 tic, were often, or rather generally, frivolous. Their habit of travel- 
 ling through Asia, Egypt, the islands, and states of Greece, increased 
 their stock of intelligence, as well as their natural acuteness ; but it 
 also filled their minds with new absurdities. Thales, Pythagoras, 
 Anaximander, Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, Archelaus, and Socrates, 
 flourished in this period. Plato, comes next, and then Aristotle; yet 
 philosophy was in its infancy, while poetry, oratory, sculpture, and 
 architecture, rose to great perfection. The drama aiso was zealously 
 and successfully cultivated: .ZEschylus, Euripides, Sophocles, courted 
 the tragic muse, while the comic Aristophanes lashed their faults, 
 and ridiculed their rival pretensions 
 
 LECTURE III. 
 
 IF a true lover of romance should be compelled to forego fiction, 
 and accept facts, there are some periods of history that would almost 
 reconcile him to the odious exchange. We might, perhaps, hazard 
 an opinion that some genuine narratives, suitably decorated with the 
 graces of style, would assume so much an air of fable as to impose up- 
 on the most exquisite connoisseurs. The events of the century review- 
 ed in the preceding lecture, are calculated to engage the mind, and 
 excite an ardent curiosity to learn the sequel. The pursuit answers 
 the fullest expectations that romantic dreams could inspire intrepid 
 enterprize, heroic deeds, frightful perils, lamentable sufferings, shock- 
 ing crimes, cruel deaths, sudden escapes, marvellous deliverances, love, 
 pity, malice, poison, all the deformities, and all the perfections that 
 mingle in the brilliant fancies and deep conceits of modern writers of 
 fiction.
 
 LECT III.] OUTLINE OF HISTORY. 27 
 
 A crowd of important transactions distinguish the very opening of 
 this eventful century. The deliverance of Athens; the usurpation of 
 Dionysius the Elder, at Syracuse, and his wars with the Carthagi- 
 nians ; the death of Darius Nothus, and accession of his son, Arta- 
 xerxes Mnemon ; the expedition of Cyrus the Younger against his 
 brother Artaxerxes, and the famous retreat of the ten thousand Greeks, 
 conducted and described by Xenophon. 
 
 The Athenian populace deserved, and have received the execration 
 of posterity ; they seemed to court the bitter judgment that Providence 
 inflicted : yet the name of Athens is dear to mankind ; and its calami- 
 ties enlist the sympathies of the coldest reader in every age. The 
 number of illustrious personages that arose to adorn that little city, 
 redeems its character from the infamy and odium reflected upon it by 
 a capricious and cruel multitude; and the severest censor never over- 
 looks the rudeness and ignorance common in those times to the lower 
 classes, in every known city and country. Despotism is a curse to 
 every people, and democracy is only a blessing to enlightened commu- 
 nities. Misery is the fated condition of every ignorant people, and no 
 form of government can make them happy. 
 
 Whatever punishment the Athenians deserved, they amply suffered 
 under the yoke of Sparta and the Thirty Tyrants. A faction long 
 devoted to the interest of the Spartans, and now their chosen instru- 
 ments of oppression, were not slow in selecting their victims, nor tirnid 
 in the business of torture and execution. Revenge marked out its ob- 
 jects ; jealousy rolled its saffron eyes around for prey; and wanton 
 cruelty fixed its fangs on all that reveng-e and jealousy would spare. 
 Grief was hushed into silence ; a tear or sigh was treason ; and men 
 without a murmur or visible emotion, must witness the cruel stroke 
 that robbed them of their innocent and unoffending friends. Socrates, 
 we know not how, was spared, to be the victim of licentious freedom. 
 Voluntary exile prolonged the life of some for daring enterprizes and 
 noble deeds. 
 
 Thrasybulus, with a little band of kindred spirits, found an asylum at 
 Thebes. The Thebans had blindly fought the battles of Sparta, in hopes 
 of humbling Athens, without once reflecting that they were forging 
 their own chains. But they were not long in making the discovery, 
 after the capture of that city, and the conclusion of the war had ren- 
 dered their equal alliance unnecessary, and even offensive to Sparta. 
 This late discovery reconciled the Thebans to their prostrate enemies, 
 and prepared them to give a kind reception to Thrasybulus and his 
 party, the generous deliverers of their country. To appreciate the he- 
 roic enterprize which we are about to witness, we must recollect that a 
 Spartan garrison in the citadel of Athens guarded the cruel despotism 
 of the thirty vigilant tyrants. Spartan spies infested the streets, and 
 invaded the houses of Thebes, and every motion of the exiles was 
 scrutinized. Yet such was the secrecy, skill, and caution of these da- 
 ring adventurers, that their departure in different disguises, and va- 
 rious directions, was unnoticed at Thebes, and first, announced to the 
 admiring Athenians in the surprise and capture of the port of Pirasus. 
 On the first alarm, the Thirty Tyrants led their chosen band of armed 
 citizens to the instant slaughter, as they thought, of the returning ex-
 
 28 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. [LECT .III. 
 
 iles, so few in number. But it was a combat of a few heroes with a 
 host of slaves, who had submitted to be the instruments of a despotic 
 sway over their unarmed fellow- citizens, without courage or spirit to 
 brave the assault of heroes, inspired with a love of freedom, and stung 
 by recent injury. The first onset decided the victory ; and when the 
 eiiles called out to their flying fellow-citizens to desert the tyrants, and 
 join the standard of freedom, the invitation was instantly accepted : the 
 soldiers, just before the prop of tyranny, now caught the enthusiasm of 
 their returning brethren, marched with them to the city, and equally 
 enjoyed the pleasing spectacle of their cruel masters flying in all di- 
 rections from the sudden tempest that burst upon their heads. This no- 
 ble transaction is dated in the year 3604 ; and is rendered the more 
 striking by a precisely similar enterprise, twenty-two years later, in 
 362(5, by which Pelopidas, and other Theban exiles at Athens, deli- 
 vered Thebes from the fangs of the perfidious and cruel Spartans. 
 
 The first transports of joy at Athens were succeeded by just appre- 
 hensions of the power and vengeance of Sparta ; but the mild and pa- 
 cific disposition of Pausanias, one of the Spartan kings, checked the 
 sullen fury of his people, and secretly favoured the interest of Athens. 
 He was obliged to dissemble his views, and appear to attempt the re- 
 covery of the city ; but his well-timed cautions and delays saved it 
 even from any serious trial of strength. The name of Sparta, how- 
 ever, was terrible, and for some years inspired the Athenians with a 
 cautious and dissembling spirit, which reduced them, in appearance, 
 to a secondary rank, till the long contest between Spqrta and Thebes 
 emboldened them once more to resume their ancient station of equality. 
 
 After the deliverance of Athens, the states of Greece struggled about 
 .forty years against the domineering encroachments of Sparta, till the 
 battle of Mantinea, 3(541, in which Epaminondas, the Theban, tri- 
 umphed over that haughty power, and humbled it to a secondary 
 grade. Had the Spartans rested satisfied with a moderate dominion, 
 or a firm and temperate use of their superiority, they might have 
 swayed all Greece for a long time, and prevented those wasting wars 
 that demolished their own power, and reduced the whole country un- 
 der the dominion of Macedon. Instead of exercising a mild policy, 
 and reconciling the minds of men to their pretension, by uniting them 
 all in some great project, they rashly tried the patience of their allies 
 and subjects, trusted entirely to their physical strength to insure obe- 
 dience, and ventured alone to attempt the subversion of the Persian 
 monarchy, without deigning to consult their neighbours, or allow them 
 to participate in the glory. 
 
 The invasion of Asia by the Spartans, brings into view a hero who 
 long figured the chief of the Greeks, and valiantly sustained the sink- 
 ing glory of Sparta, till the fatal battle of Mantinea. We allude to 
 king Agesilaus, \vho, with the aid of Lysander, supplanted Leotychi- 
 des, the lawful heir, on pretence that he was not. the son of Agis, but 
 of Alcibiades. Posterity is indifferent to the parties, and could not de- 
 r.ide their pretensions on any known testimony. It is sufficient for us 
 that Agesilaus disowned his brother's heir, and got him set aside. 
 Two such generals as Agesilaus, and his friend Lysander, were capa- 
 ble of leading the Spartans to glorious exploits, and of shaking a great
 
 LECT. III.] OUTLINE OF HISTORY. 29 
 
 empire by their effective enterprises. Their pretence for invasion was 
 the protection of the Asiatic Greeks from the tyranny of Persia, under 
 which they had fallen after the downfall of Athens. Their destructive 
 incursions soon betrayed more extensive schemes, and the facility with 
 'which they abandoned the Greeks of Asia in a treaty a few years 
 afier with the Persian monarch, unveiled their selfish policy. * The 
 Persian monarch witnessed their progress with panic terror, in- 
 structed by the folly of his father, Darius Nothus, who had aided those 
 very Spartans against Athens, and admonished by the celebrated ex- 
 pedition of his brother, who had lately penetrated to the heart of his 
 dominions, and menaced his throne. 
 
 In the midst of his embarrassment and dread, a well-timed policy 
 brought relief to the mind of the Persian. He saw the use that he 
 might make of the discontent of Greece, \Vhich would kindle into a 
 flame, if suitably encouraged with timely aid. Secret embassies en- 
 couraged the disaffected states to take up arms, and liberal supplies of 
 money actually enabled them to commence their hostile operations 
 with energy and success. Argos, Corinth, Thebes, broke out into 
 open and decisive revolt. Athens pursued a more cautious course, 
 from a dread of Sparta ; but her feelings were equally hostile, and her 
 measures, on the whole, favoured the league. Agesilaus was urging 
 on his career of victory in Asia Minor, and flattering his hopes with 
 the promise of a mighty conquest, when he received a peremptory 
 command from his country to return into Greece and defend it against 
 the formidable power of the league. His obedience was as prompt as 
 the order was painful. He marched through Thrace into Bceotia, 
 encountered the confederates in an indecisive combat, and retired to 
 Sparta, having merely checked the success of the allies. This was 
 the year 3610. 
 
 The same year exhibited on another scene a more decisive result. 
 In the year 3600, we saw Athens taken by Lysander, after the defeat 
 and flight of Conon, who took refuge from the power of Sparta, and the 
 feeble rage of his own people, at the island of Cyprus. Thrasybulus 
 had restored freedom to his country, but the ports and walls still lay 
 prostrate in ruin, and seemed fated long to continue so. History re- 
 cords with pleasure and surprise, that these ports and walls rose again, 
 rebuilt by the spoils of Sparta, and the gold of Persia, which Conon 
 won, and bore in triumph to Athens. Conon had received a commis- 
 sion from the king of Persia to command a large fleet fitted out against 
 the Spartans. Eager to wipe off the stigma of his former defeat, the 
 intrepid Athenian sought the combat, carried the victory, broke the 
 naval power of Sparta, and flew to his native Athens with the rich 
 booty, which was at once appropriated to rebuild the walls, and 
 strengthen and beautify the city. Thus, ten years after Athens was dis- 
 mantled, in consequence of Conon's defeat in the Hellespont by Lysan- 
 der, its works rose again, with their original strength and beauty, in 
 consequence of this victory. From that time she gradually renewed 
 her ancient alliances, and recovered her former islands and cities, but 
 could never regain the political standing which she supported in the 
 time of Pericles. 
 
 Such was substantially the state of all the parties at the expiration of
 
 
 
 30 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. [LECT. III. 
 
 ten years, 3610. The recall of Agesilaus from Asia, relieved the king 
 of Persia, and checked'the operations of the league. The victory of 
 Conon broke the Spartan naval power, and restored the superiority at 
 sea to the Athenians. The succeeding ten years was an anxious state 
 of ferment and disaffection; the Spartans watching every motion with 
 jealous care, and all the other states restless, impatient of a superior, 
 but afraid to rise or hazard a doubtful conflict. Finally, in 3617, the 
 Spartans, conscious of their inability to repress much longer the spirit 
 of revolt, sought relief by an expedient that inflicted an eternal stigma 
 upon their character. They agreed to abandon the Greeks of Asia 
 Minor to the mercy of the Persian king, in exchange for his protec- 
 tion of their tyranny in Greece, though they had so lately assailed his 
 dominions under a pretence of vindicating the liberty of those very 
 Asiatic Greeks, now so willingly abandoned. 
 
 The clamours of discontent and indignation were now heard with 
 the most provoking apathy by the haughty Spartans, secure in their 
 shameful alliance with a Persian king. Negotiation was busy; re- 
 monstrance was loud; but nothing could change the purpose of a 
 Spartan. In 3622, Thebes fell into the hands of a Spartan army, by 
 a stroke of perfidy that would stain the character of any nation in any 
 age. The army was on its march through Boaotia to Thrace, entered 
 the city with honest professions and reluctant permission, perfidiously 
 seized the citadel, and set up a Spartan tyranny over the terrified inha- 
 bitants. This wretched condition endured about five years, during 
 which, very few events happened worthy of notice. In 3627, Thebes 
 was unexpectedly delivered by the bold enterprise of a band of Theban 
 exiles at Athens, headed by Pelopidas, and assisted by the cool, deli- 
 berate aid of Epaminondas. The whole narrative has the air of ro- 
 mance, more than of real history. The Athenians lent a favourable 
 countenance to a bold enterprise, but still respected the power of Spar- 
 ta too much to hazard an open contest. The design was entrusted only 
 to a few chosen heroes, who proceeded in the disguise of huntsmen, 
 entered the city by different gates, and united, according to concert, in 
 the dead of night. Some trusty citizens were prepared to receive 
 them, and join in the sudden blow of surprise and slaughter. The 
 calm philosophy of Epaminondas had veiled his heroic virtues from 
 the roving eyes of jealousy, when the impatient and intrepid Pelopi- 
 das was pursued into banishment. The heroes were equal in courage 
 and integrity, and unlike in all other qualities. Both sighed for the 
 liberty of Thebes, one a silent spectator of the oppression that drove the 
 other from its bosom. 
 
 The heedless hour of debauch was chosen to assail and despatch the 
 tyrants. The rustling of a leaf, or the barking of a dog might have 
 defeated the conspiracy, stifled the fame of two illustrious men, and 
 changed the history of Greece. But the convivial security of the ty- 
 rants, the fortune and fearful vigilance of the exiles, conducted the con- 
 spiracy to a successful issue. The tyrants fell by the daggers of intre- 
 pid men ; the noise of the scuffle awakened the city to the horrors of 
 commotion, and the agonies of dreadful suspense. No man could in- 
 form another of the cause of the tumult. Shrieks and screams express- 
 ed the distressing uncertainty of women and children, and increased
 
 LECT. III.] OUTLINE OP HISTORY. 31 
 
 the perplexities of the men. The appearance of day disclosed the fall 
 of tyrants and the triumph of liberty. In a moment, every man was a 
 hero; one impulse carried the exulting populace to the citadel; the 
 fury of attack was for a while resisted, but soon prevailed, and Thebes 
 was forever delivered from Spartan tyrants and Spartan garrisons, 
 in 3627. 
 
 As soon as this news reached Sparta, an army was put in motion; 
 but all attempts to penetrate to Thebes failed. An indecisive conflict 
 marks the next six years, till the glorious battle of Leuctra, in which 
 Epaminondas and Pelopidas marie a bloody havoc in the Spartan ranks, 
 and gained a complete triumph. In an interval of eight years more, 
 till the battle of Mantinea, nothing very memorable occurred, except 
 the famous expeditions of Pelopidas into Thessaly, against Alexander, 
 tyrant of Pherae. Prompt to obey the summons of the Thessalians, 
 oppressed by that cruel and perfidious tyrant, Pelopidas entered the 
 country with some Theban soldiers, defeated the tyrant, and then fol- 
 lowing the impulse of precipitate valour, rushed into his enemy's 
 snares, and became a prisoner. He was not permitted to languish 
 long in that situation. The inviolable friendship of Epaminondas soon 
 brought another army that humbled the tyrant, and set his captive 
 free. But the groans of the oppressed people soon called Pelopidas 
 back to Thessaly, and victory again perched upon his standard ; but 
 the heat of resentment again urged him to encounter the tyrant in sin- 
 gle combat, and he fell, slaughtered by the tyrant's guards, a victim to 
 rash courage. 
 
 The fame of his justice and magnanimity was known to the neigh- 
 bouring nations. The Persian king received him in the character of 
 an ambassador, and honoured him above others connected in the em- 
 bassy. The mother of Philip of Macedon drew him to that court to 
 adjust the quarrels among her sons, disputing the succession of their 
 deceased father, Amyutas the Second. On this occasion he was per- 
 mitted to take Philip, the youngest son, then ten years of age, among 
 other hostages, to bind the parties to his award. The residence of 
 Philip at Thebes, for ten years, and his extraordinary education, then 
 under the greatest masters of Greece, was fruitful in consequences. 
 We shall soon see him mount the throne of Macedon, after the death 
 of his elder brothers. Pelopidas died 3638, three years before the 
 battle of Mantinea, which consummated the glory of his country, and 
 reduced Sparta to the second rank of states. 
 
 From 3610 to 3641, the Spartans and Thebans displayed the jealous 
 animosity which lust of power on one side, and impatience of the yoke 
 on the other, never fail to engender. There were, however, but a few 
 active and bloody campaigns between them for so long an interval oi 
 hostility; the rancour, irritation, and invective never ceased ; irreso- 
 lute campaigns, skirmishes, and commotions, were frequent; but the de- 
 tail is tedious. The deliverance of Thebes by the exiles, the battle of 
 Leuctra, and the battle of Mantinea, are the principal events of inter- 
 est; and there was an interval of several years between them. Sparta 
 was, for the first time, profaned by the hostile tread of the Theban 
 army, led by Epaminondas: he was repulsed, and obliged to retreat to 
 Mantinea, in Arcadia, where he fought the enraged foe, and died in
 
 32 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. [LECT. III. 
 
 the arms oi victory ; a victory that raised his own little state to the 
 first rank, and prostrated the power of Sparta. 
 
 After the close of this memorable contest, the short calm that suc- 
 ceeded was soon interrupted by a new and more bloody conflict, called 
 the Phocian, or Sacred war, which completed the disasters of Greece, 
 by introducing- the conquering arms of Philip. That sagacious and 
 aspiring young man unexpectedly found the throne of his father left open 
 to his ambition by the death of two elder brothers, and the infancy of the 
 lawful heir. Fearing some detention at Thebes, he stole clandestine- 
 ly away, flew to Macedon, and usurped the throne of his nephew at the 
 age of twenty, having been a hostage at Thebes ten years. His resi- 
 dence in Greece set before his eyes the best and brightest models for 
 imitation in the arts of government and war : he witnessed the noble 
 examples of Epaminondas and Pelopidas, and followed them in their 
 campaigns. He listened with raptures to the lectures of Plato, Aris- 
 totle, Epaminondas, and other sages of that period ; in fine, to the na- 
 tural fierceness and subtilty of a barbarian, he united all the refine- 
 ment, policy, and learning that education could bestow in the most 
 flourishing period of Grecian literature. 
 
 Difficulties beset this young monarch in every shape, and on every 
 hand. The claim of an infant nephew stood in his way; the compe- 
 tition of brothers perplexed him ; barbarous neighbours, despising his 
 youth, harassed his kingdom ; his own barbarous subjects disputed his 
 sway and preferred his competitors ; and the Athenians espoused the 
 cause of his brothers. Merely to say that he surmounted all these for- 
 midable difficulties, would be praise due to him in common with a thou- 
 sand others, who have overcome as great, if not greater obstacles. But 
 to glide through them all, without appearing to struggle, or fearing to 
 sink, was a felicity peculiar to this extraordinary personage. The per- 
 petual wars that engaged his attention, never ruffled the man nor jeo- 
 pardized the monarch. He flew from place to place with the same 
 ease as speed ; his victory was sure, and his attack or defence as cool 
 as it waa fierce. Conscience interposed no check ; its voice was silent 
 or stifled, and the politician predominated. No good man could under- 
 take or accomplish what Philip did ; but he was a greater and better 
 man than his irresistible son, Alexander ; and it is as ridiculous to mea- 
 sure the vices of Philip by the invectives of Demosthenes, as to esti- 
 mate the virtues of Augustus by the praises oi Virgil. The same in- 
 dulgence that would give Augustus no harsher name than bloody ty- 
 rant, would rank Philip among saints. 
 
 Such was the conqueror of Greece ; and the civil distractions of 
 Greece favoured his inordinate ambition. The Athenians had allies 
 and colonies on the whole coast of Thrace and Macedon, adjoining 
 Philip's hereditary territories, and tempting his ambition ; and they 
 had afforded him some provocation by espousing the cause of his com- 
 petitors and enemies. As soon as he had composed the dissensions of 
 his own kingdom, repressed the barbarians, and established his throne, 
 he commenced a crafty course of intrigue and war, to reduce all around 
 him to his subjection. He caressed the cities in alliance with Athens, 
 and allured them to his interest by promises of protection and inde- 
 pendence.
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 TO 
 
 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.' 
 
 THE reader who has occasion to consult maps, may usefully direct 
 his researches in the following order and manner : On a map represent- 
 ing the whole world, or, at any rate, the whole Eastern continent, the 
 situation of the Mediterranean Sea between Europe and Africa should 
 be carefully noticed; and also the Strait of Gibraltar, through which 
 this sea communicates with the Atlantic. Observe the situation of 
 Spain, France, Italy; ancient Greece comprised in modern Turkey in 
 Europe, and Asia Minor comprised in modem Turkey in Asia, all on 
 the north side of the sea. On the south side, Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, 
 Tripoli, Lybia, (including Cyrene.) and Egypt. On the east end of 
 the sea; Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine, included in modern Turkey 
 in Asia. Observe the different expansions and contractions of this 
 sea; its gulfs, bays, and arms. Notice the situation of Greece, be- 
 tween the Ionian sea, and the ^Egean or Archipelago. Bound Asia 
 Minor, and notice particularly the succession of seas and straits that 
 form the chain of communication between the Mediterranean, and 
 Black, or Euxine seas. The subdivisions of Greece and Asia Minor, 
 are given at the end of the chart. 
 
 Trace a voyage round the peninsula of Africa, through the Atlantic 
 and Indian oceans into the Red sea, which lies between Arabia on the 
 east, and Abyssinia and Nubia, (comprised in Upper Etheopia,) and 
 Egypt on the west. Another voyage round the peninsula of Arabia, 
 into the Persian Gulf, conducts to ancient Chaldea, or Shinar, situated 
 at the head of the Gulf, on the rivers Euphrates and Tigris. North 
 of Chaldea lies Mesopotamia, between the Euphrates and Tigris, which 
 have their sources in Armenia, still further north. Assyria lies east 
 of the Tigris, which separates it from Mesopotamia. Media and Per- 
 sia lie between the Caspian and Persian Gulf, and east of Chaldea and 
 Assyria. Babylon was situated on the Euphrates, Nineveh on the 
 Tigris. The Assyrian Empire embraced, at some periods, several 
 other countries besides Assyria proper : the Persian Empire embraced, 
 in addition to Persia proper, all the countries in Asia, from the Indus 
 on the east, to the Grecian seas on the west ; and Egypt in Africa was 
 annexed to this empire by Cambyses the son of Cyrus. 
 
 5
 
 2 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 General distribution of the above mentioned countries, with their 
 principal cities or towns. 
 
 Countries North of the Mediterranean. 
 SPAIN, GAUL, ITALY, GREECE, MACEDON, THRACE, ASIA MINOR. 
 
 East of the Mediterranean. 
 ARAM, OR SYRIA CANAAN, OR ISRAEL. 
 
 South of the Mediterranean. 
 
 EGYPT, LIBYA, AFRICA PROPER, CARTHAGE, NUMIDIA, and 
 
 MAURITANIA. 
 
 On the Tigris and Euphrates. 
 
 At the mouth of the two rivers SHINAAR, or CHALDJEA. 
 Between the two rivers MESOPOTAMIA. 
 
 East of the two rivers ASHUR, or ASSYRIA. 
 
 At the head of the two rivers ARMENIA. 
 
 Between the Black and Caspian Seas. 
 COLCHIS, IBERIA, ALBANIA. 
 
 Between the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf. 
 MEDIA, PARTHIA, ELAM or PERSIA. 
 
 On the Rhine. 
 HELVETIA, RH^ETIA. 
 
 On the Danube. 
 ILLYRIA, MCESIA, NORICUM, VINDEL1CIA, SCYTHIA, DACIA. 
 
 As the countries on the Mediterranean Sea were the scenes of most 
 of the events recorded in ancient history, it is important to know their 
 relative situations. 
 
 t SPAIN 
 
 Was called Hispania, and Hesperia, by the Romans ; its name with 
 the Greeks was Iberia. Its divisions were LUSITANIA, corresponding' 
 to the modern PORTUGAL in the west, BCETICA in the south, and TAR- 
 RACONENSIS in the north and east. 
 
 GAUL, 
 
 Or, in the native Celtic, Gael, was called Gallia by the Romans, and 
 Celtica by the Greeks. The name of France, which is now applied 
 to the greater part of ancient Gaul, is derived from the Franks, who, 
 500 A. D., possessed themselves of that portion which lay north of the 
 Loire, whence they gradually extended their empire south. Its ancient 
 divisions were, in the south-west, AQVITANIA; in the south-east NAR- 
 BONENSIS, in the north-west LUGDUNENSIS ; beyond the Seine, in the 
 north, BELGICA; and east of the Alps, CISALPINE" GAUL, or what is now 
 the north of Italy.
 
 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ITALY, 
 
 Inhabited by Gauls in the north, by native Umbrians, Tuscans, Satn- 
 nites, Latins, and Companions, in the centre, and in the south by 
 Greeks. 
 
 GREECE. 
 
 The moderns have taken the name of this country from the Latin ; 
 that by which it was known to the Greeks themselves was HELLAS for 
 the part north, and PELOPENNESUS for that south of the Isthmus of 
 Corinth. The name Hellas, however, denoted rather any spot where 
 an Hellenic race prevailed, than a certain geographical boundary. 
 Achaia was the name of Greece as a Roman province. 
 
 MACEDON, 
 
 This country which, from the time of Philip, claimed to be considered 
 as a part of Hellas, was most probably of Illyrian origin; and its peo- 
 ple, like the other Illyrians, were looked upon as barbarians by the 
 Greeks. Its boundaries were exceedingly variable, particularly on 
 the side towards Thrace. 
 
 THRACE. 
 
 The people of this country were of heterogeneous races. They claim- 
 ed nevertheless to be the earliest founders of Greek civilization, and 
 were probably allied in origin as in manners with the people of Asia 
 Minor, on the shores of the Hellespont, before the period of the Trojan 
 war. 
 
 ASIA MINOR. 
 
 It is important that the learner be cautioned against associating with 
 his idea of Asia as a portion of the ancient world, the notions which he 
 connects with it as a division in modern geography. To the ancients 
 the name of Asia, at different periods, conveyed different meanings. 
 Thus, in the periods before the Persian war, it designated a small 
 region only about the Cayster ; with the Romans it signified the 
 kingdom of Pergamus, but never at any time became a designation of 
 the great eastern continent, or even of the whole peninsula. Indeed, 
 Persia, or at least Persian, was at all times a term of more extensive 
 signification among both Greeks and Romans, than Asia or Asiatic. 
 
 SYRIA, 
 
 Which in its most limited acceptation included only the narrow 
 coast of the Mediterranean lying between Egypt and Cilicia, and 
 comprising PHOENICIA and the HOLY LAND, in a more general sense, 
 included frequently all the country lying west of the Tigris, and even 
 beyond it ; as the kingdom of Assyria Proper was not unfrequently 
 embraced within that term. Indeed it is requisite for the student of 
 ancient history to be constantly on his guard against the danger arising 
 from the confusion of the two names in the ancient geographers and 
 historians. As the kingdom of the Selencidas, Syria attained its great- 
 est extent, including the countries of Phoenicia, Babylonia, &c., and 
 the cities of Antioch and Saleucia, besides the more aneient capitals.
 
 4 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CANAAN, 
 
 Which never extended its i ame over a very wide tract of country, 
 was divided into the kingdoms of JUDAH and ISRAEL. The latter of 
 these was terminated with the Assyrian, and the former, which con- 
 tinued longer, with the Babylonish captivity. Canaan was bounded 
 by Phoenicia on the north, and by the Wilderness of Arabia on the 
 south. 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 The narrow strip of land lying on either side of the Nile was called 
 Egypt, and joined the two continents of Asia and Africa, being some- 
 times assigned to one and sometimes to the other, though modern geogra- 
 phy has determined it to belong to the latter. Its ancient divisions were 
 LOWER EGYPT, or the DELTA ; MIDDLE EGYPT, or the HEPTANOMIS and 
 UPPER EGYPT or the THEBAIS. In the early history of Egypt Thebes 
 and Memphis were the principal cities; indeed, as strictly Egyptian, 
 they continued to be so through al! antiquity. But for commercial and 
 political importance in the Graco-Egyptian period of the Ptolemies, 
 the capital was ALEXANDRIA. 
 
 LIBYA. 
 
 This was the name of the African coast extending from the borders of 
 Egypt to the SYRTIS MAJOR, where it was bounded by AFRICA PROPER. 
 Its southern limit remained always undefined. 
 
 AFRICA PROPER, 
 
 A part of Africa, from which the name was gradually extended over 
 the whole continent. If we. include Carthage, it reached from LIBYA 
 to NUMIDIA, and these are the boundaries assigned to it by Pliny the 
 naturalist and geographer. 
 
 NUMIDIA. 
 
 This country, which lay between AFRICA PROPER and MAURITANIA, 
 is famous in history from its connexion with the wars of Carthage and 
 Rome. It was the kingdom of Masinissa, for whose sake the third 
 Punic war, which resulted in the ruin of Carthage, was undertaken ; 
 and under the rule of Jupurthii, it carried on one of the most obstinate 
 wars against the republic that had ever occupied the Roman arms. 
 On being reduced to a province, it received as its first governor the 
 historian Sallust. 
 
 MAURITANIA, 
 
 The most western portion of the coast of Africa, and lying immedi- 
 ately opposite to Spain, eomprisid the countries which now con- 
 stitute the empire of Morocco and Fez. It contained a large but un- 
 civilized population in the time of the Romans. 
 
 Introduction to the Geography of Greece. 
 
 Observe the position of Greece between two seas, the JSgean, which 
 separates it from Asia Minor on the east, and the Ionian, which sepa- 
 rates it from the island of Sicily, and the foot of Italy on the west. No-
 
 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 5 
 
 tice the narrow passage from the Ionian sea into the Adriatic sea, or 
 Gulf of Venice, formed by a considerable projection from Italy, called 
 the heel of Italy, and a small projection from Epirus in Greece, called 
 Aero Ceraunium. Observe a chain of islands distributed along the 
 western coast of Greece, called the Ionian Islands : Corcyra, Leuca- 
 dia, Cephallenia, Ithaca, and Zacynthus. Passing between Cephal- 
 lenia and the main land of Greece, enter the narrow Gulf of Corinth, 
 which nearly separates the Peloponnesus from Greece Proper, and 
 trace the Gulf to the isthmus of Corinth, a narrow neck of land which 
 joins the Peloponnesus to Greece Proper. Retreating from the Gulf, 
 coast round the Peloponnesus, carefully noticing the projections which 
 it presents ; the little island of Cythera, and the large island of Crete, 
 Melos, and J&gina. in the Saronic Gulf, which being on the east side 
 of the isthmus of Corinth, opposite to the Gulf of Corinth, forms a part 
 of the separation between the Peloponnesus and Greece Proper. Ob- 
 serve a chain of small islands ranging with Greece Proper, from north- 
 west to south-east, and a more important chain, ranging with the large 
 island of Eubea, in the same direction : Andros, Tenos, Delos, Naxos. 
 Pass through a gulf, a strait, a second gulf, and a second strait, that 
 separate Eubea from Greece Proper, and after noticing in the way, the 
 inferior gulfs Maliac and Pelasgic, return into the ^Egean by the pas- 
 sage north of Eubea. Coast to the head of the Thermaic Gulf: observe 
 the large peninsula of Chalcis or Chalcidice, projecting three smaller 
 peninsulas; coast round them into the Strymonic Gulf. Observe the 
 Thracian Chersonesus, a peninsula on the west side of the Hellespont; 
 pass through the Hellespont, Propontis, Thracian Bosphorus, into the 
 Euxine north-easterly across the Euxine, through the Cimmerian Bos- 
 phorus, into the Moeotis Pains. Return into the JEgean, notice the 
 range of islands along the coast of Asia Minor : Lemnos, Lesbos, 
 Chios, Samos, Cos, and Rhodes ; and Cyprus in the Levant south of 
 Asia Minor. 
 
 The people of the several states of Northern Greece may be charac- 
 terized by certain epithets, deduced from their very peculiar and dis- 
 tinguishing characteristics, either of situation, habits, laws, history, or 
 political condition and character. 
 
 GREECE PROPER. 
 
 Thus : Sprightly ATTICS Dull BOSOTIANS Sacred PHOCIANS 
 Wandenng DORIANS Barbarous LOCRIANS Wild J^TOLIANS 
 Obscure ACAKNAWANS. 
 
 The number of Athenian poets, orators, artists, &c., in comparison 
 with those produced by the other states of Greece, sufficiently vindi- 
 cate the correctness of the epithet of sprightly as applied to the Attics. 
 
 The opposite reason equally justifies the application of dull to the 
 Boeotians, whose stupidity has passed into a proverb. 
 
 Though the Delphians claimed to be a distinct people from the Pho- 
 cians, yet the seat of their oracle, and the situation of Delphi itself, 
 entitled the Phocians to the epithet of the sacred. 
 
 Crete, Rhodes, Doris in Asia Minor, the Doric states of Sicily and 
 Italy, and the vast revolutions occasioned by the restless character 
 of the Dorians, attest their wandering propensities.
 
 6 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 The little advancement of the Locrians in letters and the arts, may 
 be inferred from the fact of their having furnished not a single name 
 in the catalogue of Grecian poets, artists, philosophers, &c. 
 
 JEtolia early lost its Hellenic character, so that it became impossible 
 to determine to what race or races its wild and ferocious tribes 
 should be assigned. 
 
 The same may be observed of the Acarnanians. 
 
 In Hellas Proper were 
 
 ATTICA. 
 
 CITIES. Athens, with its ports of Piraeus, Munychia, and P kale- 
 rum; JEleusis, which imparted its name to the great Mysteries, 
 Sunium, Marathon, and Acharnce. 
 
 MEGARIS. 
 CITIES. Megaris, Nisaa, Pegce. 
 
 BCEOTIA. 
 
 CITIES. Thespia. When the rest of Boeotia submitted to Xerxes, 
 the Thespians alone refused to tender earth and water to his deputies. 
 This city was celebrated as the birth place of the beautiful Phryne, 
 whose statue by Praxiteles vied in beauty with that of Venus. She 
 was so rich that she offered to restore the walls of Thebes at her own 
 expense, if the Thebans would set up this inscription " Alexander 
 overthrew, Phryne rebuilt them. 
 
 * Platcea. The Plataeans separated themselves from the Boeotian 
 confederacy, and placed themselves under the protection of Athens. 
 They shared the glory of the battle of Marathon, and participated in 
 the great battle which takes its name from their city. The attack 
 made upon them by the Thebans at night was the first act of aggres- 
 sion on the Peloponnesian side in the Peloponnesian war. Nothing 
 in the history of that war is so interesting as the account of the siege 
 of Plataea in the third year, with the gallant defence and successful 
 escape of a part of the garrison. 
 
 Thebes, the capital of Boeotia, is of more anjcient, if not of greater 
 celebrity than almost any other city of Greece. The arrival and set- 
 tlement of Cadmus; the birth of Hercules; the story of CEdipus and 
 Jocasta.the wars of the Seven and of the Epigoni,all belong to the poetic 
 history of Thebes. In the more authentic period, she became noto- 
 rious for her adherence to the cause of the Persians ; nor was it till 
 the era of Epaminondas and Pelopidas that she quite recovered her 
 character as an Hellenic city. The battles of Leuctra and Mantiner 
 placed her for a moment at the very head of the affairs of Greece. 
 
 Haliartus, Coron&a, Lebadcea, famous for the oracle of Trophr 
 nius, Ckaroruea, originally Arne, the scene of the battle gained bj 
 Philip over the Athenians and Boeotians, which ended the liberties o\ 
 Greece, B. C. 338. 
 
 Orchomenus, the second city of Bosotia, and at one time rivalling 
 Thebes in power, wealth, and importance. Homer represents it as 
 vying with the most opulent cities in the world, and its wealth is said
 
 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 7 
 
 in his time to have been deposited in a building erected for that 
 purpose, which Pausanius describes as equally worthy of admiration 
 with the walls of Tiryns and the pyramids of Egypt. Tanagra. 
 
 PHOCIS. 
 
 CITIES. Cirrha, destroyed by order of the Amphictyons, and its 
 territory declared accursed. 
 
 Crissa, famous for the Pythian games celebrated in its plains. 
 
 Anticyra. Delphi, the seat of the great Oracle of Apollo, and of the 
 Amphictyonic council. 
 
 Elat&a and Daulis, celebrated in history as the scene of the tragic 
 story of Phlomele and Procne. 
 
 DORIS, OR DORIC TETRAPOLIS, 
 From the four cities of 
 
 Citinium, which was entitled to send one delegate to the Amphicty- 
 onic council Pindus Boiurn and Erineus. 
 
 LOCRIS OF THE EPICNEMEDII AND OPUNTIANS. 
 
 CITIES. Alpeni Cynus, the chief maritime city of the Opuntian 
 Locri. 
 
 Opus, one of the most ancient cities of Greece, and celebrated as the 
 domain of Deucalion and Pyrrha, and as the birth place of Patroclus. 
 
 LOCRIS OF THE LOCRI OZOLCE. 
 
 CITIES Naupactus. This city is said to have taken its name, which 
 signifies ship building, from the circumstance that the fleet was there 
 built by which the Dorians were conveyed over into the Peloponnesus. 
 
 Amphissa, the most important town of the Locri Ozolce. It was 
 destroyed by order of the Amphictyons for having rebuilt the walls and 
 cultivated the grounds of Crissa, which had been declared accursed. 
 
 jETOLIA. 
 
 CITIES Calydon, celebrated in poetry and mythological story for 
 the ad ventures of Meleager, the hero of the chase of the Calydonian 
 boar. In the historical ages its importance declined till Augustus ac- 
 complished its downfall by removing the inhabitants to Nicopolis. 
 
 Thermus, the place at which the elections of the jEtolian magistrates 
 were ratified, and where their most magnificent festivals and important 
 commercial meetings were held. Though not frequently alluded to in 
 the ancient authors, its size and splendour may be inferred from the cir- 
 cumstance that when surprised by the Macedonians, it contained up- 
 wards of 2000 statues, which the invaders defaced in revenge for the 
 excesses committed by the ^Etolians at Dodonaand Dium. At the same 
 time, 15,000 complete suits of armour found in the city were consum- 
 ed, after others more costly had been selected as worthy of removal. 
 
 ACARNANIA. 
 
 CITIES. Actium, notwithstanding its fame as the scene of the great 
 battle which gave Octavius Caesar the world, appears to have been at 
 that time but the site of a temple, with a small and obscure harbour 
 below. 
 
 Amphilochian Argos, and (Eniada.
 
 8 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PELOPONNESUS. 
 
 In Peloponnesus the following 1 epithets may be considered as de- 
 signating with equal^correctness the peculiarities of the different pro- 
 vinces : 
 
 Isthmian CORINTH, from its situation. 
 
 Fickle ARGOLIS, from the frequency with which it changed sides in 
 the various contests of the different neighbouring states. This cha- 
 racter prevented the Argians from ever obtaining that supremacy in 
 the affairs of Greece which their bravery might have acquired. A 
 fabled exception must be made in the time of the Trojan war, when 
 Agamemnon stood at the head of the hundred princes of the famous 
 league. 
 
 Laconic SPARTA. The opposite of Athens in every moral and intel- 
 lectual attribute, Sparta was, most especially so, in that conciseness of 
 speech which has rendered the word laconic a synonyme for brevity 
 of speech, in every tongue. 
 
 Servile MESSEMA, from the dependance to which she was reduced 
 by the Spartans, who made He'ots of such of her people as chose to 
 remain in their country after the unfortunate struggle of Aristomenes, 
 and the departure of the rest of the Messenians to the places of their 
 voluntary exile. 
 
 Sacred Eus, from the Olympic Games. 
 
 Leagued ACHAIA. This league, called the Achaean, was formed 
 
 first against the Macedonians and afterwards against the Romans. It 
 
 extended itself at last so as to comprise almost all the states of Greece. 
 
 Earliest SICYON, from its antiquity, which dated, at least in fable, 
 
 from its first king JSgialus, B. C. 20S9. 
 
 Rural, or Pastoral ARCADIA. The situation of this province, shut 
 out as it was from the sea-coast, and its rugged and mountainous sur- 
 face, compelled its inhabitants to adopt the pastoral occupation, as the 
 only one by which they could provide themselves with the necessaries 
 of life. The poetic character of the Greeks converted this necessity 
 into a grace ; and the fabled residence of Pan and his rural attend- 
 ants in the caves and glens of Arcadia, have rendered its name synony- 
 mous with all that is beautiful and alluring in the life of the shepherd. 
 
 The Southern division of Greece or the Peloponnesus, was divided 
 into the following States with their cities. 
 
 CORINTHIA. 
 
 CITIES. Corinth, on the Isthmus at the entrance of the Peninsula. 
 Its ports were, Lechoeum on the Corinthian Sinus, the emporium of 
 Corinthian traffic with Western Greece, Italy and Sicily ; and Cen- 
 chroR on the Saronic Gulf, whence the Corinthians traded with Asia 
 and the Cyclades. 
 
 ARGOLIS. 
 
 CITIES. Argot, the most ancient city of Greece. Its port was Nau- 
 plia. 
 
 Mycente, the capital of Argolis during the reign of the Pelopid 
 princes. Its origin was assigned, in fble, to Perseus. Afte r the re-
 
 A N C I K N T G E O G R A P H Y . 9 
 
 turn of the Heraclidae, it declined till the year 468 B. C., when the 
 Argives, having captured it, levelled its walls and buildings, and en- 
 slaved its inhabitants. 
 
 Tiryns, celebrated for its vast Cyclopean walls, is said to have been 
 founded by Prcetus, brother of Acrisius. Its origin was undoubtedly 
 of the earliest Pe]asgic period. It was from this city, his patrimonial 
 inheritance, that Hercules, after the murder of Iphitus, fled, and yielded 
 up to his kinsman of the line of Sthenelus the dominion of the Pelo- 
 ponnesus. 
 
 LA.CONIA. 
 
 CITISS. Sparta and its port of Gythlum. 
 MESSENIA. 
 
 CITIES. Pylos, Methane, OEpea, which, after the restoration of the 
 Messenians, was called Corone, where Philopremen was taken prisoner 
 in the war occasioned by the secession of Messene from the Achsean 
 league. 
 
 Andania, the capital of Messenia before the domination of the He- 
 raclidae. 
 
 Messene, and the mountain fortress of Ira, the last hold of the Mes- 
 senians in their wars with Sparta, so long and so wonderfully defended 
 by Aristomenes. 
 
 ELIS. 
 
 CITIES. Elis. This city always remained without walls, as it was 
 deemed sacred and under the immediate protection of the god whose 
 festival was there solemnized. Hence in early times those troops 
 which were compelled to traverse this country were obliged to deliver 
 up their arms on entering it, and received them back upon quitting the 
 frontier. 
 
 Pylos was one of the three ancient cities which disputed the honour 
 of being the capital of Nestor's dominions. The others were Pylos of 
 Triphylia, and the Messenian Pylos. Pausanias admits the claim of 
 the Elian city. 
 
 Pisa, the city of (Enomaus and Pelops, which long disputed with 
 Elis the presidency of the Olympic Games. 
 
 Olympifi, celebrated for its games and for the magnificent temples of 
 Jupiter and Juno. 
 
 ACHAIA. 
 
 CITIES. Sicyon. Few cities of Greece could boast such an anti- 
 quity, since it already existed under the name ./Egialea and Mecone, 
 long before the fabled arrival of Pelops in the Peninsula. It was the 
 birth place of Aratus. 
 
 Egium, Patrce, JEgira, and Dyme. 
 
 ARCADIA. 
 
 CITIES Mantinea, celebrated for the last battle of Epaminondas. 
 Orehomenus Megalopolis Phigalea Tegcca, next to Mantinea, 
 the most ancient city of Arcadia. 
 
 The divisions in the north, and sometimes rejected as a part of 
 Hellas Proper, were: 
 
 2
 
 10 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 EPIRUS. 
 
 CITIES. Ambracia, the modern Arta. This city is remarkable for 
 the gallantry displayed in its deft-nee against the Romans, as well as 
 for the important part which it took in the Peloponnesian war; having, 
 according to Thucydides, sustained in the defeat of its army by De- 
 mosthenes the greatest loss that ever befel a .Grecian city in the same 
 space of time during the whole war. Its inhabitants were transferred 
 by Augustus to Nicopolis. 
 
 Nicopolis, built by Augustus in honour of the victory at Actium, and 
 settled in a great measure by the removal of the populations of the 
 neighbouring cities, and of some even as far as ^Etolia. 
 
 THESSALY. 
 
 CITIES. Gomphi, Tricca. It is remarkable that when by a decree 
 of Polysperchon, after the death of Alexander, it was ordered that all 
 exiles throughout the cities of Greece should be allowed to return to 
 their homes, the people of Tricca, and of the neighbouring Pharcadon, 
 alone were excepted. 
 
 Gonnus, or Gonni Larissa Phera, one of the most ancient and 
 important cities of Thessaly, the capital of Admetus, and the scene of 
 the beautiful story of Alcestis. In the historical ages, this city became 
 unfortunately notorious as affording one of the earliest pretexts for the 
 interference of Philip in the affairs of Greece. 
 
 Pkarsalus, the scene of the last contest between Caesar and Pom- 
 pey, and of the final struggle for Roman liberty. 
 
 Thebes, denominated Phthiotic, to distinguish it from the more 
 famous Thebes of Bceotia. 
 
 Larissa Cremaste, so called from the steepness of its situation, was 
 also named Pelasgia, and was a part of the dominion of Achilles, 
 whence he was called the Larissosan. 
 
 lolcos, famous in the heroic ages as the birth place of Jason, was 
 situated at the foot of Mount Pelion, and near the river Anaurus, in 
 which that hero is said to have lost his sandal, an event so intimately 
 connected with the Argonautic expedition. Its harbour was Pagassa, 
 whence the Argo set sail on her adventurous voyage. 
 
 Demetrias, which owed its origin and its name to Demetrius Polior- 
 cetes. It soon became an important place, and after the battle of 
 Cynocephalse was the chief town of the Magnesian republic, and the 
 seat of government. 
 
 MACEDON. 
 
 The Chittim of the sacred writings. 
 
 Cities Dium, ^Ega, or Edessa, Bertsa, Therma, afterwards called 
 Thessalonica, Chalcis, Potid&a, Olynthus, and Acanthus. 
 
 THRACE. 
 
 Its principle cities were Amphipolis and Philippi, sometimes assigned 
 to Macedon, Abdera, Sestos, Perinthus, and Byzantium.
 
 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 11 
 
 GRECIAN ISLANDS. 
 
 IONIAN ISLANDS. 
 
 CORCYRA, 'LEUCADIA, ITHACA, CEPHALLENIA, ZACYNTHUS, 
 TAPHIAN ISLANDS, ECHINADES, AND CYTHERA. 
 
 CORCYRA, 
 
 In Homer called Scheria, the country of the Phseacians, and 
 subsequently colonized by the Dorians of Corinth. This island, 
 remarkable for the refractory and factious disposition of its population, 
 had colonized Epidamnus, or Dyrrachium, in Illyria, opposite Brun- 
 dusium. This colony revolted from Corcyra and Corcyra from, 
 Corinth. The Spartans took part with Corinth, and the Athenians 
 with Corcyra; out of this conflict arose the Peloponnesian war. The 
 name of Corcyra in modern geography is Corfu. 
 
 LEUCADIA, 
 
 More properly called Leucas, with its promontory of Leucate, 
 celebrated in antiquity for the Lover's Leap, first tried by Lesbian 
 Sappho, was originally joined to the continent by an isthmus, which 
 the Leucadians cut away during the Peloponnesian war. The modern 
 name is Santa Maura. 
 
 ITHACA, 
 
 Six miles south of Lsucas, is a small island, but important in the early 
 fabulous history of Greece, as the kingdom of Ulysses, and the scene 
 of the greater part of the Odyssey. 
 
 CEPHALLENIA. 
 
 The earliest name of this island was Samos, and its principal and old- 
 est city was called Same. Its produce was wine, oil, and olives. 
 
 ZACYNTHUS, 
 
 Famous for her colony of Saguntum, at the mouth of the Iberus in 
 Spain, the destruction of which by Hannibal, in violation of the treay 
 between Carthage and Rome, excited the second Punic war. 
 
 TAPHIAN OR TELEBGEAN ISLANDS, 
 
 A considerable group between Leucadia and the coast of Acarnania. 
 Though very small, these islands are remarkable as the haunt of the 
 boldest pirates and hardiest maritime adventurers of the Homeric age. 
 The principal one, which gave its name to the group, was Taphos, 
 afterwards called Taphiussa. 
 
 ECHINADES, 
 
 A group of small islands frequently, mentioned in the poets, at the 
 mouth of the Achelous. Dulichium is supposed to have been one of
 
 12 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY 
 
 them, and to have been submerged, according to a belief still enter- 
 tained by the Greek sailors, that there is such a sunken island two 
 miles from Cephallenia, extending- seven miles. Others suppose that 
 Oxeae, an island more to the west, is the Dulichium of the Odyssey. 
 They have, for the most part, become joined to the main land by the 
 alluvial deposits of the waters of the river. 
 
 CYTHERA, 
 
 South of the promontory of Malea, the extreme point of the Pelopon- 
 nesus, a Spartan dependency, and governed by a magistrate sent thither 
 annually from the city. Some mythologists relate that Venus at her 
 birth emerged from the sea near this island, which was the first land 
 that received her; the fable is by others referred to Cyprus. 
 
 ISLANDS OF THE SARONIC GULF. 
 
 SALAMIS, 
 
 Celebrated equally in poetry and history, was an Ionian island, lying 
 opposite the Eleusinian coast. It was the birth place of the greater 
 Ajax and of Solon, but derives its greatest celebrity from the great vic- 
 tory obtained near it by the confederated Greeks, over Xerxes and the 
 Persians, B. C. 480. 
 
 ^EGINA 
 
 Was a Dorian colony, having been occupied by people of that race 
 both from Crete and the Peloponnesus. The ^Eginetse were distin- 
 guished in the Epic period as forming a part of the. army of Diomed, 
 and in the latter ages of history as having borne off the first prize of 
 valour at the battle of Salamis. Their piracies were notorious; and 
 the adventurous spirit in which they conducted them rendered JEgina 
 the chief emporium of Greece. They also are said to have been the 
 first coiners of silver money. During the Pelopennesian war, the 
 Athenians expelled the whole population, and replaced them with some 
 of their own citizens. They were reinstated by Lysander. 
 
 CYCLADES. 
 
 DELOS, MYCONO3, TENOS, ANDROS, CEOS, CYTHNOS, SERTPHUS, 
 SIPHNUS, CIMOLUS, MELOS, PAROS, NAXOS, SYROS, GYARUs'. 
 
 DELOS, 
 
 Sacred to Apollo and Diana, from the belief that it had been a floating 
 island till arrested by Neptune to receive Latona in her wanderings, 
 and become the birth place of the Delian twins. From its sacred cha- 
 racter, it was chosen by the Greeks as the safest place of deposit for 
 their moneys levied during the Persian war. These and other funds,
 
 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 13 
 
 however, were still placed there after the close of the contest. The 
 Athenians, who had the direction and management of the treasury, 
 used it for the improvement of their own city, the establishment of 
 their temples, &c. 
 
 CEOS, 
 
 The birth place of the two greatest lyric poets of Greece, Simonides 
 and Bacchylides was the most considerable of the Cyclades. It was an 
 Ionian colony, peopled from Attica, from the coast of which it lay but 
 five miles distant. Its inhabitants were the first who introduced ele- 
 gance in female attire in place of the ancient simplicity. It was so 
 much more populous than productive, that every man on reaching 60 
 years of age was compelled to swallow poison. 
 
 CYTHNOS 
 Was a colony of the Dryopes, a little south of Ceos. 
 
 SERIPHTJS, 
 
 Also south of Ceos, was celebrated in mythology as the scene of the 
 most remarkable exploit of Perseus, who converted the king Polydec- 
 tes and his principal subjects into stone by means of the head of Medusa. 
 In the reign of the emperor Domitian, Seriphus was used as a place 
 of confinement for prisoners of state. 
 
 SIPHNTJS 
 
 Was colonized by the Tonians. At one period its revenue exceeded 
 that of all the other islands; in the time of Strabo, however, its 
 poverty had become a proverb. 
 
 CIMOLTJS, 
 One of the least important of the Cyclades. 
 
 MELOS, 
 
 About midway between Cape Scyllseum in Argolis and the Dyctan- 
 aeum in Crete. The Athenians reduced this island during the Pelo- 
 ponnncsian war, put all the males to death, enslaved the women and 
 children, and sent a colony of 500 of their own citizens to repeople the 
 island. 
 
 PAROS, 
 
 During the Persian war, the most flourishing of the Cyclades. It sus- 
 tained a siege of twenty-eight days against Miltiades, after the battle of 
 Marathon; and his ill success in this enterprize, or his injustice in at- 
 tempting it, was the cause of his ruin. The Parian marble was famous 
 throughout Greece, but the greatest boast of the island was its having 
 been the birth place of the poet Archilochus. 
 
 NAXOS, 
 
 The most considerable of the Cyclades, was twice as large as Paros. 
 The failure of the expedition undertaken by the Persians against this 
 island led to the revolt of the Ionian states, and ultimately to the Per- 
 sian invasion of Greece. It had received an Ionian colony from
 
 14 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Athens, though at first peopled by Carians. Fable named it as the 
 birth place of Bacchus, probably from the success with which the vine 
 was there cultivated. 
 
 TENOS, 
 Called also HYDRUSSA, from the abundance of its springs. 
 
 ANDROS. 
 
 The Andrians having been compelled to join the armament of Xerxes, 
 were called upon after the battle of Salamis to make atonement by pay- 
 ment of a large sum of money. This demand they declared them- 
 selves unable to comply with, as they were beset with two deities, 
 Poverty and Want, who never quitted the island, and who opposed the 
 payment of the required sum. 
 
 GYARUS, 
 
 Little more than a barren rock. It became, in the days of the empire, 
 a place of banishment for criminals. 
 
 SPORADES. 
 
 The Greeks comprised under this name the numerous islands which 
 lay scattered around the Cyclades, and those which lay towards Crete, 
 and the coast of Asia Minor. The most celebrated was 
 
 THERA. 
 
 It was said in fable to have been formed from a clod of earth thrown 
 from ship Argo, and was called at first CALLISTE. 
 
 AMORGOS. 
 
 The birth place of Simonides, the Iambic poet. 
 CARPATHUS, 
 
 Which gave its name to the Carpathian sea. It lay between Crete 
 and Rhodes, being distant from the latter 50 miles. 
 
 CRETE. 
 
 This was, perhaps, of all the islands of Greece, the most famous. In 
 poetry and mythology it is associated with the names of the father of 
 the gods who was fabled to have been born there ; Minos and the 
 Minotour; Ariadne, Theseus and the labyrinth; Daedalus and Icarus. 
 Its principal cities were Cydonia Gnossus, the royal city of Minos, 
 and the scene of the principal fables alluded to above. Gortys, or Gor- 
 tynia Prasus, near which was the celebrated Mount Dicte, the birth 
 place of Jupiter, with the Dictaean cave, where he was nursed in his 
 infancy, and fed miraculously on bees; Lyctus, one of the most 
 considerable places in the island. 
 
 EUBCEA. 
 
 The earliest inhabitants of this island were called Abantes, by which 
 name alone they are mentioned in Homer. Before the time of the
 
 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 15 
 
 Peloponnesian war, the whole island was reduced to acknowledge the 
 supremacy of Athens. Though frequently in revolt to recover their 
 independence, the Euboeans never succeeded in casting off the Athenian 
 yoke till the twenty-first year of the Peloponnesian war, when, by the 
 assistance of the Spartans under Hegesandridas, they gained an impor- 
 tant victory of the Athenian fleet, and subsequently recovered their 
 liberty. The principal cities of this island were Histicea, afterwards 
 Onus, Chalcis, and Eretria. 
 
 EUBCEAN ISLANDS. 
 
 SCYROS. 
 
 The first inhabitants of this island were Dolopians, who were after- 
 wards expelled by the Athenians. It was here that Theseus was said 
 to have died, or to have been killed by falling or being thrown from a 
 precipice : and here too Achilles was concealed by his mother to pre- 
 vent the fulfilment of the prediction of his early death, in case he should 
 accompany the Greeks to Troy. 
 
 SCIATHUS, SCOPELOS and HALONNESUS. 
 
 THRACIAN ISLANDS. 
 
 THASOS. 
 
 This island derived immense wealth from its silver mines, the reve- 
 nues amounting at times to three hundred talents. The inhabitants 
 retained the old Cabiric worship. 
 
 SAMOTHRACE. 
 
 The chief celebrity of this island arises from the mysteries of the 
 Cybele and her Corybantes, which were said to have originated here. 
 These were connected with the worship of the Cabiric, which also 
 prevailed, if it did not originate, among the Samothracians. 
 
 LEMNOS. 
 
 This island owes its note rather to poetry and fable than to its histori- 
 cal importance. Vulcan was called the Lemnian God from the cir- 
 cumstance of his having been received in his fall from heaven by the 
 Sintians. The story of Jason, Hypsipyle and the Lemnian women, 
 connected with the legend of the Argonautic expedition, gives still 
 greater poetical celebrity to the island. 
 
 IMBROS, 
 
 Like Lemnos was a seat of the early Pelasgi, and remarkable for the 
 Cabiric rites performed there with peculiar solemnity.
 
 16 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ASIATIC GREEK ISLANDS. 
 
 TENEDOS, 
 
 A small but important island at the mouth of the Hellespont. Its con- 
 nexion with the events of the Trojan war gives it its greatest celebrity, 
 although it is not without its historical associations in the periods of 
 more authentic history. 
 
 LESBOS. 
 
 The chief city of this island was the capital of all the Ionic cities of 
 Asia. It was remarkable for the number of illustrious names associ- 
 ated with it. Alcaeus, Sappho, Phaon, and Pittacus, one of the seven 
 sages of Greece, were natives of Lesbos. The dominant people were 
 Dorians. 
 
 CHIOS, 
 
 The modern Scio, celebrated for its capacious harbour, in which a 
 hundred vessels could ride at anchor. The wine of Chios was in 
 high repute. Its population was Ionian. 
 
 SAMOS, 
 
 Lying off the Ionian coast. It was the fabled birth place of Juno, 
 whose worship was celebrated by the Samians with peculiar solem- 
 nity. Her temple in the city of Samos was considered by Herodotus 
 as one of the finest works of Grecian architecture, and by him ranked 
 with that of Diana of Ephesus. It is here that the first statues were 
 cast in bronze ; but the greatest boast of Samos was its having been 
 the birth place of Pythagoras, who was expelled thence by the tyrant 
 Polycrates. 
 
 ICARIA. 
 
 This was an island of some extent, lying west of Samos, and the fabu- 
 lous origin of its name is referred to the story of Daedalus and Icarus, 
 from which "that of the circumjacent sea was also derived. The Sa- 
 mians used this island for pasturing their cattle. 
 
 PATMOS, 
 
 A small island west of Icaria, which owes all its celebrity to the cir- 
 cumstance of its having been the place of banishment of St. John, who 
 wrote there his apocalypse. 
 
 CALYDN.E ISLANDS, 
 
 A small group of the coast of Caria, celebrated for their honey. The 
 principal of these was CALYMNA. They are all spoken of by Herodo- 
 tus as subject to Artimisia. 
 
 COS, 
 
 A Doric island, called also, more anciently, MF.ROPIS. Hippo- 
 crates and Apelles were natives of this island. " Its productions were 
 the whetstone, which takes its name in many languages from that of 
 the island, and a peculiar kind of transparent silk, much worn at Rome, 
 and severely inveighed against by Juvenal.
 
 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 17 
 
 RHODES, 
 
 Famed for its colossus, which was considered one of the seven wonders 
 of the world. The Rhodians were a Doric people, but took little in- 
 terest in the affairs of their brother Greeks ; and in the wars of their 
 countrymen with the Romans they espoused the cause of the latter. 
 The Rhodians worshipped as their tutelary deity the sun, in whose 
 honour the colossus was erected. 
 
 CYPRUS. 
 
 This large island was south of Cilicia and west of Syria. From 
 PAPHOS, the city of Venus, it was sometimes called PAPHIA, and from 
 Salamis, the most important place in the island, said to have been 
 founded by Teucer, and from him to have received the name of Sa- 
 lamis, in honour of his native island, it was also called Salaminia. 
 The character of the people is said to have been conformable to that of 
 their peculiar worship; and the term Cyprian has become a synonyme 
 of dissoluteness and effeminacy. It was here that Cymon died during 
 the seige of Citium, as he was on his Egyptian expedition. In the for- 
 tunes of Egypt those of Cyprus were for the most part involved, as 
 she may be considered a dependency of that country, until, as such, she 
 fell under the Persian dominion. 
 
 ISLANDS OF THE MEDITERRANEAN. 
 
 BALEARES, 
 
 Consisting of Majorca and Minorca, to which Ivica was sometimes 
 added. They lay off the coast of Spain, and received the name of Bal- 
 eares from a Greek word that signifies to cast, because the inhabitants 
 were most expert slingers, and used the sling as their principal wea- 
 pon. Their modern names are derived from the adjective Major and 
 Minor, which distinguished the greater from the lesser Balearis. 
 
 CORSICA, OR CYRNUS, 
 
 As it was called by the Greeks, was a rude and uncultivated island 
 during all the period of its occupation by the Romans, and was used 
 by them occasionally as a place of banishment for state criminals. It 
 was here that Seneca lived in exile during the reign of the emperor 
 Claudius. 
 
 SARDINIA, 
 
 Called also by the Greeks Ichnusa, from the shape of its coast. It 
 was equally remarkable for the rude independence of its inhabitants, 
 the ruggedness of its surface, and the fertility of its soil. This island 
 produced a singular herb, which, on being eaten, occasioned spasms of 
 the face, while the patient died as if with a laugh upon his lips; hence 
 the expression sardonic laughter. Iberians were perhaps the first 
 occupants of Sardinia, bui successive colonies and partial conquests 
 gave it afterwards to the Carthaginians, the Greeks, and the Romans. 
 
 3
 
 18 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Yet the rugged mountaineers of the interior may be said never to 
 have been fully subdued, even by the conquerors of the world. 
 
 ILVA, 
 In modern geography Elba. 
 
 JEN ARl A, 
 The modef n Ischia. 
 
 CAPREJE, 
 
 Off the coast of Campania, famous as the scene of the dissolute enjoy- 
 ments of Tiberius, who erected there twelve costly villas, designated 
 by the names of the twelve greater gods. It is at present remarkable 
 for the quantities of quails caught in it, the number varying per an- 
 num from 12 to 60,000. 
 
 LIPARA. 
 
 The largest of the ten .flSolian islands. These islands, which lay off 
 the Bruttian coast, and north of Sicily, derived their name of ^Eolian 
 from having been the residence of the fabled jEolus, king of the winds. 
 They were also called Vulcanite, from their volcanic character. One 
 only, however, still retains an active volcano; this is Stromboli, the an- 
 cient Strongyle. 
 
 SICILY. 
 
 This greatest island of the Mediterranean contained a number of cities 
 which figured largely in ancient history. It is separated from the 
 coast of Italy by the Straits of Messina, which are in the narrowest part 
 but two miles wide. Its original inhabitants were the Sicels, to whom 
 succeeded the Sicanians. Very little remained, however, of their his- 
 tory, even in the time of the Greeks and Romans; the principal cities 
 having been founded afterwards by Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthagin- 
 ians, and Romans. The fertility of this island caused it to be looked 
 upon as the granary of Rome. In Homer and the ante-historic tradi- 
 tions, the Cyclopes and Laestrigons were the earliest inhabitants of this 
 island. The volcano of ^Etna most probably furnished the basis of 
 the greater part of the fables and wonders of Sicily in the early poetry 
 of Greece. Sicily was sometimes called Trinakia and Trinacria, from 
 the three promontories at its points Pelorum, Lilyboeum, and Pachy- 
 num. Among the many illustrious cities of this island, we may parti- 
 cularize Agrigentum and Syracuse. 
 
 MELITA, 
 Or Malta, an important island about 60 miles south-east of Sicily.
 
 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 19 
 
 ASIA MINOR, 
 
 Included all that was termed Asia by the Romans and apostles. It 
 was divided into Mysia, Lydia, Caria in the west ; settled and civilized 
 by colonies from ^Eolia, Ionia and Doris ; Lycia, Pamphylia and 
 Cilicia in the south; Pontus, Paphlagonia and Bithynia in the north; 
 Cappadocia, Phrygia and Pisidia in the centre. 
 
 The above countries were settled by Japhet and his descendants. 
 
 Divisions with principal Cities. 
 
 Cappadocia, including- Pontus Trapezus, Amisus. 
 
 Galatia, or Gallogra&cia, including Paphlagonia, Sinope, Ancyra. 
 
 Bithynia Heraclea, Nicomedia, Nicaea, of Nice, Prusa. 
 
 Mysia Abydos, Ilyium, or Troy, Pergamus. 
 
 Lydia Smyrna, Clazomerie, Sardis, Ephesus, Thyatfra.! 
 
 Caria Miletus, Halicarnassus. 
 
 Lycia Myra. 
 
 Pisidia, including Pamphylia, Aspendus. 
 
 Cilicia Tarsus, Issus. 
 
 PONTUS. 
 
 CITIES. Trapezus, now Trebisond, founded by a colony from 
 Sinope. In the ages of the lower empire it became the capital of the 
 dynasty founded by Alexis Comnenes, and remained independent of 
 the Greek empire ever after. It was the most eastern city upon the 
 coast. 
 
 Cerasus, some distance west of Trapezus. Cherries were first in- 
 troduced into Europe from this place, whence they took their name, 
 680 B. C. 
 
 Amisus, the largest city of Pontus, was situated upon the gulf 
 which takes its name from it, at the mouth of the Halys. 
 
 Amasea Comana. Amasea, the birth place of Mithridates the 
 Great, and Strabo the geographer. 
 
 CAPPADOCIA. 
 
 CITIES. Comana, famous for the great temple of Bellona, served by 
 upwards of 6000 ministers. 
 
 Mazaca, afterwards called Caesarea ad Argaeum, _ihe capital of 
 Cappadocia. 
 
 Tyana, the birth place of Apollonius, the famous impostor and 
 Pythagorean, whose miracles, by the opponents of Christianity, have 
 been compared with those of the Saviour. 
 
 PAPHLAGONIA. 
 
 CITIES. Sinope. A colony from Miletus; the, most important 
 place, in a commercial point of view, on the shores of the Euxine. 
 'The cynic Diogenes was born in this city. Amastris. 
 
 GALATIA. 
 CITIES. Ancyra Pessinus, a city of extremely remote origin, and 
 
 i '
 
 20 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 famous for the worship of Cybles, which was celebrated there with 
 peculiar rites. 
 
 BITHYNIA. 
 
 CITIES. Heracha, founded by Doric colonists from Megara. 
 
 Prusa Chalcedon. This city was founded a short time before 
 Byzantium, and was called by Megabyzns, a Persian satrap, the city of 
 the blind, because its inhabitants, in the selection of the site, chose this 
 in preference to the more advantageous situation upon the opposite 
 coaet, where Byzantium was afterwards founded. 
 
 Nicomedia, at the head of the gulf which takes its name from the 
 early town of Astacus. As Nicomedia was on the direct route from 
 Constantinople to the more eastern parts of the empire, it became fre- 
 quently the residence of those emperors who conducted in person the 
 military operations in the East. It was said at one time to be the fifth 
 city in the world for magnitude, and the first for beauty. 
 
 Nicaa, at one time the capital of Bythnia, having for a period 
 superseded Nicomedia. It was here that the first part of the creed, 
 thence called the Nicene, was adopted, in the time of Constantine. 
 
 MYSIA. 
 
 CITIBS. Cyzicus, built on a peninsula, or, according to Strabo and 
 Pliny, on an island in the Propontis, on the northern shore of Mysia. 
 It flourished greatly through commerce; so much so, that Florus call- 
 ed it the Rome of Asia. 
 
 Adrastia Lampsacus Ilium or Troy. 
 
 Adramyttium Pergamus, the capital of a kingdom of the same 
 name, founded B. C. 282. Its last king, Attalus Philomator, bequeath- 
 ed it to the Roman people, B. C. 143. In this place parchment was 
 first invented, and hence its name. 
 
 Charta Pergamena. Its famous library, containing upwards of 
 200,000 volumes, was transferred by Cleopatra to Egypt. Apollodo- 
 rus the mythologist, and Galen, were natives of this place. 
 
 LYDIA. 
 
 CITIES. Cuma, a city proverbial for the remarkable stupidity of its 
 inhabitants. Ephorus and Hesiod, however, were Cumseans. 
 
 Phocaia, one of the most important commercial places of Asia 
 Minor, before the conquest of Lydia by Cyrus. When pressed by 
 Harpagus, one of the generals of the conqueror, the Phocaeans put 
 their wives and children on board of their galleys, and abandoned 
 their city to the Persians. A part of them, however, returned, but the 
 remainder continued their voyage, until after various vicissitudes, they 
 finally established themselves on the coast of Gaul, where they founded 
 the city of Massilia, now Marseilles. 
 
 Clazomene. The first city of this name stood on the main land 
 west of Smyrna ; but on the fall of Croesus, terrified at the progress of 
 the Persian arms, the inhabitants, who were lonians, removed to a 
 neighbouring island, where they rebuilt their city. In the time of 
 Alexander it was joined to the main land by a causeway, a part of 
 which still remains. It was the birth place of Anaxagorae.
 
 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 21 
 
 Smyrna, one of the few cities of Asia Minor which retains in modern 
 times some degree of its ancient importance. 
 
 Tcos, the birth place of Anacreon. The people of this island found- 
 ed the city of Abdera in Thrace, under circumstances similar to those 
 by which the Phocaens were driven from their country. 
 
 Lebr.dus, one of the twelve cities of Ionia. 
 
 Thyatira Sardis, the city of Croesus and capital of Lydia. 
 
 CARIA. 
 
 CITIES. Myndus, on the gulf of lassus. The punishment of a 
 Myndian captain by the Admiral of the Persian fleet destined against 
 Naxos, produced the failure of that expedition, the revolt of the lonians, 
 and ultimately the invasion of Greece by the arms of Darius. 
 
 Halicarnassus, the city of Artemisia, and the birth place of Herodo- 
 tus and Dionysius the historians. It was originally one of the Doric 
 confederacy of six states, called the Hexapolis. On the exclusion of 
 Halicarnassus, this confederacy was called the Pentapolis. A second 
 Artemisia caused the erection of the celebrated mausoleum in memory 
 of her husband Mausolus. The city was razed to the earth by Alex- 
 ander in consequence of its resolute resistance to his arms. 
 
 Cnidus, the capital of the Dorians of Asia. The whole Triopian 
 peninsula belonged to the Cnidians; and when they were threatened 
 by the Persians under Harpagus, they consulted the oracle upon the 
 expedient of separating themselves from the main land by cutting 
 through the isthmus. The Pythian answered, that "if Jupiter had 
 wished it to be an island, he would have made it so." The city then 
 surrendered to the Persians. The great victory of Conon over the 
 Peloponnesian fleet, which transferred the empire of the sea again to 
 the Athenians, was fought off the coast of Cnidus. 
 
 Mylasa, celebrated for the great number of its temples in proportion 
 to its population. It is said that the musician Stratonicus, placing 
 himself in the forum, and observing this disproportion, began his reci- 
 tation and performance by exclaiming Hear, oh ye temples! 
 
 Alabanda. This town was so situated among hills as to suggest 
 the idea of an ass with a pack saddle; whence a certain orator, allud- 
 ing to the number of scorpions which abounded in its vicinity, called it 
 an ass laden with scorpions. It was noted for the voluptuousness of 
 its inhabitants, and the number of its singing women. 
 
 PHRYGIA AND LYCAONIA. 
 
 CITIES. Ipsus, celebrated for the great battle fought in its plains by 
 the forces of Cassander, Lysimachus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus, against 
 Antigonus and his son Demetrius. 
 
 Laodicea Cnlosscc Cel&nce, a very ancient city, famous in fable 
 for the story of Marsyas and the legend of Midas. 
 
 Apamea, built by Antiochus Soter, who removed thither the inhabi- 
 tants of Celsenae. In the time of Strabo, it was the largest town of 
 Phrygia, yielding in commercial importance to Ephesus alone, of all 
 the cities of peninsular Asia. 
 
 Iconium, the principal city of Lycaonia, more celebrated in the mid-
 
 22 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 die ages than in antiquity. It became the capital of a Turkish empire, 
 whose princes were called sultans of Iconium. 
 
 ISAURIA, 
 
 Frequently considered as a part of Lycaonia ; its principal city bore 
 the name of Isaura. 
 
 LYCIA. 
 
 CITIES. Telmissus, famous for the skill of its augurs. 
 
 Pinara Xanthus. The inhabitants of this place were illustrious 
 for their dauntless courage, having twice sacrificed themselves to avoid 
 falling into the hands of the enemy. The first time was on the inva- 
 sion of Lycia by Harpagus, when they buried themselves under the 
 ruins of their walls and temples ; the second, when their town was 
 invested by Brutus, and being unable to break his lines, they cast 
 themselves with their wives and children into the flames. 
 
 Patara Olympus, one of the six chief communities of Lycia. It 
 was in the neighbourhood of the celebrated Solymsean mountains, of 
 which the Chimarea was one. 
 
 Phaselis, famous for its manufacture of rose perfume. 
 
 PAMPHYLIA. 
 CITIES. Attalia Aspendus, a noted haunt of the Asiatic pirates. 
 
 PISIDIA. 
 
 CITIES. Termessus Selge. The inhabitants of this place were 
 remarkable for their love of liberty, and for their success in defending 
 it against all the powers which successively held dominion in the 
 peninsula. 
 
 CILICIA. 
 
 CITIES. Coracesium Anchiale, which is said to have owed its 
 foundation to the Assyrian Sardanapalus, who commemorated the event 
 in the famous inscription to the following effect : " Sardanapalus, the son 
 of Anacyndarayes, erected in one day the cities of Anchiale and Tar- 
 sus: stranger, eat, drink and be merry! the rest is not worth the snap 
 of a finger." 
 
 Tarsus, the metropolis of Cilicia, the birth place of the apostle Paul, 
 and one of the most important towns of Asia Minor. 
 
 Issus, at the head of the gulf which bears its name. It was here that 
 Alexander gained his second great victory over Darius and the Per- 
 sians. 
 
 CANAAN. 
 
 This country was called in ancient times the Land of Canaan, from 
 Canaan the son of Ham; the Land of Promise, or Promised Land, 
 from its being promised to the descendants of Abraham ; the Land of 
 Itrael, from the Israelites ; Judah and Israel, after the kingdoms were 
 divided. Since the Christian era it is commonly designated by the
 
 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 23 
 
 name of Judea, from Judah, the principal of the twelve tribes ; Pales- 
 tine, from the Philistines, who inhabited the southwest part of it; and 
 the Holy Land, especially when mentioned in connection with the 
 crusades. 
 
 Previous to the removal of Abraham into this country, it was pos- 
 sessed by the Canaanites, a people notorious for their idolatry and wick- 
 edness. After its conquest by the Israelites, it was divided among the 
 twelve tribes by lot. Moses conquered the country east of the Jordan, 
 and apportioned it to Reuben, Gad, and the half tribe of Manasseh. 
 Joshua conquered the country west of the Jordan, and it was appor- 
 tioned among the remaining tribes. 
 
 Benjamin, Judah, Simeon, Dan, in the south, and hence sometimes 
 called South Israel. 
 
 Ephraim, Manasseh, half tribe in the centre, Issachar, Zebulon, 
 Naphtali, Asher, in the north. These constituted North Israel. 
 
 At the birth of our Saviour, Palestine was divided into four parts, 
 Judea, south ; Samaria, centre ; Galilee, north ; Perea, east. 
 
 COUNTRIES MENTIONED IN THE PENTATEUCH. 
 
 Canaan, Wilderness. Egypt. 
 Midian, Amalek, Edom, south of Canaan. 
 Midian 2nd, Moab, Amman, east of Canaan. 
 Philistia and Phoenicia, on the west coast. 
 
 CITIES OF JUDEA. 
 
 BENJAMIN. Bethel, Ai, Jericho, Gilgal, Gibeah, Gibeon, Ra- 
 mah, Bethany, Jerusalem, the capital on the boundary line between 
 Benjamin and Judea. 
 
 JUDAH. Hebron, Bethlehem, Adullam, Engedi, Tekoah. 
 
 SIMEON. Beersheba, Gaza, Ascalon. 
 
 DKN.Gath, Ashdod, Ekron. 
 
 EPHRAIM. Samaria, Shechem, Shiloh, Timnath-serah, Joppa. 
 
 MANASSEH. Tirzah, Jez-re-el, Megiddo, Cesarea. 
 
 ISSACHAR. Shunem, Nain. 
 
 ZEBULON. Gath-he.pha, Nazareth, Cana, Tiberias. 
 
 NAPHTALI. Dan, Kadesh, Hazor, Bethsaida, Capernaum. 
 
 ASHER. Ace, Acre, or Ptolomais, Tyre, Sidon, Sarepta. 
 
 REUBEN. Bezer, Heshbon, Bethabara. 
 
 GAD. Ramoth-Gilead, Mahanaim, Succoth. 
 
 MANASSEH. Edrei, Gadara, Gergesi, Golan, Geshuri. 
 
 Five cities of the Plain. Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboim and 
 Zoar. 
 
 Five cities of the Philistines. Gaza, Ascalon, Gath, Askdod and 
 Ekron. 
 
 Six cities of Refuge. Three west of Jordan, Hebron, Shechem, 
 Kedesh. 
 
 Three east, Bezer, Ramoth-Gilead, Golan. 
 
 RIVERS OF JUDEA. 
 Arnon, Jobbok, Cedron, or Kedron, Besor, Sorek, Kishon, Belus.
 
 24 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 MOUNTAINS. 
 
 West of the Jordan. Lebanon, Anti Lebanon, Heman, Carmel 
 Tabor, Mountains of Ephraim, Israel, Ebal and Gilboa 
 
 East of the Jordan. Bashan, Gilead, Abarim, Pisgah, Nebo, 
 
 South of Palestine. Seir and Hor. 
 
 Four hills on which Jerusalem was built. Zion, Moriah, Acra, and 
 Bezeta. 
 
 Four near the city. Mount of Olives, or Olivet, Calvary, Gihon 
 and Mountain of Offence. 
 
 SEAS, OR LAKES. 
 
 Dead Sea, or Lake Asphaltites, Sea of Tiberias, or Galilee, or 
 Lake of Gennesareth.
 
 OUTLINE OF HISTORY, 
 
 FROM THE 
 
 CREATION OF THE WORLD TO A.M. 3500. 
 
 Outline of Hebrew History. 
 
 PATRIARCHS. 
 
 ADAM, LAMECH. REU. 
 
 SETH, 
 
 ENDS. NOAH. SERUG, 
 
 . NAHOR, 
 CAINAN, SHEM, TERAH. 
 MAHALALEEL, ARPHAXAD, 
 
 JARED. SELAH. ABRAHAM, 
 
 ISAAC, and 
 ENOCH, EBER, JACOB. 
 METHDSALEH, PELEG, 
 
 THE creation was completed in six days ; and the fall of man, and 
 his expulsion from the garden of Eden, probably happened soon after 
 Cain killed Abel, in the year of the world 129. The birth 
 129 O f g e th the next year, supplied, in the patriarchal line, 
 De Ab h ei? f the place of Abel, who was dead, and of Cain, who was re- 
 jected. 
 
 Cain, accursed of God for his crime, separated from his brother and 
 went into the land of Nod, east of the Euphrates, where he built several 
 cities, and became the father of an impious race of mortals, called the 
 sons of men, little noticed in the Scriptures. 
 
 Enoch, Irad, Mehujael, Methusael, and Lamech, lineally descended 
 from Cain Lamech had three sons : Jabal, the father of herdsmen ; 
 Jubal, inventor of the harp and organ ; Tubalcain, the first artificer in 
 brass and iron. 
 
 THE DISPERSION AT THE BIRTH OF PELEG. 
 
 The most received opinion on this subject is, that at the birth of 
 Peleg, 100 years after the flood, the sons of Noah were 
 . dispersed abroad and settled in different countries, as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Japheth and his sons peopled Asia Minor, Europe, and the islands. 
 Japheth's sons were Gomer, Javn, Madai, Magog, Meshech, Tubal, 
 Tiras. 
 
 4
 
 26 OUTLINE OF HEBREW HISTORY. 
 
 Of Shem's sons, Aram settled Aram or Syria, and Padan-aram or 
 Mesopotamia. 
 
 Asshur settled Assyria. 
 
 Arphaxad, Chaldea or Shinar ; Elam settled Elam or Persia. 
 
 Of Ham's sons, Cush settled Arabia, called Ethiopia in Genesis. 
 
 Misraim settled Egypt, and from him sprang the Philistines. 
 
 Canaan settled the land of Canaan. 
 
 The different nations or tribes of Canaanites took their names from 
 the eleven sons of Canaan, viz : the Amorites, Hittites, Sinites, Jehu- 
 sites, Arvadites, Hivites, Sidonians, Hamathites, &c. 
 
 Terah descended through several generations from Arphaxad.'son 
 
 of Shem, oppressed, perhaps, by the ambitious intrusion and extreme 
 
 idolatry of Ham's posterity, removed with his family from Chaldea to 
 
 Haran, in the north part of Mesopotamia, or Padan-aram. In 2083, 
 
 Terah died; and, in the same year, God having chosen, 
 
 2083 Terah's son Abraham, aged seventy-five, to be the father of a 
 
 Abraham, peculiar people and holy nation, called or commanded him 
 
 to leave Haran and go to Canaan, promising him a numerous 
 
 posterity, who should inherit that land. Abraham left his brother 
 
 Nahor at Haran, whose son Bethuel was father of Laban and 
 
 Rebecca. 
 
 In the second year after the calling, Abraham, during a famine in 
 Canaan, went to Egypt with his whole family, where he passed his 
 wife Sarah for his sister, and had the mortification to see her taken 
 from him by the king, who restored her on finding she was his wife. 
 Soon after their return to Bethel, in Canaan, Abraham, and his kins- 
 man Lot, separated, by Abraham's pacific proposal, on account of a 
 strife between their herdsmen, who could not find sufficient pasture for 
 the numerous flocks of both: Lot went to Sodom, in the vale of Sid- 
 dim ; Abraham to Mamre or Hebron, west of the vale of Siddim. In 
 the seventh year, 2090, Chedorlaomer, king of Elam or Per- 
 
 chedoriao- s i a) joined with three other kings, invaded the Promised 
 Son of the Land. After overthrowing the gigantic Rephaims, Zuzims, 
 
 P Ld? d an( * Emims, east of Jordan, and the Horites, in Mount Seir, 
 south of Canaan, they turned to the north, smote the Amo- 
 rites, and entered the vale of Siddim, where they vanquished the five 
 kings of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboim, Zoar or Bela; took 
 great booty, and Lot among other prisoners. Abraham, with his nu- 
 merous servants, pursued the victorious enemy, by Dan or Laish, to 
 Hobah, west of Damascus, surprised and defeated them ; recovered Lot 
 and all the spoils, which he scrupulously restored to the kings of 
 Sodom, &c. Melchisedek met and blessed Abraham on his return. 
 In Gen. 15, 16, 17, we have an account of the repeated promises that 
 God made to Abraham, of an heir, and of the sure inheritance of the 
 Promised Land by his numerous posterity. The birth of 
 iaeh Ishmael, eleven years after the calling, is recorded in Gen. 
 
 Destruction 16. In the twenty-fourth year, after seasonable warning 
 Gom^ah & g iven b y God>s an g els to Abraham and Lot, Sodom and Go- 
 morrah were destroyed, for the most horrible and unnatural 
 sins, by fire and brimstone from heaven ; upon which the vale of Sid- 
 dim seems to have been changed into- a sea, called the Dead, or Salt
 
 OUTLINE OF HEBREW HISTORY. 27 
 
 Sea. Lot and his two daughters fled to the mountains, and from them 
 incestuously descended the Moabites and Ammonites, east of the Dead 
 Sea and Jordan. Abraham went to Gerar, in the land of the Philis- 
 tines, where Isaac was born in 2108, the next year after the destruction of 
 Sodom and Gomorrah ; Abraham aged 100, Sarah 90, Ishmael 14. By 
 permission of Abimeleeh, the king, Abraham lived many years at Beer- 
 sheba, in the land of the Philistines. 
 
 Ishmael, aged 19, was cast out into the wilderness of Paran, south 
 of Canaan, where his descendants, the Ishmaelites, afterward dwelt. 
 Twenty years after that event, Abraham, still living at Beer- 
 ff feaac f S ^ e ba 5 by God's command, went three days' journey to Mount 
 Moriah, to offer his son Isaac, aged 25, for a burnt-offering ] 
 but, after he had stretched out his hand to slay his son, God, satisfied 
 with his wonderful faith and obedience, bid him spare Isaac, and sacri- 
 fice a ram in his stead. 
 
 After Abraham had returned to Mamre or Hebron, Sarah died, 
 aged 127, and was buried in the cave of Machpelah, which Abraham 
 bought of Ephron, the Hittite. Three years after the death 
 ^ilg* 1 of Sarah, Abraham sent his servant to Haran, in Mesopota- 
 mia, who brought Rebecca to Mamre, where she married her 
 cousin Isaac- 
 Two years after the marriage of Isaac, Abraham married Keturah, 
 by whom he had Midian, father of the Midianites, east of the 
 ! Esau. n Dead Sea. In 2168, Jacob and Esau were born; Isaac, 
 their father, aged 60. Esau was a cunning hunter, a man 
 of the field; but Jacob was a plain man, dwelling in tents. 
 Abraham 2183, Abraham died, aged 175, and was buried in the cave 
 
 dies. O f Machpelah, by his sons Isaac and Ishmael. 
 When Jacob and Esau were 31 years old, Esau, coming from the 
 field faint and weary, sold his birthright to Jacob for red pottage. 
 Isaac went to dwell at Beersheba, where he remained till after the 
 marriage of Jacob. Esau gave offence to his father and mother by 
 marrying the daughters of the Hittites. 
 
 Isaac loved Esau because he did eat of his venison ; but Rebecca 
 loved Jacob; and he, instructed by his partial mother, fraudulently ob- 
 tained the blessing which Isaac had promised to bestow upon 
 u^te^ng" 8 Esau on his return from the field with venison. Rebecca 
 then advised Jacob to flee and avojd the rage of Esau ; and, 
 at her entreaty, Isaac consented to let him go to Haran to mairy one 
 of his cousins. The fraud and falsehood of Jacob drove him from his 
 father's house, a fugitive, with nothing but his staff, and destitute, for 
 the time, of all earthly property that Esau's birthright or Isaac's bless- 
 ing could confer ; yet the blessing undesignedly conferred upon him 
 by Isaac, was ratified by Heaven. Sleeping at Luz or Bethel, Jacob 
 saw, in a dream, a ladder reaching to heaven, and angels ascending 
 and descend ing upon it; and God stood above the ladder, and con- 
 firmed to Jacob, in terms of peculiar benignity and magnificence, 
 all the promises before made to Abraham and Isaac. Isaac still lived 
 at Beersheba. 
 
 Twenty years Jacob lived at Haran, and served his unprincipled and 
 miserly uncle Laban ; seven years for Leah, who was deceitfully given
 
 28 OUTLINE OF HEBREW HISTORY. 
 
 to him instead of Rachael, whom he loved ; seven years more for Ra- 
 chael. Joseph, the first son of Rachael, was born at the end of the 
 fourteen years. By a new agreement, Jacob served the last six years; 
 and, during this period, notwithstanding the craft and injustice of La- 
 ban, his father-in-law and uncle, Jacfib became rich in cattle and flocks, 
 with the most evident sanction of Providence. Eleven sons and one 
 daughter were born to him during his twenty years' residence at Ha- 
 ran. Twenty years after, fleeing from the resentment of his angry and 
 injured brother, Jacob secretly left Haran, taking with him his wives, 
 children, and flocks. On his way towards Jordan he was so h'ippy as 
 to appease the wrath of Laban, who pursued him to Mount Gilead ; 
 and soon after, by presents and kindness, he disarmed the resentment 
 of his brother Esau, who had filled Jacob's breast with alarm by cross- 
 ing the Jordan with 400 men to meet him. Shortly before this inter- 
 view with Esau, Jacob received the name of Israel in wrestling with 
 an angel. After dismissing Esau, he crossed the Jordan, and resided 
 at Shechem. 
 
 The following events happened during the next ten years, viz : The 
 sudden departure of Jacob from Shechem, in consequence of the per- 
 fidious cruelty of Simeon and Levi to the Shechemites, to avenge their 
 sister Dinah ; the birth of Benjamin, and death of Rachael, near 
 Bethlehem ; the ncestuous conduct of Reuben ; and the affair of Judah 
 and Tamar, the ancestors of Boaz, from whom descended Jesse, the 
 
 father of David, and, ultimately, Jesus Christ. In 2275, 
 i m J Egyp't ld Joseph was sold by his brethren to Midianitish or Ishmaelitish 
 
 merchants, who carried him into Egypt, and there sold him 
 to Potiphar, captain of Pharaoh's guards. 
 
 In 2288, Isaac died, aged 188, and was buried in the cave 
 D is!jiac. of f Machpelah, by his sons Jacob and Esau. Soon after, Esau 
 
 removed to Mount Seir or Mount Hor, south of Canaan, and 
 from him descended the Edomites and Amalekites.-^See 1 Chronicles, 
 1st chapter, 35th and 36th verses. In the year of Isaac's death, Joseph, 
 ten years after he was sold, was released from prison, where he had 
 been two years unjustly confined, and made governor of all Egypt, 
 in consequence of interpreting Pharaoh's two dreams. 
 
 In 2298, Jacob's whole family, consisting of seventy persons, male 
 
 and female, went into Egypt by the invitation of Joseph, and 
 Rem E^pt!' to settled there under his protection. -See Gen., from the 39th 
 
 to the 50th chapter, for the history of Joseph, of which no 
 adequate abridgment could be made, and with which almost every child 
 is acquainted. 
 
 In 2315, after having lived in Egypt seventeen years, Jacob 
 Peath of j a - fa e ^ a g e( j 147 an( j was carr i e dwith great pomp into Canaan 
 
 by his son Joseph, and buried in the cave of Machpelah, 
 at Hebron. 
 
 Joseph had two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh, whom Jacob, in his 
 last moments, adopted as his own. He survived his father fifty-four 
 
 years, and died, aged 110: having, like his father, predicted 
 J - the return of his brethren into the Promised Land, and charg- 
 ed them to carry his bones with them. Here ends the book 
 of Genesis, and the book of Exodus commences.
 
 OUTLINE OF HEBREW HISTORY. 29 
 
 After the death of Joseph, the children of Israel became very numer- 
 ous, and suffered every species of cruelty and oppression from the jeal- 
 ous tyranny of the kings of Egypt. Mosee, their deliverer, 
 Moses, was born in 2430, three years after his elder brother Aaron. 
 
 At that time, an existing decree of the king of Egypt, doomed 
 every new-born son of a Hebrew to be cast into the river, to prevent 
 the dreaded increase of this people. The mother of Moses, hoping to 
 save the life of her infant son, after concealing him three months, ex- 
 posed him by the river's brink, in an ark of bull-rushes ; the daughter 
 of Pharaoh, the king, found the ark, saved the child, and had him edu- 
 cated as her own son. Moses was descended from Jacob, through 
 Levi, Kohath, and Amram, the father of Moses and Aaron. 
 
 In 2473, Moses, aged 40, killed an Egyptian whom he 
 an 8 , savv contending with a Hebrew ; and, to avoid the resentment 
 'of Pharaoh, he fled to Midian, east of the Red Sea, where he 
 married Zipporah, daughter of Jethro, priest of Midian. Zipporah 
 bore him two sons, Gershom and Eleazer. After Moses had been forty 
 
 years with Jethro, God appeared to him in a burning bush, at 
 The bush" mg Mount Horeb, and commanded him to return to Egypt, and 
 
 deliver Israel from bondage. He complied : his brother 
 Aaron met him in the wilderness, and the two brothers gave such 
 
 proofs of their mission, particularly by the ten plagues 
 plague" which they inflicted on the Egyptians, that Pharaoh finally 
 
 consented to let Israel go and sacrifice, which was all the fa- 
 vour that Moses and Aaron were enjoined to demand of the king. The 
 ten plagues the waters of Egypt turned into blood ; the land covered 
 with frogs ; the dust turned into lice ; grievous swarms of flies sent 
 into the houses ; the cattle killed with murrain ; man and beast afflict- 
 ed with biles ; destructive hail sent, mingled with fire ; clouds of de- 
 vouring locusts darken the whole land ; thick darkness for three days ; 
 
 all the first-born of Egypt killed both of man and beast. On 
 Passover, this occasion the Passover was instituted a feast or ordinance 
 
 designed to commemorate God's peculiar favour to his peo- 
 ple in passing-over their houses, and sparing their first-born, when he 
 killed all the first-born of Egypt. 
 
 When the king found that the people were fleeing from Egypt alto- 
 2513 gether, he pursued them ; but the Red Sea, which opened to 
 Passage of the give Israel a passage, closed upon the pursuing host of Pha- 
 RedSea. raon , and drowned them. The children of Israel were con- 
 ducted in their journey by a pillar of cloud by day, and a pillar of fire 
 by night. Having crossed the Red Sea, and sung a song of praise to God, 
 they journeyed to Marah, where Moses sweetened the bitter water by 
 casting a tree into it ; thence, by Elim to Zin, where quails and manna 
 were sent to appease the hunger and murmurs of the people ; thence 
 to Rephidim, where Moses struck the rock of Horeb, and drew water 
 from it for his ever-murmuring brethren, and where Joshua defeated the 
 cowardly-assailing Amalekites; thence, in the third month after exodus 
 or departure, to Sinai, where God published his laws and command- 
 ments, in a terrible voice, from the smoking top of the burning mount. 
 Moses forty Here Moses, after spending forty days with God on the mount, 
 days on the received from him the two tables of the law in stone ; while 
 unt - the people at the foot of the mount fell into gross idolatry, by
 
 30 OUTLINE OP HEBREW HISTORY. 
 
 making and worshipping a golden calf, for which 3000 were put to 
 death by the command of Moses, on his return. Here also the priest- 
 hood was established in the family of Aaron ; and the whole family of 
 Levi was set apart for the service of religion ; the moveable tabernacle, 
 the ark, and all their appurtenances, were made here. By 
 70 EMcre. the advice of Jeth ro, who came here to meet Moses, 70 elders 
 were appointed to assist in judging the people here the peo- 
 ple were numbered, and found to be 600,000, that were males, twenty 
 years old and upwards, besides Levites. The book of Exodus ends 
 with the account of setting up the tabernacle. Leviticus contains the 
 Levitical laws, or laws of Moses ; Numbers commences with an ac- 
 count of numbering the people, and contains some laws, and con- 
 siderable history ; Deuteronomy gives a repetition of many 
 Deuteronom y .j aws ^ an( j re j ates ^ | ast transactions and death of Moses. 
 
 On the 20th of the 2d month, of the 2d year after exodus or depart- 
 ure out of Egypt, the people set off to pursue their journey toward the 
 Promised Land. At Taberah, the fire of the Lord cousumed many of 
 the people, because they murmured. At Kibroth-Httaavah, God sent 
 quails in wrath, and a plague destroyed great numbers of the people, 
 because they murmured. At Hazeroth, God's anger was kindled 
 against Aaron and Miriam, for murmuring against their brother Mo- 
 ses. From Kadesh, Moses sent twelve men to examine the 
 The 12 Spies, land of Canaan, who, except Caleb and Joshua, made an un- 
 favourable report, calculated to terrify and dishearten their 
 brethren ; a mutiny ensued in the camp of Israel, and the rebellious He- 
 brews threatened to choose a captain to conduct them back to Egyptian 
 servitude; which provoked God to denounce that all who were twenty 
 years old, and upwards, should die in the wilderness ; that not one of 
 them should enter the Promised Land, except Caleb and Joshua. Some 
 of the people who went to attack the Canaanites, and enter the land, in 
 defiance of God's commands, were smitten and discomfited. About 
 two years had now elapsed since the exodus ; and, from this time, very 
 little is recorded of this seditious and ungrateful people for the space 
 of thirty-seven years, till the last year of Moses. In this interval we 
 must place the wicked and fatal rebellion of Korah, Dathan.and Abiram, 
 who were swallowed up by the earth before the door of the tabernacle. 
 On this occasion, God gave a signal sanction to the authority of Aaron, 
 by causing his rod only, out of the twelve rods laid up in the tabernacle, 
 to blossom and bear fruit. 
 
 At Meribah, in the last year of Moses, he and Aaron incurred God's 
 displeasure by their impatient and unadvised manner of speaking to 
 the people, when God commanded them to draw water from the rock 
 for the murmuring host. For this offence Moses and Aaron were both 
 excluded from entering the Promised Land. See Numbers 20, and 
 Psalms 106, 32d and 33d verses. Miriam, the sister of Moses, died 
 shortly before that event; Aaron died soon after it at Mount Hor, and 
 his son Eleazer succeeded to the priesthood. Perhaps the place can- 
 not be fixed where Moses made the brazen serpent to cure those who, 
 for their seditious murmurs, had been mortally bitten by fiery serpents. 
 After compassing Edom and Moab, through which a passage was de- 
 nied them, the children of Israel at last arrived and encamped in the 
 plains of Moab, east of Jordan. Here Israel conquered the countries
 
 OUTLINE OF HEBREW HISTORY. 31 
 
 of Sihon, king of the Amorites, and of Og, king of Bashan or Gilead ; 
 and Moses divided the conquered territories among the tribes of Reu- 
 ben and Gad, and the half tribe of Manasseh. He also caused 12,000 
 men to ravage and lay waste Moab, whose daughters, by the 
 Balaam. advice of Balaam, the soothsayer, had corrupted the sons of 
 Israel. Balaam had been called from Mesopotamia, to curse 
 Israel, with offers of great reward by Balak, king of Moab and Midian ; 
 but, overruled by God, he blessed Israel altogether, and prophesied of 
 their prosperity and of their future dominion over the nations. Balaam 
 was slain with the kings of Midian in this war. 
 
 Forty years having now elapsed since the exodus, Moses, after re- 
 peating many laws ; inculcating, with paternal solicitude, his last advice 
 and parting admonitions, and blessing each tribe except that of Simeon, 
 went, by God's command, to the top of Pisgah, where he died, having 
 thence viewed the land which he was not permitted to enter with his 
 brethren. He was 120 years of age; yet his eye was not dim, nor 
 his natural force abated. Here ends the Pentateuch, or five 
 Joshua^ Books of Moses, containing the history of 2553 years from 
 
 the creation. The book of Joshua commences here. 
 After the death of Moses, none remained of all the men twenty years 
 old and upwards, that were numbered at Sinai, except Joshua, of the 
 tribe of Ephraim, and Caleb, of the tribe of Judah. Joshua 
 2553 succeeding Moses in the command of the tribes of Israel, led 
 feraei enters them across the Jordan, whose waters divided as the priests 
 Land?" 1 ' entered it with the ark, and continued divided till the ark was 
 borne out by the priests, after the people had completed their 
 passage. Twelve stones pitched in the channel of the river, and twelve 
 more taken out of the river, and pitched at Gilgal, long stood as a me- 
 morial of this miraculous passage. Circumcision, which was first in- 
 troduced by Abraham, one year before the birth of Isaac, was now 
 renewed, after having been omitted forty years ; and the Passover was 
 celebrated for the first time in the Land of Promise. Manna ceased to 
 fall the next day after the celebration of the Passover 
 Joshua. From Gilgal, which long continued the place of encamp- 
 ment, Joshua led the armies of Israel against Jericho, whose 
 Jencho. wa ]i s f e n d own a t the blasts of the trumpets and shouts of the 
 people, after having been several times encompassed by the armed men 
 followed by priests, bearing trumpets of rams' horns, and the ark. All 
 the inhabitants of Jericho were put to the sword, except the family of 
 Rahab, who had faithfully concealed the spies sent there by Joshua, 
 before he crossed the Jordan. In, the first attack upon Ai, Israel was 
 smitten and repulsed for the sin of Achan, who had taken of the ac- 
 cursed thing in stealing and hiding several valuable articles that he 
 found among the spoils ; but, after Achan was punished, Ai was taken 
 by stratagem and destroyed. Soon after Joshua was called to defend 
 the Gibeonites, whose ambassadors pretending to be from a far country, 
 had artfully drawn him into a league. He defeated the five kings who 
 attacked Gibeon ; and, that he might have sufficient time to make the 
 destruction of his enemies complete, he commanded the sun 
 standstill to stan( ^ st ^ over Gibeon, and the moon over the valley of 
 over Gibeon. Aijalon ; and thus the day was prolonged After destroying
 
 32 OUTLINE OF HEBREW HISTORY. 
 
 their armies, and hanging the five kings, who were found hidden in 
 the cave of Makkedah, Joshua went against their cities of Jebus, Eglon, 
 Jarmuth, Lachish, and Hebron, which he took and destroyed, except 
 Jebus or Jerusalem, and soon .subdued all the southern part of the land. 
 Soon after he vanquished a hostile confederacy of the northern kings ; 
 of whom Jabin,'king of Razor, was the principal ; took their cities, and 
 possessed himself of their country. 
 
 After prosecuting his wars about six years from the death of Moses, 
 Joshua had conquered thirty-one kings in Canaan ; and even then he 
 left many native tribes unsubdued, that generally paid tribute to Israel, 
 but continually seduced them into idolatrous practices, and often proved 
 formidable enemies. In the seventh year, Joshua proceeded 
 A theTribes. fto divide the conquered country, by lot, among the nine tribes 
 and a half that remained to be provided for. It would seem 
 that, at first, the tribes of Judah, Ephraim, and Manasseh, received for 
 their allotments, all the country south of Galilee ; and that afterward, 
 Benjamin, Simeon, and Dan, had thetr portions carved out of Judah and 
 Ephraim. There was no tribe that bore the name of Joseph, but three 
 allotments were made to his two sons, viz : Manasseh, half tribe east 
 of Jordan, and Ephraim and Manasseh, half tribe west of Jordan. 
 There was no tribe of Levi, because his descendants were consecrated 
 to the priesthood ; but they had forty-eight cities, called Levitical cities, 
 appointed for their residence. Ephraim and Manasseh, the sons of 
 Joseph, supplied the place among the tribes of Joseph and Levi, mak- 
 ing the number twelve, equal to that of Jacob's sons. 
 
 The tribes may be committed to memory in the following portions: 
 Reuben, Gad, Manasseh half tribe, east of Jordan, conquered and 
 allotted by Moses. 
 
 Pursuing the order of conquest, the next portion may be, Benjamin, 
 Judah, Simeon, Dan, which constituted Judea under the Romans ; most 
 of which also seems to have been comprised in the first allotment to 
 Judah ; and conclusive arguments might be offered to show, that nearly 
 all the territory included in these four tribes generally belonged to the 
 successors of Solomon, after the dismemberment of the kingdom ; third 
 portion, Ephraim and Manasseh half tribe, which, after the restora- 
 tion of the Jews, constituted Samaria between Judea and Galilee ; 
 fourth and last portion, Ashur, Zebulon, Issachar T Naphtali, which 
 constitutes Galilee. 
 
 While the division of the country was going on, Joshua set up the 
 tabernacle containing the ark, at Shiloh, in the tribe of 
 ^t a5to e Ephraim, (where it continued 328 years, from 2560 to 2888,) 
 1 in the first year of Samuel. Six Levitical cities were ap- 
 
 pointed as places of refuge for the man-slayer, till he could be brought 
 to a legal trial ; Bezer, Ramoth-Gilead, and Golan, east of Jordan ; 
 Hebron, Shechem, and Kade.sk, west of Jordan. -Caleb, for his merit 
 and valour, obtained Hebron in Judah, for his portion. To Joshua, 
 the children of Israel gave Timnath-Serah in his o*vn tribe of Ephraim. 
 After the division of the land was completed, the two tribes and a half 
 that had received their allotments, east of Jordan, were sent home with 
 a blessing, having faithfully followed Joshua in his wars, as Moses- re-
 
 OUTLINE OF HEBREW HISTORY. 33 
 
 quired, when he gave them their portions. Joshua died, aged 110, in 
 2567, or, as some think, tea years later. 
 
 JUDGES. 
 
 OTHNIEL, ABDON. 
 
 EHUD, TOLA, 
 
 SHAMGAR. JAIR, ELI, 
 
 JEPTHAH. SAMSON, 
 
 DEBORAH, SAMUEL. 
 
 GIDEON, IBZON, 
 
 ABIMELECH. ELON, 
 
 The book of Judges commences here. The 342 years from the 
 death of Joshua to the reign of Saul, is called the period of 
 
 t) C***f 
 
 /SOD/ tne j u( ]g es j but die greater part of it was a time of anarchy, 
 distraction, and wickedness, and of wretched subjection to 
 idolatrous and revengeful neighbours, whose gods Israel worshipped, 
 and whose kings they painfully served. There was not any regular 
 succession of Judges ; but those so called, during this period, were 
 usually persons providentially raised up by God to deliver his people 
 from oppression. The idolatry ofMicah, and the removal of the Dan- 
 ites to Laish, who on their way robbed Micah of his priest and gods, 
 took place forty-five years after the death of Moses. Laish, at the head 
 of Jordan, thence bore the name of Dan. About the same time, hap- 
 pened the desolating war waged against the tribe of Benjamin, by all 
 the other tribes, on account of the Levite's wife : by which all the peo- 
 ple of Benjamin were killed, except 600 men. See 5 last chapters of 
 the book of Judges, which, in due order of time, should be read before 
 the history of the several judges and servitudes. 
 
 Because the children of Israel perversely served the gods of their 
 
 idolatrous neighbours, the Lord sold them into the hands of 
 
 bondage "to the king of Mesopotamia, whom they served eight years. 
 
 the Mesopo g ut xv h en they cried unto the Lord, he raised up for their de- 
 
 tamiaiis. . J ' . . r 
 
 livefer Othniel, the nephew and son-m-law of Caleb. 
 It is probable that during the greater part of this interval of eighty 
 
 years, Israel was in a state of anarchy. During eighteen 
 To th i t ( ^ oab ~ years of it, they served Eglon, king of Moab, who took and 
 
 possessed Jericho, the city of palm-trees ; finally, Ehud, a 
 Benjamite, being charged with a present to Eglon, gained access to 
 the king alone, in his summer-parlour, on a pretence of revealing a 
 secret message, there stabbed him with a dagger, and delivered Israel. 
 Twenty years Israel served Jabin, king of Hazor, who 
 T of HaS" 8 had 90 chariots of iron. Deborah and Barak, leading out 
 
 10,000 men of Zebulon and Naphtali, defeated Jabin's army ; 
 upon which, Sisera, Jabin's captain, took refuge in the tent of Heber, 
 the Kenite, and was there, while fast asleep on the ground, killed by 
 Jael, the wife of Heber, who drove a nail of the tent into his temples. 
 The people resorted to Deborah, dwelling under her palm-tree, in 
 Mount Ephraim, to be judged. 
 
 5
 
 34 OUTLINE OP HEBREW HISTORY. 
 
 Israel, having served Midian seven years, was delivered 
 T S! di " b y Gideon ; who, after reducing his army of 32,000 to 300 
 by God's direction, surprised the camp of Midian at night, 
 by his stratagem of trumpets and lamps concealed in pitchers, and so 
 terrified the sleeping enemy with the sudden noise and clash, and in- 
 stant blaze of light, that they wildly fled over Jordan, whither Gideon 
 pursued and destroyed them. On his return he demolished Penueland 
 Succoth, east of Jordan, and chastised the inhabitants with briars and 
 thorns, because they had refused to relieve his army in pursuit of the 
 Midianites. Gideon refused to rule over Israel, though the people 
 offered him the authority. He left seventy sons, by several wives. 
 
 Abimelech, one of his sons by a woman of Shechem, destroyed all 
 his brethren but Jotham, the youngest, and was made king by the 
 Shechemites. After reigning three years, he destroyed Shechem and 
 sowed it with salt, because the people conspired against him. Soon 
 after, in besieging Thebez, he was killed by a piece of mill-stone, 
 which a woman cast upon his head. Tola judged Israel twenty-three 
 years. 
 
 During the greater part of Jair's twenty-two years, Israel was sorely 
 oppressed by the Philistines, on the southwest, and the Ammonites, en 
 the east. Jephthah, of Manasseh or Gilead, east of Jordan, delivered 
 the eastern Israelites from the oppression of the Ammonites. On his 
 return home, Jephthah sacrificed his daughter to fulfil an in- 
 da^tghter. discreet vow " If thou wilt deliver the Ammonites into mine 
 hands, I will offer up for a burnt-offering, whatsoever cometh 
 out of the door of my house to meet me." Some commentators con- 
 tend that he only devoted his daughter to celibacy. The Ephraimites, 
 offended that Jephthah did not ask their aid against the Ammonites, 
 passed over Jordan to fight him. Jephthah having vanquished and 
 dispersed them, seized the passes of Jordan to prevent their retreat; 
 and whenever any man wished to pass, the Gileadites discerned whe- 
 ther he was an Ephraimite, by asking him to pronounce Shibboleth ; 
 and, if he said Sibboleth, they slew him. 
 
 Of Ibzan, Elon, Abdon, it is merely said that they judged Israel so 
 many years respectively. 
 
 Eli judged Israel forty years. He was high-priest in the line of 
 Ithamar, the youngest son of Aaron, and was the first in that line, who 
 ever bore the office. The high-priesthood, after descending in his 
 family, through Ahitub, Ahimelech, and Abiathar, was restored by 
 David to the line of Eleazer, in the person of Zadok. Phinehas, the son 
 of Eleazer, was promised a perpetual priesthood in his line, for his 
 Israel serves prompt and indignant punishment of the offenders in the 
 
 .te matter of Peor. See Numbers, 25th. Israel served the 
 Philistines during the whole time of Eli. 
 
 The twenty years of Samson, coincide with the last twenty years of 
 Eli. Samson is said to have judged Israel twenty years ; but the de- 
 tail of his history, represents him only as a champion against the Phi- 
 listines, slaying his thousands, and otherwise afflicting his inveterate 
 enemies by means of his matchless and miraculous strength. This 
 extraordinary strength lay in his hair, which was consecrated by the 
 law of the Nazarite. See the law of the Nazarite, Numbers 6th.
 
 OUTLINE OF HEBREW HISTORY, 35 
 
 The following brief enumeration exhibits the principal 
 Samson. achievements and adventures of Samson : His marriage to 
 a Philistine woman, of Timnath ; his slaying thirty men, of 
 Askalon, and taking their raiment to perform the wager; which the 
 Philistines had won of him, by drawing from his wife the meaning of 
 his riddle; his resentment at finding his wife given by her father to 
 another man, displayed in setting fire to the cornfields, vineyards, and 
 olive gardens of the- Philistines, by fire-brands tied to the tails of three 
 hundred foxes, which he caught for the purpose ; his being surrendered 
 on one occasion, to the imperious and revengeful Philistines, by three 
 thousand of his own servile and submissive countrymen; his escape 
 from Gaza, bearing on his shoulders the gates of the city ; his unhappy 
 love for the perfidious Delilah, and his great misfortune in being by her 
 deprived of his hair and strength, while sleeping on her lap upon 
 which the Philistines took him, put out his eyes, and threw him into 
 prison, bound in fetters of brass ; the recovery of his hair and strength, 
 and finally his last exploit, in pulling down the house of the Philistine 
 god, Dagon, and killing, together with himself, a vast multitude of 
 Philistines assembled to make sport of him ; thus slaying more at his 
 death than he had slain in his whole life. 
 
 It seemed proper to arrange the chronology of Eli and Samson, be- 
 fore leaving the book of Judges to enter upon that of Samuel. The 
 history of Samuel blends with the histories of both Eli and Saul. The 
 first chapter of the book of Samuel gives an account of his birth, in 
 2833, and of his early consecration to the Lord, by his mother Hannah, 
 who placed him in the tabernacle, under the care of Eli. The second 
 chapter relates the evil conduct of Eli's sons, and a prophecy against 
 his family. The third chapter describes the vision that revealed to 
 Samuel the destruction of Eli's family; Samuel then being a pupil of 
 Eli, in the service of the tabernacle. The fourth chapter relates the 
 disastrous overthrow of Israel by the Philistines, in two bat- 
 elSc. ^ es ' i fl tne latter of which Eli's two sons fell, and the ark was 
 taken which had been brought to the camp from Shiloh, in 
 a vain presumption of its affording protection to sinful Israel. When 
 Eli heard of the taking of the ark by the Philistines, and of the death 
 of his two sons, Hophni and Phinehas, he fell from his chair and broke 
 his neck. 
 
 The Philistines of Ashdod, afflicted with disease by the presence of 
 the ark, and seeing their god Dagon, twice fall down before it broken 
 in pieces, sent it away to their city of Gath ; whose inhabitants, also as- 
 sailed by disease, sent it to Ekron ; whence, for the same reason, the 
 people sent it away to Bethshemesh, in Israel. Here 50,000 Israelites 
 were smitten for looking into the ark, and the people removed 
 it to Kirjath-jearim, where it remained until David had it taken to 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 During the righteous government of Samuel, who succeeded Eli, the 
 Lord discomfited the Philistines with thunder, and the hand of the 
 Lord was against them all the time that Samuel judged Israel. Though 
 the conduct of Samuel himself had been upright, and beneficial to the 
 nation ; yet, in consequence of the alleged disorderly and oppressive 
 conduct of his sons, Joel and Abiah, in office under him, the people
 
 36 OUTLINE OF HEBREW HISTORY. 
 
 assembled, and petitioned Samuel to make them a king to judge them, 
 like all the nations. God was displeased at their thus rejecting his 
 divine authority, but gave them a king in his wrath; and by his special 
 directions, Samuel chose and anointed Saul, the son of Kish, 
 2909 a Benjarnite, to rule over them. Saul's prompt and success- 
 ful defence of Jabesh Gilead, east of Jordan, against the 
 inhuman Nahash, king of the Ammonites, soon rendered him popular 
 and completely established his authority. 
 
 KINGS OF ISRAEL AND JUDAH. , 
 
 SAUL reigned 40 } They reigned over the whole land of Israel ; 
 DAVID " 40 > which, after the death of Solomon, was divided 
 SOLOMON " 40 ) into two kingdoms, viz : Judah and Israel ; 3029. 
 
 The Philistines made repeated and vexatious inroads upon the land 
 of Israel : but it is not easy to ascertain the precise time of many 
 events that happened during Saul's reign of forty years. Chronologers 
 usually fix Jonathan's victory over the Philistines in the eighth year of 
 his father's reign ; Saul's expedition against, the Amalekites, in the six- 
 teenth year ; and the anointing of David at Bethlehem, in the thirty- 
 second 8, 16, '32, 40. For the sinful presumption of Saul, in assum- 
 ing the priest's office, and sacrificing before the arrival of Samuel ; for 
 his culpable adjuration of the people on the occasion of Jonathan's vic- 
 tory, in saying, " Cursed be the man that eateth any food till evening ; " 
 but more particularly for his flagrant disobedience in sparing king 
 Agag, and the best of the spoils, when Samuel had commanded him 
 utterly to destroy the Amalekites, and all they possessed, God rejected 
 him ; and Samuel, after hewing Agag in pieces, abandoned his rejected 
 king, and went home to Ramah. 
 
 Afterward God commanded Samuel to go to Bethlehem, in Judah, 
 
 under a pretence of sacrificing there, and anoint David, son 
 
 anoints Da- of Jesse, to be king instead of Saul. Jesse descended by two 
 
 vid - generations from Boaz and Ruth, and Boaz was a descendant 
 
 of Judah and Tamar. Reuben was the eldest son of Jacob; Joseph 
 
 was the favourite, and most worthy of the patriarchal succession. 
 
 The priesthood was given to the descendants of Levi ; but the royal 
 
 line was derived from Judah, the fourth son. David was of the tribe of 
 
 Judah, and from the line of David descendrd Jesus Christ. 
 
 .It seems to have been soon after the anointing of David, that Saul, 
 
 being informed of his superior skill in playing upon the harp, sent for 
 
 him to play away his evil spirit ; and it was probably in the same year 
 
 that David slew the gigantic Goliath, proud champion of the 
 
 ^Gotia&r Philistines. David's valjant deeds, and the popular praise 
 
 that he received, excited the deadly envy and hatred of Saul. 
 
 After giving David his daughter Mic.hal in marriage, by which he 
 
 hoped to ensnare him, Saul continually persecuted his son-in-law, and 
 
 sought his life with the most unrelenting malice. 
 
 While David remained with Saul, he several times very narrowly 
 escaped being killed by the hands of his father-in-law, and, when he 
 finally fled, he owed his escape to the faithful care and counsel of
 
 OUTLINE OP HEBREW HISTORY. 37 
 
 Jonathan, Saul's son. After obtaining Goliath's sword of Ahimelech, 
 the priest at Nob, and diverting the resentment of Achish, at Gath, by 
 feigning himself mad, David retired to the cave of Adullum, in Judah, 
 where his father's family came to him, and also great numbers of dis- 
 tressed and disaffected people, who made him a captain over them. Be- 
 cause Ahimelech, the priest, gave the sword of Goliath to David, Saul 
 caused him to be killed, with all his family, except Abiathar, his son, 
 who escaped to David. Driven from place to place by the persevering 
 pursuit of Saul, David several times hardly escaped falling into his 
 hands ; but twice he had the life of his pursuer in his power, and nobly 
 spared him. 
 
 At length David, with his two wives, Abigail and Abinoam, whom 
 
 he had recently married, and his numerous followers, took 
 
 refuge 'with refuge at Gath, with Achish, king of the Philistines. Dur- 
 
 * h ? ing his residence at Ziklag, a place which Achish gave him, 
 
 Philistines. .,. i i i i i ji 
 
 David signalized his valour against the Amalekites, and other 
 idolatrous nations, pretending to Achish on his return that his enter- 
 prises had been directed against Israel. The king put confidence in 
 him, and intended to have his aid in the approaching battle with the 
 Israelites; but David was spared the trial either of disobliging his pro- 
 tector, or of fighting against his own brethren, by the jealous interposi- 
 tion of the Philistine princes, who feared that he would turn against 
 them in the hour of battle. Samuel had now been dead two years, and 
 his anointed son of Bethlehem seemed as far from the throne, as when 
 he was first anointed, eight years before. But nothing could defeat the 
 predestined elevation of David to the throne of Israel ; nothing could 
 
 longer protract the doom and downfall of Saul, who derived 
 Witc do r f Ea 'from the Witch of Endor, and the ghost of Samuel, nothing 
 
 but the most dismaying confirmation of his foreboding fears. 
 The Israelites were overcome at Gilboa, by the Philistines ; Jonathan 
 was killed in battle, and Saul, wounded and despairing, fell upon his 
 own sword. David lamented Saul and Jonathan in a song, and killed 
 the Amalekite, who, bringing the tidings of Saul's death, hoped to 
 recommend himself to David's favour, by pretending that he despatched 
 the king. 
 
 By God's direction, David went immediately to Hebron, 
 
 where he was made king of Judah, and reigned seven years ; 
 
 while Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, set up by Abner, reigned 
 over the other tribes, and lived at Mahanaim, east of Jordan. During 
 these seven years, David's power continually increased, till finally, Ish- 
 bosheth was betrayed by Abner, and slain by his own captains. After 
 the death of Ishbosheth, David was acknowledged king of the whole 
 
 land of Israel, and reigned thirty-three years at Jerusalem, 
 K and"rae] abwnicl1 he to k from the Jebusites, who seem to have held, till 
 
 this time, the strong fortress of Zion. Within four or five 
 years from this time, he subdued the Philistines, Amalekites, Edomites, 
 Moabites, Midianites, and Syrians, and made an alliance with Toi, 
 
 king of Hamath. It was in this interval, that he caused the 
 
 Ark brought ar k [ fo e brought from Kirjath-jearim, and placed in a taber- 
 
 Jerusaiem. nacle purposely prepared for it at Jerusalem. Michal, Saul's 
 
 daughter, who had been restored to David by Abner, derided
 
 38 OUTLINE OP HEBREW HISTORY. 
 
 the king for dancing before the ark, and was for that offence left in 
 neglect by her husband. David, remembering the kindness of Jona- 
 than, sent for his son Mephibosheth, entertained him at his table, and 
 gave him Saul's possessions. 
 
 David having subdued all the surrounding nations, but the Ammo- 
 nites ; finally made war upon them, because they insulted his ambas- 
 sadors : and Joab, David's captain, overthrew the confederated forces 
 of Ammonites and Syrians. He then laid siege to Kabbah, the capital 
 of Ammon, whose inhabitants David cruelly tortured after the city was 
 taken. At this siege, David caused Uriah to be killed, and shortly 
 after married Bathsheba, Uriah's widow, in the twentieth year of his 
 
 reign, 2969. Two years after, Solomon was born, the second 
 Solomon, son of David by Bathsheba. The next year after the birth of 
 
 Solomon, Amnon, a son of David, provoked the mortal en- 
 mity of his half-brother Absalom, by his cruel and unnatural treatment 
 of Tamar, Absalom's full sister. Two years afterward, Absalom, to 
 avenge his sister Tamar, invited Amnon to a feast, perfidiously killed 
 him, and fled to his grandfather Talmai, king of Geshur, where he 
 lived three years, till David recalled him by the persuasion of Joab. 
 David did not admit Absalom into his presence until two years after his 
 return to Jerusalem. During the next two years, Absalom artfully and 
 
 assiduously studied to conciliate the favour and affection of 
 Ab bemon! re tne people ; then going to Bethlehem, under a pretence of 
 
 sacrificing, he collected an army, by the advice of the traitor 
 Ahithophel, rebelled against his father, drove him from Jerusalem, and 
 pursued him over Jordan. Here a battle took place, in which Absalom 
 was defeated by Joab, who pursued and despatched the rebel son, to 
 the great grief of David, and contrary to his express commands. Two 
 years before his death, David's people were visited by a destructive pes- 
 tilence, inflicted as a chastisement for his sinful vanity in numbering 
 the people by the temptation of Satan. See 1 Chronicles, 21st chapter. 
 
 In the last year of David's reign, Adonijah, one of his sons, 
 tempted to ^ advantage of the feeble and declining state of his father's 
 usurpation, health, to make himself king, by the assistance of Joab, and 
 
 Abiathar, the priest ; but David caused Solomon to be anoint- 
 ed by Nathan, the prophet, and Zadok, a priest of the line of Eleazer. 
 After the death of David, Joab and Adonijah were put to death by 
 Solomon ; Abiathar was deposed, and Zadak received the priesthood, 
 which seems to have been divided between them during the reign of 
 David. David died, aged 70, in 2989. He committed great faults 
 during his reign, for which he was deeply penitent. 
 
 Solomon transcended all the kings of Israel in power, 
 nwjfc magnificence, glory, and wisdom. David was not permitted 
 
 to build the temple of the Lord, because he was a man of 
 war and blood ; but Solomon enjoyed a peaceful reign over the exten- 
 sive dominions left him by his father, and in the fourth year of his 
 
 reign he commenced the building of the temple. Hiram, 
 
 3000 king of Tyre, furnished him skilful artificers, and the cedars 
 
 Thetempie of Lebanon He j^ 70,000 men employed to bear burthens, 
 
 and 80,000 hewers in the mountains, besides 3,300 officers 
 to oversee the workmen. The length of the temple was 60 cubits,
 
 HISTORY OP THE KINGS OP ISRAEL. 39 
 
 its breadth 20, and its height 30. It was finished and dedicated with 
 great ceremony in the eleventh year of Solomon's reign in 3000. 
 Solomon also built two magnificent palaces, one for himself, and an- 
 other for his queen, the daughter of Pharaoh king of Egypt. He im- 
 posed heavy burthens on his people, to meet his immense expenditures, 
 but he, as well as David, derived vast riches and treasures from the 
 traffic of the Red Sea, where they possessed a port and a fleet after the 
 conquest of Edom. Solomon died in 3029. 
 
 History of the Kings of Israel. 
 
 KINGS OF ISRAEL. 
 
 JEROBOAM. AHAB. ZACHIRIAH. 
 
 NADAB. AHAZIAH. 
 
 JEHORAM. SHALLTJM. 
 BAASHA. 
 
 ELAH. JEHTT. MENAHEM. 
 
 JEHOAAZ. PEKAHIAH. 
 
 ZIMRI. JOASH. PEKAH. 
 
 JEROBOAM 2d. HOSEA. 
 OMRI. 
 
 The kingdom of David and Solomon included all the twelve tribes 
 
 of Israel, and most of the adjoining countries ; but God declared in 
 
 the time of Solomon that his kingdom should be divided, and that only 
 
 two tribes should remain faithful to his son Rehoboam. Solo- 
 
 Rehoboam, mon ' s & ' m j n introducing a corrupt and idolatrous worship by 
 
 KingofJu- . . r i i i , i K - J 
 
 dah. the influence of his strange wives, provoked this declaration 
 
 of God's judgment. In his vain presumption, the son of 
 Solomon rejected the advice of the old men, and listening to the young 
 men, spurned the humble petition of his subjects, who prayed for a 
 reduction of the heavy taxes imposed by his father. The 
 3029 harsh and reproachful answer of the young king drove into 
 Re io tribw'.' 6 immediate revolt the ten northern and eastern tribes, which 
 from that time constituted a separate kingdom, called Israel. 
 The two tribes of Judah and Benjamin remained faithful to the line 
 of David, and were called the kingdom of Judah. After this event the 
 kings of Syria maintained their complete independence, and often made 
 destructive inroads into the kingdom of Israel. The Ammonites and 
 Moabites submitted to the kings of Israel ; but the Philistines and 
 Edomites remained subject to Rehoboam, king of Judah. The boun- 
 daries between the kingdoms of Judah and Israel did not invariably 
 remain the same, but occasionally changed with the vicissitudes of 
 power incident to the almost incessant wars that raged between the 
 two rival nations. There is reason to believe that Simeon and a part 
 of Dan were early incorporated with the kingdom of Judah.
 
 40 HISTORY OP THE KINGS OP ISRAEL. 
 
 Jeroboam was an officer under Solomon, when Ahijah the 
 
 Jeroboam prophet declared to him God's purpose to divide the king- 
 King of *, j T i i j i i 
 Israel. dom, and Jeroboam being expressly named by the prophet as 
 
 the future king of the ten tribes, was obliged to flee from 
 the presence of 8olomon into Egypt, whence he returned after the 
 death of his offended king, and was made king of the dismembered 
 tribes. The history of the kings of Israel exhibits a uniformly dis- 
 gusting picture of wickedness and idolatry, scarcely exceeded in later 
 times by the degenerate successors of Alexander and Augustus. Jero- 
 boam at first made Shechem his capital, which he rebuilt 258 years 
 after it was destroyed byAbimelech; but he afterwards resided at 
 Tirzah. To prevent his people from going to Jerusalem to worship, 
 he set up two golden calves for them to serve; one at Bethel, 
 on his south border, the other at Dan, on his north border. 
 He made priests of the lowest of the people, and cast off the Levites, 
 who all flocked to Jerusalem, and strengthened Rehoboam. He made 
 altars, groves, and higJi places for idolatrous worship, and impiously 
 exercised the priest's office himself. See 1 Kings, chapters xii. 
 and xiii. 
 
 Nadab Nadab, the son and successor of Jeroboam, imitated all the 
 
 perverse and idolatrous practices of his father. After a short 
 career of folly and wickedness, he was cut off by the traitor 
 
 Baasha. _ , J .. . '. . . / . 
 
 Baasha, who, having killed his king, usurped the vacant 
 throne, and destroyed the whole family of Jeroboam, thereby fulfilling 
 the prediction of Ahijah the prophet. See 1 Kings, chapters xii. and 
 xiii. Baasha and his family, by following all the flagitious sins of 
 Jeroboam, provoked a similar prophecy, and experienced the same 
 E fate. Elah, the son of Baasha, was killed by Zimri, one of his 
 
 captains, who also destroyed the whole family of Baasha and 
 Elah, and seized the reins of government; by which was fulfilled the 
 prophecy of Jehu. Omri, another captain of Elah, who was absent 
 
 with the army, hearing that Elah was killed, and Zimri, his 
 
 Zimri. , * ' 111-11 
 
 murderer, upon the throne, returned and besieged the usurp- 
 er in Tirzah. After a short siege, Zimri, finding that his rival would 
 prevail, set fire to the palace, and perished in the flames. Omri sup- 
 ported his pretensions to the throne, and reigned about twelve 
 years, though a part of the nation followed Tibni, another 
 competitor. In the sixth year of his reign, Omri built Samaria, on the 
 borders of Ephraim and Manasseh, and made his new city the perma- 
 nent capital of the kingdom. 
 
 Ahab Three kings of Israel descended from Omri : Ahab, Aha- 
 
 ziah, and Jehoram. Ahab married the infamous Jezebel, 
 Jezebel his daughter of the king of Tyre, and surpassed all the other 
 queen! kings of Israel in idolatry, corruption, wickedness, and 
 cruelty. By the influence of his Tyrian queen, he introduc- 
 ed into Israel the idolatrous priests and altars, and the false gods of 
 Tyre. Elijah the prophet, having denounced a grievous 
 drought and famine, fled from the presence and pursuit of 
 Ahab: but after concealing himself three years at the brook Cherith, 
 and with the poor woman at Zarephath, he returned to the enraged 
 king, and caused him to assemble all Israel, and the nine hundred and
 
 HISTORY OF THE KINGS OF ISRAEL. 41 
 
 fifty false prophets of Jezebel, at Mount Carmel. The assembled peo- 
 ple, seeing that the false prophets could not call down fire from heaven 
 to consume their sacrifices, as Elijah did, fell upon them in a rage and 
 slew them. Then, at the prayer of Elijah, a plentiful shower of rain 
 descended upon the whole land. Elijah having soon after fled into the 
 wilderness from the fury of Jezebel, was commanded by God to return 
 and anoint Elisha for his successor. 
 
 Ahab was twice reduced to great distress by Benhadadj 
 lamaril king ^ Syria, who besieged Samaria with immense armies; 
 but God gave Israel strength, and victory, in both instances, 
 and they slew an hundred thousand Syrians. 
 
 Naboth, of Jezreel, having refused to sell Ahab his vineyard, Jeze- 
 bel caused him to be stoned to death, upon the accusation of false wit- 
 nesses. For this horrid deed, Elijah appeared, and denounced the 
 utter extinction of the whole family of Ahab. 
 
 Trusting to the false prophets, and spurning the admonitions of Mi- 
 caiah, a true prophet, Ahab, accompanied by Jehoshaphat, king of 
 Judah, led his armies against the king of Syria, then at Ramoth-Gi- 
 lead, east of Jordan. Notwithstanding his cowardly precautions, in 
 leaving off his royal robes when the hostile armies engaged, " a cer* 
 tain man drew a bow at a venture, and killed him." 
 
 Ahaziah, the son of Ahab. lying dangerously sick of a fall, 
 sent to consult Baalzebub, the god of Ekron, concerning his 
 recovery. Elijah met the messengers, and told them that the king should 
 surely die. Two companies of fifty men, successively, sent bv the 
 king to take Elijah, were consumed by fire from heaven; but the cap- 
 tain of the third company, entreating for his life, was spared by the 
 prophet, who voluntarily went with him to the king, and told him that 
 he must die. Ahaziah was succeeded by his brother Jeho- 
 ram, the last of his race who filled the throne of Israel. It 
 seems to have been soon after the death of Ahaziah, that Elijah was 
 taken up to heaven in a chariot of fire, leaving his mantle and his pro- 
 phetic office to Elisha. See in 2 Kings, an account of the 
 anointing of Hazael by Elisha, to be king of Syria, instead 
 of Benhadad. 
 
 See in % Kings, the latter part of the eighth, and the whole of the 
 ninth chapter, ithe account of a joint expedition of Jehoram, king of 
 Israel, and Ahaziah, king of Judah, against Hazael, the new king of 
 Syria, then at Ramoth-Gilead, Jehoram having retired from the army 
 to Jezreel to be cured of a wpund that he had received in battle, was 
 visited there soon after by Ahaziah. In the absence of the two kings 
 from the army, Jehu, one of Jehoram's captains, was anoint- 
 ed 1 king!" ed king by the direction of Elisha, and being acknowledged 
 treacheroudy jjy tne arm y j le proceeded in great haste to Jezreel, where 
 
 kills the kings J i .,i j L ii r -i 
 
 of Judah and he killed the two kings, and destroyed the w.hole family of 
 Israel. A.hab, according to the prophecy of Elijah. Wicked Jeze- 
 bel, immediately after the death of her son Jehoram, was cast out of 
 a window and devoured by dogs. Jehu established himself on the 
 throne of Israel by destroying all the family of Ahab, and all the priests 
 of Baal, that had been maintained by this wicked family. But Jehu 
 practised all the sins of Jeroboam the first. During the reign of Jeho- 
 
 (i
 
 42 HISTORY OF THE KINGS OF JUDAH. 
 
 ahaz, the son of Jehu, Israel suffered greatly from the inroads of Ha- 
 zael, king of Syria, who took all the country east of Jordan ; but Joash, 
 the son of Jehoahaz, recovered what his father had lost, and vanquished 
 Benhadad, the son of Hazael, three times. Elisha, in his dying mo- 
 ments, had promised Joash these three victories. Jeroboam II. the son 
 of Joash, pursued his father's success, and even took Hamath, in Syria, 
 and Damascus, the capital. Zechariah, the last of the family of Jehu, 
 was killed by Shallum. who, after reigning one month, Avas, in his turn, 
 killed by Menahem. Menahem exacted large sums of money from 
 . his subjects, to purchase the forbearance and retreat of Pul, 
 vasionintiie king of Assyria, who invaded Israel. Pekahiah, the son of 
 ahem fMen ~ Menahem, was killed by Pekah, one of his captains. Pekah 
 was killed by Hosea, with whom the kingdom ended. The 
 particulars of the reigns of Pekah and Hosea, will be related in con- 
 nexion with the history of Judah. 
 
 History of the Kings of Judah. 
 
 KINGS OF JUDAH. 
 
 REHOBOAM. A THAU AH. MANASSEH. 
 
 AMON. 
 
 ABIJAH. JOASH. 
 
 ASA. AMAZIAH. JOSIAH. 
 
 AZARIAH. JEHOAHAS. 
 
 JEHOSHAPHAT. JOTHAM. JOHOIAKIM. 
 
 JEHORAM. JEHOIAKIN. 
 
 AHAZ. 
 
 AHAZIAH. HEZEKIAH. ZEDEKIAH. 
 
 The people of Israel were afflicted with great national calamities for 
 the sins of David and Solomon ; but those eminent personages redeem- 
 ed their characters and their people, by sincere penitence and general 
 piety. Unfortunately, the majority of their royal descendants were 
 gross and impenitent transgressors, who brought a long train of woe 
 upon their people, and finally drew down ruin and captivity upon their 
 devoted country. Asa, Jehoshaphat, Hezekiah, and Josiah, sustain 
 exalted characters in the sacred annals; but their pious efforts were 
 exerted in vain to reform the abuses and corruptions which nearly all 
 the other descendants of Solomon openly practised and encouraged. 
 Rehoboam not only imitated his father's sins, but shamefully multi- 
 plied the objects and forms of idolatry. To punish him, and his infatu- 
 ated people, God permitted Shishak, (by some supposed to be 
 piunderTthe l ^ e ce l eDrate d Sesostris,) king of Egypt, to invade the land 
 
 temple, of Judah, break into Jerusalem, and plunder the holy temple. 
 Abijah, the son of Rehoboam, had signal success in his war 
 with Jeroboam, king of Israel ; but he imitated, and even exceeded, the 
 idolatry of his father.
 
 HISTORY OF THE KINGS OF JUDAH. 43 
 
 Asa was a pious and good king; he abolished many cor- 
 king Asa. rupt practices; and, trusting in the Lord, he repulsed an im- 
 mense army of Ethiopians. But in a later period of his reign, 
 he made an unhallowed alliance with Benhadad, king of Syria, against 
 Baasha, king of Israel, instead of seeking the protection of the Lord. 
 Jehoshaphat surpassed his father, Asa, in his measures of reform. He 
 caused the laws of Moses to be taught throughout his dominions, and 
 made his authority to be respected, both at home and abroad. But 
 he was reproved for joining Ahab in his fatal expedition to Ramoth- 
 Gilead; he lost his fleet on the Red Sea, for admitting Ahab's son, 
 Ahaziah, to have a concern in it; and he improperly suffered his son 
 Jehoram to marry Athaliah, the daughter of wicked Ahab and Jezebel. 
 Jehoram, on his father's death, put all his own brothers and several 
 other princes to death. By the influence of his infamous queen, Atha- 
 liah, he practised every species of cruelty and abomination. He was 
 punished by the revolt of Edom, and the consequent loss of 
 Edom. the port and traffic on the Red Sea. Fie spent the last two 
 years of his life in great torment, and at last literally fell to 
 pieces, and died from the effects of painful and protracted disease. An 
 account has already been given of the death of Jehoram's son, Aha- 
 ziah, who was killed by Jehu. Queen Athaliah survived her husband, 
 Jehoram, and her son, Ahaziah, ascended the vacant throne on the 
 death of the latter, and murdered all the sons of Ahaziah, except Joash, 
 an infant, who was saved by the high priest, and concealed in the tem- 
 ple six years. At the end of that time, the high priest anointed Joash, 
 aged seven years, and presented him to the people, who, attracting 
 Athaliah to the temple by their shouts, fell upon her, and slew her. 
 The reader is referred to Chronicles for the short history, and mixed 
 or indifferent characters of the four next kings. 
 
 Early in the reign of Ahaz, the land of Judah was invad- 
 , Ahaz . b "y* ed and ravaged by Syrians, Israelites, Philistines, and Am- 
 
 the aid of tlife . TI-J- i i < TIT i- < 
 
 Assyrian monites. In HIS distress, the wicked king applied lor relief 
 tii^invldhTs to Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria, whose aid he ignobly 
 Syrians with and impiously purchased with the sacred treasures of the 
 5aC sures. rea holy temple. The Assyrian monarch first marched his ar- 
 mies into Syria, took Damascus, the capital, slew Rezin 
 the king, sent the people captive into Assyria, and put an end to the 
 kingdom of Syria. He then overrun the four northern and three east- 
 ern tribes of Israel, and sent the people into captivity. Hosea, who 
 murdered and succeeded Pekah in Israel, submitted for a while to 
 Shalmanezer, the son of Tiglath-Pileser; but at length, impatient of 
 tribute and dependence, he entered into an alliance with So, or Sabacon, 
 king of Egypt, and thus completed the ruin of his little kingdom, 
 which had already been reduced to two tribes, in the time of Pekah. 
 To punish Hosea for his defection, Shalmanezer entered his kingdom 
 with an army, and besieged Samaria, the capital. After a siege of 
 three years, Shalmanezer took the city, sent all the people 
 3283 i e ft by Tiglath-Pileser into captivity beyond the Euphrates, 
 
 F tivity. P and repeopled the country with Assyrians. This is the com- 
 pletion of what is called the first captivity, or captivity of the 
 len tribes, in 3283.
 
 44 HISTORY OF THE KINGS OP JUDAH. 
 
 While Shalmanezer was prosecuting- the siege of Samaria, 
 The good Hezekiah, the worthy son of wicked Ahaz, was employed in 
 Hezekiah. reforming the religion, and improving the state of his king- 
 dom ; and during his whole reign, the Assyrian monarch 
 was too much occupied with other projects to disturb these pious and 
 patriotic labours. It was reserved for the wild and furious Sennache- 
 rib to interrupt for a while the tranquillity of Judah, and by outrages 
 and blasphemies, to provoke the vengeance of heaven upon himself and 
 his devoted army. AH the busy preparations and precautions of He- 
 zekiah, seemed impotent and vain ; the vast sums that he had paid 
 to the greedy invader failed to satisfy him ; the expected relief from 
 the Ethiopian Tirhahah, (afterward king of Egypt) produced nothing 
 but disappointment: but when all seemed lost, the promises and pro- 
 phecies of Isaiah were fulfilled by a single blow of the destroying an- 
 gel, which killed a hundred and eighty-five thousand of the 
 of^ranache- Assyrian army, and left Sennacherib to return home, covered 
 rib. with shame and confusion, where he was assassinated by his 
 
 own sons. It is necessary to read Isaiah, in addition to 
 Kings and Chronicles, to get a complete account of Ahaz and Heze- 
 kiah. 
 
 Could Hezekiah have foreseen the infatuation of future kings, and 
 the early depravity and disgraceful captivity of his son Manasseh, he 
 might have forgotten to deplore the misdeeds of a father, in the over- 
 whelming prospect of future shame and misfortune. After the cap- 
 tivity of Manasseh, by the Assyrian Esarhaddon, Judah seems to have 
 been dependent on the Assyrian, or Babylonish kings, till the final 
 destruction of Jerusalem. Amon was a wicked and idolatrous prince, 
 but his son Josiah laboured with great zeal to root out idolatry, and 
 restore the purity of religious worship. In the last year of his life, 
 Josiah went out to oppose Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt, who was 
 passing through his territories against the king of Babylon. In the 
 battle that took place, the good king was killed by an archer. On the 
 death of Josiah, the people made Jehoahaz, his youngest son, king. 
 But when Pharaoh Necho returned from the Euphrates, he deposed 
 Jehoahaz, after he had reigned three months, and set up Jehoiakim, 
 Jeremiah. Josiah's eldest son, for king. Jeremiah, who began to pro- 
 phesy in the time of Josiah, in vain denounced the wicked 
 course of all the kings that reigned in Judah after that pious monarch, 
 For his bold admonitions he was frequently arraigned, and for a long- 
 time kept shut up in prison. 
 
 Two years before his death, Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, sent 
 his son and associate Nebuchadnezzar, with an army into Judah. 
 Nebuchad- While besieging Jerusalem, the Babylonish king took Je- 
 nezzar exacu hoiakim prisoner, and bound him in fetters, with an intention 
 tr jeho e iak f toT to . carr y ^ m to Babylon, but restored him to the throne on 
 his humbling himself, and submitting to tribute. Nebuchad- 
 nezzar, on this occasion, caused a selection to be made of royal and 
 noble youths, of the fairest countenance and brightest parts, and sent 
 Daniel. them to Babylon. Daniel was among these captives ; and 
 sw captivity. he re commenced the second captivity, in 3398.
 
 HISTORY OF THE KINGS OP JUDAH. 45 
 
 After submitting several years, Jehoiakim rebelled against 
 Rebels. m Nebuchadnezzar, who immediately sent his armies to reduce 
 him to obedience. The war had been conducted about three 
 years, when Jehoiachin, or Jechoniah, became king by the death of his 
 father. The new king, after reigning three months, came out of the 
 city, accompanied by his mother and his princes, and surrendered to 
 Zedekiah ^ e ^ n S f Babylon, wjio made Zedekiah, a son of Josiah, 
 made king, king, and sent a great number of people captive to Babylon. 
 Ezekiei. Ezekiel, who was one of the captives, always dates from the 
 captivity of Jehoiachin. Jeremiah, knowing that the Jews must re- 
 main in captivity seventy years, wrote a letter to the Jews at Babylon, 
 admonishing them not to believe the dreams of the lying prophets, who 
 foretold the speedy restoration of Jehoiaehin and his captive people; 
 and the prophet enjoined them to settle down quietly till the expiration 
 of the seventy years. He also exhorted Zedekiah and the neighbour- 
 ing princes, to submit to the king of Babylon, and threatened them 
 with terrible calamities if they rebelled. 
 
 In the ninth year of Zedekiah, the king of Babylon learning that he 
 
 had entered into a league with the king of Egypt, advanced with a 
 
 great army into Judah, took many cities, and besieged Jeru- 
 
 Jerysalem , -f , , , . J ., m^ ' r 
 
 besieged, salem. Jeremiah was shut up in the court of the prison for 
 advising the king and people to submit; yet he persisted in 
 giving the same advice, even after Nebuchadnezzar had raised the 
 siege to defend himself against the king of Egypt; and the prophet 
 boldly declared that the king of Egypt would afford no relief, and that 
 the king of Babylon would certainly return to the siege, and take both 
 the city and the king. King Zedekiah frequently consulted this pro- 
 phet while in prison concerning the event of the war, and uniformly 
 received for answer, that he must submit to the king of Babylon, or 
 abide the most awful consequences of his obstinacy. Finally, Zede- 
 kiah seeing that the Babylonians had made a breach in the wall of the 
 city, fled in the night, but was pursued by the enemy, overtaken in the 
 plains of Jericho, and carried to Nebuchadnezzar, then at Riblah, in 
 Syria. There, after seeing all his sons and all his princes killed, his eyes 
 
 Zedekiah were P ut out ' an( ^ ^ e was sent to Babylon, where he shortly 
 dies at Baby- after died. The Babylonians having entered Jerusalem, and 
 broken down the walls, proceeded to burn the temple, the 
 3416 king's palace, and all the houses in the city. All the people 
 of W Jera!ia" were carried captive to Babylon, except the poorer sort, who 
 com' ? "if were l e ft to cultivate the vineyards and the fields, under the 
 of the 2nd direction of Gedaliah, a Jew, whom Nebuchadnezzar appoint- 
 capiivity. e( j g 0vernor O f t ne \ an ^ Jeremiah chose to remain in his 
 own country, though he had the offer of enjoying at Babylon the 
 friendship of Nebuchadnezzar. Gedaliah having been treacherously 
 killed shortly after his appointment, the people fled into Egypt, fearing 
 the resentment of the king of Babylon. Jeremiah assured them that 
 they would suffer no injury if they remained where they were ; but 
 if they went to Egypt, the sword which they feared would overtake 
 them there ; for he foresaw and foretold that Nebuchadnezzar would 
 conquer Egypt. The people compelled the prophet, contrary to his 
 wishes, to accompany them into Egypt, where it is known that he re
 
 46 HISTORY OP EGYPT. 
 
 mained a considerable time; but the time and place of his death are 
 not known. The destruction of Jerusalem, and desolation of Judah, 
 in 3410, was the completion of the second captivity; but the com- 
 mencement of the seventy years captivity was in 3398, when Daniel 
 was taken. 
 
 The rich and commercial city of Tyre, had in early times main- 
 tained the most friendly relations with David and Solomon ; but in the 
 declining days of the Jewish kingdom, the Tyrians exulted over the 
 calamities of God's people, and thereby ensured those terrible denunci- 
 ations proclaimed by the prophet Ezekiel, and executed by Nebuchad- 
 nezzar. But the reduction of Tyre cost the king of Babylon the per- 
 severing efforts of thirteen years; and when at last the greedy Baby- 
 lonians entered the place behold! a new city grown up on an island, 
 half a mile distant from the shore, to which the people had removed 
 Avith their effects, leaving the conquerors to wreak their vengeance on 
 empty walls. But this wretched pay for men whose " every head was 
 bald, and every shoulder peeled," was soon made good by a successful 
 expedition into Egypt, which was overrun, wasted, and plundered, by 
 the armies of Nebuchadnezzar, as had been prophecied by Jeremiah 
 and Ezekiel. For further particulars relating to Nebuchadnezzar, the 
 reader is referred to Kings, Chronicles, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Dan- 
 iel. On his death his son, Evil Merodach, released king Jehoiachin 
 from prison, and paid him great respect, as head of the captivity, and 
 nominal prince of the Jews at Babylon. 
 
 History of Egypt to JIM. 3500. 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 IN Egypt the wonderful structures raised by human art and ser- 
 vile hands, attest the early power and despotism, as well as the empty 
 vanity of its kings ; and these towering wonders, no less than the num- 
 ber and extent of its cities, proclaim the immensity of its population, and 
 strongly incline us to lament the obscurity of its early history. No re- 
 solution can overcome the utter aversion of the mind to the dry and 
 barren chronicles of this wonderful country. We are not easily recon- 
 ciled to names and sounds that grate harshly on the ear, even when 
 they represent objects of interest ; and this difficulty is increased in ten- 
 fold proportion, when these barbarous and uncouth names denote in- 
 significant individuals, or persons whose history is uncertain or 
 unknown. A single glance at the long list of one hundred and thirty- 
 nine pretended kings of Egypt, is sufficient to dishearten the most re- 
 solute learner, who has any other object than to try his organic skill 
 in uttering strange and awkward combinations of sounds. The name 
 and fame of Sesostris, might afford a pleasing exception, if historians 
 could determine within five hundred years when that renowned con- 
 queror broke loose from Egypt, overrun Asia and Europe, and even 
 marched triumphantly over the wide domain of some ancient Assyrian 
 lord.
 
 HISTORY OF EGYPT. 47 
 
 From the earliest ages there had been four kingdoms in Egypt, viz: 
 Heliopolis or Lower Egypt, Thebes or Upper Egypt, and This and 
 Memphis between them, till, in 2320, Nitocris, queen of Memphis, 
 united This and Thebes to her dominions. 
 
 Profane historians tell us, that about fifteen years before the death 
 of Joseph, the Shepherd kings adventurers from Arabia con- 
 quered Heliopolis, or Lower Egypt, and reigned at Tanis, till the 
 race was expelled, 2784. The Old Testament gives the history of 
 Egypt, only so far as it is connected with the Jewish history. After 
 the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, they appear to 
 
 3000 have held little intercourse with that country, till the reign of 
 Solomon. From this period there is some slight connexion 
 between the histories of the two countries, and some notice is taken 
 of Egyptian affairs in the Scriptures. 
 
 From Psammetichus to Alexander, three hundred years, we obtain 
 
 considerable information from the Jewish writers. This is the time 
 
 when the swords of Egypt and Assyria clashed over the heads of the 
 
 Israelites. During the reign of Apries,(the Pharaoh Hophrah 
 
 3400 of Scripture,) extended plans of conquest were formed, partly 
 Hophrah. against Asia, partly against Gyrene, in Africa. The event, 
 proving unsuccessful, occasioned a rebellion among the Egyp- 
 tians, who were generally opposed to foreign wars. A civil war 
 ensued, in which Apries loses his throne and life; and with him, the 
 dynasty of Psammetichus ended. 
 
 There was much intercourse between the Greeks and the Egyptians 
 in this age ; many of the former settled in Egypt ; many visited it as 
 travellers among whom were Pythagoras and Herodotus. Egypt is 
 full of wonders when authentic history commences wonders of me- 
 chanic arts, monuments of labour, ingenuity, and expense. Who exe- 
 cuted them, no one can tell. 
 
 The world is full of disputes concerning the literature of Egypt. It 
 had no learning in the common sense of the word ; no books ; no authors, 
 not even scraps for Pythagoras and Herodotus to examine; no history, 
 except the juggling fables made up by their priests, who could not read 
 the inscriptions on their own pyramids and temples. Herodotus tries 
 to believe all, and make something out of his visit, but it amounts to 
 little. 
 
 3478 Egypt was conquered by Cambyses, 3478, and remained 
 cambyaes. su bj e ct to Persia at 3500. 
 
 KINGS OF ASSYRIA. 
 
 PTTL/ SENNACHERIB. 
 
 SARDANAPALUS. ESARHADDON. 
 
 TlGLATH-PlLESER. NEBUCHADNEZZAR, 1st. 
 
 SHALMANEZER. SARACUS. 
 
 KINGS OF BABYLON. 
 
 NABOPOJ.ASSAR, EVIL MERODACH, 
 
 NEBUCHADNEZZAR, BELSHAZZAR.
 
 48 HISTORY OP EGYPT. 
 
 General remarks relating to the Assyrian Empire. 
 
 Profane historians usually attribute a great extent and duration to 
 
 the first Assyrian Empire, of which Sardanapalus is said to have been 
 
 the last king. Some authors have condescended to offer a list of the 
 
 names of about forty mute monarchs ; whose story, if they ever lived or 
 
 reigned, has not been told. In relation to this subject, we 
 
 Foundation may remark, that authentic history ascertains the early ex- 
 
 an the itapire istence of a great empire, in the west of Asia, which had 
 
 uncertain. fj rs t Nineveh for its capital, and afterward Babylon ; and 
 
 which was finally overthrown by Cyrus, the Persian. Of 
 
 the commencement, duration, extent, or power, of the first Assyrian 
 
 Empire, we have no authentic records to inform us. Some make 
 
 Nimrod, others Belus, and others again Ninus, the founder of this 
 
 empire ; but they differ widely in fixing the date of its foundation. It 
 
 is vain to seek either for the founder, or the time of its foundation. 
 
 It is reasonable to suppose, that there were many petty kingdoms, 
 
 but no great consolidated empire in the west of Asia, till after the time 
 
 of David and Solomon ; perhaps not till the time of Tiglath- 
 
 Limitedin pijeser, and his successors. Yet historians vainly attribute 
 
 extent before _. ... . . 
 
 the time of to INinus and Semiramis vast power, immense armies, and 
 tomon. &S distant conquests; and this was before the time of Abraham, 
 according to their chronology, and not four centuries after the 
 flood. Before we ascribe a vast population to the countries about the 
 Euphrates, at so early a period, we should recollect that those countries 
 must have been continually drained to people other regions. There 
 were cities in the time of Abraham, but those cities were small ; there 
 were kingdoms, but those kingdoms were insignificant. We read in 
 Genesis, that four eastern kings advanced against the petty kings of 
 Canaan, and overthrew them ; but Abraham, with his servants, and a 
 few neighbours, pursued and vanquished the four eastern kings in their 
 retreat. 
 
 It is evident, from the histories of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, that 
 people were thinly scattered over the western regions of Asia in their 
 time. The power of David and Solomon probably exceeded that of 
 any king that had ever reigned before in any of the countries of Asia. 
 The Israelites often bowed down under the oppression of petty neigh- 
 bours ; but so far from having been disturbed by any great neighbour- 
 ing monarchy, they never had occasion even to mention such a one in 
 their annals, till about 3250. 
 
 Such as would mount high up the stream of time in search of won- 
 ders, may find ample scope for their imaginations in the thirteen or 
 fourteen centuries, attributed to the duration of this. fabulous empire. 
 Happily but few fables have as yet been invented for this dark inter- 
 val, though a long list of insignificant names have been found or in- 
 vented for a race of real or supposed kings. Commencing in the 
 eighteenth, nineteenth, or twentieth century after the creation, as choice 
 or caprice directs, the imagination may roam unclogged by tiresome 
 realities, over a spacious wilderness of twelve, thirteen, or fourteen cen- 
 turies. Without any new effort of imagination, the actual or sup-
 
 HISTORY OPASSYRIA. 49 
 
 Semiramis d P ose( ^ conquest of the Assyrian Ninus, and the more brilliant 
 exploits of Semiramis, his renowned queen and successor, 
 might for a moment dispel the gloom of silence and solitude, and shed 
 a transient lustre over this dreary waste. The immense cities which 
 these two celebrated monarchs are said to have built, embellished, or 
 enlarged, might cheer the dull obscure age whose annals have not 
 reached us, and beautify a region just desolated by a destroying deluge, 
 and continually drained to supply population to distant countries. The 
 vast armies and conquering hosts which our hero and heroine con- 
 ducted to the borders of Ethiopia, or beyond the remote banks of the 
 Indus, gloriously illustrate the valour of Abraham, who, with his own 
 household, vanquished the confederated forces of the kings of Assyria, 
 Chaldea, Persia, &c.; and this was after the supposed time of Ninus 
 and his valiant queen. 
 
 After taking leave of Ninus and Semiramis, we may smile at the 
 sullen silence of the forty kings of Ctesias or Eusebius, distributed 
 through twelve centuries, and whose empty names form the barren his- 
 tory of their empire ; but a generous feast of fiction awaits us in the 
 palace of his most effeminate and degenerate majesty Sarda- 
 sardanapaius. napalus, who, we are told, spun at the distaff with his women ; 
 and finally, in a fit of despair, consumed himself and all his 
 spinning sisters in the flames of his palace; thus nobly spinning out 
 his days and his race, to escape a more cruel fate from the hand of 
 an enemy, who beset his capital, and dismembered his kingdom. After 
 this catastrophe our history may assume a graver tone. 
 
 Though it will still be impossible to separate fiction from facts, or 
 ascertain the precise dates of real transactions, yet, from the 
 
 3257 commencement of Tiglath-Pileser, in 3257, the grand revolu- 
 Facts better tion of empire can be traced ; and these revolutions assume 
 
 ascertained. . , r -, . ^ , , . , 
 
 an interest and importance that cannot be despised. 
 We will forbear attempting to decide which of the two, Pul or Sar- 
 danapalus, was the immediate predecessor of Tiglath-Pileser, till the 
 learned can determine whether Pul was the father or son of 
 ^8'ath-Piie- gardanapalus, or whether he was in fact any way related to 
 posed found- that ill-fated monarch, since some contend that he was the 
 %S?* m founder of the new dynasty, and the father of Tiglath- 
 Pileser. 
 
 If Babylon made a part of the ancient Assyrian Empire, 
 of 16 Bab d km ^ was dismembered at the death of Sardanapalus ; or, at any 
 severed from rate, before the accession of Tiglath-Pileser to the throne of 
 Emptre. yria " Nineveh ; for it constituted a separate kingdom till 3324, 
 when Esarhaddon added it to the Assyrian Empire. The 
 kingdom of Babylon, just noticed, must be carefully distinguished from 
 the Babylonish empire, afterward established by Nabopolassar, who 
 destroyed Nineveh, and reigned at Babylon. The destroyer of Sarda- 
 napalus, and of the ancient Assyrian Empire, (if we believe the lament- 
 able tale,) might or might not have been Arbaces, a Mede: and that 
 Arbaces might or might not have been the Tiglath-Pileser mentioned 
 in the sacred history. We cannot pronounce with any con- 
 3257 fidence, that Media and Persia either did or did not belong 
 sia tismem- to the ancient Assyrian Empire : if they did, they were pro- 
 
 7
 
 50 HISTORY OF PERSIA. 
 
 bered from bably dismembered about 3257, as represented on the chart ; 
 though Prideaux dates the separation later, in the time of 
 Syria and is- Sennacherib. The conquest of Syria and Israel, by Tiglath- 
 rae cc ,r pjj eger &nc j ^j s son shalmanezer, made some amends for the 
 Also, Baby- loss of Media : the conquest of Babylon, by Esarhaddon, and 
 ion, (3324,) & th e subsequent conquest of Judah and other countries, by 
 
 the kingdom , , . , . T\ . 
 
 of Judah, Nebuchadnezzar the second, raised the Assyrian Empire to 
 
 great power and splendour. 
 
 The kings of Media were perpetually hostile to the Assyrian kings ; 
 but the accounts given by different authors of wars between these 
 two nations, are so 'various and contradictory, that the reader of history 
 can derive but little satisfaction from the perusal of detailed accounts. 
 It is evident that both parties made great acquisitions of territory at 
 the expense of the surrounding nations, and that the whole of Western 
 Asia was divided between them when Cyrus commenced his career of 
 conquest. It is believed that Cyaxares the first assisted Nabopo- 
 lassar in his revolt against Saracus, the last king who reigned at 
 Nineveh, and that both Nineveh and Saracus were destroyed by the 
 joint efforts of Cyaxares and Nabopolassar. Nabopolassar was a Ba- 
 bylonian by birth, and governor of Babylon, under Saracus ; on the 
 
 destruction of Nineveh, he became king, in the place of Sa- 
 Nin B e Jo e yed de " racus ' and establisned tn e Babylonish Empire. He made 
 
 Babylon the seat of empire ; and, from the commencement of 
 
 Babylon his reign, historians call this great monarchy indifferently 
 
 m ofempi s re at the Babylonish or Assyrian Empire. The history of Nabo- 
 
 polassar's successors will receive due attention in connexion 
 with that of the Jews. The glories of the Babylonish dynasty were 
 buried in the grave with Nebuchadnezzar, the second of the race. His 
 feeble and dissolute successors loosely held the sceptre over a tottering 
 empire ; and the vigorous hand of Nebuchadnezzar himself could 
 hardly have resisted the predominant fortune of the Persian Cyrus. 
 
 History of Persia to A.M. 3500. 
 
 KINGS OF PERSIA. 
 
 CYRUS. DAHIUS 2d. 
 
 CAMBYSES. ARTAXEREXES 2d. 
 
 DARIUS 1st. ARTAXEREXES 3d. 
 
 XERXES. DARIUS 3d. 
 ARTAXERXES 1st. 
 
 After the death of Nebuchadnezzar, the Babylonish empire rapidly 
 hastened to its downfall ; while the monarchy of the Medes and Per- 
 sians proportionately rose in power, and increased in ex- 
 C /ereia! f tent, by the extraordinary abilities and fortune of the Per- 
 sian Cyrus. For a detailed account of the Persian hero, 
 the reader is referred to Herodotus, Xenophon, Rollin, Prideaux, &c.,
 
 HISTORY OP PERSIA. 51 
 
 whose various and contradictory accounts demonstrate the uncertainty 
 that involves his history, though nothing: can be better attested than the 
 final result of his wars. It has been asserted by some authors, that 
 Cyrus conquered Media, and subjected it to Persia, before he com- 
 menced hostilities against the Babylonish kings; but it is generally 
 acknowledged that he carried on all his wars in conjunction with his 
 uncle. Cyaxares, king of Media, whose daughter he married, and 
 whose dominions he finally inherited. Many battles and victories are 
 attributed to these two confederated kings, during a war of twenty 
 . a years, commencing in 3440. The fate and fortune of Crce- 
 of S Lydia" S sus, king of Lydia, who allied himself with Belshazzar, was 
 decided in the tenth year of the war, 3456. Cyrus met this 
 powerful antagonist in Cappadocia, on the borders of the Lyrfian king- 
 dom ; defeated him in battle, pursued him into the heart of his domin- 
 ions ; there defeated him again ; shortly after took Sardis, his capital, 
 and made the unfortunate king himself a prisoner. 
 
 Ten years elapsed from the conquest of Croesus by Cyrus, to the 
 taking of Babylon. We have no detailed account of the operations 
 during these ten years, but eight of them must have been consumed 
 in regulating the conquered provinces, and in making new conquests; 
 and two years were spent before Babylon. If prodigies of valour, 
 transcendent skill, or superiority of numbers, could have availed, the 
 fate of Babylon, and of the impious Belshazzar, would not have been 
 
 prolonged two complete years. But storms, assaults, en- 
 Taking of r . , , . r J . ,. , . , 
 
 Babylon, gmes, and batteries, were impotently directed against the 
 towering ramparts and lofty battlements of Babylon. Cyrus 
 might be ignorant of the decrees of heaven, and of the prophecies of 
 Isaiah, who called him by name two hundred years before his birth, 
 but the eventual success of the Persians strikingly exhibits the hand of 
 an overruling Providence. To seek an entrance into Babylon by di- 
 verting the waters of the Euphrates from their accustomed channel 
 through the town, was an expedient that might suggest itself to the 
 natural sagacity of Cyrus; but each bank of the river supported an 
 inner wall of great height and strength, and it required a bold pre- 
 sumption, of negligence within the city, to justify the expectation of 
 entering it, even after the channel was drained. A night of festivity, 
 merriment, and intoxication, chosen by Cyrus, gave complete success 
 to his daring stratagem. He entered the city unopposed; killed the 
 king, and in one night subjected to his power that proud people, who 
 for two years had defied his threats, derided his unavailing efforts, and 
 scoffed at his baffled armies. See Daniel v. 
 
 The Median empire lasted two years after the taking of Babylon ; 
 for though Cyrus, the Persian, had been a principal agent in making 
 all these great conquests, yet as long as his uncle Cyaxares lived, he 
 yielded to him the precedence. The Persian empire commenced in 
 3468, when Cyrus became sole king by the death of his uncle. In 
 the same vear, Daniel, finding by a computation of the time, 
 
 Daniel the , , . 9 J - , 5 , T i i 
 
 prophet, that the seventy years captivity, foretold by Jeremiah, had 
 expired, prevailed upon Cyrus to let the Jews return to their 
 . own country, under the direction of Jeshua, the high priest, 
 and Zerubbabel, grandson of Jehoiachin, and prince of the
 
 52 HISTORYOFPERSIA. 
 
 captivity. The decree of Cyrus commanded the captive Jews to re- 
 turn, and repeople their desolated country, and rebuild their city and 
 temple. Daniel possessed great influence in the councils of Cyrus ; he 
 had before been advanced into the highest grade of office by the kings 
 of Babylon, and his reputation for learning and wisdom procured him 
 the highest station under Cyrus. 
 
 The great Cyrus was succeeded by his unworthy son 
 Cambyses, Cambyses, whose whole career is marked by the odious ex- 
 ^conquers 8 ' travagance of a wild and furious despot. In the early part 
 Egypt- of his reign, this mad king marched into Egypt, Avhich he 
 conquered, and annexed to the Persian empire. In this ex- 
 pedition, from which he never returned, he displayed all those cruel 
 and ferocious qualities which have stained his character with infamy. 
 Fifty thousand of his men perished, whom his wanton cupidity sent. 
 into the Lybian desert to plunder the temple of Jupiter Ammon. He 
 lost one half of a great army in his inglorious expedition against Ethi- 
 opia. He sent an assassin to kill his brother Smerdis, because he had 
 dreamed that he sat upon the throne ; and he killed his wife, who was 
 also his sister, because she shed tears for her murdered brother. On 
 his way home, in Syria, a herald met him, and proclaimed Smerdis, 
 the Magian, king, who, under the false and assumed 
 ""usurper. e character of Smerdis, the brother of Cambyses, had usurped 
 the throne. In the act of mounting his horse to lead his 
 troops to his capital against the usurper, his sword fell from the scab- 
 bard, and gave him a wound, of waich he died in a few days. Smerdis 
 the Magian reigned seven months, when a discovery being made of 
 the imposition, he was deposed and killed, by a conspiracy of seven 
 noblemen, one of whom, Darius Hystaspes, ascended the 
 Darius Hys- vacant throne. Darius married two of the daughters of 
 tas f ea - Cyrus, whose blood was thus transmitted through the whole 
 
 succession of Persian kings. 
 
 It is supposed that Cambyses was the Ahasuerus, and Smerdis the 
 Artaxerxes, who are said by Ezra to have obstructed the building of 
 the second temple. In the second year of Darius Hystaspes, the Jews 
 being roused by the remonstrances of the prophets Haggai and Zech- 
 ariah, applied themselves diligently to provide materials for the tem- 
 ple; and notwithstanding the Samaritans persisted in the-ir 
 Second tem- clamorous opposition, Darius issued a decree confirming the 
 pie compiet- original decree of Cyrus, and forbidding the Samaritans to 
 **' obstruct the work. The temple was finished in 3488, just 
 
 twenty years after the return of the Jews. 
 
 The Persian kings having made Susa their capital, proud Babylon 
 was no longer the seat of a great empire. In the fifth year of Darius, 
 that city revolted, and it cost him a siege of twenty months to reduce 
 it, and even then he was compelled to resort to stratagem. In 3491, 
 Darius carried his arms into Europe, conquered Thrace, and 
 ^Darius! made an unsuccessful expedition against the Scythians in- 
 habiting the western shores of the Euxine, or Black Sea. 
 After. his return into Persia, he conquered India, and annexed that 
 country to his dominions, which then embraced all the great countries 
 and kingdoms in the west of Asia, besides Egypt in Africa, and Thrace 
 in Europe.
 
 HISTORYOPGREECE. 53 
 
 History of Lydia to 3500. 
 
 The names of the Lydian kings of three successive dynasties are 
 not deserving of a place on the chart; little can be confidently said of 
 any of them, except Croesus, the last of his race, and of him fable 
 speaks more fluently than sober history. We need not doubt that 
 the kings of Lydia, by successive conquests, reduced all the other 
 states and kingdoms of Asia Minor under their subjection, and that the 
 Greeks settled there were included among the numerous tributary sub- 
 jects of Cro3sus. We may readily believe that the Lydian court and 
 king are truly represented as supporting great magnificence and splen- 
 dour, when we consider the internal resources of this country, and the 
 busy commerce of the enterprizing Greeks, which might supply with 
 great prodigality the luxuries of a court, and serve to exhibit in strik- 
 ing colours, the vicissitudes of fortune, in the sudden and unhappy 
 overthrow of Croesus and all his Lydian grandeur. 
 
 History of Greece to Jl.M. 3500. 
 
 During the fabulous or heroic age of Greece, a splendid system of 
 fiction was formed, that far transcends all others of the kind ever pro- 
 duced by the wild imaginations of men. Many real characters and 
 transactions may have been disguised in these extravagant fables, but 
 we are limited to mere conjecture, in attempting to separate truth from 
 embellishment ; and as yet, no very satisfactory conclusions have re- 
 sulted from speculations directed to that object. It is impossible to 
 trace the origin of ancient fictions, or understand fully the process that 
 could have imposed them for truth upon the credulity of mankind. 
 Whatever might have been their origin, it is certain that these roman- 
 tic dreams finally gained implicit belief, and produced the 
 Effects of the most surprising effects upon the character and transactions 
 cm* 1 m h - f men - 1" ne ta ^ es f won der that were related of the ancient 
 thoiogy. heroes and demigods, were adapted to inspire the human 
 breast with that ardent passion for glory, and that singular 
 enthusiasm which predominated in the Grecian character, to the la- 
 mentable disparagement of the milder and more amiable virtues. 
 
 The geographical situation of Greece, had also its share of 
 phicSsitua- i n fl uence in forming the manners and character of the peo- 
 tion. pie. The face of their country every where exhibited the 
 
 most romantic, picturesque, and interesting scenes; their 
 delightful climate was calculated to cherish ardour, enthusiasm, and 
 patriotic devotion ; while the numerous seas, bays, and gulfs that sur- 
 rounded them, promoted intercourse with their neighbours, facilitated 
 commercial interchange, and invited enterprizing emigrants from 
 abroad.
 
 54 HISTORYOFGREECE. 
 
 Among the numerous causes that combined to raise the Grecians to 
 so high a pitch of physical and intellectual improvement, we must not 
 overlook their numerous games and other institutions, which drew all 
 the citizens very frequently together from every part of the country, to 
 exercise their skill and stimulate their ambition by emulation and strife. 
 The Olympic and Isthmian games were .the most celebrated; 
 or Games, jj ut; besides these, every little state, and every considerable 
 
 institutions, . . J . . , , . , J . 
 
 &.c. city, had numerous institutions of the kind, where it was 
 honourable to excel, and disgraceful to be excelled. 
 
 ATHENS. 
 
 Athens gov- The Athenians, after abolishing the kingly office in 2934, 
 km^ per- reta i ne d their perpetual or hereditary archons, till 3250, after 
 pefuaiar- which time they were governed by decennial archons, or ar- 
 niai" B archo"schons chosen for ten years, till 3320,. when they established 
 annual ar- an aristocratical government, which was administered by ten 
 
 CllOnS . . ml 1 ... l-i l 
 
 a democra- annual archons. I his last institution subsisted nearly one 
 cy- hundred years, till Solon established a democracy by vesting 
 the power in the assemblies of the people. Solon flourished in the 
 time of Nebuchadnezzar the great, and died in 3444. His institutions 
 were preserved with some interruptions, till Athens submitted to the 
 Romans. The laws of Solon secured to the Athenians a licentious 
 freedom, which was liable to perpetual abuse, and which]the wild de- 
 mocracy of Athens seldom failed to abuse. 
 
 About the time of Nebuchadnezzar's death, in 3443, and 
 Pisistratus shortly before the death of Solon, Pisistratus, a man of great 
 
 usurps sove- . . J . 1 . . 
 
 reign power, address and persuasive eloquence, usurped the sovereign 
 power at Athens, in opposition to the interest and influence 
 of Solon himself, and retained his authority with some interruptions 
 thirty-three years. The Pisistratidae, or sons of Pisistratus, inherited 
 their father's authority, and continued to exercise it eighteen years, 
 from 3477 to 3495. Such was the aversion of the Athenians to the 
 kingly government, that Pisistratus himself was txvice driven into exile 
 by the turbulence of the democratic factions, though his government 
 was exceedingly mild and indulgent, even to his bitterest enemies. 
 His son Hipparchus, was assassinated by a desperate band of conspir- 
 ators .; and Hippias, the other son, who was associated with Hippar- 
 chus, was finally expelled from Athens in 3495, in the same year of 
 the expulsion of the kings of Rome. 
 
 SPARTA. 
 
 From the year 2900, two kings, possessed of equal authority, reign- 
 ed jointly at Sparta till a late period of Spartan history. In the days 
 ofJoash, king of Judah, and about three hundred years be- 
 
 Lycurgus /. ., .. /. ~, , L .,..*',. ~ 
 
 forms his codelore the time oi Solon, Lycurgus, one of the joint kings of 
 ofiaws. gparta, instituted that famous code of laws which rendered 
 Their effects. tne Spartans the most hardy, courageous, inflexible, and ob- 
 durate people that ever existed, unless we except the early 
 Romans. The commendation of such laws and of such a people, be- 
 longs to those who have a .taste to admire, and a disposition to eulo-
 
 HISTORY OP GREECE. 55 
 
 gize patient and voluntary suffering 1 , painful abstinence, gloomy auste- 
 rity, and hardy discipline, practised almost to the exclusion of every 
 virtue, and seemingly for no other purpose than to bear down their 
 wretched slaves and weaker neighbours, under iron yokes of oppres- 
 sion and cruelty. The force and effects of this so much admired sys- 
 tem of laws, will be progressively developed by the subsequent history 
 of Sparta ; they were always cruelly felt by their miserable Helots or 
 
 slaves ; and were early and conspicuously displayed in the 
 enslaved. 3 Messenian wars. The first Messenian war nineteen years, 
 
 from 3261 to 3280; the second fourteen years, from 3319 to 
 to 3333; the notice of the third belongs to the next period. The poor 
 Messenians had the misfortune to be the nearest neighbours of the 
 Spartans, and they had the temerity to defend themselves against the 
 wanton and unprovoked attack of the disciples of Lycurgus. At the 
 end of the second war, after two glorious struggles for independence> 
 they were compelled to submit to a condition little better than that of 
 absolute slavery. After the reduction of the Messenians, Sparta long 
 maintained a complete ascendency over the other states of the Pelopon- 
 nesus. 
 
 CORINTH. 
 
 Monarchy About 3250, the Corinthians killed their last king of the 
 c^'th^-" race of Bachida?, and abolished monarchy. A numerous 
 'branch of the Bachidae then seized the government, and 
 maintained a rigid aristocracy, till about 3350, when Cypselus, a mild 
 and gentle ruler, destroyed the reigning oligarchy, and governed the 
 state. Periander, a contemporary of Solon, and like him styled one of 
 the seven wise men of Greece, succeeded his father Cypselus, in 3375, 
 and died in 3419. Psammetichus, the nephew of Periander, was ex- 
 pelled in 3422, after which Corinth usually maintained a free govern- 
 ment. 
 
 After the abolition of Royalty at Corinth, every Grecian 
 
 Sparta the , , ,. ... J J . , , . J , 
 
 only kingly state had free institutions, except Sparta, whose kings though 
 ^Greece'. 1 hereditary, were limited and restrained in their authority 
 by the senate and Ephori. The democracy of Greece was 
 favourable to the improvement and cultivation of the liberal arts, and 
 encouraged the full display of genius of every order and cast ; but the 
 capricious despotism of a mob, unchecked by constitutional barriers, 
 often proved more fatal to the lives and liberty of good men r than the 
 arbitrary rule of a single tyrant. 
 
 MACEDONIA. 
 
 Though this kingdom is said to have been founded by 
 I Maced'miia >f Grecian emigrants from Argos, as early as 3190, its kings 
 founded 3190. are little worthy of notice till the time of Philip and Alexan- 
 der, who will be introduced as the conquerors of all Greece, 
 and of the whole Persian monarchy. 
 
 COLONIES^ 
 
 The states founded in Greece by early emigrants from 
 iree nies! Egypt and Asia, after ward furnished enterprising colonies, that
 
 56 'HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 made settlements on nearly all the islands and coasts of the Mediterra- 
 nean. The most flourishing of these colonies again supplied emigrants 
 for other settlements, and long before the year 3500, the Grecian name 
 and nation were diffused over the coasts of Asia Minor, Thrace, Ma- 
 cedon, Italy. Sicily, Gaul, and Gyrene in Africa, as well as the nume- 
 rous islands in the JEgean and Ionian seas. The JEolians, lonians, 
 and Dorians settled the western coast of Asia Minor before the time of 
 Solomon. They finally submitted to the king of Lydia, and with him 
 to Cyrus. The most famous Grecian cities in Italy, were Tarentum, 
 Crotona, Sybaris, Rhegium, and Parthenope, or Naples. Those in 
 Sicily, Syracuse, Agrigentum, Gela, Messena, Sicily and the south 
 of Italy bore the name of Magna Grecia, or Great Greece, from the 
 prevalence of Greek population. 
 
 History of Rome to AM. 3500. 
 
 The grandeur of the Roman name would seem to entitle their Ro- 
 man majesties to a respectful attention ; but it is humbly conceived that 
 the poets have already exhausted the magnificent theme of godlike 
 descent and marvellous origin; and that grave historians have amply 
 embellished the early wonders and infant exploits of a rapacious ban- 
 ditti, who made war, and plunder, and conquest, the only honourable 
 employments in their little community. That Roman kings conquered 
 one little city, and one little territory after another ; and that Roman 
 consuls prosecuted similar conquests, after the expulsion of the kings, 
 we may venture to believe, without any confidence in the details of 
 their history ; and that sullen perseverance was the ruling character 
 of the early Romans, can no more be questioned than that Tarquin was 
 a tyrant. 
 
 Italy, (itaiia.) I ta 'y is tne English translation of the Latin Italia, dif- 
 Tne origin of this ferently applied at different times, both by Romans and 
 
 name is uncer- rjreeks 
 
 Hesperia meant a western country in relation to 
 Hesperia, (Greek) Greece. Ausonia, &c., though sometimes applied by the 
 tria^aud Opicla! Greeks to all Italy, were strictly applied to particular dis- 
 tricts. 
 North Italy, or Liguria, (Genoa) between the Appennines and the ffulf 
 
 Cisalpine Gaul, - } , . . * * . . . . & 
 
 including Ligu- of Genoa, though commonly included m Cisalpine Gaul, 
 ri T a he dV mo1em was ?t inhabited by Gauls, and but few Gauls settled in 
 kingdom of Sar- Venetia, ( VenetH around the head of the Adriatic. For 
 
 diiiia. and the . i /. i T . , __ 
 
 Austrian king- this reason, .we frequently see Liguria and Venetia on 
 d OI and f Venice 41 " ma P 8 ' coloured separately from Cisalpine Gaul, 
 cispadane/rrans- Cispadane Gaul, Gaul on this side the Po, (with Ligu- 
 ^ e ' (8ubdivi -ria,) Transpadane, beyond the Po, (with Venetia.) 
 
 Central Italy, Central Italy was the original and proper Italy of the 
 l ^L anT^i) 01 -' ^ omans i while the Grecians at first applied the name to 
 iuai. a "' "" Grecian Italy, or South Italy. But finally both Greeks
 
 HISTORY OF ROME. 57 
 
 and Romans included under the name, both Gaul in the north, and 
 Magna Gra?cia in the south. 
 
 Tuscania, Tuscia, Etruria, Tyrrhenia, all for the same 
 Tuscany or Etru- colin try. The inhabitants of all these districts of Central 
 Umbrja, (Sena Italy, must be considered aboriginal, since they cannot be 
 Latium,"(Aiba.) distinctly traced to their origin. How far they differed in 
 Sabina UB ui ^ awS) language, and manners, we cannot ascertain, as the 
 Marsi.) ' Romans very early diffused among them their own laws, 
 Campa c 'ia a j ( pl language, and institutions; in other words, all these peo- 
 Samnium. pie were early romanized. 
 
 The imposing name of Magna Graecia, (Great Greece) 
 implies the prevalence of Greek population in the south of 
 I I ta 'y. ar *d < n the island of Sicily. It was chiefly the coasts 
 ian Greece, or however that were settled by the Greeks, while the barba- 
 
 Grecian Italy.) T . r, .. ~, , , J . ... 
 
 rous Lucani, Bruttn, Calabri, Apulu, &c., occupied the 
 interior. It was a long time before the Romans conflicted 
 with these people. 
 
 The main design of Virgil, in his poem called the 
 IEMM^ divine ^E" 6 ^, was to compliment his patron Augustus Cassar, 
 descent of the and, in fact, the whole Latin people, with a divine descent 
 gino" Latins. s"- fr ra the Trojan yEneas, the son of Venus. But sober 
 bines, Tuscans, history rejects the fiction, and we can barely recognize a 
 
 &c., not known ;,..'_'. . . . . . / _ . & . 
 
 nor the charac- distinct Latin nation, without pretending to define in what 
 Latins 8 "clearly Aspects, except in name and geographical position, 
 distinguished they differed from their near neighbours, the Volsci, Ru- 
 a7They\ca e me tuli, -^Equi, and Sabini, with whom they long contended 
 be e un ^ er tne Roman banners, and with whom they often 
 joined in rebelling against the Romans. 
 
 First period, 250 years, beginning A.U.C. 1. A.M. 
 3250 B.C. 750, 7 Kings. Romulus. Rejecting the 
 
 citiz-msiu- fictions of the poets, we may soberly regard Romulus as 
 
 gitives troin oth- ., /. , ,, V, i i i i j i_ e 
 
 er places and by the founder of Rome, which he peopled with fugitives and 
 ^SfZHaPjE banditti, Sabines, &c. while he made some small conquests. 
 
 utility C1M*>, llje _ . rr\t / i T*.Y 
 
 people of a con- Numa Pompihus. 1 he peaceful Numa was the author of 
 city ' the Roman sacred rites and mysteries. Tullus Hostilius, 
 Rom'an Pe hUwr ) y ^ destroying Alba, the former chief city of the Latins was 
 fun of marvels the founder ofthe Roman supremacy over the other Latin 
 iToliiy^iear'that tribes. Ancus Martivs, after conquering to the sea, found- 
 the kings made a e d the Roman port of Ostia, at the. mouth of the Tiber. 
 
 sl.iw and pamiul , ,, *-,. . i- L j ^L r> 
 
 progress in con- JTarquin the First established the Roman supremacy over 
 vTtales^round the Tuscans, distant Sabines, &c. ; founded the famous 
 them, who con- capitol, and other public edifices. Servius '/ ulliut pre- 
 served the Roman supremacy over the neighbouring 
 tant m i^tten stf *tes, and artfully classed the citizens by centuries, re- 
 was that of the garding alone the qualifications of property, in fixing the 
 vtus^Tuiifus^ influence each century should have in the election. Tar- 
 New conquests, quinthe Proud was expelled for abusing his power, and was 
 
 and new inslitu- - 1 . , , t i 
 
 tions will come assisted several years by the neighbouring states in trying 
 ii l on, a H d th S e UC next to recover his throne. 'But monarchy WHS abolished, and 
 period till the a commonwealth substituted two annual consuls taking 
 maL l b r " the place of the kings. 3494 A.M. 
 
 8
 
 58 HISTORY OP CARTHAGE, 
 
 History of Carthage to JIM. 3500. 
 
 Carthage may have been founded in 3135, but the time is uncer- 
 tain. Q,ueen Dido, and her Tyrian train, may flourish in poetic fancy, 
 the original founders of this singular community ; but the historian 
 can do no more than recognize in the Carthaginian race, a Tyrian 
 descent, and a true hereditary spirit of commercial jealousy, and grasp- 
 ing enterprise. Authentic history first discovers this great people, not 
 in the act of measuring out the bounds of their future capital with 
 thongs of a bull's-hide, but already grown up to maturity, wealth, and 
 strength. The Carthaginians carried on a lucrative commerce with 
 all parts of the then known world. They governed a great extent of 
 country on the African coast; and early possessed Spain, Sardinia, and 
 some cities in Sicily. Their unfortunate expedition against the Gre- 
 cian cities in Sicily, together with their wars and final conquest by the 
 Romans, belong to another period of history. 
 
 Important Dates and Events from 3000 to 3500. 
 
 The dismemberment of the kingdom of Israel, in 3029; the building" 
 of Rome, 3251 ; the supposed dismemberment of the ancient Assyrian 
 Empire, in 3257 ; the commencement of the first captivity, and destruc- 
 tion of the kingdom of Syria, by Tiglath-Pileser, in 3264; the destruc- 
 tion of the kingdom of Israel, and completion of the first captivity, in 
 3283; the restoration of Babylon to the Assyrian Empire, by Esarhad- 
 don, in 3324; the destruction of Nineveh, and commencement of the 
 Babylonish dynasty, in 3379, twenty-one years before Nebuchadnezzar 
 began to reign alone, in 3400; the commencement of the second cap- 
 tivity by Nebuchadnezzar, who took Daniel and other captives, in 3398, 
 two years before he became sole king; the death of Nabopolassar, in 
 3400, when Nebuchadnezzar began to reign alone; the captivity of 
 Jehoiachin, six years after the commencement of Nebuchadnezzar's 
 sole reign, in 3406; the destruction of Jerusalem, by Nebuchadnezzar, 
 and the completion of the second captivity, in 3416; 3426 was about 
 the middle of the siege of Tyre, which lasted thirteen years; Nebu- 
 chadnezzar had overrun Egypt, and finished all his expeditions, about 
 3436; some suppose that Cyrus first commenced his wars, about 3446, 
 against Neriglissar, then reigning at Babylon ; Cyrus conquered Croe- 
 sus, and added the kingdom of Lydia to the Median and Persian do- 
 minions, in 3456 ; Cyrus took Babylon, and put an end to the Baby- 
 lonish or Assyrian Empire, in 3466; in 3468, Cyrus, by the death of 
 his uncle Cyaxares, became sole monarch of the vast dominions, before 
 possessed and conquered by himself and his uncle jointly ; and here 
 commences the Persian Empire. In the same year, viz., 3468, Cyrus 
 released the captive Jews, and permitted them to return to their own
 
 HISTORY OP GREECE. 59 
 
 country ; twenty years afterward, in the reign of Darius Hystaspes, in 
 348S, the second temple was finished; in 3495, the kings were expelled 
 from Rome, and the Pisistratidae from Athens ; 3500, hostilities com- 
 menced between the Persians and Grecians. 
 
 Continuation of the History, from 3500, A.M., to the 
 time of Augustus, 4004, A.M. 
 
 We find the civilized world, at the period on which we now enter, 
 occupied by two great empires, founded by two conquering nations 
 Persia in the east, Carthage in the west ; the Greek Republics holding 
 a middle position, the power of Rome, which in the end wrests the 
 empire from them all, as yet limited to a territory within sight of her 
 own walls. 
 
 A iui^o4 ) ' This year is distinguished by occurrences important as 
 leading eventually to the desperate struggle between Greece 
 and Persia. Aristagoras, tyrant of Miletus, having engaged the Per- 
 sian satrap Artaphernes in an unsuccessful expedition against the 
 island of Naxos, and apprehensive of punishment in consequence of its 
 failure, instigated the people of Miletus, and of other Ionic cities, to 
 revolt from the Persian dominion. Athens, as the mother 
 n 'dued SU state of the Ionic colonies, was induced to render assis- 
 Vc'*9 5 ' tance to ^e revolted towns ; but after a few years the rebel- 
 lion was quelled, and the lonians again reduced to subjec- 
 tion. Thus was kindled the war which ultimately involved all the 
 states of Greece, and which is termed the GRECIAN AND PER- 
 vadeGreece. SIAN WAR. After having sent in vain to require earth and 
 IB c' 494' water as a to ' en f submission, the Persians reduced the 
 Greek islands, and with an army of 1 10,000 men, under Da- 
 Defeat at t' 8 tne Mede, invaded Attica. At Marathon they were met 
 Marathon, by a band of 10,000 Athenians, led by Miltiades and entirely 
 UxUfc defeated. A grand impulse was thus given to Greece, which 
 served to awaken her ambition, to give her a knowledge of 
 her strength, and to confer on Athens that pre-eminence among her 
 sister states, which she so nobly sustained. For ten years the Per- 
 sians did not again invade Greece, and Darius dying, in the 
 ceeds to mean time, was succeeded by his son Xerxes. From his 
 ^throne* vast dominions this prince collected an army of 2,000,000 
 of men, passed with great pomp through Asia Minor, and ar- 
 riving at the Hellespont, constructed a bridge of boats, over 
 ""which his army passed into Europe. _ The Thracians 
 and Macedonians having been compelled to follow in his train, he ar- 
 rived without obstruction at Thermopylae, a narrow pass in Mount 
 (Eta, of only 25 feet in width, between Phocis and Thessaly. For 
 three days this pass was successfully defended by the Spartan Leoni-
 
 60 HISTORY OP GREECE. 
 
 A.M. 3525. das w ith 10,000 men. But when it was discovered that a secret 
 path had been made known to the Persians, through which the 
 mountain might be passed by their army, this force was dismissed, with 
 the exception of 300 Lacedemonians, who, together with 
 Thermo y 8 iae l ' ie ' r king, remained, and were destroyed, with the excep- 
 tion of one man. The news of this defeat was received by the 
 Grecian fleet, which had just been engaged in an indecisive battle off 
 the promontory of Artemesium, and caused it to return southward to 
 the Saronic gulf. The Persians having gained the strait of Thermo- 
 pylae, termed from its importance the key to Greece, proceeded through 
 Phocis and Beotia, entered Attica, and arriving at Athens, laid the 
 city, which had been deserted by the inhabitants, in ruins, 
 victorious^ at While the city was in flames, Themistocles defeated the 
 saiamis. p ers j a n fleet at Salamis, and Xerxes in terror fled from 
 A-M. 3525. G reece) leaving, however, an army of 300,000 men under 
 Mardonius to effect the conquest of Greece. Three months 
 afterwards, the total defea toft his force at Plataea by the Greeks under 
 Pausanias and Aristides, liberated the Greeks from all fear, 
 Pausanias an( ] indeed, from the presence of their invaders. On the 
 
 and Anstides . ' . , . . . - . , . 
 
 atPiataja. same day Xantippus and Leotychides defeated and burned 
 
 the Persian fleet at Mycale. The war, however, continued 
 
 until 3555, when it was terminated by the double victory obtained by 
 
 sea and land over the Persiat s at the mouth of the Eurymedon, in 
 
 Pamphylia, by Cimon the son of Miltiades. 
 
 The Persian invasion had produced a certain degree of union among 
 the Greeks; the Athenians and Spartans, however, soon returned to 
 their ancient rivalry. The latter had enjoyed the nominal command 
 in all the battles in which they had been jointly concerned, but Athens 
 had acquired the greater glory. Themistocles proposed to rebuild 
 Athens, and in place of its wooden walls, to surround it with walls of 
 stone. This the Spartans opposed, assigning as a reason, 
 A^hensre- ^ at w ' lnm tnose walls the Persians, if victorious, might se- 
 bum, curely establish themselves. Themistocles, however, by his 
 address, obtained his end, without involving the two states in 
 open hostilities. 
 
 In the year 3525 commences what we term Grecian re- 
 taliation, taliation for the Persian invasion. Cimon, who was con- 
 ^B'C 47Q 5 s picuous in his youth at Salamis, will for thirty years be the 
 champion of Greece, and the deliverer of the Greek islands- 
 and coasts from the yoke of Persia. 
 
 For twenty years from the termination of the Persian war, 
 Peioponnesian t h e states of Athens and Sparta were engaged in continual 
 AM. 3573. bickerings, jealousies, and slight skirmishes, which, in 3573, 
 B.C. 434 broke out into open war. The immediate cause of this con- 
 test was a dispute between Corcyra and her colony Dyrra- 
 chium. Corinth interfered in favour of Dyrrachium, and Athens in 
 favour of Corcyra. Sparta, of course, was with Corinth against 
 Athens, and ultimately all Greece engaged in the struggle. 
 
 During this war the scene of action was frequently changed, the 
 military operations being confined at particular times to particular re- 
 gions.
 
 HISTORYOPGREECE. 61 
 
 First scene. Attica and the Peloponnesus, Reciprocal invasions 
 for six years. 
 
 Second scene. Ionian Sea, and the west coast of Greece, around 
 Corcyra. Connected with this was the expedition of Demosthenes 
 the general, into ^Etolia and Locris, and the siege of Pylus. 
 
 Third scene. Coasts of Macedon and the Chakidice, whose inha- 
 bitants having been reduced, again revolt against Athens. Here the 
 Spartans are victorious, particularly in the battle of Amphipolis, 3583. 
 After this the war is closed, and a truce concluded for fifty years, call- 
 ed the peace of Nicias, from the Athenian ambassador. Corinth, 
 Argos, and other states, dissatisfied with the truce, formed a league, 
 called the Argive league, which agitated the period of six years, while 
 the general war was suspended. 
 
 Fourth scene. Sicily. A great part of the four following years 
 was spent in a fruitless expedition to Sicily. Alcibiades went thither 
 to protect the Ionian cities against the Dorian city of Syracuse, which 
 was supported by Corinth and Sparta. After a series of unparalleled 
 vicissitudes, the Dorians were triumphant, the Athenians lost their 
 fleet, and the whole army was either destroyed by military excursions, 
 or miserably perished in dungeons. 
 
 Fifth scene. The sEgean Sea. The war was commenc- 
 
 gean ea. g( j fo ere |jy t jj e Spartans, who went to deliver its islands and 
 coasts from the Athenians, as Cimon had from the Persians. We now 
 introduce the Persians for the first time as a party. Darius Nothus 
 was then reigning, and his subjects had not forgotten the enmity of 
 their fathers against Athens ; they still remembered Marathon and 
 Salamis. We have now to reproduce Alcibiades, who having been 
 accused of sacrilege, had been ordered home to Athens from Sicily 
 to receive the reward of his crime. Instead of obeying, he went to 
 Sparta, where he remained some time ; but being driven 
 ^Sade f thence, at last he fled to Asia Minor, and persuaded Tissa- 
 phernes to furnish him with means to aid Athens. This was 
 done, and after a series of victories, he went home and was received 
 with applause and acclamations. But while he was on a visit to 
 the Persian satrap, his fleet was defeated by the Spartans. This rous- 
 ed the resentment of Athens, and Alcibiades was again driven into ex- 
 ile. The Athenians were victorious until 3600, when Ci- 
 ^SfJTiti nion was surprised, and his fleet destroyed by Lysander, in 
 
 elan war cios * ^^ .^ _ * / ^ . 
 
 ed. the battle of /Egos Potamos who subsequently invested 
 
 "B - .o!404?' Athens, which he took after a siege of three months, and the 
 
 Peloponnesian war was closed. Athens sinks in the dust, 
 
 Sparta domineers over all Greece, and becomes the object of universal 
 
 odium for forty-one years. This period of Spartan dominion may be 
 
 divided into three parts, viz. 
 
 10 Years rigid, rugged, undisputed dominion * 
 
 23 " superiority disputed and painfully supported \ over Greece. 
 8 " dominion feebly asserted j 
 
 Thirty tyrants devoted to the interest of Sparta were placed in 3600 
 over the prostrate Athenians, and the streets of their city were infested 
 with spies subservient to their cruel conquerors. But by a secret and
 
 62 HISTORYOFGREECE. 
 
 daring plan the intrepid Thrasybulus, 3601, delivered them 
 hrasybuius. ^ om ^ despotism of these tyrants. 
 
 The history of the principal personages who figured in the Persian 
 and Peloponnesian wars, may be summarily related as follows.: 
 
 MILTIADES The battle of Marathon covered Miltiades with glory. 
 
 But failing in an attack upon Paros, and returning dangerously 
 wounded, he was accused of treason, and sentenced to pay a fine of 
 fifty talents about $50,000. Unable to pay this fine, he was thrown 
 into prison, where, in a few days, he died of his wounds. 
 
 THEMISTOCLES was a man of splendid military and political talents, 
 
 and the head of the democratic party. Ambitious to the last 
 
 Themistocies.degree, he hesitated at no measure which he supposed might 
 
 contribute to his advancement, and the ruin of his rivals. 
 
 Still he loved his country, and chose to rise by promoting her glory 
 
 and greatness. 
 
 ARISTIDES, the head of the aristocratic party, and the rival of The- 
 mistocles, though he did not exhibit the address and versatile talents of 
 that great man, possessed very eminent abilities. In uprightness and 
 disinterested devotion to the public good, he stood without a superior 
 among the virtuous great men of antiquity. When banished by the 
 Ostracism, he raised his hands to heaven, and exclaimed, " May my 
 country never have occasion to regret Aristides." 
 
 PAITSANIAS, one of the victors at Plataea, notwithstanding his mili- 
 tary talents, was too much the slave of his own selfishness and arro- 
 gance, to maintain the leading influence which he once possessed. His 
 pride and cupidity led him into the commission of treasonable prac- 
 tices. Taking refuge from the indignation of his countrymen, in the 
 temple of Minerva, he perished of starvation ; his sanctuary having 
 been surrounded by a wall, of which his own mother, with the true 
 Spartan spirit, laid the first stone. 
 
 The character of Leonidas is written in the sacrifice of Thermopylae. 
 
 CIMON was the son of Miltiades, and appears to have been equally 
 
 distinguished for his talents and his virtue. His military 
 
 Ch "Snon. f career was marked by a series of the most splendid victories, 
 
 which humbled the mighty Persian empire, and made his 
 
 country illustrious and powerful. He possessed a " generosity of 
 
 character, which delighted equally in acts of private bounty, and of 
 
 public munificence." 
 
 PERICLES for forty years controlled the Athenian mind, directed the 
 Athenian taste, and appropriated the spoil that Cimon, the successful 
 and brilliant warrior had won, and the treasuries, intended as a com- 
 mon fund, to the embellishment of Athens. Pericles employed the 
 genius of Phidias, the greatest of the Greek sculptors, to adorn the 
 temples and other buildings with statues. He ruled the people by his 
 address and elegance, taste, wealth, and munificence. But his ambi- 
 tion carried him too far ; through his influence, Athens was led to the 
 most unjust exactions from her allies, and finally, 3573, plunged into 
 the Peloponnesian war. He was a consummate orator and statesman, 
 perhaps unmatched in address. Amidst all his ambition and vanity, he 
 seems to have loved his country ; and he boasted on his death-bed, that
 
 HISTORY OF GREECE. 63 
 
 he had never caused an Athenian to put on mourning 1 . He died, 3575, 
 in the second year of the Peloponnesian war. 
 
 In the year 3602, we have the expedition of Cyrus the younger, 
 governor of Asia Minor, against his brother Artaxerxes, king of Per- 
 sia. Having collected an army of 100,000 barbarians, and 
 Expeditionof 13,000 Greeks, under pretence of subduing some tribes north 
 ymimger of the Black Sea, he marched to Cunaxa, where he met his 
 A B?c.402 < ! 2 brother. A battle ensued, in which Cyrus was killed, in sin- 
 gle combat with the enraged king, and the army of the Greeks 
 reduced to 10,000. Finding themselves deserted by the Persians, and 
 their generals treacherously murdered, they chose Xenophon for their 
 leader, and commenced their march homeward. Before them 
 R ^atofthe are the savages of Asia, behind them a hostile army. Over 
 A M 3603 mounta ' ns > across rivers, through deserts, they directed their 
 B.C. 401. course to Trebizond, the nearest Greek settlement. From 
 thence they went home by water, and were ready to engage 
 with Sparta, against the king of Persia, in a war to deliver the Greeks 
 of Asia Minor from his yoke. 
 
 For six years, from 3604 to 3610, this war was carried on in Asia 
 Minor the Spartans always victorious. At the same time, Sparta was 
 exercising her authority with a high and tyrannical hand over Greece. 
 In consequence of this oppression, the Corinthian league, to which 
 Persia was a party, was formed, between Corinth, Thebes, and Argos. 
 Agesilaus, the king of Sparta, was recalled from Asia Minor, to defend 
 his country against the formidable power of this league. From this 
 time, the Spartan supremacy declined ; and Athens, having been de- 
 livered from the thirty tyrants, was finally restored by Conon to some 
 degree of importance. Her long exercised dominion of the sea was 
 recovered, and, by means of Spartan spoils, her prostrate walls were 
 rebuilt. 
 
 In 3617 the Spartans made peace with the Persians, in the treaty of 
 Antalcidas, in which the Persians agreed to abandon all the Greek 
 cities, and engaged to protect Sparta. 
 
 In 3623 a Spartan army, on its way to Thrace, entered Thebes under 
 
 dpartans tne mas ^ f friendship, seized its towers and citadel, and for 
 
 seize Thebes, nearly five years kept possession of the city. In 3627, in a 
 
 B.C. 38i. ' most heroic and daring enterprise, it was delivered by Pelo- 
 
 Battieof pidas and Epaminondas. After trying for several years to 
 
 Leuctra. recover the city, the Spartans entered Bseotia, 3633, and at 
 
 B c. 38i. Leuctra were completely defeated by the Thebans. 
 
 The Thessalians, oppressed by the tyranny of Alexander, of Pherae, 
 
 invited Pelopidas to their deliverance. Being defeated and 
 
 A B a c.lro 4 ' ta ^ en prisoner in the first engagement, he was liberated by 
 
 Pelopidas Epaminondas, and afterwards, a second time encountering 
 
 goestojhea- Alexander in battle, he defeated him, but was slain in the 
 
 cld 5 onia. "" pursuit. Between his two Thessalian campaigns, he had been 
 
 despatched to Macedon to adjust the claims of the rival sons 
 
 of Amyntas, and, on his return to Thebes, he brought with him as a 
 
 hostage, Philip, the youngest son of the king. 
 
 The Thebans, under Epaminondas, entered Laconia and pursued
 
 64 HISTORYOFGREECE. 
 
 the Spartans to the gates of their capital, where, " for the first 
 
 t j me , th e Spartan women beheld the smoke of an enemy's 
 B'.C. 363.' camp." Soon after this, the Thebans vanquished the 
 Spartans at Mantinea, but in the battle lost their leader 
 Epaminondas. 
 
 In the year 3044, Philip stole from Thebes, and, at the age of twenty, 
 gained possession of the throne of Macedon. To the natural fierceness 
 and vigor of the barbarian, he united all the accomplishments that 
 Grecian literature could bestow, having enjoyed all the advantages of 
 instruction, under the wisest sages of the brightest age of 
 Cha pwiip f Greece heard the most illustrious philosophers, and witness- 
 ed the military operations of the greatest generals. Cool, 
 politic, shrewd, wily, ambitious, and enterprising, his address and 
 dexterity have, perhaps, never been equalled. He had to establish a 
 throne claimed by several competitors supported by neighbouring 
 states, to reform his court, and to introduce civilization among a peo- 
 ple until then uncivilized. 
 
 The Athenians, now the chief power in Greece, owned towns on 
 
 the coast of Macedon, and consequently Philip was always at variance 
 
 with Athens. His efforts were also directed against the city of Byzan- 
 
 tium, and the Athenian towns on the Hellespont and the 
 
 T jf h ? a ^s S Propontis. He next turned his arms against the Thessalians, 
 
 a distracted, refractory people, whose country he subdued, 
 
 and added to Macedon. TheEpirots, Illyrians, Thracians, Mygdonians, 
 
 and Paeonians were his enemies. By the year 3656, he had over- 
 
 run them all ; attacked Euba, taken Olynthus, and marched vic- 
 
 torious to the gates of Greece ; when here, he was invited to act as 
 
 umpire between the contending parties in the sacred war, 
 
 ii.c; 354 assisted in subduing the sacrilegious Phocians, was made a 
 
 member of the Amphyctyonic council, and twice defended 
 
 the consecrated ground at Delphi from violation. 
 
 Leaving the pass of Thermopylae defended, he returned home to de- 
 vote himself to the internal improvement of his kingdom, and the or- 
 ganization of his troops and court. In 3666 he again entered Greece, 
 fell upon Elatea, a strong place, took it, and put there a garrison. 
 This roused the Athenians and Thebans, who united in a league 
 against him, but were defeated by him at Cheroncea. After 
 Battle of treating the subdued Greeks with the greatest lenity, he as- 
 A h M3666. sembled them at Corinth, recited their former injuries from 
 BC. 338. Persia, and offered to put himself at their head, and march 
 into Asia. He reminded them of the aggressions of the 
 Persians, of the inroad of Xerxes with his millions, and the glorious 
 triumph at Marathon ; of Miltiades, with his little handful of men, 
 overcoming 1 10,000 Persians ; of Leonidas, with his 300, resisting, 
 and giving his life rather than have the land tarnished with the foot- 
 ste P s f a barbarian. The Athenians bowed to Philip, and 
 
 parwto appointed him their generalissimo. With the greatest gene- 
 ma Asia mt ral that ever lived, and the most spirited troops that ever a 
 isasMssinat- g enera l na cl' he thought of nothing but glory and victory. 
 d,A.M.3668. But in the midst of this successful career, he was assassin-
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 65 
 
 AtoaiJdeV ate ^ ky Pausanias, ar *d his son Alexander succeeded to his 
 
 succeeds him.th rone, 3668. 
 
 Before Alexander could embark for Asia, he had to reconquer 
 
 Greece. Having taken the city of Thebes, burned it to the ground, 
 
 and sold its inhabitants into slavery, which terrified the other cities 
 
 Battle of the mto submission, he passed into Asia, and in 3671 gained the 
 
 Granicus. battle of the Granicus, and conquered Asia Minor. Pursuing 
 
 Battle of his victorious career, in 3672, he gained the pass of Issus, the 
 
 key to Syria. Marching southward, he laid siege to Tyre, 
 
 which, after an obstinate resistance of seven months, yielded to his arms. 
 
 Gaza, after a siege of three months, opened her gates, and 
 
 at b e ela. T without any farther obstruction, he entered Egypt. Return- 
 
 A KC Mi 3 ' in S fr m EgyP 1 - at Arbela, 3673, he met and completely 
 
 Macedonem- overwhelmed the king of Persia, subverted the Persian, and 
 
 pire founded. founded the Macedonian empire. 
 
 In the organization of this vast empire, Alexander first marched into 
 
 the east to receive the submission of the countries subject'to the Persian 
 
 dominion, then returned to Babylon, which he aimed at restoring to its 
 
 ancient splendour, and making the seat of empire. But here, 
 
 Alexander. i n tne midst of mirth, revelry, and intoxication, his projects 
 
 were abruptly terminated by death, 3681. 
 
 4-M. 3681. The generals of Alexander, all unprincipled and ambitious 
 men, were anxious for a division of the empire; but that 
 being a delicate and difficult thing, they set up two mock kings, Phi- 
 lip Aridaeus and Alexander ^Egus ; one an ideot, and the other an in- 
 fant. The authority of their guardians, Eumenes and Per- 
 
 DeathofEu- ,. J , T-> j- i-iiJ- 
 
 menos and diccas, was disputed. Perdiceas was killed in trying to 
 Perdiccas. su b(] ue Ptolemy of Egypt, and Eumenes was pursued from 
 province to province, the whole extent of the empire, by the other gen- 
 erals, until 3689, when he was betrayed by his own soldiers, and de- 
 livered to his enemies. 
 
 _ After the death of Eumenes, Antigonus looked upon him- 
 
 315-301. self as lord of Asia, and in the course of nine years found 
 Antigonus. himself so. The principal resistance he met with was from 
 Ptolemy of Egypt, with whom he contended about Syria, 
 Palestine and Cyprus. It was soon discovered that his grasping am- 
 bition was not to be satisfied with Asia alone. He, or rather his son, 
 marched into Europe, took Athens from Cassander, besieged Rhodes, 
 conquered most of the Peloponnesus, destroyed the family of Alexan- 
 der, and, 3698, assumed the title of king, which last example was fol- 
 lowed by the other generals. 
 
 Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus, and Cassander, united their forces, 
 power and means against Antigonus and his son Demetrius. 
 B i a psus 0f At the battle of Ipsus, Antigonus was killed, and Demetrius 
 BC so*? ^ e( * ^ rom l ^ e scene f their defeat. But though he had lost 
 Asia, he still retained Egypt, Greece, Tyre and Sidon. Be- 
 fore the battle, he had been received and adored as a god in (Jreece; 
 but after he came from Asia Minor, the ports of Greece were shut 
 against his fleet, and the gates against his army. He then went to 
 Thrace, plundered the cities subject to Lysimachus, returned, and was 
 
 9
 
 66 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Adventures again deified at Athens, where he heard that he had lost 
 Poieircetes!" Cyprus. He next received a message from Alexander of 
 Macedon, requesting his assistance against Lysimachus; but 
 by the time he arrived at the scene of contest, the storm had blown 
 over, and Alexander told him he did not need his services ; Demetrius 
 answered, however, he would stay and feast with him. He did so, and 
 at a signal, his troops entered, slew Alexander, and Demetrius became 
 king of Macedon. Thinking he could now fulfil the ambitious designs 
 of his father, he prepared to invade Asia, but was opposed by Lysima- 
 chus and Pyrrhus. From them he fled to Seleucus for aid, and by 
 him was confined on an island, where he ended his days in hunting 
 and feasting After the battle of Ipsus. what is called the 
 ion of Alex- FINAL DIVISION of Alexander's empire took place. To Ptolemy 
 
 8 " d pl r re. em were given EGYPT, LYBIA, PALESTINE, and CCELO-SYRIA. 
 To Seleucus, ASIA, except Palestine, Pergamus, and Bithy- 
 nia ; Lysimachus had THRACE, PERGAMUS, and BITHVNIA; Cassander, 
 MACEDON and GREECE. The world became Hellenized. The Greek 
 language and culture prevailed wherever there were Greek princes; 
 and there were Greek princes wherever Alexander had conquered 
 From the death of Alexander until this period, the world had been one 
 scene of carnage and slaughter ; mankind became accustomed to cru- 
 elty, wantonness, bloodshed, and crime, and Alexander's fifty generals 
 were reduced to four. 
 
 MACEDON AFTER THE DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. Cassander married 
 Thessalonica, the sister of Alexander; and the court, during his reign, 
 and that of his three sons, presents a scene of horror almost unparal- 
 leled in the pages of history. To him succeeded Demetrius, 
 
 "cedon. a " who was attacked and driven out by Lysimachus and Pyr- 
 rhus. The latter soon expelled the former and reigned 
 alone. Then we have old Seleucus from Asia, then Meleager, Cerau- 
 nus, Antipater, Sosthenes, and ultimately we have the family of Deme- 
 trius restored in the person of Antigonus Gonatus. All these kings 
 succeeded in the space of twenty-two years, during which time there 
 were but two kings in Egypt and three in Asia. 
 
 AM 3750 ^y tne y ear 3750 we have passed the Macedonian period, 
 
 B.c.254.' and arrived at the Roman, Achaean, and Parthian. 
 
 Achaean The Achaean League was a union of twelve cities ostensi- 
 
 League. yy f QT common defence against the kings of Macedon, but it 
 
 Aram* and w as of no importance until Aratus, a celebrated son of Sicy- 
 
 PhiloiKEinen. , , J T, . , ,. j i_ / j . 
 
 one, by a bold enterprise delivered the city from a domestic 
 tyrant and united it to the league, 3760. 
 
 At this time Athens, Corinth, and Sparta, were fettered by Macedo- 
 nian Garrisons. Aratus, in the night, climbed the wall of Corinth, sur- 
 prised the army of Antigonus, delivered the city, and Corinth became 
 a part of the league. Through the exertions of Aratus, the Argolians, 
 Messenians, and Athenians, also joined it. This was the last organ- 
 ization of Greece, and in it, as actors, we have Aratus and Philopos- 
 men, who are called the last of the Greeks. From this time there is 
 a constant struggle between Macedon and the league; but on the part 
 of the league without one rational object being accomplished for which 
 it was formed. During its entire existence the members of it were at
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 67 
 
 war with each other, or embroiled with the savage ^Etolians and the 
 
 Spartans. Finally we see them admitting Antigonus Doson into their 
 
 country, and giving him a free passage through the isthmus of Corinth 
 
 to fight their battles with the Spartans, whom he defeated in the fa- 
 
 mous battle of Sellasia. This scene of confusion continued until the 
 
 arrival of the Romans under Flaminius. Having defeated Philip 
 
 Cynocephaie. ^ Macedon in the battle of Cynocephale, 3808, he proclaim- 
 
 A.M. 38U8- ed all Greece free and independent. This procured for the Ro- 
 
 mans the name of the patrons of Greece, and insensibly pav- 
 
 ed the way to their universal dominion. In a second Macedonian war, 
 
 Pydna. tne Romans were again victorious, and having gained the 
 
 A.M. 3836. battle of Pydna, carried Perseus, the last king of Macedon, in 
 
 chains to Rome. 
 
 AM 3500 ^he history of Rome under its kings belongs to the for- 
 mer period ; at the commencement of the present, 3494, two 
 consuls were elected with power equal to that of the kings. The se- 
 nate were a regularly organized body, whose power continued to in- 
 crease for many ages. The people at this time being divided into two 
 orders, patricians and plebeians, the consuls were chosen from the for- 
 mer, and united the sacerdotal with the political office. For fifteen 
 years the Romans struggled against the attempts of their king Tar- 
 quin, and at the same time a contest was carried on amongst them- 
 selves, growing out of the distinction of patrician and plebeian. The 
 patricians had the preponderance in their elections, because the people 
 voted in artificial classes called centuries. The plebeians, 3511, retir- 
 , ed to Mons Sacer. To satisfy them the office of tribune 
 
 Office of , , ., J , - 
 
 Tribune, was created ; but the tribunes were possessed of mere nega- 
 
 te' ^l/' tive restraining power. They were not permitted to come 
 
 into the senate-house, but were allowed only to sit at the 
 
 door ; they could not propose any law, but they could stop the consuls 
 
 and senators from proceeding in any measure. To prevent the con- 
 
 founding of distinct offices, we may mention that there were two prin- 
 
 cipal kinds of tribunes, viz. military tribunes, with military power; 
 
 popular tribunes, with mere negative power; to these for a period may 
 
 be added consular tribunes. 
 
 At last, 3537, military tribunes were no more elected ; and it was 
 
 resolved to have two consuls, one from the patricians, and the other 
 
 from the plebeians, with power to call together the senate, the army, 
 
 Decemviri an( ^ tne P e P^ e ' 3555. In the time of the great Pericles the 
 
 A.M. 3555. Decemviri were elected, with authority to frame a code of 
 
 ' laws, which were called the twelve tables; but they abused 
 
 their power, and the office was soon abolished. Another office was 
 
 that of Dictator, a magistrate invested with unlimited power. 
 
 Dictator. . ,, . a* 11 j j j -i j- 
 
 All other offices were partially suspended, and the dictator 
 was absolute master of the lives, liberty, and fortunes of the Roman 
 people. If there were convulsions in the city, he would still them in 
 a moment. When the army had met with great disasters, and it was 
 necessary to make great exertions, he could command the persons and 
 purses of the citizens. 
 
 The office of Censor, simple at first, was afterwards of 
 Cewr. g feat p 0wer an d dignity. The fir*t business of the Censor
 
 68 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 was to take an account of the peorle and their estates; then to exam- 
 ine into the morals of public men, with power even to expel a senator. 
 The Praetor, treasurer, commissary, provider, took care of 
 Praeter. ^g f un( ] Si an d provided for the army. 
 
 Aediies. Aediles had the care of the public buildings. There were 
 
 Vestals, also Vestals, who took care of the sacred fire. The plebeians 
 
 could not exercise any sacerdotal power; wherefore, after the 
 
 plebeians were admitted to the consulate, the Romans created separate 
 
 officers called Pontiff's, with the highest ecclesiastical 
 
 rotitirts. 
 
 power. 
 
 The Agrarian Law was a source of eternal contest. The Romans 
 had been going on in one uninterrupted series of conquests, and had 
 always appropriated a part of the conquered lands to themselves. 
 These were put up for sale, and of course bought by the patricians, 
 who had farms all over Italy. A law was made forbidding any per- 
 son's having more than 500 acres of land; the surplus was given to 
 the poor. 
 
 A M 3614 ^e R mans ' f r aDOUt 500 years from the foundation of 
 
 the city, were surrounded by enemies the Gauls in the 
 
 north, the states of Magna Graecia in the south, and the Tuscans, 
 
 Umbrians, Samnites and Latins, their nearer neighbours. Courage 
 
 was common to them all, but the cunning of the Romans enabled them 
 
 to gain the ascendency. The Gauls, 3614, besieged Clusium. The 
 
 Romans sent ambassadors commanding them to return, 
 
 byufe b Gluu d which they, however, disregarding, marched to Rome, took 
 
 the city and burned it. 
 
 The Romans, who had always been at peace with the Samnites, 
 
 were invited to protect the city of Capua, which was attacked by the 
 
 enemy. Upon their refusing, the Capuans surrendered 
 
 uie^amnltes. the ir city, saying that the Romans would surely protect their 
 
 own. The consequence was, a war with the Samnites for 
 
 ten years. 
 
 The Romans next turned their arms against the Tarentines, a Spar 
 tan colony, who applied for assistance to Greece. The great Pyrrhus 
 was sent to their aid. But the Romans were always ulti- 
 De ^ g pyr " mately victorious; and in Italy the usual good fortune of 
 Pyrrhus forsook him. In admiration of the Roman valour, 
 he was heard to exclaim, " With what ease could I conquer the world, 
 had I the Romans for soldiers, or had they me for their king." 
 
 By the year 3740, the Romans had conquered all Italy, and their 
 career of foreign glory commences by a successful war with ^Car- 
 thage. 
 
 The Roman sun is rising in splendour, and the Grecian sun is 
 setting. 
 
 The famous year 3750, is the tenth year of the fast Punic 
 Punic vmg. war, by which Sicily and the dominion of the sea is trans- 
 ferred from Carthage to Rome. By the second Punic war, 
 which terminates 3803, the Empire of the West is transferred to 
 Rome. By the third, terminating 3858, the city of Carthage is laid 
 in ruins. 
 
 The rim Panic war was not sufficiently interesting for detail. The
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 69 
 
 period of the second was distinguished by two of the greatest kings of 
 that fallen, degenerate age, viz. Philip of Macedon, and Antiochus the 
 Great. These, together with Hannibal the Carthaginian, had a com- 
 mon hatred to the Romans, and were successively humbled by them 
 Hannibal in 3803, Philip 3808, Antiochus 3813. 
 
 At the commencement of these wars, the Carthaginians possessed a 
 coast of 1000 miles in Africa, and rich mines in Spain ; they were 
 masters of the sea, and their commerce and conquests were rapidly ex- 
 tending throughout the world. With a jealous eye, their progress 
 was viewed by the Romans, until Hannibal, the governor of Spain, 
 burning with revenge, and animated by a thirst for glory, laid siege to 
 
 Saguntum, a city under the protection of Rome. This was 
 Sa wken. m considered a declaration of war. Saguntum was taken, and 
 
 its flames kindled two worlds. Hannibal advanced along the 
 coasts of Spain and Gaul, into Italy, conquering as he went. Before 
 him all was consternation, and behind him the wasteful effects of his 
 plundering army. 
 
 , At Trebia, in the north of Italy, he entirely defeated the Ro- 
 
 Battles of m, . J . . ? -, 
 
 Trebia, Thra- mans, at 1 hrasimene he was again victorious, and at Can- 
 Slm cannae nd nae ' tne slaughter of Roman nobles was so great, that three 
 
 bushels of gold rings were collected and sent to Carthage. 
 Hannibal, pursuing his triumphant course to the very gates of Rome, 
 there waited for aid from Spain and Macedon. But the Romans, in- 
 stead of again meeting him in the open field, sent their armies to pre- 
 vent his allies from joining him. Having lost two large armies, and 
 
 two of their best generals, they now sent the younger Scipio, 
 
 Scipio con- oorirv -.u _ a > *r i_ 
 
 quers Spain. o800, with an army into Spam. Alter conquering the coun- 
 try, he returned home, and proposed to conduct an army into 
 P Afrfca! to Africa; in this, though he was opposed by all the elders of 
 the senate, he finally prevailed. Hannibal, after keeping 
 possession of the most beautiful parts of Italy for fifteen 
 zama years, was called home. The battle of Zama was fought 
 "B'C' 20? 3 ' 3803. Hannibal was defeated, and Africa was transferred 
 
 to Rome. 
 
 Greece was now all confusion. War, bloodshed, hatred, vengeance, 
 reigned universally. Philip of Macedon, was no better than the rest, 
 except that he had a larger army. When the Romans sent their ar- 
 mies to keep him from aiding the Carthaginians, the smaller states of 
 Greece, beaddled with the name of liberty, and being enemies of Philip, 
 joined the Romans, who, in about four years, conquered Phi- 
 
 Komana con--j. . , . ., ' , , n<-\n i i 
 
 quer Philip in lip in the battle of Cynocephale, 3808, leaving him a name, 
 cynocepimie!' a crown, and a little kingdom, on condition that he should 
 B'C' s ' P 3 ^ tnem a tr ib ute > an d make no pretensions to sovereignty 
 over his neighbours. Flaminius proclaimed liberty to all 
 Greece liberty to pay tribute, and serve the Romans for ever. An- 
 tiochus the Great, who was reigning in Asia, while Hannibal was 
 gaining laurels in Italy, had been trying to recover Parthia and Asia 
 Minor, which was divided between four petty princes. He had con- 
 quered Syria, invaded India, and would have soon subjected Asia Mi- 
 nor, had he not been arrested by the Romans. Hannibal, when he 
 fled from the field of Zama, went to Asia, and became the counsellor 
 of Antiochus, advising him to attack the Romans in Sicily. He com-
 
 70 ANCIENTHISTORY. 
 
 Antiochus me nced the war in Greece, was defeated in a naval engage- 
 'idagnpsia. ment, and driven back to Asia Minor. Here the petty pow- 
 B'C' wi 3 ' ers joined tne Romans against him, and he was totally de- 
 feated, 3813, by Scipio Asiaticus, in the battle of Magnesia. 
 The Egyptians, threatened by Antiochus and Philip, had already 
 Pydna thrown themselves under Roman protection, when, in 3834, 
 A.M. 3834 a t the battle of Pydna, the Romans conquered Macedon, and 
 BXM'O. carr i e d Perseus, its last king, in chains to Rome. 
 
 Though the Romans had proclaimed liberty to Greece, 
 Corinth and j n 3858 they destroyed Corinth, the capital of the Achaean 
 
 Carthage ta- T J , , J -. . r ,. . . 
 
 ken. League, and reduced the country to subjection. I he same 
 
 B'aue?' J ear Scipio Africanus the Younger, terminated the third Pu- 
 nic war by taking the city of Carthage. 
 
 The whole world is Roman, in bondage to the Roman senate. 
 There were kings, many kings, but all trembled at the Roman nod. 
 A restless, warlike people, cannot be without employment. All foreign 
 enemies were conquered, and we shall soon see the fatal consequences. 
 From A.M. 3860, B.C. 144, to A.M. 3960, B.C. 44. In- 
 lnterngl con ,ternal convulsions shake the whole fabric of Roman power, 
 vuisions. till finally the Roman constitution is overthrown, and indivi- 
 duals trample the senate in the dust. Although the rule in 
 Spain was transferred to Rome, by the successful termination of the 
 second Punic war, it cost the Romans many hard efforts to subdue 
 Numantia tne i ntel> i r an d distant nations, who long resisted and often 
 
 A. M.38&3. rebelled. Numantia, 3863, a city in the interior, assisted by 
 
 B. c. I4i. tne CeJtiberi and Lusitani, baffled the Roman arms fourteen 
 years. The celebrated Viriathus was leader of tbe Spanish confede- 
 
 Gracchus racy, till he was treacherously killed. Tiberius Gracchus, 
 
 A.M 3871. 3871, by attempting to divide the lands bequeathed by Atta- 
 
 lus, the last king of Pergamus, among the people, excited a 
 
 A. r M. C 3S!3. tumult in which he was killed. Caius Gracchus, 3883, 
 
 B.C. 121. followed the example of his brother, and shared the same 
 
 Numidia fate. Jugentha, 3893, a dependent king of Numidia, having 
 
 B. c. 111. braved the Roman power five years, was dragged in chains 
 
 to Rome by Marcus and Sylla, where he was starved to 
 
 death in a dungeon. 
 
 The Teutones and Cimbri savage tribes of Germany, who left the 
 
 wilds of their country, with their wives, children, flocks 
 
 A. M. 3913. and herds, after seeking to establish themselves in the mild- 
 
 B. c. 101. er c }i ma tes of Gaul and Italy, and resisting the power of 
 
 Rome for eight years, were annihilated, 3903, in one battle, just as they 
 
 were preparing to cross the Alps, and enter Italy. The Social War, 
 
 3913, put to a frightful test the supremacy of Rome. This was a war 
 
 between Rome and her Italian allies or Socii, subjects, call- 
 
 ,.,. ed allies, who demanded the right of Roman citizenship, 
 
 Social War. . ." i. e . rt j i 
 
 A. M.3913. that is, the right of going to Rome and voting, or being elect- 
 
 B. c.tfi. e d to office. 300,000 soldiers perished in this war, which 
 
 lasted until the Romans artfully weakened their enemies by 
 
 yielding to some, what they demanded. Next Mithridates broke out 
 
 ofPontus, overran Asia Minor and Greece, and caused to be killed
 
 ANCIENT HSTORY. 71 
 
 80,000 Roman citizens, that were in Asia Minor. The bloody victories 
 of Sylla in Greece, pressed Mithridates back into Pontus. But the 
 atrocious struggle of Marius and Sylb, for the command in this war, 
 made Rome itself a scene of slaughter and carnage. Twice in its turn 
 each party prevailed, and four times the streets of Rome were deluged 
 with Roman blood. Marius prevailed the second time, while 
 A. a M.'3923. r his rival was in Greece; and Sylla the second time when 
 B.C. si. ne re turned from Greece. After a war of two years,Sylla 
 prevailed, was appointed Dictator, but abdicated after ruling two years. 
 The stage is now to be filled by new actors, viz, Cato, Cicero, 
 Casar, Pompey, and Crassus. Pompey raised an army himself, and 
 assisted Sylla to subdue the Marian faction in Italy ; he was succes- 
 sively sent to Sicily, where he defeated Cneus Carbo ; to Africa, 
 where he routed and killed Domitius; and to Sp*in, where he subdued 
 Sertorius, who, like Carbo, had fled from Sylla, and was trying to 
 keep up the Marian faction. Marcus Lepidus, a restless, intriguing, 
 profligate demagogue, being appointed to the consulship, after his 
 term was expired, rushed down from Cisalpine Gaul upon Rome 
 with his army, and was defeated. 
 
 Amid the confusion and disorder of these times, the slaves 
 Gtedfators. and gladiators of Italy and Sicily, under Spartacus, for three 
 "Vc^i 3 ' y ears desolated Italy, defeated army after army, and threat- 
 ened Rome itself. When Pompey returned from Spain, 
 Crassus was on the eve of a battle with these slaves, and by the union 
 of their two armies these generals were victorious. 
 
 In the same year, Mithridates again broke loose in Asia Minor, was 
 pursued by Lucullus into Armenia, and the Roman FOREIGN CONQUEST 
 is RESUMED. But one enemy still annoyed the Romans the pirates 
 in the Mediterranean, encouraged by Mithridates and Sertorius. In 
 the short space of four months Pompey subdued them, and Rome again- 
 possessed the dominion of the sea. In the mean time, the soldiers of 
 Lucullus, instigated by his brother-in-law, Clodius, mutinied, and Mi- 
 thridates recovered his kingdom. In 3937 Pompev was 
 
 Mithridates . ,, u , . JA , r J i 
 
 subdued, sent against Mithridates, and after a three-years war, entirely 
 "Vc e? 37 ' su bdued him. After conquering Syria, regulating Judea, and 
 establishing the Herod family in the person of Antipater, 
 Pompey returned to Rome, and had a triumph never before exceeded 
 in splendour. But as if there was to be no end to horror, 
 conspiracy. Cataline formed a conspiracy to burn the city, and over- 
 'Vc^i ' tnrovv ^e Roman Empire. He had been disappointed in 
 obtaining the consulship, and took this method to revenge . 
 himself on Cicero his opponent. Happily the plot was discovered/ 
 and Cataline driven from the city, 3940. 
 
 For four years, from 3940 to 3944, Rome was agitated by the fla- 
 gitious quarrels and intrigues of three unprincipled men, Pompey, 
 Crassus and C&sar, who each had his partizans. The Roman Se- 
 nate had before ruled, but now these three men, united, 
 'virate!" 1 formed ihe first triumvirate, 3944, and all were obliged to 
 A g^^ 4 - submit. Cato resisted, but was dragged to prison. Pompey 
 was a man of much enterprize and unbounded ambition, unit- 
 ed with great dignity. He could never help displaying his superiofi-
 
 72 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 ty. Csesar was cunning, intriguing, profligate, and shrewd, and 
 capable of dissimulation. Pompey was the most honest man ; he pre- 
 ferred honesty to dishonesty, if he could as well carry his point ; but 
 Caesar would rather be dishonest; he liked to have a little shrewdness 
 mixed with his dealings ; he was the greater commander, and the more 
 eloquent man. The triumvirate divided the world. Csesar took the 
 two Gauls ; Pompey took Spain and Africa ; Crassus chose Syria and 
 the East. Italy was given nominally to the senate. Pompey had al- 
 ready won his laurels, and therefore remained at home. Crassus went 
 to gather the spoils and riches of the East, and met in Parthia a most de- 
 plorable fate. Betrayed and deserted by his friends, he had seen his sons 
 and his troops miserably perish, and was himself killed by 
 
 Caar killed c ,. /~i i i j i J 
 
 in Parthia. one ot his generals. Csesar having immortalized his name 
 A g M ( ; 3 ^ L in eight splendid campaigns, was commanded by Pompey to 
 lay down his arms, disband his armies, and return to Rome. 
 Caesar refused to do this, unless Pompey would also disband his 
 troops, and marched his army toward Rome. On coming to the Rubi- 
 con, the southern boundary of Gaul, to pass which was esteemed trea- 
 son, Caesar paused; but exclaiming, "the die is cast," he plunged 
 into the river, and followed by his devoted soldiers, went like a tem- 
 pest to the gates of Rome. Pompey and the senate escaped to Greece, 
 where they were joined by Cato, who hated both generals, but thought 
 Pompey the least dangerous. Thus commenced the civil war between 
 Pompey and Caesar. 
 
 Rome and Italy submitted to Caesar ; but Pompey had two 
 
 Firsl civU - , . > . , . , ' 
 
 war. powerful armies in Spam, which Caesar had to conquer. 
 
 A ^. 3 ^ 1 ' After accomplishing this, he passed into Greece, where at 
 
 Dyrrachium he was defeated ; but collecting his forces, he 
 
 Pharsaiia. totally overthrew Pompey in the great battle of PJiarsalia, 
 
 A nc 3 ^' 3Q5&- Pompey fled into Egypt, where he was assassinated. 
 
 Thus ended the personal contest between the rivals. 
 Egypt. After the battle, Caesar went to Egypt and espoused the 
 cause of Cleopatra, against her husband and brother, Ptole- 
 my Dionysius, conquered him, and placed Egypt under Roman dicta- 
 tion. Pharnaces, son of Mithridates the Great, who had joined Pom- 
 pey, was next conquered by Caesar. It was after this conquest that he 
 wrote his much celebrated letter, VENI; VIDI; vim; / came ; I saw ; 
 1 conquered. After this Caesar returned to Italy, from whence he went 
 to Africa, where was a remnant of Pompey's party, under Cato and 
 Scipio. After fighting several battles, he defeated his enemies at Thap- 
 sus, returned to Rome, from whence he embarked for Spain, where he 
 conquered Pompey's two sons, Cneius and Sextus. 
 
 Caesar was now master of the world. But Brutus and 
 C the worid Cassius were republicans, and the enemies of Caesar. His 
 love of power, and his display of that love, together with a 
 rumour that he was going to assume the title of king, induced Brutus 
 and Cassius, with sixty senators, to form a dark conspira- 
 A A. a M. ! 3960?' cy, which on the ides of March, 3960, accomplished his 
 death. But he left behind him associates worse than him- 
 self, who were ready to avenge him. His nephew, Octavius, a youth 
 of eighteen, but with as much deliberate coolness as sixty years could
 
 HISTORY OF ROME. 73 
 
 have given him, undertook to revenge his uncle's death, and found 
 himself opposed by Marc Antony. Octavius saw the distressed state 
 of the empire, with the senate on one side and Marc Antony ort the 
 other. By pretending to be a simple-hearted republican, he won Ci- 
 cero and the senate, and in the battle of Mutina defeated Antony and 
 drove him into Gaul. Repenting of his rashness-, he wrote a very 
 tender letter to Antony, desiring his friendship, and requesting him to 
 return. This request being complied with, Antony, Octavius, and Lepi- 
 dus met on an island. Before they rushed into each other's bosoms, 
 however, they took the precaution to send their respective servants, 
 each to search the person of his master's friend, lest he should carry a 
 concealed dagger. After dividing the power among themselves, their 
 first work was to annihilate their enemies. The friends of one were, 
 in some cases, the enemies of the other, and each surrendered these 
 friends. Their union, 3961, was called the second triumvi- 
 ^virate"" rate < an l tne world was subject to them. But Brutus and 
 "Vr'^f 1 ' Cassius were still in the East, collecting armies and uphold- 
 ing the standard of resistance. Antony and Augustus col- 
 Phiiippi. lected their forces in the west. In 3902 they met at Phi- 
 'Vc'42 2 ' '*/"/" Brutus had his army, Cassius had his; Antony had 
 his army, and Augustus had his. The army of Cassius 
 alone was defeated; but thinking Brutus too was conquered, he killed 
 himself. In twenty days there was another battle, in which Brutus 
 was defeated and fell on his sword. Antony and Augustus now divid- 
 ed the world between them. Antony took Greece, Asia, and Egypt ; 
 Augustus, Spain, Gaul, Italy and Africa. This state of affairs con- 
 tinued for ten years, during which time Antony lived in Egypt, with 
 Cleopatra, neglecting his part of the empire, and allowing his armies 
 to be defeated in Parthia. Augustus in the meanwhile was actively 
 engaged* He marched his army into the north of Italy, laid waste 
 a district of twenty miles, drove out the unoffending inhabitants, and 
 planted his soldiers there. Among the number deprived of tht-ir farms, 
 was the father of the poet Virgil; but his son, by celebrating in his 
 poems the praises of Augustus, was reinstated in his patrimony. Au- 
 gustus was always cool and calculating, prepared for any emergency; 
 while Antony was dissipated and profligate, and spent his time in the 
 meanest pleasures. Augustus with his fleet went to Greece; Cleopa- 
 tra, with a fleet of sixty ships, accompanied Antony in pursuit of him. 
 A naval engagement ensued at Actium, 3974, when Cleopa- 
 A^sffri tra ' ^ rom a mere whim, gave the signal for flight, and An- 
 B.C. so.' tony, finding himself deserted, followed her, and left Augus- 
 tus the victory. Cleopatra fearing she should be carried to 
 Rome to grace the triumph of the conqueror, built an enormous pile, 
 on which she placed herself, determined, if Octavius took the place, to 
 set fire to it. Antony understanding that she was dead, stabbed him- 
 self; but he being informed that she was still alive, caused himself by 
 means of ropes to be taken into the tower, that he might die 
 Death of j n ner presence. Augustus bv surprise took the tower, and 
 
 Antony and _.. . , , . . J . . ", , . . , - 
 
 cieopatrm. Cleopatra, to avoid falling into his hands, caused herself to 
 be bitten by an asp. Augustus is now lord of the world. 
 10
 
 74 HISTORYOFROM E. 
 
 Summary of Roman History to the time of Au- 
 gustus from the above. 
 
 2o PERIOD (commonwealth) 250 years from kings expelled, 3500, to 
 
 the tenth year of the first Punic war, 3750, CONQUEST OK ITALY. 
 
 Tarquin and his allies routed and reduced, 3506. The Ro- 
 
 DefeatofTar- man character and policy is completely developed during 
 
 q A. n M.3506. this rugged period. Incessant wars with the rebel Latins, 
 
 B.C. 498. jEq U j i Volsci, Sabines, Tuscans, and Galli Senones ; till 
 
 "at last the Romans reach the Gauls in the north, and the 
 
 Conquest of g arnn ites anc ] Greeks in the south. Usually victorious, un- 
 
 itaiy. daunted in the midst of disaster; instead of craving peace of 
 
 ^B'C' m' an exulting enemy, they appointed a dictator, with absolute 
 
 power to control their lives and property, and concentrate the 
 
 energies of the state to a particular point. The detail would present 
 
 endless repetitions of heroic deeds and patriotic devotion. At last, in 
 
 spite even of the victories of Pyrrhus, the Samnites and Greeks had 
 
 to submit, and thus the Romans reach the Greeks and Carthaginians 
 
 of Sicily. (See below. 1st Punic.) 
 
 (New offices and new magistrates during this period ) Dictator, a 
 terror to friends and enemies. Tribunes of the penple, or popular tri- 
 bunes to satisfy the plebeians; a singular magistrate, originally having 
 only a veto on the. senate and other magistrates. (Mons Sacer.) Mili- 
 tary tribunes, with consular power, were very different ; they took 
 the place of consuls, and were often appointed to satisfy the people, as 
 consuls must be patricians. Frequently appointed between 3560 and 
 3638, when they were abolished, and the people allowed to choose 
 one plebeian consul. Decemviri, ten men instead of consuls, with 
 power to frame a code of laws ; abolished for enormous abuse of power, 
 after the code was finished. (Ap. Claudius, Virginia.) 
 
 Civil broils during this period. The Plebeians claim a division of 
 the lands, (agrarian laws) ; also a share in the public honours and 
 offices; a right to intermarry with patricians ; and a right to vote by 
 tribes instead of centuries, which made a poor man's vote equal to the 
 rich man's vote with all these ferments at home, the Romans never 
 relaxed in war. 
 
 3i> PERIOD (commonwealth) 250 years from the 1st PUNIC WAR, 10th 
 Foreign Con- year, 3750, to the birth of Christ, 4000. CONQUESTS 
 punlc War. ABROAD, (out of Italy,) with a frightful interval of INTERNAL 
 B A c M 2^ 74 be- CONVULSIONS. In the 1st Punic war, (1st war bteween 
 gun. Rome and Carthage), the Romans triumph, and get Sicily 
 
 and the dominion of the sea, (3740 3764); 22 years of peace succeed; 
 then we have the 2d Punic, the most famous Punic war, (Hannibal's,) 
 from 3786 to 3803, 17 years. Carthage (Hannibal) was victorious 
 several years, till about 3800, when the tide of fortune turned in favour 
 of the Romans, and rolled on resistless 58 years over the west, 
 (Spain,) south, (Africa,) and east, (Greece and Asia.) Lords of Spain 
 and Africa in 3803, the Romans humbled Macedon, 3808; Asia, An- 
 tiochusthe Great, (see Greece and Asia,) in 3813; at the same time
 
 HISTORY OF ROME. 75 
 
 entangling Greece and Egypt, ano\ the petty powers of Asia in a deceit- 
 ful alliance; conquered Macedon, 383(5 ; destroyed Corinth and Car- 
 thage, 3858; making Africa and Greece (Achaean League) Roman 
 provinces. Where the Roman arms did not penetrate, the terror of 
 the Roman name awed an obsequious world. Thus in the space of 
 58 years (3800 3858) Rome swelled into Romania or Universal 
 Rome. Asia was tributary, and Egypt under Roman guardianship. 
 All the rest were Roman provinces. Then succeed internal convul- 
 sions. 
 
 Period of internal convulsions from 385^ till foreign con- 
 vuUious C n ~ quests are resumed, and Asia subdued by Pompey, 3939, (81 
 A'M 3364. years)- Numantia, in Spain, rebels, 3864. (See Spain.) 
 64 Numancia The popular leaders, Tiberius Gracchus, (3871,) and Caius 
 83 Gracchus.' Gracchus, (3883,) both killed in the tumults which they 
 93Numidia. excited in the city. The horrid Jugurtha, dependent king 
 3Teutifm ofNumidia, braved and baffled the Roman armies 5 years, 
 13 social War. (3893 3^93.) At last, Marius and Sylla dragged this mon- 
 fator yUa D ' " ster in chains to Rome, where he was left to starve 9 days 
 33Mithridatici n a dungeon. For 8 years the German savages, Teutones 
 and Cimbri, (38953903,) ravaged Gaul in Italy till they 
 were routed and slaughtered by Marius, 3903. Social war, (war of 
 Rome with her Italian allies, called Socii,) 3913. After a waste of 
 300,000 lives, the Italian allies obtained the right of citizenship, (vot- 
 ing and holding offices at Rome.) Next Mithridates broke out of Pon- 
 tus, overran Asia Minor and Greece, and caused to be killed 80,000 
 Roman citizens that were prowling about Asia Minor, (a horrid exe- 
 cution!) The bloody victories of Sylla in Greece, pressed Mithridates 
 back into Pontus. But the atrocious struggle of Marius and Sylla 
 for the command in this war, made Rome itself a scene of slaughter 
 and carnage. Twice in his turn, each party prevailed, and four 
 times the streets of Rome were deluged with Roman blood : Marius, 
 the second time, while Sylla was in Greece; and Sylla, the second 
 time, when he returned from Greece. (Young Pompey, Caesar, 
 Cicero, and Cato, begin to appear.) Scrtorius of the Marian faction, 
 dismembers Spain, (see Spain.) Pompey has to subdue a rebellion in 
 Africa, Sertorius in Spain, the slaves and gladiators in Italy, (servile 
 war,) the pirates that covered the Mediterranean, and finally Mithri- 
 dates, who had broken loose again in Asia Minor. 
 
 Foreign conquests resumed with intervals of civil roars. After con- 
 quering Mithridates, Pompey subjected Asia to the Eupirates, 3939. 
 (Asia h id long been tributary.) Four years Rome was agitated by 
 the fligitious quarrels and intrigues of three profligate men, Caesar, 
 Pompey, and Crassus, who finding all Rome (except Cato and Cicero) 
 A.M. 3900. enlisted in favour of one or the other, united their interests, 
 44 utTrium- formed the first triumvirate, ( three men united.) and took the 
 V csar, Pom charge of the world into their own hands, 3944. Pompey 
 pey v ( ''r'a^ii". had already won his laurels, and therefore reposed at home. 
 53Uivii ar Q rassus went to Bather the spoils and riches of the East, 
 virate "" m ar| d met in Parthia a most deplorable fate. Caesar took the 
 ^ idns two Gauls for his share, and immortalized his name in eight 
 u War splendid campaigns. (See Gaul.) After that, the world was
 
 76 HISTORY OF SYRIA. 
 
 not large enough to contain two such illustrious chiefs; Pompey 
 arrayed the forces of the East, and Caesar those of the West, and 
 Pompey being defeated at Pharsalia, in Thessaly, and killed in 
 Egypt, Caesar had only to conquer Pompey's sons in Spain, and 
 Cato in Africa, to be undisputed sovereign and dictator. His glory 
 and triumph soon terminated in his tragic death, leaving the 
 world to be disputed, first between Octavius Caesar and Mark Antony, 
 and (after they united with Lepidus in the 2d triumvirate) between 
 them and Caesar's murderers, (Brutus and Cassius.) The latter 
 arrayed the forces of the East against Octavius and Antony, and were 
 conquered at Philippi, 3982. Octavius and Antony, after dividing the 
 world between them ten years, disputed the possession of it at Actium, 
 when Octavius of the West defeated Antony of the East, and remained 
 sole master of the Roman world, 3973. 
 
 During his long and prosperous reign, he disguised the most per- 
 fect despotism under the ancient forms of the commonwealth. And 
 thus, 3973, we arrive at imperial Rome, (that is, Rome gov- 
 RO ef nE 3 ernea< by emperors.) The pacific plans of Augustus (Octavius) 
 pire. embraced the judicious policy of diffusing the Roman lan- 
 
 guage and institutions over the whole Roman world. Latin 
 was the state language, of the whole empire ; and while the Greek was 
 the popular language of the East, and the language of science, the La- 
 tin became common in Africa, Spain, Gaul, and finally in Britain, 
 which was not added to the Roman empire till after the death of Au 
 gustus. 
 
 Syria after the death of Alexander. 
 
 Syria, or Syro Media, under the Seleucidae, was not merely Syria 
 Proper, but comprised a vast extent of country, from the Bosphorus to 
 the Indus, including a great part of the empire of Persia in Asia. 
 
 KINGS OP SYRIA. 
 
 SEI/EUCUS I. Nicator. SELEUCUS II. Callinicus. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS I. Soter. SELEUCUS III. Ceranmis. 
 
 ANTJOCHUS II. Theos. ANTIOCHUS III. the Great.* 
 
 A M S 3703 Seleucus, one of the four conquerors of Antigonus, at Ip- 
 B.C.'MI. sus, received Asia as his share of the spoils, and established 
 his capital at Antioch, which he built, besides many other 
 Lysi'mactms! cities. He wrested Thrace and Mucedon from Lysimachus, 
 Vc saf' k ut was soon a ^ ter assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus, whom 
 he had protected. He was distinguished for justice, cle- 
 mency, and love of learning ; and surnamed Nicator, from his success 
 
 * Prom Seleucus Nicator to Antiochus the Great, Antiochus, Antiochus ; Se- 
 leuous, Seleucus. 
 
 These are all the Greek kings of Syria that are important, the remainder may be 
 found in the Appendix.
 
 HISTORY OP EGYPT. 77 
 
 in war. The great library of the Athenians was restored to them by 
 this prince. 
 
 Syria, under Seleucus Nicator and his descendants, as far as Antio- 
 chua the Great, was independent. These two were the first and last 
 great, the only great princes of the Seleucidae. 
 
 Ant.Theos. Antiochus Theos saw the extremes of his empire falling 
 A^M. 3744. off and rebelling. Parthia, Bactria, India, and Asia Minor 
 
 resisted his authority. 
 
 AntaheGreat. Antiochus the Great thought he had revived the lustre of 
 ^B.c.'la 2 ' his house and extent of his empire, but he was the last inde- 
 pendent and first vassal king of Syria. He invaded the re- 
 Tolted provinces; and in the attempt to subdue Asia Minor became 
 Tributary to involved in war with Rome. He washumbled by Scipio 
 Rome. Asiatieus, in the battle of Magnesia, and treated with ex- 
 B/C. i9i.' treme severity. The remaining Seleucidae were subject to 
 
 the Romans. 
 
 Seleucus Philopater and Antiochus Epiphanes quarrelled, and their 
 
 families reigned by turns. Epiphanes invaded Egypt, and ignomini- 
 
 Jerusaiem ous ly withdrew on the remonstrance of a Roman ambassa- 
 
 taken. dor. He took Jerusalem ; and, by his excessive cruelties, 
 
 B.C. no. drove the Jews to assert their rights, and ultimately, under 
 
 the Maccabees, to free their country from the Syrians. 
 
 The remaining history of Syria is a succession of murders and usur- 
 
 Tigranes. pations, until the people, disgusted by the manners and dis- 
 
 A -M ; 392i. sensions of their monarchs, placed themselves under the 
 
 Pompey.' sway of Tigranes, king of Armenia ; and in the succeeding 
 
 A B*C. Isf' re ig n Syria was reduced by Pompey to a Roman province. 
 
 History of Egypt, from its conquest by Cambyses, to 
 its final subjugation by Augustus. 
 
 r Egypt was conquered by Alexander in 3673. Upon the 
 Egypt. division of the empire, after the death of Alexander, began 
 B c/33i?' tne splendid age of the Ptolemies. 
 
 Egypt was filled with Greeks and Hebrews. Alexandria 
 became the seat of schools and learning: the museum was established, 
 where all who chose to devote themselves to any department of learn- 
 ing could have apartments., and live on royal bounty. 
 
 KINGS OF EGYPT. 
 
 The dynasty of the Ptolemies lasted from .the battle of Ipsus, 3703, 
 to the battle of Actium, 3973,
 
 78 HISTORY OF EGYPT. 
 
 KINGS OF EGYPT. 
 
 PTOLEMY LAGUS.* PTOLKMT ALEXANDER. 
 
 PTOLEMY PHILADELPHIA. CLEOPATRA. 
 
 PTOLEMY EVERGETIS PTOLEMY ALEXANDER II. 
 
 PTOLEMY PHILOPATER. PTOLEMY ATTLETES. 
 
 PTOLEMY EPIPHANES. BERENICE. 
 
 PTOLEMY PHILOMETER. PTOLEMY and CLEOPATRA. 
 
 PTOLEMY PHYSCON. CLEOPATRA II. conquered 3973. 
 PTOLEMY LUTHYRTTS. 
 
 Lagus Ptolemy Soter, or Lagus. was an excellent prince. He 
 
 A.M. 367i. esteemed the welfare of his subjects the first object of govern- 
 
 B.c.333. mentt ^. ] over himself of the arts and sciences, they rose, 
 
 under his patronage, to a splendour which rivalled their state in the best 
 
 days of Greece. He was the founder of the famous Alexandrian 
 
 Library. 
 
 Philadelphia. Ptolemy Philadephus inherited the talents of his father, 
 
 A.M. 3741. though he had considerable blemishes of character. It was 
 
 by the order of this prince that seventy-two interpreters made 
 
 the celebrated translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek ; called, 
 
 from their number, the Septuagint. 
 
 EvergRtis. Ptolemy Evergetis trod in the footsteps of his predecessors, 
 A.M. 3758. and derived his honourable surname of Beneficent from his 
 successful promotion of the prosperity of his people. In the 
 beginning of his reign, having waged a successful war with Antiochus 
 of Syria, for the recovery of some provinces of his hereditary domini- 
 ons, and returning with immense spoils through Judea, he offered sa- 
 crifice, as Josephus tells us, to the God cf Israel, in thanksgiving for 
 his victories. 
 
 When we pass Evergetis the Ptolemies degenerate. 
 Philopater was a cruel prince, and his reign was disgraced by a 
 long and sanguinary persecution of the Jews. 
 
 Epiphanes. Epiphanes was the first Egyptian tributary to the Romans. 
 A.M. 3796. He was compelled to seek their protection by the threats of 
 Philip and Antiochus the Great. A king may be at the 
 same time a master and a slave. From the reign of Epiphanes Egypt 
 was completely subordinate to the Romans, the Egyptian Greek 
 princes being permitted to reign, on condition that they gave no um- 
 brage to Rome. 
 
 Auietes The h' stor y of Auletes, the Piper, is a more striking illus- 
 A.M 3935. tration of the degraded state of the country than any other; 
 he was a sort of puppet danced about by the Romans; they 
 put him on and off the throne at their pleasure. 
 
 Egypt would not have so long delayed its entire subjection to Rome, 
 if it had not been for the internal relations of that empire, and still more 
 
 209 Years. * From Ptolemy Lagus 3,700, to Ptolemy Luthyrus, 3,900, are 
 
 B c 304 20 y ears - The initials will help us to remember the names. From 1st 
 
 Ptolemy L. to 2d Ptolemy L. there are 6 Piol<mies; viz. Philadelphus 
 
 and Evergetes, Philopater and Epiphanes, Philometer and Physcon, then Lathyrus. 
 
 After that there are 3 A's ; viz. Alexander, Alexander, Auletes ; and, finally, there 
 
 is the last Greek sovereign of Egypt, Cleopatra,
 
 HISTORY OF SPAIN. 79 
 
 the charms of Cleopatra. She, by her connexion with Csesar and An- 
 tony, retained her kingdom and even enlarged it. 
 
 The history of Egypt now became intimately connected with that 
 cieopatra. f R me - As l n g as Caesar lived Cleopatra had his pro- 
 A M. 3952. tection. After Caesar's death she embraced the party of the 
 B '' 52 triumvirs; and prevailed on them, on the death of her bro- 
 ther, to acknowledge as king her son Ptolemoeus Caesario. But the 
 deep passion which Antony conceived for her chained her to his fate. 
 Battle of After the unsuccessful battle of Aclium, 3973, Antony 
 Actium. and Cleopatra were pursued by Augustus to Egypt; and 
 B.C. 31! during the reign of Alexander they both killed themselves, 
 the one with the sword, the other by the sting of an asp. 
 
 Jlncient Spain, exhibiting its various Names and 
 Divisions, uith an account of its Inhabitants, Colo- 
 nies, Subjugation, Syc. 
 
 COUNTRY t 
 
 s ah) A (lngiish SPAIN is the English translation of the Latin Hispania ; 
 Not including but Hispania included the ancient Lusitania, answering 
 Lus P "" t l ugai now nearly to the modern Portugal. 
 
 maiTTD^notinea HsspERiA was also applied to the same country, a 
 country west of name expressive of its western position in relation to 
 
 Rome. -r, 
 
 Rome. 
 
 Hispania (Latin.) HISPANIA is the Roman or Latin name, which they 
 (including Lusi- borrowed from the Carthaginians, from whom they took 
 this country about 3800, A.M. 
 
 IBERIA was the Greek name, derived from the river 
 
 Firtt'a 1 ^MeiToni I berus (Ebro.) The Greeks at first applied this name 
 
 to the Mediter- only to the country along the Mediterranean coast from 
 
 ranean coast. Qades (Cadiz) to the Rhone in Gaul; while they termed 
 
 the Atlantic coast Tartesses, and the interior with Gaul, 
 
 under the general name Celtica. But their intercourse 
 
 with the Romans after Spain became a Roman province, 
 
 (A.M, 3800,) taught them to apply their name to the whole 
 
 country. 
 
 s anhwfs^cEng- Spain was inhabited by several distinct people, gene- 
 lish.) rally mixed races, whose origin was very obscure. The 
 A 1S ge"erai name Latin Hispani (masculine plural of Hispanus) was a 
 for the^ccuiben, general term for all these people. 
 
 briTAstures and CELTiBERi, (Celts and Iberians mixed together.) This 
 natfons^nh^bit- people occupied an indefinite extent along the Mediterra- 
 ing Spain, nean, and an ample space in the interior, particularly con- 
 The 6ri Greeiw 'at tiguous to the river Iberus (Ebro.) They consisted of a 
 first applied th m i x ture o f Native Iberi, and Celts or Gauls. They made 
 
 name only to the . . 
 
 people along the a long resistance both to Carthage and Rome. (See Nu- 
 
 Mediterranean ^^ SertoriuS) & c ., below.) 

 
 80 HISTORYOFSPAIN. 
 
 ^ntabri. CiNTABRi (in the northwest.) These were a warlike 
 
 Catiaici.' and ferocious people, occupying the northwest of Spain 
 on the Bay of Biscay, (Sinus Cantbricus.) They made 
 a long and obstinate resistance to Rome, and were not 
 finally subdued till the time of Augustus. The ASTURES 
 and CALLAICI were contiguous to the Cantabri on the 
 west. They long resisted Rome. 
 
 LUSITANI (Portuguese.) These inhabited nearly the 
 
 limits of modern Portugal. They long withstood the 
 
 Roman armies, and their frequent rebellions occupied the 
 
 armies of Dolabella, Scipio, Julius Caesar, &c (See Nu- 
 
 DIVISIONS. mantia, Sertorius, &c., below.) 
 
 Tarraconensis, or 
 
 Murdafy'aiencia, TAKRAcoNENSis, or CiTERiOR, (Hither Spain.) This 
 Catalonia, Arra- W as one of the two grand divisions of Spain, including the 
 
 gon, Navarre. , lL ? /! IT i 
 
 Castile. the north, east, and interior ; (modern Murcia, Valen- 
 
 Biscay, Leon. , & \ 
 Austuriaa. C13 ' &C -> 
 
 Gallic!*. 
 
 ULTERIOR (Farther Spain.) This was the second grand 
 ULTERIOR, division, including the south and west, viz. Baetica and 
 
 Lusitania. 
 
 (G*enada 3 Awia- BvETicA, the most fertile part of Spain, on the river 
 lusia) Baetis, (Guadelquiver,) from which it derives its name. 
 Lusitania LUSITANIA, finally was made a separate province, when 
 fit} ' " Bsetica received the same distinction. 
 
 The application of this name (Tartessus) is very diffi- 
 Tanessus. cult: it is generally supposed to apply to a city or district 
 about the mouth of the Baetis (Guadelquiver.) 
 
 Some suppose that Tarshish, in the Scriptures, some- 
 
 jlarsnisn. balea- . , rr , , .__ .', . , 
 
 ric isles. ivica, times denotes the same place (Tartessus;) but certainly 
 
 Majorca, Minorca nQt a l ways 
 COLONIES & 
 
 Gad^ aU (Cadiz') Spain was early visited for purposes of commerce, by 
 (Pnenician.) Sa- Tyrians, (Phenicians,) Carthaginians, Grecians, &c., who 
 cian^New^ca^ established colonies, and planted cities on its coasts and 
 thage, (Cathagin- islands, (Gades, &c.) 
 
 Mb.) 
 
 conquests of Before A.M. 3500, the enterprising Carthaginians had 
 
 Carthage in iij -jii ^.1 r n 
 
 Spain. subdued a considerable extent of the sea coast of Spam in 
 the southeast, as well as the Balearic islands. After the 
 & f nd of the first Punic war ' (37403764,) the Carthagin- 
 thesea. ians, having lost the command of the sea and their rich 
 possessions in Sicily, pushed their conquests in Spain, 
 Rom ns interfere ( under H^miclar, A'sdrubal, and Hannibal,) to the river 
 inthe n affairs e of Iberus (Ebro.) The jealous Romans now interposed, 
 Spam. jQQk tjjg Greet c jty O f Saguntum, and the whole coast 
 Hannibal takes tnence to Gaul, under their protection, and made Carthage 
 Saguntum, and stipulate to carry their arms no farther north. The tak- 
 narchw into ^ Q f g a ^ untum ^y Hannibal, and his celebrated march 
 through Gaul into Italy, was the cause and commence- 
 Second Punic. m ent of the second Punic war, which resulted in trans- 
 ferring Spain from Carthage to Rome, and reduced Car-
 
 HISTORY OP SPAIN. 81 
 
 lpa?n M and h q u"n- [ ^ a S e ^ rom tne condition of a great empire to that of an 
 bie Carthage, af- humble city, at the mercy of the conqueror. 
 
 ter Hannibal had 
 harassed them in 
 Italy 15 years. 
 
 Romans send ar- Notwithstanding the victories of Trebia, Thrasymene, 
 SSs^sSi?* Cannfe, &c., and the victorious career of Hannibal in Italy 
 ,-oung Scipio 'a- for fifteen years, the Romans found armies to send into 
 ther'rdeath, con- Spain, which, after some disasters, the young Scipio sub- 
 q a^es1mo n 'A a fri d ^ ue ^i signally avenging the slaughter of his father, un-* 
 ca. where he ac- cle, and two Roman armies. With great difficulty, he 
 of Africanu^ihe tnen obtained leave of the Roman senate to pass over to 
 eider.) By con- Africa ; and there Hannibal, who was recalled from Italy 
 Kom^tiUome'san to defend Carthage, was defeated in the fatal field of Zama, 
 after" 6 ' B ^SS A>M> 3803 ' This ( as observed above) at once raised 
 powerful in Rome to the rank of an empire, while Carthage only ex- 
 ^Aht & i ste d to tremble and obey 55 years longer, and was then 
 Carthage . kum- destroyed, A.M. 3858, in the third Punic war, by Scipio 
 
 bled 3803 de- p . J , J 
 
 stroyed 3f58. Aincanus the younger. 
 
 Third Punic. . 
 
 Romans have to After Spain was transferred to Rome, it cost the Ro- 
 tionf e a l nd n often' mans many hard efforts to subdue the interior and distant 
 reconquer Spain nations (Celtiberi, &c.) who long resisted, and often re- 
 after they get it in j ' 
 from Carthage, belled. 
 
 Numamia. - Re- 3864. Numantia, a city in the interior, assisted by the 
 t b o e "3878 fron viria 4 Celtiberi and Lusitani, baffled the Roman arms fourteen 
 thus was at first years. The celebrated Viriathus was leader of the Span- 
 th^gem ad ish confederac y t til | he was treacherously killed, 
 
 orius. - Gen- Eight years, from 3923 to 3931, Spain rebelled again, 
 m n 3aa ar >d resisted Rome under Sertorius, a Roman general of 
 to 3931. AII the the Marian faction, who fled from the dictator Sylla, 
 
 Roman armies .JT, . J/.J-L k ^-11 
 
 def.ai.dtii Pom- Many Roman armies were defeated in the contest, till 
 pey arrived. p mpey finished the war, 3931. 
 
 Spain, after Au- Spain (rich in mines and tributes) continued, from the 
 gustus, anobedi- time of Augustus, generally an obedient provincetill about 
 (rich'Kin^'of A.D. 500, that is, about 700 years from the time it was 
 gold, silver, fcc.) taken from Carthage, (B.C. 204.) 
 
 JIncient Gaul, exhibiting its various Names and Divi- 
 sions, with an account of its Inhabitants, Colonies, 
 Subjugation, fyc. 
 
 (Franks,Fmich.) Modern FRANCE, stands nearly for ancient Gaul. 
 
 Ga'ul. 
 
 (English from the GAUL, including France, Belgia, Helvetia, &C. 
 
 Latin Gallia.) 
 
 Gaiiia. GALLIA is the Roman name of Gaul, from Gael of the 
 
 (Gaiu or Gauls.) natives. 
 
 ir MA GAEL was the native name of the Celts or Aborigines 
 of Gaul. 
 
 11
 
 82 HISTORYOF GAUL. 
 
 Ceitica These terms strictly apply to the Celts, or the country 
 
 ^"ciiiat^ 118 } tne y occupied- The Greeks sometimes applied them to 
 
 (Galatians.) all Gaul. 
 
 (Tranfaipina.) In the common acceptation of the term GALLIA, its 
 Gaul beyond the application is the same without the epithet Transalpine, 
 
 /I J|)H IO luc A<)- * , . , .^ I I -i I 1 
 
 mans, uit.-rior or as with it. But with the epithet it implies another or se- 
 Ortefoai a^d'pltv cond Gaul, and means distinctly original Gaul, Gaul 
 per itrmbracrd Proper, in opposition to Cisalpine, or Italian Gaul. 
 
 modern France, . ,f. j i i i / 
 
 Belgium, the Gallia embraced the whole extent of country between 
 Poy'andT/eivf the Al P s - Rhi . ne ' ( in its entire course,) North Sea, Chan- 
 tia, and Germany nel, Bay of Biscay, Pyrenees, and Mediterranean. 
 
 westoftheKhine. 
 
 Gauith settle- Besides the proper and original Gaul, Gallias or Gauls 
 
 ent &c. taJy ' were multiplied by provincial divisions, and by new set- 
 
 Gaiiu (Cisaipi- tlemen's beyond the original limits; the two Gauls or the 
 
 na ) Gaul this ,, .- , J . . .' 
 
 side the Alps, ci- lour Gauls being common expressions. 
 Gani r 'SJSK; About 3400 A.M., (B.C. (MX),) in. the time of the elder 
 Italian Gaui.from Tarquin, a whole nation of Gauls or Celts passed from 
 Rubicon! i'nciud" original Gaul into Italy, and encroaching upon the Tus- 
 jug Liguria, cans, who were then spread far north, settled in the country 
 
 which wa* not . f . , J 
 
 occupied by between the Alps and the river Rubicon; and thus form- 
 ed a second or Italian Gaul, distinguished from the origin- 
 al Gaul by the epithet Cisalpine, which means this side of the Alps in 
 relation to the Romans. 
 
 senna Gaiiia. Two hundred years later, 3600, (B.C. 400,) another 
 A second imiian Gaulish swarm poured into Italy, and passing through 
 
 Gaul, settled by ~,. , . , v , , . TT u .u t 
 
 Gain senones Cisalpine daiil, settled along the Umbnan coast south of 
 SS \ h wi?o e b n urn- of the Ru b'con, to a place called from them Sena Gallia, 
 ed Rome, under (now Senigaglia,) by which name we may designate also 
 B.cnmis. the w fr o i e sett i ement j t was t hi s savage horde that in- 
 vaded Tuscany and burned Rome, 3614, and never ceased to invade or 
 rebel till nearly exterminated, 3721. 
 
 ! . . About 3725, another prodigious swarm of Gauls, un- 
 Gaui, oTGauthj f ' er a second Brennus, invaded Macedon and Greece, 
 uH la k M - inor Ga " which, as well as Asia Minor, they long scourged with 
 
 Jatiancuiganame ., .. ,J .-r.! 
 
 applied by the war and desolation, aggravating the calamities of Alex- 
 Greeks to ancient anc j er > s successorSi t j]i t h e y finally settled in the central 
 part of Asia Minor, and formed a fourth Gaul, under the 
 Greek name Galatia. 
 
 Provincial Gauis. This division of TRANSALPINE GAUL is also called 
 ci* or' Prov?ncia Provincia Romana, (the Roman Province,) it being the 
 Romana,) first first Roman province in Gaul, and held a considerable 
 
 Human province .irTi-/-< ji TII 
 
 in Gaui in the time before Juhus Caesar conquered the rest. It lay along 
 wHi th Aip"; th c e ai^d tne A1 P S an( ^ Mediterranean, comprising modern Pro- 
 aiso Narbonenig. vence, Dauphini, Savoy, and Languedoc. 
 Gaiiia (Aquitani- Ao_uiTANiA embraced at first only the country actually 
 tnVroutlwI^'of i 1103 ^!^^ by Aquitani between the Garonne and the Pyre- 
 Gaul nees; but Augustus enlarged it to the Loire. 
 Gaiiia (Ceitica GALLIA CfiLTicA OR PROPER at first embraced a great 
 Proper.) The N art Q f ^g countr y inhabited by the Celts, from the 
 
 W., central, and , in> T* T. 
 
 S.E. of Gaui, in- Garonne, to the Seme, Maine, Upper Rhine, Alps, &c.
 
 HISTORYOFGAUL. 83 
 
 habited by Celts Its extremes were Brittany and Helvetia. But Augus- 
 caiied aifw g jLug- tus g reat 'y reduced its extent by additions to Aquitania 
 
 dunensis. an d Belgica. 
 
 Gaiiia (Belgica.) GALLIA BELGICA, as a province, contained more than 
 BeiiKic Gaui: in- Beigia Proper, that is, more than was actually occupied 
 
 eluding morethan 1^1 r T- i TI- <~* ' VL- 
 
 Beigia, and en- by Belgae or Belgians. Julius Caesar confines it within 
 tus g onth y e'outn^ l ^ e Seine, Marne, Vosges, (mountains,) Rhine, and Sea. 
 but Germania fr Augustus took from Celtica, Helvetia and the country 
 paratcd be of lhe j^-qua^ ( now Franche-Compte.) and added them 
 
 to Beli>ica. 
 
 Gaiiia (Germam- The eastern part of BELGICA along the Rhine and Meuse 
 ca.) Germania being settled by Germans, was separated by Augustus 
 
 Cisrhena, Ger- , 3 , J c '. _ * J . & 
 
 many on this side under the name of Germania, (Germany;) which was 
 isiio^Bdgic^Ger- distinguished from the proper Germany east of the Rhine 
 many west of the by the epithet Cisrhena, (this side of the Rhine the west 
 side.) This Germany west of the Rhine might be term- 
 ed Gaiiia Germanica. or Beigia Germanica. It was distinguished by 
 Augustus into Germania Prima (first) and Secunda (second.) 
 
 GAUL, GALLIA, FRANCE, &c. In a loose and familiar sense, these 
 several names are concurrent in their application; but their strict and 
 critical application is not only very different, but often difficult to ascer- 
 tain ; being all of them loosely and variously applied by different au- 
 thors, and even by the same author in different places. 
 
 There is an original sense of the word Gaiiia asderiv- 
 
 Apphcation of j / /- i L L ij ! u 
 
 the term Gaiiia. ed from Gael, which would restrain its application to the 
 proper country of Gaels or Celts, the aborigines of Gaul. 
 But a principle of convenience extended its application to Aquitania 
 and Beigia, which were not inhabited by Galli proper, or Celts, strictly 
 so called. The final and settled application of this word was, to cer- 
 tain well defined natural limits, including Celts, Belgians, and Aqui- 
 tanians. 
 
 The word Celtae, Celts, &c., has a much stricter applica- 
 
 the P te l r C m' i( citL l ' on to tne racc tnfin l ^ e WOT ^ Galli has; by Cc-lts we mean 
 
 Ceitt. ' the aborigines of Gaul, Spain, Britain, &c., a people said 
 
 to have been entirely distinct and peculiar in their origin, 
 
 language, and customs. All Gauls then were not Celts; nor were all 
 
 Celts Gauls. The Celts of Spain and Britain were not Gauls, nor 
 
 were the Gauls of Beigia and Aquitania Celts We apply the word 
 
 Celts to a primitive aboriginal race, whose Gaelic descendants have 
 
 been reduced by national extermination to a few Welsh, Irish, and 
 
 Highland Scotch. 
 
 The divisions of Gauls by Julius Caesar into Celts, 
 Gaul""" Aquitanians, and Belgians, and the corresponding divi- 
 sion of the country into the provinces of Celtic-a, Aquitan- 
 ica, and Belgica, was simple and convenient. But the changes made 
 in the Hmits of these divisions by Augustus, as well as other consider- 
 ations, have perplexed the geography of Gaul, by giving countenance 
 and currency to applications of the same terms, seemingly inconsistent 
 and contradictory. 
 
 Th-ne Mihdivi- To express the distinction between these ancient and 
 eions conftiavd obscure ract's in confident and unqualified terms, is alms-
 
 84 HISTORY OF GAUL. 
 
 ing all readers and learners. That there were three distinct races, 
 viz. Belgians, Celts, and Aquitanians, in Gaul, we cannot question. But 
 there must have been many savage tribes not precisely assignable to 
 either of these divisions. If many tribes could be designated as Celts 
 or Belgians, there must have been also many that could not be clearly 
 and distinctly either Celts or Belgians. This sufficiently accounts for 
 the vague and unsatisfactory explanations we get from our books. 
 
 The detail of early history developes the causes of our 
 
 Cause* of this i . ,i_'~u'*rnL. I r u iJ- 
 
 confmion. perplexities on this subject. I he cians of each great di- 
 vision were distinguished among themselves by striking 
 peculiarities; and roving savages were continually changing their 
 residence, blending, exterminating, &c. The Celts mixed with Bel- 
 gians and Aquitanians, and Gauls mixed with Germans and Spaniards. 
 The unsettled hordes of Gaul and Germany were always in commo- 
 tion ; rushing in resistless bodies from one country into the other, 
 blending, exterminating, &c. Germans were found in Gaul, and Gauls 
 were found in Germany, Italy, Asia Minor, &c. 
 
 Julius Caesar tells us that the Belgic Gauls were for 
 mwiTxtraction* the most part originally Germans, and that of all the 
 Gaulic nations only these German Gauls could resist the 
 fury of their brethren, the Teutones and Cimbri. The Belgic Gauls 
 were doubtless successive hordes of German emigrants. The earliest 
 emigrants were crowded by later ones towards the Seine and North. 
 Sea; and in the time of Cassar, the nearer you approached the Rhine, 
 the more obvious was the German extraction of the people. This suf- 
 ficiently explains why the number, extent, and distinctive character of 
 the Belgians are so illy defined. Cassar allows but a few real Bel- 
 gians, and no author furnishes a distinct characteristic for the Belgic 
 race. It may be observed, that from the time of Caesar to our own 
 time, no geographical term has been more vague and fluctuating than 
 that of Belgium or Belgia. 
 
 The invasion of Gaul and Italy by the savage hosts of 
 2S*Si b0< ta Germany, called Teutones and Cimbri, 3895, is familiar 
 fixed - to most readers. Though they were nearly destroyed by 
 Gauis, Celts, &c. Marius, 3903, yet in their career of eight years, they must 
 have caused great changes in the population of the coun- 
 tries through which they passed. In Caesar's first campaign in Gaul, 
 he had to encounter the whole nation of Helvetia, who had left their 
 inhospitable country to seek a more favourable settlement in the lands 
 of the ^Edui, between the Soane and the Loire. The next formidable 
 foe he met, was the Germans, under their king, Ariovistus, who had 
 crossed the Rhine, and subdued the northeast of Gaul. Other emigra- 
 tions more ancient and obscure, are mentioned by historians; but pro- 
 bably enough has been said to satisfy every reader that no precise 
 boundaries can be fixed for Gauls, Celts, Belgians, or Germans, in 
 these early ages. 
 
 Tacitus advances the opinion that the Germans were 
 
 r^pecUng ( the n ori" a indigenous or aboriginal race. He might better have 
 
 gin of the Ger- gai^ that neither he nor any body else knew much about 
 
 them, only that they had no fixed residences, and were
 
 HISTORYOPOAUL. 85 
 
 divided into innumerable clans, devoted to war, rapine, and all savage 
 pursuits. 
 
 His account of the origin of their name is sufficiently 
 name German, curious and characteristic to merit attention. He says it 
 was modern or of recent origin. A German people, call- 
 ed Tungrians in his time, and settled along the Meuse in Belgic Gaul, 
 had assumed, when they crossed the Rhine, the frightful name of 
 Gher-men, (war-men,) to spread a panic before them; which frightful 
 name was perpetuated as we find in Caesar, and being propagated by 
 Gauls and Romans, it recrossed the Rhine, and became the general 
 name for the people on the east of that river, as well as for those who 
 had settled on the west of it. 
 
 The fate and fortunes of Gaul, after it became a Roman province, 
 were chiefly influenced by the great exposure to barbarous incursions 
 on the German frontier. 
 
 The long struggle of the Gauls with Rome exhibited 
 7toHan >l or U Ctea i- the unequal conflict of brutal ferocity and wild enterprise 
 pine Gaul by the against disciplined valour and deep-working policy. From 
 the burning of Rome by the Galli Senones, 3614, the 
 Italian Gauls continued the implacable enemies of Rome about 165 
 years, till those of the north were finally subdued, about 3780, between 
 the first and second Punic wars. 
 
 The victories of Hannibal in the north of Italy, 3786, encouraged'the 
 Gauls to assist him about fifteen years in Italy; but the triumphs of 
 Scipio Africanus the elder in Spain and Africa, re-established the Ro- 
 man dominion both over Gauls in the north, and Greeks in the south 
 of Italy. It was a part of Roman policy to secure their conquests 
 by fixing garrisons and planting colonies among the conquered people. 
 The Romans early maintained a friendly intercourse 
 Transalpine Gaui with the Greeks of Marseilles, whom they protected 
 against their barbarous neighbours. They finally got 
 a firm footing in their new province of Gaul, (Provincia Romana,) by 
 planting colonies and establishing garrisons there, particularly after the 
 famous defeat of the Teutones by Marius at Aquae Sextias, near Mar- 
 seilles. 
 
 Caesar held the two Gauls about ten years, from 3944 to 3954, and 
 employed eight bloody campaigns in his cruel conquest. The inva- 
 sion of the Helvetians and Germans, and the intestine division among 
 the Gaulic tribes, soon opened a fine field for his splendid military ta- 
 lents. All these enemies were speedily subdued or annihilated. And 
 when his boundless rapacity and wanton slaughter of enemies and in- 
 surgents provoked new enemies and fearful combinations against him, 
 he had the address and genius to baffle and confound the whole, when 
 any other man would have been overwhelmed.
 
 A CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX, 
 
 Containing the most important Events, from Jl. M. 
 3750 to 4554. 
 
 3250 Rome built. History of Assyria, Babylon, Media, and Lydia 
 begin to be known about the same period. 
 
 3264 Ahaz, king of Judah, attacked by Pekah, king of Israel, and 
 
 Ahaz. Rezen, king of Syria, invites Tiglath-Pileser king of Assyria, 
 
 1st Captivity and gives him the treasures of the holy temple, for his .assis- 
 
 tance against his invaders. Tiglath-Pileser carries the Sy- 
 
 rians captive, subdues their country, and also carries the four 
 
 northern and three eastern tribes of Israel captive. Com- 
 
 mences the first captivity, leaving only the two tribes of 
 
 Ephraim and Manasseh half tribe. 
 
 3283 First captivity completed by Shalmanezer, who took Sama- 
 Compieted. r j a> an( j subjugated the country now called Samaria. 
 
 3379 Nabopolassar, a Babylonian, revolts from Saracus, the last 
 Babylonish ki ns r of Nineveh or Assyria. Destroys Nineveh, and makes 
 
 Empire. T i i < t V i i i 
 
 Jeremiah. Babylon the seat of the Babylonish empire. 
 
 3398 
 
 adorBabyio-Nebuchadnezzar, now joint king with his father Nabopo- 
 
 nish captivity lassar, invades Judah takes Daniel the prophet, and com- 
 ^o'yearsftui mences the second captivity, or that of Judah. 
 
 3468. 
 
 3400 Nebuchadnezzar reigns alone, on the death of his father. 
 3406 
 
 3d taking of 
 
 i- Ezekiel, with many other Jews, taken to Babylon. 
 
 Jeconiah. 
 Zedekiah. 
 
 3416 Jerusalem taken, the city and temple destroyed, and the Jews 
 
 c^LpK'^ (that is, the people of Jerusalem) carried captive. This is 
 theSdandiastthe completion of the second captivity. 
 
 taking. * 
 
 3426 About the middle of the siege of Tyre, by Nebuchadnezzar, 
 siege of Tyre. wn jch lasted 13 years. New city on an island. No spoils 
 found in the old city, the inhabitants having removed, with 
 their effects, to their new city. 
 
 3436 About this time Nebuchadnezzar returns from his invasion 
 of Egypt, laden with spoils ; but Egypt was only spoiled, not 
 subjected to Babylon.
 
 INDEX. 87 
 
 3446 Cyrus of Media or Persia, in conjunction with his uncle 
 Cyaxares, (or, as some say, alone, having dethroned his 
 grandfather Astyagas,) commences his career of conquest, 
 attacking the dominions of the king of Babylon, reducing 
 Armenia, and then marching into Asia Minor. 
 
 3456 Cyrus conquers Croesus, king of Lydia, whose dominions 
 comprehended nearly the whole of Asia Minor. The Mo- 
 lian, Ionian, and Dorian Greeks, having been subjected by 
 Croesus and his predecessors, now reluctantly yield to Cyrus, 
 and become subject to the king of Persia. 
 
 3466 
 Babylonish Babylon taken and the Persian empire founded, just 200 
 
 emp'reends. > . , T>IM- j /-, J 
 
 Persian emp. years before Philip conquered Greece. 
 
 begin*. Susa 
 the capital. 
 
 3468 Jews restored to their country by Cyrus, but still held in po- 
 litical subjection to the kings of Persia. 2d Temple begun 
 at Jerusalem, just 200 years before Philip died and Alexander 
 began his reign. 
 
 3478 Cyrus dies and Cambyses begins, (actually 3475,) and in 
 to the'pe're'ian 34' Cambyses invades Egypt, and adds it to the Persian 
 empire. empire. 
 
 3488 Darius Hystaspes, who began to reign in 3483, reduces Ba- 
 bylon, wjiich had revolted from him, after a siege of twenty 
 months. 
 
 3492 
 
 Thrace added Darius, after an invasion of the Scythians, on the coast of 
 tothePersian the Black Sea, (unfortunate) conquers Thrace on his return. 
 
 3498 
 
 India added Darius invades and conquers India; wjjich, in tribute, was 
 
 to the Persian the richest province of the Persian empire. 
 
 empire. 
 
 3500 Persian invasion, 25 years, until 3025. 
 
 3505 lonians subdued. The Greeks had struggled five years in 
 Asia Minor, Thrace, and the islands of the^Egean Sea. The 
 king of Persia then prepared to carry the war into Greece ; 
 but his preparations were slow and tedious. 
 
 3510 Mardonius despatched for Greece with an army ; has his 
 arrny cut off in Thrace, and loses his fleet on the coast. 
 
 3515 Battle of Marathon; Miltiades, father of Cimon, chief; 
 
 A^f ara h n Aristides and Themistocles also present. Datis and Arta- 
 
 "pionofaii phernes, generals of Darius. 10,000 Athenians defeat II 0,000 
 
 aii P persia. ainst Persians. Here the Greeks learned to conquer vastly supe- 
 
 Poet^scbyius.rior armies, in point of number, and to despise the motley, 
 
 ill-assorted troops of Asia. 1000 Plataeans fought with the 
 
 Athenians, but the Spartans had no share in the battle of 
 
 Marathon.
 
 88 INDEX. 
 
 3520 Darius Hystaspes dies. Herodotus, the first profane histo- 
 rian, born. Xerxes subdues a revolt in Egypt; and by that 
 is delayed in making a second expedition into Greece. 
 Though Herodotus was not born till 3520, yet his history is 
 considered authentic, though extravagant, from 3500 ; as he 
 could ascertain the particulars of the Grecian and Persian 
 wars, from 3500, from living witnesses older than himself. 
 But his history of the Greeks and other nations, prior to the 
 Persian wars, is full of conceits, fictions, and marvels, though 
 generally founded on fact. It is remarkable that Homer, the 
 first poet, Pythagorus and Thales, the first philosophers, 
 and Herodotus, the first profane historian, should be among 
 the most illustrious in their respective departments ; yet their 
 views were fanciful and often fantastic. 
 
 3525 The great battles of Thermopylae, (Leonidas) Artemesium, 
 T A e rml^a e Satamis ' (Themistocles) Platea, no transcendant genius 
 Saiamis pia- Mycaie, Xantippus, (father of Pericles) Cimon, a valiant 
 tn. Mycaie. y(mth ftt s a i am i s _ Greeks victorious. 
 
 3525 The Persians cease to invade Greece. Poetry and philoso- 
 
 narion " until P^y ^ rst dawned among the Greeks of Asia Minor; but after 
 
 3555. ' these great battles and events Athens attracted the muses, 
 
 philosophy, and liberal arts. While Xerxes invaded Greece, 
 
 the Carthaginians, who possessed part of Sicily, being leagued 
 
 with Xerxes, tried to conquer Syracuse and' other Greek 
 
 cities of Sicily. la this war Gelon overthrew 300,000 of 
 
 them by surprise. From this time until the first Punic war, 
 
 3740, the Carthaginians tried to conquer the Greeks of 
 
 Sicily. 
 
 Athens, which the Persians had burnt, was rebuilt and 
 strengthened with walls. The Spartans remonstrate, bat 
 Themistocles outwitted them ; and the stone walls, the ports 
 and fleets of Athens confirmed its power and pre-eminence. 
 
 3530 In the battles of 3525, the Athenians had, from policy, allow- 
 Cimon'B ca- e( j t tne Spartans the nominal command, though the Athe- 
 
 reer of 30 . 111 t ci i ni i 
 
 years. man commander had, at Artemisia, kalamis, s'lateea, and 
 Mycaie, the deserved credit of the brilliant success. After 
 this period, 3530, the haughtiness of the Spartan command- 
 ers became offensive to the allies, and the command passed 
 to Cimon the Athenian ; who, by his genius and disposition, 
 attached all the allies to him, and brought them into alliance 
 with Athens. This great champion delivered from the yoke 
 of Persia the Greeks of Thrace and Asia Minor, and of the 
 islands, and Athens rose to empire. Having at her disposal 
 the resources of Greece, and provoking, by her ascendancy, 
 the jealousy of Sparta, Cimon enriched himself and his dear 
 Athens with the spoils of Persia, Pericles cherished the 
 democracy and Cimon the aristocracy of Athens. Pericles 
 always tried to involve Athens and Sparta Cimon always 
 tried to allay the jealousy between the two states.
 
 INDEX. 89 
 
 3535 Pericles supreme at Athens for 40 years. Aristides dies. 
 P reer'of w*" Themistocles banished, (3533.) Double victory ofCimon over 
 years. the Persian fleet and army at the Eurymedon, in Pamphylia; 
 that is victory by sea and land the same day. During these 
 40 years Pericles and Cimon were the master spirits ; Phi- 
 dias the genius. Walls and temples rose, to fortify and 
 adorn Athens. The trophies of Cimon, and the Persian spoils, 
 contribute to distinguish, enrich, and embellish Athens. Peri- 
 cles was more conspicuous at home ; Cimon abroad. Cimon 
 the aristocrat distinguished from Pericles the democrat. 
 
 3539 Earthquake at Sparta. Helots and Messenians revolt. Mes- 
 senian war. Messenians subdued after ten years. Constant 
 jealousies between Athens and Sparta from this time. 
 
 3544 Transient revolt of Egypt under Inarus, assisted by Athens. 
 The Persian yoke was always heavy upon the Egyptians. 
 The Egyptians frequently revolted, and were always reduced 
 with great difficulty. 
 
 3548 Egyptians reduced to obedience. 
 
 3550 Cimon banished, by the influence of his rival Pericles, and 
 afterwards recalled by the same influence ; he was accused 
 of being too favourable to Sparta. 
 
 3555 Cimon's last victory over the Persians. He dies. The 
 Grecians and Persians make peace. 
 
 8558 Truce between Sparta and Athens for 30 years ; soon broken. 
 
 3559 Herodotus reads his history at his adopted city, Athens. He 
 was a native of Hallicarnassus in Caria. He afterwards 
 read it at Olympia. 
 
 3565 A war between Corinth and her colony, Corcyra. The as- 
 sistance yielded by Athens to Corcyra in this war is the more 
 immediate cause of the Peloponnesian war. Thucydides, 
 second historian. 
 
 3570 Socrates flourishes. 
 
 3573 Peloponnesian war. Athens and Sparta leading parties, but 
 nearly all Greece engaged. Darius Nothus assists the 
 Spartans in the last year of the war. 
 
 3575 Pericles dies the second year of the Peloponnesian war. 
 
 3583 Peace between Athens and Sparta stipulated for 50 years; 
 but so poorly observed, that the Peloponnesian war is consi- 
 dered as continuing until 3600. 
 
 3588 Disastrous expedition of Athens to attack Syracuse, which 
 was assisted by its Doric mother Corinth, and afterwards by 
 Sparta. In this war Alcibiades was the instigator; Nicias 
 12
 
 ) INDEX. 
 
 and the intrepid Demosthenes the victims. Tremendous 
 vicissitudes during the whole expedition, and dreadful ca- 
 tastrophe. 
 
 3590 Egypt revolts from Persia. The ^Egean Sea becomes the 
 scene of contest between Athens and Sparta. The generals 
 of Darius Nothus assist Sparta. 
 
 3595 Alcibiades recalled. 
 
 3599 Battle of ^Egos-Potamos. 
 
 3600 Peloponnesian war ends by the taking of Athens by the Spar- 
 tans. Darius Nothus dies. Plato, Xenophon, flourish. 
 
 3600 The Spartans, on taking Athens, set up thirty tyrants, who 
 scourge the city with horrid cruelties. 
 
 3601 Thrasybitlus expels the tyrants, and delivers Athens. He 
 had found refuge from the tyrants at Thebes. 
 
 3602 Cyrus the younger, governor of Asia Minor, prepares to at- 
 tack and dethrone his brother Artaxerxes, king of Persia. 
 
 3603 Defeat and death of Cyrus at Cunaxa. Retreat of 10,000 
 Greeks, conducted and narrated by Xenophon. Death of 
 Socrates. 
 
 3604 Sparta, now the predominant power of Greece, pursues a 
 haughty and oppressive course with the Greeks, and makes 
 war on Tissaphernes and Pharnabasus, Persian governors of 
 Asia Minor. 
 
 3607 Agesilaus elected king of Sparta, proves a great king, acts 
 a conspicuous part in Asia Minor, threatening the Persian 
 empire. 
 
 3610 Corinthian league, formed by the oppressed states of Greece, 
 and furnished with Persian gold, to check the daring enter- 
 prises of Sparta. Conon, with his own ten ships, and a fleet 
 furnished by the king of Persia, defeats the Spartans, restores 
 to Athens the dominion of the sea, and returns to Athens 
 after eleven years' absence ; and with Spartan spoil repairs 
 the wanton waste and ruin which the Spartans, in 3600, had 
 committed on the walls, towers, and citadel. By these vari- 
 ous movements and events Agesilaus is recalled to defend 
 Sparta. After the victory of Conon, Athens gradually reco- 
 vers splendour, power, and many of its rich provinces in 
 Thrace and the ^Egean Sea. 
 
 3617 Antalcidas. The Spartans, finding it impossible to domineer 
 over the states of Greece as far as they wished, made a mean 
 peace with Persia, Antalcidas being the Spartan negociator. 
 This treaty required Thebes, Corinth, Argos, and even 
 Athens, to abandon all their dependent cities. The Spartans
 
 INDEX. 91 
 
 resolved, however, to retain all their rights and dependants, 
 having meanly purchased the favour of that king of Persia 
 whose dominions they had lately invaded. 
 
 3623 Thebes perfidiously taken by a Spartan army, which en- 
 tered the city under the guise of friendship. The same cru- 
 elties acted as at Athens. 
 
 3627 Thebes delivered by Pelopidas and Epaminondas. The 
 former returned in disguise from Athens as Thrasybulus did 
 from Thebes. From this time there is one continued strug- 
 gle between Thebes and Sparta, until 3641, when Thebes 
 was triumphant, and Sparta humbled at Mantinea. 
 
 3633 Battle of Leuctra in Bceotia Pelopidas and Epaminondas 
 gloriously triumph. 
 
 3634 Philip of Macedon carried a hostage to Thebes ten years 
 before he was made king. 
 
 3641 Battle of Mantinea in Arcadia. Epaminondas again hum- 
 bles Sparta, but dies full of glory. Thebes and Athens are 
 now the predominant powers, until Philip appears. 
 
 3644 Philip, the youngest of several brothers, had been carried as 
 a hostage to Thebes by Ptlopidas, who arbitrated a dispute 
 between the brothers. Philip, on hearing of the death of his 
 last brother, privately escaped from Thebes, and ascended a 
 throne beset by competitors, to rule a small, inland, distress- 
 ed and ravaged country. He was instructed by the best mas- 
 ters of the wisest age of Greece; cool, politic, shrewd, wily, 
 ambitious and enterprizing; a profound politician, accom- 
 plished scholar, and consummate dissembler; companiona- 
 ble, affable, facetious. What was wanting was an honest 
 heart. 
 
 3646 War of Athens with its allies. 
 
 3650 Sacred war. 
 
 3651 Philip takes Methone. 
 
 3652 
 
 Demosthenes Philip prevented from taking Thermopylae. 
 
 3556 Philip takes Olynthus. 
 
 3657 Philip seizes Thermopylae, punishes the Phocians, and be- 
 comes in place of them a member of the Amphyctionic 
 Council. 
 
 3665 The Athenian Phocion compels Philip to raise the siege of 
 Byzantium and Perinthus. 
 
 3666 Battle of Ch&rnnea. Philip, having finished another sa- 
 cred war, had alarmed and united Tliebes and Atheps by 
 taking Elatea, but defeated both at Chaeronea.
 
 92 INDEX. 
 
 3667 Philip declared at Corinth generalissimo of all Greece against 
 Persia. 
 
 3668 Philip assassinated Alexander succeeds. 
 
 3670 Alexander with 30,000 Greeks invades the Persian empire, 
 defeats Darius at the river Grancius, reduces the cities that 
 resist him, and subjects Asia Minor. 
 
 3671 Alexander gains the battle and the pass of Issus, and enters 
 Syria ; besieges Tyre seven months and takes it; Jerusalem 
 is delivered to him by Jaddus the high priest. 
 
 3672 Gaza surrenders after a siege of three months, and Egypt, 
 so long disaffected to the Persians, submits without resis^ 
 tance. Alexandria founded. 
 
 3673 Battle of Arbela, Darius defeated the third time. Mace- 
 donian empire succeeds the Persian, Alexander takes Ba- 
 bylon, Susa, Persepolis, marches into India, and conquers as 
 far as his troops will follow. 
 
 3681 Alexander dies, aged 33, at Babylon, while he is endeavour- 
 ing to reinstate that city in iis splendour and make it his 
 capital. Philip Aridaeus and Alexander JEgus sham kings. 
 Empire divided. 
 
 3682 Lamian war so called because the revolted Athenians at- 
 tacked Antipater at Lamia. Antipater prevailed and took 
 Athens. Death of Demosthenes. 
 
 3683 Body of Alexander carried to Egypt. Antigonus and AntN 
 pater league against Eumenes and the regent Perdiccas. 
 Perdiccas killed Antipater regent in his stead. 
 
 3685 Antipater dies. Polysphercon is regent in his stead, and is 
 opposed by Lysander, son of Antipater. Phocion condemn- 
 ed. Cassander seizes Athens, and makes Demetrius Phale- 
 reus governor. 
 
 3687 Olympia puts to death Aridaeus and his wife Euridice, and 
 is hersejf soon after killed by Cassander. 
 
 3689 Eumenes, governor of Cappadocia, after being pursued from 
 Cappadocia to Syria, and from thence to the Euphrates, long 
 supporting the character of a great general, is at last basely 
 murdered by his troops. From this time Antigonus is con- 
 stantly encroaching on the rights and territories of the other 
 generals, and provokes them to that final conflict that ended 
 at Jpsus in his defeat and death. 
 
 3691 Antigonus and his strange son Poliorcetes take Tyre after 
 a seige of fifteen months. 
 
 3692 Zeno founds the sect of the Stoics at Athens.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 93 
 
 3693 Seleueus takes Babylon and the neighbouring provinces. 
 Ptolemy takes a great number of Jews to Alexandria. Cas- 
 sander kills Roxanna and her infant son. 
 
 3695 Polysphercon, after attempting to make use of young Her- 
 cules against Cassander, basely murdered him to gain Gas- 
 sander to his interest. 
 
 3696 Ophelias, governor of Lybia, revolts against Ptolemy of 
 Egypt. 
 
 3698 Demetrius Poliorcetes takes Athens, Cyprus, and Salamis. 
 The governors assume the title of kings. 
 
 3700 Celebrated seige of Rhodes by Demetrius, which fails. 
 
 .3702 Antigonus and Demetrius now lords of Asia by rapine and 
 cruelty, and by threatening the other princes. Cassander, 
 Lysimachus, Ptolemy, and Seleueus league against them. . 
 
 3703 Battle of Ipsus. Antigonus killed and his strange son De- 
 metrius Poliorcetes flies with a small army to be the sport 
 of fortune a little longer. 
 
 3704 Seleueus builds Antioch in Syria. The Athenians reject the 
 fugitive Demetrius Poliorcetes, who still however possesses 
 Cyprus, Tyre, Sidon, some towns in the Peloponessus and 
 elsewhere. 
 
 3707 Cassander dies. The famous Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who 
 had been driven out of his kingdom, this year marries Anti- 
 gona, step-daughter of Ptolemy, who gives him a fleet, with 
 which he returns to Epirus and regains his kingdom. 
 
 3709 Demetrius, after wandering about, plundering, &c., for seve- 
 ral years, returns to Athens, which he retakes, but soon after 
 hears that Ptolemy had taken Cyprus. 
 
 3710 Demetrius, soon after hearing of the loss of Cyprus, is invited 
 to Macedon by Alexander, son of Cassander, whom he kills 
 and succeeds. 
 
 3711 Seleueus founds Seleucia near Babylon, which causes the 
 rapid decay of Babylon. 
 
 3715 Death of the atrocious Agathocles, tyrant of Syracuse, after a 
 bloody reign of twenty-eight years. 
 
 3717 Pyrrhus on one side, and Lysimachus on the other, invade 
 Macedon, and drive out Demetrius, who was preparing to 
 invade them. Demetrius wanders into Asia, falls into the 
 hands of Seleueus, who confines him on an island till he dies. 
 Lysimachus unites Macedon and Thrace. 
 
 3718 Lysimachus, after driving out his friend Pyrrhus, rules in 
 Macedon and Thrace, after which there is no distinct king' 
 dom of Thrace,
 
 94 INDEX. 
 
 3719 Pergamus becomes a kingdom under Philetaerus, who held 
 the city and large treasures for Lysimachus, which Phile- 
 taerus now appropriates to himself. 
 
 3723 Lysimachus and his son Agathocles marry Arsinoe and 
 Lysandra, daughters of Ptolemy. Their brother, Ptolemy 
 Ceraunus, fled from his brother Philadelphus, but found a 
 poor refuge with his sisters, who were quarrelling. 
 
 3723 Ptolemy Ceraunus flies from the bloody court of Lysima- 
 chus, and persuades Seleucus to make war upon him. Ly- 
 simachus was killed, and Thrace and Macedon fell to Seleu- 
 cus, who was killed by Ceraunus after entering Macedon. 
 
 3724 Ceraunus, after the atrocious murder of his benefactor Seleu- 
 cus, kills his sister's children by Lysimachus. Pyrrhus, 
 
 . . invited by the Greeks of Tarentum, enters Italy and gains 
 
 several victories over the Romans. 
 
 3725 Pyrrhus in Italy. A swarm of Gauls break into Macedon 
 and kill Ceraunus, who is succeeded by Meleager. 
 
 3726 Pyrrhus abandons his fortune in Italy, and seeks new hon- 
 ours in Sicily. 
 
 3727 Ptolemy Philadelphus is said to have carried seventy Jews 
 to Egypt to make the Septuagint version of the Old Testa- 
 ment : this is not the received opinion. 
 
 3728 Antigonus Gonatus, who had succeeded his father in the 
 cities of Greece, this year came to fill the vacant throne, 
 from which his father had been driven ten years before. 
 
 3729 Antigonus and Antiochus quarrel about Macedon ; the dis- 
 pute is settled by a marriage ; and the posterity of old Anti- 
 gonus, and his son, Demetrius Poliorcetes, fill the throne un- 
 til 3836. Antiochus receives the name of Soter for defeating 
 the Gauls who invaded Macedon. They settle in Thrace. 
 
 3730 Pyrrhus flies back to Italy and is defeated by the Romans, 
 then flies to Macedon, and drives out Antigonus till '33. 
 
 3732 Pyrrhus tries in vain to conquer Sparta. 
 
 3733 Pyrrhus killed at the siege of Argos by a tile thrown by a 
 mother who saw his sword raised to kill her son. After 
 this the race of Antigonus and Demetrius reign uninterrupt- 
 ed in Macedon, till 3836. 
 
 3736 Antigonus Gonatus returns to Macedon (33) after the death 
 of Pyrrhus. From this time there is o/ie continued struggle 
 between his descendants on one side, and the states of Greece 
 on the other.
 
 INDEX. & 
 
 3739 Abautidas kills Clinias the governor, and masters Sycion. 
 Magus, governor of Lybia, revolts against Ptolemy. 
 
 3740 Punic war (actual year) the first war the Romans carried 
 out of Italy, having been employed 500 years in conquering 
 the different Italian states. 
 
 3741 Eumenes in Pergamus. 
 
 3743 Berosus of Babylon, the historian. 
 3746 Magus and Ptolemy reconciled. 
 
 3749 A war between Antiochus of Syria and Ptolemy. 
 
 3750 Punic war, (tenth year.) Achaean league : a league of twelve 
 cities which had existed for some time, but now for the first 
 time becomes important. Parthia, revolting from Antiochus 
 Theos, separated from Syria afterwards an empire. These 
 wars and the Achaean league began about the same time, 
 and ended the same year, 3858. 
 
 3752 Aratus, son of Clinias, delivers Sicyon from tyranny, and 
 unites it to the Achaean league. 
 
 3755 Antiochus and Ptolemy make peace on condition that Anti- 
 ochus divorce his wife Laodice, and marry Berenice, daugh- 
 ter of Ptolemy. 
 
 3756 Agis 4th of Sparta, endeavours to restore the severe laws of 
 Lycurgus. 
 
 3757 Ptolemy Evergetes reigns. 
 
 3758 The divorced Laodice poisons her husband after he had re- 
 ceived her again, and proclaims Callinicus her son. Bere- 
 nice and her son were assassinated'. Ptolemy Evergetes 
 enters Syria, lays it waste, and takes ample revenue. 
 
 3760 Aratus takes Corinth by a daring enterprise from the king 
 of Macedon, and unites it to the Achaean league, as he had 
 done his native city Sicyon. King Agis fails in his attempts 
 to restore the laws of Lycurgus, and is put to death. 
 
 3762 Antigonus Gonatus dies. Seleucus Callinicus has a fearful 
 war with his brother Hierax. 
 
 3764 End of the first Punic tear, after continuing twenty-four 
 years. The Romans gained Sicily and the dominion of the 
 sea, which Carthage had long possessed. 
 
 3772 Antigonus Doson reigns in Macedon as guardian to his cou- 
 sin Philip, afterwards king. 
 
 3774 Seleucus Callinicus taken prisoner in Parthia which he is 
 attempting to recover.
 
 96 INDEX. 
 
 3776 Cleomenes, king of Sparta, gains a great victory over Aratus 
 and the Achaeans. 
 
 3777 Seleucus dies in Parthia. Ceraunus succeeds. Aratus de- 
 feats Aristippus of Argos, and gains Megalopolis to the 
 Achaean league. 
 
 3779 The Romans humble Teuta, queen of the piratical Illyrians. 
 They send a famous embassy to notify the Grecians of their 
 treaty. The embassy treated with extraordinary marks of 
 honour. Aratus calls Antigonus Doson king of Macedon to 
 aid him against Sparta. This was contemptible policy, since 
 it was the aim of the Achaean league to repel the kings of 
 Macedon. 
 
 3781 Aratus and Antigonus combined defeat Cleomenes king of 
 Sparta, at Sellasia. Sparta is taken. Cleomenes has to flee 
 to Egypt. Antiochus the Great reigns. His great cotempo- 
 raries were Philip, Hannibal, Fabius, Marcellus, and the 
 Scipios ; on these depended the destinies of Greece, Rome, 
 and Carthage. 
 
 3782 The Colossus of Rhodes thrown down by an earthquake. 
 
 3783 Ptolemy Philopater. The ^Etolians figure in Greece, and 
 gain a great victory over the the Achaeans. Philip of Ma- 
 cedon. 
 
 3784 Antiochus the Great resolves to recover Parthia. He actu- 
 ally recovers Media and Persia which had lately revolted. 
 Cleomenes dies in Egypt basely treated. 
 
 3787 Battle of Rapha. 
 
 3788 Second Punic war. Hannibal, Carthaginian general of 
 Spain, crosses the Pyrrhenean mountains into Gaul, and the 
 Alps into Italy, and gains several victories, 
 
 3790 Philip of Macedon being leagued with Hannibal, the Ro- 
 mans send sufficient forces and money to employ him while 
 Hannibal is at their gates. 
 
 3792 Syracuse taken by Marcellus the Roman general, after a 
 siege of three years. The Romans were nearly baffled by 
 the machines of Archimedes. 
 
 3800 Antiochus the Great defeats the Egyptians and takes the 
 Holy Land. Scipio conquers Spain. The Egyptians cravethe 
 protection of the Romans against Antiochus the Great and 
 Philip of Macedon. From this the Romans make rapid ad^ 
 vances by the power of their arms, and the terror of their 
 name, and by the array of petty states against larger ones. 
 
 3801 A league between Philip and Antiochus the Great against 
 Egypt, obliges the young king Ptolemy to put himself under
 
 INDEX. 97 
 
 to put himself under the protection of the Romans, who from 
 that time become arbiters in the affairs of Egypt. 
 
 3803 Scipio having boldly landed in Africa, Hannibal is recalled 
 and defeated by Scipio at Zama. Carthage city stands, the 
 empire destroyed, despoiled, and not permitted to repel the 
 attacks of its neighbours. 
 
 3804 Romans make war on Philip 2d of Macedon (for four 
 years.) 
 
 3806 Some say that this is the year that Antiochus the Great took 
 Palestine. It seems, however, that it was five or six vears 
 earlier. The Achaeans and ^Etolians join the Romans 
 against Philip. 
 
 3807 Nabis, tyrant of Sparta, joins the Romans against Philip. 
 
 3808 Battle of Cenocephale. Philip humbled, and both Macedon 
 and Greece are subjected to Roman dictation. The smaller 
 states of Greece and Asia seem to court the Roman yoke. 
 
 3813 Battle of Magnesia. Antiochus the Great, after traversing 
 Asia into India, with a triumphant march, taking Palestine 
 from Ptolemy, exercising great power in Asia Minor and 
 Greece, is humbled at Magnesia in Asia Minor by Scipio 
 Asiaticus, who pursued him out of Greece, and compelled 
 him to plunder his people and pay tribute to the Romans, 
 who become umpires of the East. 
 
 3814 Philopoemen makes the Spartans join the Achaean league. 
 
 3815 The jEtolians, who had joined the Romans against Philip, 
 now assist Antiochus the Great against the Romans, and 
 were this year humbled and severely chastised. 
 
 3821 Philopoemen dies, often called the last of the Greeks. 
 
 3830 Antiochus Epiphanes deposes Onias, a high priest of the 
 Jews, and sells the office to Jason. 
 
 3833 Antiochus Epiphanes makes war on Ptolemy Philopater, 
 and the Romans on Perseus three years. 
 
 3834 Antiochus Epiphanes makes himself master of all Egypt, 
 takes the young king Ptolemy prisoner, and commits horrid 
 cruelties at Jerusalem on his return. 
 
 3836 Battle of Pydna. Macedon conquered. Perseus carried 
 to Rome by Paulus JEmilius. Pretended freedom, real tri- 
 bute and slavery. Macedon not declared a Roman province 
 until 3856, twenty years after. 
 
 1000 principal men of the Achaeans, including the historian 
 Polybius, summoned to Rome. Antiochus Epiphanes goes 
 13
 
 98 INDEX. 
 
 to Jerusalem to enforce his decree against religion. Death 
 of Eleazer. Martyrdom of Maccabaeus. 
 
 3838 Death of Matthias Maccabaeus. Judas succeeds him and 
 triumphs. The Holy Land becomes independent of Syria. 
 
 3843 Judas Maccabaeus dies after victories and prodigies of valour, 
 and leaving his country in fact independent, although the 
 struggle continues under his brothers. 
 
 3852 Andriscus, pretending to be the son of Perseus and king of 
 Macedon, is subdued. The Romans refuse Carthage per- 
 mission to defend itself against Massanissa. A cruel war 
 ensues because it attempts to defend itself without permis- 
 sion. 
 
 3854 Third Punic war. 
 
 3858 The destruction of the city of Carthage by the younger Scipio 
 Africanus finishes the Punic wars, after 118 years. The 
 destruction of Corinth prostrates the Achaean league, 108 
 years after Aratus had united Sycion to it. Spain, Greece, 
 Macedon, and Africa belong to the Romans. The terror of 
 their name is sufficient in Asia and Egypt, where princes 
 are allowed to reign provided they do nothing to offend the 
 Romans. Domestic convulsions suspend the career of con- 
 quest until 3900, when Pompey conquers the East. 
 
 3863 Numantia, a rebe^ city of Spain, resists Rome for a long 
 time. Demetrius Nicator taken prisoner in Parthia. 
 
 3871 Tiberius Gracchus, a popular orator, proposes an Agrarian 
 law, or the division of the lands of Pergamus, just bequeathed 
 to Rome by the last king. Gracchus is killed. 
 
 3883 Caius Gracchus imitates the popular acts of his brother, and 
 like him is killed in a tumult. 
 
 3890 Syria, already reduced to a small province by dismember- 
 ment, is divided into two hostile kingdoms, Antioch and Da- 
 mascus. 
 
 3893 Numidia. Jugurtha, after supplanting his cousins, after de- 
 fying the Romans and resisting their best generals for five 
 years, is carried to Rome and starved to death in a prison. 
 
 3894 Marius and Sylla supplant Metellus in the command against 
 Jugurtha. 
 
 3893 Teutones and Cimbri threaten for eight years to rush into 
 tke fair field and fine climate of ItaJy, and extinguish the 
 Roman name. 
 
 3903 Teutones and Cimbri defeated. 
 
 3907 Ptolemy Apion bequeaths Cyrene to Rome.
 
 INDEX. 99 
 
 3913 Social tear, (three years,) called also the Marcian war. The 
 Italian Socii or Allies, long since subdued, revolt against 
 Rome, and demand the privilege of voting at Rome. A Ro- 
 man civil war was between two Romans, or Roman armies. 
 A social war was between the Italian Socii or Allies and 
 . Rome. 
 
 3915 Mithridates causes 80,000 Romans to be massacred in Asia 
 Minor. The consequence was the Mithridatic war. Mi- 
 thridates makes himself master of Greece and Asia Minor. 
 The Romans had to finish the Marcian war by yielding their 
 demands to some of the allies, and thus dividing the confede- 
 racy. 
 
 3916 Old Marius tries to supplant Sylla in the command against 
 Mithridates. Sylla marches his army to Rome, drives Ma- 
 rius out, who, after astonishing exploits and escapes, arrives 
 at the ruins of Carthage. 
 
 3917 Sylla meets Archelaus, son of Mithridates, in Greece, and 
 civil war. recovers Athens from him after a destructive siege. 
 
 3618 Sylla gains the victories of Cheronaea and Orchomenos over 
 Archelaus. Marius again in Rome, triumphant, sends Fim- 
 bria and Flaccus to supplant Sylla, but Sylla prevails. 
 
 3920 Fimbria's legions desert and join Sylla. Fimbria falls on 
 his own sword, 
 
 3921 The rivalship and commotions amongst the numerous and 
 feeble Seleucidae induced the Syrians to make Tigranes 
 king of Armenia their king. He reigned fourteen years. 
 
 3922 Sylla returns to Italy, and triumphs over the faction of Ma- 
 rius. Young Pompey and Crassus appear on his side. 
 Cato and Cicero begin their career. Julius Caesar being 
 nephew to Marius has to fly. 
 
 3923 Sylla Dictator, after defeating Marius in two civil wars, 
 and triumphing over Mithridates in the interval. 
 
 3925 Sylla abdicates and dies two years after. 
 
 3928 Bithynia and Gyrene bequeathed to Rome, take the condi- 
 tion of Roman provinces. 
 
 3929 Second and third Mitkridatic wars. Lucullus and Cotta Ro- 
 man commanders. 
 
 3931 Servile war, or insurrection of slaves and gladiators under 
 Spartacus. Sertorius subdued by Pompey and Metellus. 
 Sertorius was assassinated by his companion Perpenna. 
 
 3933 Mithridates and Spartacus. The former, defeated by Lucul- 
 lus, flies to his son-in-law Tigranes, king of Armenia. Spar- 
 tacus destroyed, and the servile war finished by Crassus and 
 Pompey.
 
 100 INDEX. 
 
 3937 Mutiny of the soldiers of Lucullus, through which Mithri- 
 dates recovers his dominions. Foreign conquest resumed 
 after a long interval of domestic convulsions, from the taking 
 of Carthage and Corinth, 3858. 
 
 3938 Pompey, after destroying the pirates who had infested the 
 Mediterranean, is appointed to supersede Lucullus, whose 
 army would not obey him. He makes Mithridates fly and 
 Tigranes surrender. 
 
 3939 Pompey subdues Syria, and substantially the Holy Land, by 
 interfering between the contending Maccabee brothers. 
 
 3941 Cataline's conspiracy defeated by Cicero. Caesar pleads for 
 a milder punishment for the conspirators : he wished to re- 
 vive the faction of his uncle Marius. 
 
 3944 First Triumvirate. Pompey has already won laurels over 
 the whole empire. Csesar goes to gather his in Gaul, which 
 he conquers in ten years. Crassus chooses the East for its 
 riches and splendour. 
 
 3946 Cicero banished (recalled next year) by the arts and jealous- 
 ies of the triumvirs. Cato takes Cyprus from Ptolemy. 
 Berenice usurps the throne of her father Ptolemy Auletes. 
 
 3949 Gabinius and Marc Antony restore Auletes to his throne, 
 for which he is chiefly indebted to the influence of Pompey. 
 
 3951 Crassus killed in Parthia, which he invaded, blinded by 
 avarice and ambition. Misled by treacherous guides, he 
 saw his son and friends miserably perish, and was perfidi- 
 ously killed by Surena the Parthian general, at an interview 
 craved by the latter. 
 
 3953 Csesar, having finished the conquest of Gaul, was command- 
 ed by the Roman senate, with Pompey at their head, to dis- 
 band his armies : he refused, unless Pompey would also 
 disband his in Spain and elsewhere, crossed the Rubicon, 
 the sacred boundary between Gaul and Rome. Pompey 
 and the senate fled into Greece. Italy, &c. submitted. 
 
 3954 Civil war of Pompey and Julius Csesar. Italy submits to 
 Caesar, who also conquered Spain, occupied by Pompey's 
 troops. 
 
 3956 Battle of Pharsalia. Csesar, with the forces of the West, 
 conquers Pompey, who drew his forces from the East. Pom- 
 pey's flight. Vale of Tempe. JEgean Sea. Egypt. Basely 
 betrayed and assassinated. 
 
 3957 Caesar takes Alexandria, after a perilous quarrel with Ptole- 
 my Diogenes, brother of Cleopatra. He wastes much time 
 in Egypt, while Cato holds out in Africa and young Pompey 
 in Spain. 
 
 3958 African war. Cato kills himself. Juba. 
 
 3959 Battle of Munda in Spain. Csesar defeats Pompey's sons. 
 
 3960 Caesar murdered by Brutus and Cassius, republicans.
 
 INDEX. 101 
 
 3961 Second Triumvirate. Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus 
 united. After Octavius and Antony had quarrelled nearly 
 a year, Octavius, aided by Cicero and the senate, gained 
 the superiority in the battle of Mutina. These atrocious 
 triumvirs abandon their best friends to satisfy their respective 
 resentments. Octavius resigns his friend Cicero to the re- 
 sentment of Antony, &c. 
 
 3962 Battle of Philippi. Octavius and Antony defeat Brutus 
 and Cassius, who destroy themselves. They divide the em- 
 pire, Antony taking the East and Octavius me West. 
 
 3964 Antony makes a disastrous expedition into Parthia neglects 
 his affairs for Cleopatra. 
 
 3965 Ventidius defeats Pacorus the Parthian general, and retrieves 
 the honour lost by Crassus and Marc Antony. 
 
 3968 Young Pompey, who till this time retained considerable 
 power, and eluded the triumvirs, is this year defeated by Au- 
 gustus in a sea fight. 
 
 3972 Great preparations for war between Antony and Octaviua. 
 Antony had abandoned himself to pleasures and vanities, and 
 neglected his affairs for Cleopatra. 
 
 3973 Civil war. Battle of Actium. Octavius Cassar defeats An- 
 tony and Cleopatra ; and now the Roman world, which had 
 been so long convulsed, and for the last ten years divided, 
 falls to Octavius. 
 
 3974 After Antony and Cleopatra had returned to Egypt and mi- 
 serably perished by suicide, Octavius took Alexandria, and 
 made Egypt a Roman province, after it had been under Ro- 
 man guardianship 173 years, from 3800. 
 
 3977 The adulation of the Roman senate confers the title of Au- 
 gustus on Octavius. 
 
 The conspiracy of Mursena against Augustus. 
 Augustus visits Greece and Asia. 
 
 The Roman ensign recovered from the Parthians by Tibe- 
 rius, afterwards emperor. 
 
 3987 Secular games celebrated, 
 
 3988 Lollius defeated by the Germans. 
 
 3989 The Raeti and Vindelici defeated by Drusus. 
 
 3992 The Pannonians conquered by Tiberius. 
 
 3993 Several German nations conquered by Drusus. 
 3998 Tiberius retires to Rhodes for seven years. 
 4000 Birth of Christ, actual year. 
 
 4004 or 1 According to the vulgar era.
 
 Outline of History, from Augustus to Charlemagne, 
 A.D. 800. 
 
 Historical Sketches of the Roman Emperors, from Augustus to the 
 extinction of the Western Empire. A.D. 476. 
 
 AUGUSTUS. View him, at the death of his uncle Julius, returning 
 Died A.D. 14. f r0 m school, aged 19, blending, even then, with the 
 most uncommon coolness, resolution, and sagacity, all the address and 
 dexterity of mature experience. In art and dissimulation consum- 
 mate and profound ; disguising his thirst of glory under the specious 
 pretext of pursuing public justice, and vengeance for his murdered 
 uncle ; cloaking his lust of power under professions of republican ar- 
 dour and devotion ; blinding the aged vision of Cicero to win the senate 
 against Antony, taking into his bosom his half subdued enemy, after 
 duly searching his person for concealed daggers; and to this new friend 
 sacrificing the former dupes of his duplicity, not sparing the silvery 
 head of Cicero, to whose influence he owed his prosperity. View 
 him tampering with the soldiers, and promising them the farms of in- 
 nocent thousands, if they followed him to victory. Witness him joined 
 with the profligate and unprincipled Antony, hunting the assassins of 
 his uncle, after he had promised them peace and indemnity, to gain 
 their acquiescence in his measures against the same Antony. Observe 
 his politic forbearance towards the same Antony for ten years, while 
 he ruled the West and Antony the East, till he finds his strength ade- 
 quate to the defeat and overthrow of his rival. After all his triumphs, 
 when every arm was paralyzed but his own, when all resistance was 
 confounded, all authority centred in him alone, as the source and foun- 
 tain of law and command, his habitual duplicity flowed on, as if it was 
 the element in which he lived, and as inseparable from his existence 
 as the air. In the exercise of boundless prerogative and power he 
 preserved, with the most scrupulous care, the ancient forms of adminis- 
 tration. The powers of consul, tribune, censor, and pontiff were all 
 lavished on him for life ; while his colleagues were, in form, chosen 
 by the senate and people. His government was an absolute monarchy, 
 disguised by the forms of a commonwealth. He was the humble min- 
 ister of the senate, and obeyed their edicts, because he dictated them. 
 
 TIBERIUS. As a prince and public man, his talents and acquire- 
 AJD.14. rnents were highly respectable; his mind was richly 
 cultivated, his ideas and words flowed with enviable ease and readi- 
 ness ; he was acquainted with public life ; an able and expert magis- 
 trate, and a respectable general. His virtues, however, were not fixed, 
 his principles were loose, he was easily seduced by bad example or 
 precept, and wanted the restraint of a virtuous community to fix his 
 good and check his bad propensities. Naturally dark and dissembling,
 
 ROMAN EMPERORS. 
 
 by the precepts and example of Augustus, he became, on the throne, 
 chiefly conspicuous for those qualities, which, under different circum- 
 stances, might have been concealed, or discoverable only in a common 
 and moderate degree. If he was naturally distrustful, his fortune and 
 experience, as well as the obvious corruption and prevailing hypocrisy 
 of his age, were calculated to multiply and confirm his worst suspi- 
 cions. If he proved cruel at last, it was more from the disgust, con- 
 tempt, and fear that the heartless adoration of some men, and the dark 
 machinations of others engendered, than from any innate desire to 
 cause or witness human suffering. Thus far and no farther truth and 
 candour can go in extenuating the atrocious reign of this emperor. 
 
 In imitation of his artful master, he pretended to decline the weight 
 of imperial authority, to court only repose, to distrust his adequacy, 
 and to restore to the senate its ancient privileges. Though every mem- 
 ber of that body perfectly understood the insincerity of these profes- 
 sions, they were obliged to dissemble their knowledge, and with the 
 most degrading importunity implore their master to seize that which 
 he already held fast, and to hold fast that which he had no inclination 
 to resign. 
 
 His stern justice was often provoked by the open insolence and se- 
 cret practices of his enemies. The adulation of many, the blind trea- 
 son of some, at once made him despise and hate mankind. The farther 
 he was provoked to oppression or anger, the more dangerous it seemed 
 to resign his authority. A want of sincerity and fixed principle, the 
 force of precept and example, of fortune and accident, and the well- 
 merited contempt of mankind, drove him to the commission of those 
 acts that have the character of deep crime and enormity. 
 
 CALIGULA. Caligula, or Caius, the unworthy son of the noble Ger- 
 A.D. 3?> manicus and the elder Agrippina, a profligate, aban- 
 doned youth, was chosen, chiefly for his congenial views, by Tibe- 
 rius, for his successor. The commencement of his reign was distin- 
 guished by acts of the tenderest regard to his people, whose lives, 
 liberty, and prosperity were respected as sacred. The Roman world 
 enjoyed this delicious repose for eight months; when all the horrors 
 of the preceding reign were renewed, and a career of wanton cruelty, 
 crime, folly, and indecency commenced. Not satisfied with sporting 
 with the living, he assailed the statues and memory of the dead, and 
 replaced the heads of the gods with his own. His profane mockery 
 erected temples and ordered priests to himself, human victims were 
 devoured by wild beasts in his palace; incest and lewdness, theft and 
 murder, received his special patronage and countenance. To his horse 
 Incitatus a palace was erected and domestics assigned ; a marble stable 
 and ivory rack, gilt barley, and wine, from a golden cup. He fell, at 
 last, by the hand of an assassin. 
 
 CLAUDIUS. Claudius succeeded his nephew, Caligula, by appoint- 
 
 A.D.41. ment of the pretorians, and pursued a mild and popular 
 
 course, till, through the influence of his wanton and profligate relative 
 
 Messalina, whom he had married, he became like his predecessors, an 
 
 inhuman and bloody tyrant. Being of a feeble and stupid mind, h*
 
 104 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. 
 
 abandoned the government to vile and flagitious favourites ; whose 
 licentiousness and rapacity plundered the state, and set the nation in 
 commotion. His four wives disgraced the imperial name ; the noto- 
 rious Messalina had converted the palace, and even the city, into an 
 imperial brothel : and when he had reluctantly punished her as her 
 lust and debauchery deserved, he espoused his celebrated niece, Agrip- 
 pina, widow of Domitius, and by him mother of Nero. Her criminal 
 ambition, not satisfied with controlling the administration of her impe- 
 rial consort, caused him to be poisoned, that her son Nero might sup- 
 plant Britannicus, son of Claudius, and lawful heir to the throne. The 
 reign of Claudius was signalized by the conquest of Britain ; which 
 was achieved entirely by his generals, and was not completed and con- 
 firmed till the time of Domitian. 
 
 NERO. Nero, son of Domitius and the younger Agrippina, the 
 A. D. 54. descendant of Antony and Octavia. He was the last of the 
 real Ctesars ; a vile profligate, a flagrant criminal, an avowed parri- 
 cide, a monster, blending the extremes of atrocity with the utmost ex- 
 cesses of the trifling and the ridiculous. The example of four preced- 
 ing reigns taught or suggested the dissembling virtues with which he 
 began his. But the age must have been blind or stupified, if the son 
 of Domitius or Agrippina, educated in the maxims of imperial depra- 
 vity, and under the pupilage of his flagitious mother, could impose 
 upon them by the constrained and artificial virtues of an opening ad- 
 ministration. Not indignant virtue, nor even impatient censure, could 
 deny this paragon of crime and folly the merit of considerable talent 
 and taste. That he was the author of the conflagration of Rome is a 
 clumsy and palpable calumny ; and it is highly probable that his real 
 outrages have suggested and given currency to many that are fictitious. 
 A lover of truth will reject a fiction, even when it favours his pre- 
 judices. Nero ordered his mother to be drowned, on a pretended ex- 
 cursion of pleasure ; and when accident defeated his intentions, he 
 boldly despatched the assassins to her palace ; and without discovering 
 the bloody deed, he sent a letter to the senate, justifying the murder to 
 that body and to the world. 
 
 A prostrate king of Armenia might see the lordly potentate, who 
 raised him from the dust, seeking immortal glory in the circus, amphi- 
 theatre, or orchestra, contending for the prize in the chariot race or 
 hunt ; or distorting his imperial visage, or straining his imperial throat, 
 or trying his imperial lungs, to win the prize. In nocturnal riots, in 
 buffoonery, revelling, and carnivals, his superior was unknown; and 
 though many could excel him in wrestling and music, there was no 
 man audacious enough to claim or award the prize of victory against 
 him. 
 
 GALBA. This emperor had risen through every grade of inferior 
 A.D. 68. office by his great merit; and after enjoying the smiles of 
 several emperors, he was high in command under Nero, when the 
 enormities of that emperor shocked all mankind, drove Vindex into 
 rebellion in Gaul, (afterwards conquered by Virginius,) and Gal- 
 lia himself, in Spain. When the Roman senate heard of these
 
 ROMAN EMPERORS. 
 
 events they took courage, condemned Nero, and acknowledged Galba, 
 whose army had already proclaimed their aged general. Rome and 
 the world submitted to Galba, and the flying Nero was pursued, over- 
 taken, and despatched. 
 
 The virtues of Galba did not qualify him for his imperial elevation ; 
 his conduct was feeble, and fluctuated between opposite extremes of 
 parsimony and prodigality, of levity and cruelty. His bounty to the 
 soldiers fell far short of their expectations. Otho, once his advocate, 
 but now recently disappointed in not being adopted for his successor, 
 soon seduced the allegiance of the guards, who being instigated by him, 
 rushed upon their defenceless emperor, and despatched him, after a 
 reign of eight months. 
 
 OTHO. Fraud and murder brought this emperor to the throne. 
 
 A.D. 69. jjj s f ormer days, under Nero, were marked by dissipation 
 and debauchery, and criminal participation in the course of that em- 
 peror. His elevation only served to exhibit more conspicuously the 
 errors that stained his private character and attended him on the throne. 
 His short career offered but few materials for history, unless we should 
 detail his military operations, and three battles with his competitor 
 Vitellius. He sunk under the superior fortune of his rival, and died 
 the Roman death. His gaieties, gallantries, voluptuous life, and phi- 
 losophic death, form his chief characteristics. 
 
 VITELLIUS. He was a general in Germany, proclaimed by his own 
 A.D. 70. troops before the news of Otho's elevation. The strug- 
 gle was doubtful, and it was his fortune, not his superiority, that pre- 
 vailed in the last battle, after several defeats. His criminal compli- 
 ance with the odious vices of the emperors, and the grovelling and 
 congenial propensities of his father and whole family, had secured to 
 him the good graces of several emperors in succession. His gluttony, 
 his unbounded extravagance, debauchery, and devotion to pleasure, 
 might never have been celebrated in history, had he risen no higher 
 than to the rank of general. His cruelties and extortion, after his ac- 
 cession, provoked the horror and detestation of the world, and pro- 
 moted the glory of the Flavian or Vespasian house, which is just 
 rising like a star in the east, but which, under a Trajan or an Anto- 
 nine, could never have risen much above the horizon. 
 
 The contest between Vitellius and Vespasian has been admirably 
 delineated by Tacitus. The blows and torture inflicted on the pros- 
 trate Vitellius, by an infuriated populace, as much attest the savnge 
 manners of the age as the odious vices of the victim. 
 
 VESPASIAN. The birth of Vespasian was mean : his grandfather 
 A.D. TO. was a private soldier, and his father a petty officer of 
 the revenue. His own merit raised him through every grade of mili- 
 tary government, and placed him in a commanding and conspicuous 
 attitude in the East, when the beastly Vitellius was glutting his enor- 
 mous appetite and indulging his brutal passions at the expense of a 
 plundered and oppressed people. The indignation of men against 
 the imperial glutton had as much influence as the merit of Vespasian 
 
 14
 
 106 OUTLINE OP HISTORY. 
 
 in elevating the latter to the throne. The nomination of Vespasian 
 proceeded from his own partial army, 'flushed with recent victory, in 
 the full tide of glory, and panting for the ease and honours of the capi- 
 tal. His success depended on the fate of his arms. His generals led 
 the army to Rome, and overcame the forces of his rival ; whose ser- 
 vants, generals, fleets, and armies betrayed him, and whose deformities 
 of mind were enough to turn the universe against him. 
 
 The success of Vespasian was not splendid, but his elevation was 
 marked with dignity ; his military career had been highly reputable, 
 and through life, by his personal behaviour in the East, he ably fulfilled 
 the public expectations. The glories of his house were amply illus- 
 trated by the imperial honour, the brilliant character, and achieve- 
 ments of his son Titus. Though it has been remarked, that his merit 
 was rather useful than shining, yet his wisdom and dignity, his scru- 
 pulous and profound attention to the welfare of his people, the success 
 of his administration, his embellishments and improvements of the 
 capital and country, and his worthy son, impart a lustre to his name, 
 in spite of the doubtful charge of "a strict and sordid economy" in his 
 fiscal concerns. The example and magnanimity of the father reclaim- 
 ed the profligate son from the excesses of indulgence and debauchery. 
 
 TITUS. The youth of Titus threatened a terrific reign; but there 
 A.D. 79. was y e t a redeeming principle; and when the indulgent 
 but exemplary father reposed confidence it was not betrayed ; and the 
 splendid and more amiable character of Titus, when associated with 
 his father in power, served to turn the public attention from the ob- 
 scure origin to the future glory of the Flavian family. 
 
 Titus was adored by the Eastern legions, which, under his command, 
 had just achieved the conquest of Judea. Though his virtues were 
 clouded by the intemperance of youth, and his designs were suspected, 
 yet, instead of listening to unworthy suspicions, the sagacious and 
 anxious father associated his son in the full power of his imperial dig- 
 nity; and the grateful son justified the confidence. Under the mild 
 administration of Titus the world enjoyed a transient felicity ; and his 
 beloved memory served to screen, above fifteen years, the hideous 
 vices of his brother Domitian. 
 
 DOMITIAN. In the character of Domitian there is nothing equi- 
 A.D. si vocal, nothing misunderstood. His passions were too 
 predominant to be concealed by art. Selfish, impetuous, lustful, and 
 impatient, it was dangerous to check or thwart his propensities. En- 
 vious, jealous, timid, cowardly, the merit of his servants planted thorns 
 in his breast. Implacable as impetuous, he often retired by himself 
 to brood over bis causes of discontent ; and his solitude was a prelude 
 to new atrocities. Prone, by nature, to sudden fits of rage, if at any 
 time he had the patience or policy to disguise his anger, it was only 
 smothered, to break out with fiercer rage. He felt the terror he in- 
 spired, and his jealous fears often urged him on in his tragic career. 
 His face and eyes flamed with anger and rage. Authors represent 
 him by the figure of a raging tempest, sweeping the country with de- 
 solation. Not content, like his tyrannical predecessors, with a single
 
 ROMAN EMPERORS. 107 
 
 victim at a time, he sent crowds at once to the slaughter. He would 
 often mock the people, and even senators, with threats, and then dis- 
 miss them for his amusement. 
 
 Pliny has given a striking picture of Domitian in his solitary re- 
 treats. That savage beast shut himself up, as it were, in a den, where 
 he quaffed the blood of his relations ; and when he came forth, it was 
 to riot in the destruction of the best and most illustrious citizens. Dis- 
 may and terror obstructed his door, and they who were excluded were 
 as much in danger as those who had gained admittance. 
 
 The tyrant was horrible to the sight : pride in his aspect, anger in 
 his eye, a feminine whiteness over his whole body; in his countenance 
 an air of vengeance. No man dared approach him, none could speak 
 to him he remained in darkness, brooding mischief, and never came 
 forth from his solitude, but to make worse solitude, by the destruction 
 of eminent men. 
 
 NERVA. Nerva, the first of the five good emperors, ascended the 
 A.D. 96. throne. He was old and infirm, and associated with him 
 Trajan, who, like his predecessor, was a virtuous prince. Adrian 
 was next adopted. He visited the different parts of the empire, reform- 
 ed abuses, and made many improvements. He was succeeded by Anto- 
 ninus Pius, and he by Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, who was the most 
 perfect model of Pagan virtue. 
 
 COMMODTTS. Commodus, his horrid son, succeeded. He renewed 
 A.D. 180. a ji tne cr u e lties and massacres of the reign of Domitian. 
 
 PBRTINAX. Pertinax was chosen by the Pretorian guards; and 
 A.D. 192. a f ter re ig n i n g eighty-seven days, was put to death by 
 the same hands that placed him on the throne. The empire was then 
 put up at auction, and sold to Julius Didius, the highest bidder. 
 
 211. Severus was then chosen by his army on the Danube, Niger 
 in Syria, and Albinus in Britain. After the death of Severus his two 
 sons, Caracalla and Geta, came to Rome and succeeded their father ; 
 but it was with such feelings of enmity, that they never spoke during 
 the voyage : and after their arrival, the imperial palace was divided 
 between them, and its passages of entrance strictly guarded. 
 
 218. Macrinus was an African by birth, and the astrologers had 
 foretold his future greatness. Word was sent to Caracalla that he was 
 in danger from Macrinus ; but Macrinus being prime minister, first 
 read the letters, kept them, pnt his master to death, and then fulfilled 
 the prophecy. He reigned but a short time, and was succeeded by 
 
 Heliogabalus, a boy of but fourteen. At this early age he showed 
 himself a monster of profligacy and cruelty ; and though he reigned 
 but four years, yet, in this short time, he exhausted all his resources. 
 He married and divorced six wives. 
 
 222. Alexander Severus was a mild and amiable prince. Young as 
 he was, he undertook, and rendered successful, an expedition against 
 Parthia. A mutiny was raised by Maximus, who asserted that the 
 emperor was a feeble and unambitious prince, unfit to govern a great 
 empire ; so he was put to death in his camp, and Maximus, who was 
 descended from some straggling Goths, succeeded. This caused mu-
 
 108 OUTLINE OP HISTORY. 
 
 tiny and rebellion in many parts of the empire. The two Gordians 
 were appointed, but in sixty days they were both dead. The youngest 
 was killed in attempting to defend himself against one of Maximus' 
 creatures at Carthage, and the other killed himself in despair. 
 
 Maximus and Balbinus were next appointed ; and on reaching Rome 
 the senate wished to unite Gordian 3rd, a boy of twelve years of age, 
 as their colleague. Maximus and Balbinus were assassinated, and 
 the dominion left to Gordian, who proved a good and worthy prince. 
 
 Philip, an Arabian by birth, put Gordian to death, and succeeded. 
 During his reign the Goths invaded Asia Minor, and, entering Greece, 
 desolated and laid waste the country. Philip nominated Decius to go 
 against the Goths, and sent him to Moesia and Thrace. After two 
 years successful movement against them, he was unfortunately killed, 
 in the confusion of battle, in a morass. 
 
 Gallus, instead of pursuing, against the Goths, the course marked 
 out by Decius, hired them to leave the empire. This put him out of 
 favour; and Velerian, after defeating him in battle, was appointed his 
 successor. He made an unsuccessful expedition against the Parthians. 
 The Goths, enabled by the money paid them, again renewed their at- 
 tacks, defeated the Romans, and took their emperor prisoner. 
 
 Gallienus, his son and successor, was a man of talents, but he did 
 nothing towards suppressing the Goths. He associated with him 
 Odenatus, who was styled colleague of Gallienus and emperor of the 
 East. He was assassinated, and Zenobia, his queen, succeeded him. 
 
 Zenobia resisted Gallienus and Claudius his successor, who might 
 have subdued her had he reigned longer. He reigned but two years, 
 and was succeeded by Aurelian; who attacked her in Palmyra, her 
 capital, and obliged her to surrender it. He left her mistress of the 
 city, but limited her authority to that and returned home. On arriv- 
 ing at the Bosphorus he heard that Zenobia was queen of the East, 
 with Palmyra for her capital, and Egypt and Syria as part of her do- 
 minions. With great indignation he returned, again besieged Palmy- 
 ra, took it, and carried the queen to grace his triumph at Rome. After 
 this he dismissed her honourably, with palaces and villas for her ha- 
 bitation, and her children were among the first nobility in Italy. 
 
 275. Aurelian was killed, and the government was, for eight months, 
 under ministers, until Tacitus was elected. He reigned but eight 
 months, and was succeeded by his brother Florian, and he by Probus, 
 a great emperor, and a favourite with the senate. 
 
 Cams, a rustic, marched against the Parthians and was killed by 
 lightning in his own camp, and Numerian and Carinus succeeded. 
 
 Numerian was poisoned and Carinus made peace with the Parthi- 
 ans. He was a mere buffoon ; prided himself more on his knowledge 
 of cookery than his sagacity in political affairs. 
 
 284. Diocletian introduces a new system, that of imperial colleagues, 
 designed to repel the barbarians and recover the provinces that had 
 been wrested from the empire. Diocletian and Maximian were styled 
 Augustus, and each had an assistant of equal power, but with the infe- 
 rior title of Caesar. Diocletian resided at Nicomedia, Maximian at 
 Milan, Galerius on the banks of the Danube, and Constantius Chlorus 
 in such parts of Gaul or Britain as required his presence. Diocletian
 
 ROMAN EMPERORS. 109 
 
 was the only great man among them ; Constantius Chlorus was a good 
 man, but Maximian and Galeriuswere both unprincipled and savage. 
 As long as Diocletian reigned he kept the empire in perfect order, 
 and displayed talents in every department of government, in his ascen- 
 dancy over the minds of men, and in his selection of officers, which 
 have caused him to be not inaptly compared to Augustus. 
 
 304 After a joint reign of twenty years, he and Maximian re- 
 Abdication. s ig ne( J. Galerius took the title of Augustus, and chose two 
 Caesars in the East, viz. Maximinus and Licinius ; and obliged Con- 
 stantius, the other Augustus, to accept Severus as his Caesar. 
 
 In less than a year after the abdication Maximian reappeared, with 
 his son Maxentius, overcame Severus, and took his place. Constan- 
 tino succeeded his father Constantius ; and Galerius dying soon after, 
 he was left to sweep from the stage Maximian, Maxentius, Maximin, 
 and Licinius. Maximian fled from his own son to Constantine, who 
 had married his daughter ; but afterwards endeavoured to supplant 
 him, and was murdered in consequence. 
 
 In 312 Constantine invaded Italy, and 'gained three great battles 
 over Maxentius, who, after suffering a complete route in the last, was 
 drowned in crossing the Tiber. On the destruction of Maxentius, 
 Constantine united with Licinius, and left him to destroy Maximin 
 whilst he opposed the Franks. A quarrel ensued between the two 
 victors, in which Licinius was worsted, though he still reigned eight 
 _, . . years in Thrace, Asia, and Egypt. In another civil war 
 
 Empire united J . . . , f &jr 
 
 under Con- Licinius is removed from the scene, and Constantine stands 
 stantme. before us the sole monarch of a united empire. 
 The life of Constantine may be divided thus: 1st. His civil wars; 
 2d, The building of New Rome, or Constantinople, which occupied 
 nearly all the rest of his reign ; 3d, The legal adoption of Christianity, 
 which ended persecution by the heathen ; but led to persecution of 
 them, and to persecutions among the Christians themselves. Constan- 
 tinople became the residence of the Eastern emperors for eleven hun- 
 dred years. 
 
 Constantine. Constantine, at his death, divided the empire between his 
 Death of three sons ; Constantius in the East, Constans in the Middle, 
 and Constantine in the West. Constans soon met and defeated Con- 
 stantine in battle, thus adding the West to his portion. He was dis- 
 _ placed in 350 by Magnentius, a usurper ; whom Constantius 
 *,,- immediately pursued and slew, and thus became sole empe- 
 
 L/onBianiius T i i i i i / i i i * 
 
 Augustus, ror. It had been the policy of these brothers to rid them- 
 selves of all their relations ; two only had been spared, their 
 Julian Caaar. cous j nS) Julian and Gallus ; and Constantius now feeling the 
 want of a colleague, raised Julian to the rank of Caasar, and gave him 
 command of the armies in Gaul. The new Caesar remained faithful 
 until he had settled the Gallic frontier ; but when Constantius then 
 demanded his troops for the Persian service, they mutinied, and gave 
 Julian the choice of "the purple or death." Deciding upon the former, 
 he immediately, pursued his cousin, wishing to meet him at Constanti- 
 
 Constantius no pl e J but the death of Constantius at this time gave him 
 dies, peaceable possession of the throne.
 
 110 OUTLINE OP HISTORY. 
 
 361 Julian's first act was to decree the restoration of the Pagan 
 
 Julian reigns W orship; he, however, professed entire toleration. After a 
 
 alone. , r .' .' , . , . * r . . ,, . , 
 
 short rejgn, in which he proved himself a wise and very ac- 
 tive prince, he was killed in an expedition against the Persians. 
 jovia Jovian then filled the throne for a few months. Christi- 
 anity was restored, and Paganism sunk for ever. 
 363 The voice of the nation next named Valentinian their ru- 
 
 * er> ^ e bestowed the East, with the title of Augustus, upon 
 his brother Valens. 
 The empire of the West, at this time, was subject to constant incur- 
 sions from the barbarians, whom Valentinian successfully opposed in 
 many battles. He died in an expedition against the Quadi, 375. Wars 
 with Persia, Britain, and Africa also distracted the empire. Gratian 
 Theodosius an ^ Valentinian 2d succeeded in the West ; and the death 
 the Great, of the inefficient Valens soon left the East in the hands of The- 
 odosius, surnamed the Great. 
 
 Revolt in Maximus revolted in Britain, invaded Gaul, caused Gra- 
 Britam. jj an J Q ^ e s i a j n) an( ] compelled Theodosius to accept him for 
 a colleague. But, not contented with his good fortune, this usurper 
 soon after attacked Valentinian 2d in Italy, and drove him from his 
 dominions. This latter sought the protection of Theodosius, who de- 
 feated Maximus, put him to death, and restored the throne to his col- 
 league Valentinian, its rightful owner. By the death of Valentinian, 
 Theodosius was, soon after, left sole emperor. After a reign of six- 
 395 teen years he died, leaving the empire divided between his 
 Final division two sons ; Arcadius in the East, (Constantinople,) and Ho- 
 of the empire. nor j us j n t h e West, (Milan.) The Eastern retained the 
 name of Roman empire. It was called Greek, Lower, Byzantine, 
 and Eastern Roman Empire. The Western, called Latin Roman 
 Empire, crumbled to pieces, and, in less than one hundred years, was 
 settled by barbarians. 
 
 The Latin During the reign of the trembling Honorius Italy was 
 empire. jp our y ears j n possession of the Visigoths ; Rome was sacked, 
 410 a ft er being three times besieged by the mighty Alaric, and 
 A Rome! 1 Ravenna became the capital of the ruined empire. 
 409 Africa was torn from the empire by the Vandals. 450, 
 vandal* in Attila invaded Gaul and Italy soon after. His death, in 
 Africa. 45^ was followed by the dissolution of the tremendous em- 
 pire of the Huns. 
 
 455 Rome was sacked by the Vandals from Africa ; the Visi- 
 
 Gensericin goths became possessed of a large part of Spain and of 
 
 Rome. G au i ; an( j i fi na lly, A. D. 476, Odoacer, king of the Heruli, 
 
 took the title of King of Italy, and extinguished the Western Roman 
 
 Empire.
 
 MOVEMENTS OP TflE BARBARIANS. Ill 
 
 Historical Sketches of the Movements and final settle- 
 ment of the Barbarians. 
 
 Besides being distracted by internal commotions, and broken into 
 fragments by usurpers, the frontier provinces of the Roman empire were 
 continually subject to incursions from the northern barbarians. Before 
 the age of the Antonines, the Goths from Scandinavia were established 
 south of the Baltic, and the Vandals, also from Scandinavia, were 
 spread along the banks of the Oder. The Goths are subdivided into 
 Ostrogoths, Visigoths, and Gepidae; the Vandals into Herulians, 
 Burgundians, Lombards, and many other formidable tribes. By the 
 year 250 the Franks are settled in Belgium, the Alemanni in Swabia, 
 the Visigoths and Ostrogoths north of the Black Sea. After being 
 Ostrogoths en- repeatedly driven from Asia Minor and Greece, the Ostro- 
 tangied with goths, or eastern Goths, are in 374 entangled with the Huns, 
 a hideous race of deformed savages from Central Asia. 
 
 VISIGOTHS. 
 
 374 The Visigoths, so called from their position west of the Os- 
 visigoths set- trogoths were driven by the same wild tribe across the Dan- 
 tie in Moesia ube into Moesia and Thrace, where, on promising; to be 
 
 and Thrace. ,, ... ,. ', ,f " . 
 
 peaceable, obedient subjects, they were allowed to settle. 
 But their wandering, predatory habits, rendered submission almost 
 impossible. They rebelled against Valens, whose imprudence 
 
 in admitting them into the empire was now manifest, and 
 
 Adrianople. . . i * 11 ir j j i mi 
 
 m the battle of Adrianople he was defeated and slam. Ihe 
 energetic valour of Theodosius for a while suppressed them, but at 
 his death, 395, they chose Alaric for their leader; and marching 
 with rapine, and plunder, and devastation, threatened the very walls 
 of Constantinople. They entered Greece, and pursued their course 
 as far south as the Peloponnesus, where they were met and driven 
 back by the victorious Stilicho, a general of the Western empire. No- 
 thing daunted by defeat, they prepared to march into Italy, 
 where they met with greater success. In the year 400 the 
 trembling Honorius, the feeble emperor of the West, deserted his capi- 
 tal, and fled before them to Ravenna. Again they were defeated by 
 Stilicho, but in 409, re-entering Italy, they twice besieged Rome. 
 The first time their retreat was purchased; but receiving af rein- 
 forcement of 300,000 men, Alaric again pitched his camp before the 
 imperial city. Being reduced to the most distressing ex- 
 tremities by pestilence and famine, the mighty mistress of 
 the world opened her gates to the barbarous forces. For 
 seven days they laid waste with unsparing hand its costly edifices, and 
 revelled among its riches with unrestrained ferocity. Leaving Rome 
 a heap of desolate ruins, they proceeded south, intending to pass into 
 Sicily and Africa, but the death of Alaric stopped their pro- 
 Death r ic f Ala g ress - * n tn e bed of the river Vulturous, (Gibbon says 
 Busentinus,) enclosed in three coffins, they left the remains
 
 112 OUTLINE OP HISTORT. 
 
 of their chief, and choosing Ataulphus for their leader, marched to the 
 south of Gaul. Here, in 412, in the province of Aquitania, 
 tne y established a splendid kingdom, called the kingdom of 
 Toulouse, which lasted 100 years. Driven thence by the 
 
 Finally settle Franks, in 493, they finally settled in Spain, where they re- 
 in Spain, mained until " Roderick the last of the Goths" was conquer- 
 ed by the Moors in 712. 
 
 SUEVI. 
 
 The brave Suevi are first found filling the country between the Oder 
 and the Danube. About the year 210 a mixed body of them began to 
 move southward, and taking the name of Alemanni, penetrated, in the 
 reign of Valerian and Gallienus, as far as Ravenna. Gallienus suc- 
 ceeded in dividing their forces, and in enlisting a body of the Heruli 
 in the service of Rome. In 269 they came down upon Moesia and 
 Thrace, but were signally defeated, and almost exterminated by the 
 emperor Claudius. They afterwards unite with the Vandals and 
 Alans, and passing through Gaul, in 409, are again disunited, and 
 finally settle in the north-west of Spain. 
 
 BURGUNDIANS. 
 
 While the Visigoths were in Italy, 409, the Burgundians, a tribe of 
 *ftf. savages from the southern shores of the Baltic, had establish- 
 
 Settie in e( ^ themselves in Switzerland and the east of Gaul. They 
 Switzerland, were the first barbarians who established laws, and being con- 
 verted' to Christianity, obtained from the emperor of Constantinople 
 the right to govern the original inhabitants. Agriculture and the 
 
 -04 care of their flocks was their peaceful employment, until 
 Conquered by ^34, when they were conquered by Clovis the monarch of 
 the Pranks, the Franks. 
 
 SAXONS. 
 Romans J n the year 429 Britain, which had been conquered by 
 
 abandon Bri- /-,, ,. i, ,,. n ^i /^.i _. " J 
 
 tain. Claudius Caesar, fifty years after the Christian era, was 
 abandoned by the Romans, and for twenty years left a prey 
 to the incursions of the Picts and Scots. In 449 the Saxons of Ger- 
 many, coming ostensibly to deliver the Britains from their 
 enemies, gradually conquered the country, and at the end of 
 150 years established what was termed the Saxon Heptar- 
 Hepurchy. chy, or seven kingdoms. The natives retired into Wales, 
 and under king Arthur and other brave leaders, for a long 
 time annoyed the newly founded kingdom. This government contin- 
 ued until 828, when the Heptarchy, under Egbert the Great, 
 Monarchy. ^ j n g O f "W esseX) was reduced to a monarchy. 
 
 VANDALS. 
 
 The Vandals from Scandinavia, the Alans from the country west pf 
 
 the Caspian Sea, and the Suevi, the bravest of all the German tribes, 
 
 united in Germany, and after passing through Gaul, crossed the Pyre- 
 
 v dais in nees an( * ' n ^09 again separated, the Alans and Suevi 
 
 a spain. settling in Portugal, and the Vandals in the south of Spain.
 
 SETTLEMENT OP THE BARBARIANS. 113 
 
 429 In 429, invited by Count Boniface, the Vandals, under Gen- 
 In Africa, seric their king, conquered the Roman province in the north 
 of Africa, and formed a settlement there. After traversing 
 the coast as far east as Carthage, they embarked for Sicily. Invited 
 .,,, by Eudoxia, the widow of Valentinian 3d, to avenge the 
 in ita?y. murder of her husband, in 455, Genseric passed into Italy and 
 laid siege to Rome. For fourteen days he abandoned it to 
 Rome. k e pillaged by his soldiers, and the few monuments of its for- 
 mer greatness left by Alaric, were levelled with the dust. The Van- 
 dals remained in Africa until 535, when Gelimer, their last 
 king, was conquered by Belisarius, and led in triumph to 
 the court of Justinian. 
 
 HUNS. 
 
 This most savage of barbarian tribes came from the remote deserts of 
 Central Asia. Their first grand movement is in 375. They then 
 cross the Volga, enter Europe, and routing the Goths unite 
 t ^ em to their arm y. an d pass on to Hungary, ravaging with 
 frightful devastation the north of Greece. Under their re- 
 invade Gaui. nowned king Attila they invade Gaul, and lay siege to the 
 city of Orleans. Driven from thence by the united forces of 
 450 jEtius, the Roman general, and Theodoric, king of the 
 BaUl ions Cha " Visigoths, they are defeated in 450, with the loss of 300,000 
 men at Chalons. They next enter Italy, where, through 
 the terror of their arms, the people of many towns submitted, and the 
 remainder fled the land, and on seven islands in the sea laid 
 aurva es ^ foundation of the city of Venice, 452. The retreat of 
 Attila was purchased by a promise of receiving the princess 
 Honoria, the sister of Valentinian 3d, in marriage, and with her an 
 immense dower. He returned to his wooden palace beyond 
 453 the Danube, and died of apoplexy, after a night spent in 
 His death, feasting and revelry, and with him ends the great Hunnish 
 empire. 
 
 HERULI, OSTROGOTHS, AND LOMBARDS. 
 
 476 The Heruli, a people of Vandalic origin, and settled for a 
 Od ontli ki " g while west of the sea of Asoph, in 476, under Odoacer their 
 king, conquer Italy, where having deposed the feeble Au- 
 gustulus, Odoacer assumes the title of king of Italy, and thus termin- 
 ates the Western Roman Empire. For seventeen years these barba- 
 rians keep possession of Italy, until 493, when Theodoric, king of the 
 Ostrogoths, (formerly entangled with the Huns,) after threat- 
 493 ening Constantinople, conquers Odoacer, and fixing his re- 
 ro ^ence at Ravenna, in his turn becomes king of Italy. Mean- 
 time Belisarius, the victorious general of Justinian, had 
 conquered the Vandals of Africa, and in 535 he entered Italy. After 
 great prodigies of valour, he subdued the Ostrogoths, and Italy in the 
 year 550 became a part of the Eastern Roman Empire. 
 550 Under the administration of Narses, it for a while enjoyed 
 Eastern Em- peace and prosperity ; but Narses falling under the displea- 
 sure of the emperor Justin 2d, betrayed his country by invit- 
 15
 
 114 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. 
 
 568 ing Alboin king of the Lombards to the invasion of Italy. 
 Lombards. j n 5QQ t leaving Pannonia, where they occupied the lands 
 formerly deserted by the Ostrogoths, the Lombards enter Italy, and 
 without plunder, march peacefully and in good order through the coun- 
 try. After many towns had opened their gates to them, they establish- 
 ed their capital at Pavia, and took possession of the north and middle 
 of Italy, leaving to the eastern emperors only Ravenna and Ancona 
 on the eastern coast, Rome and Naples on the western coast. These 
 towns were governed by exarchs, and this relative position of the Lom- 
 bards and Eastern emperors, caused continual warfare, until 774, when 
 Charlemagne conquered the whole, and added Italy to the empire of 
 the Franks. 
 
 FRANKS. 
 
 About 340, A.D., the name of Franks, or Freemen, is supposed to 
 have originated in a confederacy of some barbarous tribes about the 
 Rhine and Weser, and in twenty years they pushed their conquests 
 through Gaul and Spain and passed into Africa. 
 
 Again, in 486, an association of these people, under Clovis, 
 ciovi! ente red Gaul, and after gaining several battles over the Bur- 
 gundians, were baptized into the Christian faith. The pos- 
 5QQ sessions of Alaric, king of the Visigoths, were next attack- 
 Gaul changed eQ " with equal success, and before the year 500 the whole 
 to France, country was conquered. 
 
 Historical Sketch of the Greek, or Eastern Roman 
 Empire, from Jl. D. 441 to the time of Charle- 
 magne.* 
 
 441 In the reign of Theodosius the younger, successor of Ar- 
 
 T empfre. k ca dius, Attila ravaged the east, as far as Constantinople. 
 
 Passing several obscure names we reach the family of 
 
 527 Justinian, the greatest of the eastern emperors. He sue- 
 Justinian. cee ded his uncle, Justin the elder, who had risen from the 
 peasantry to the throne. The reign of Justinian is rendered famous 
 by his Code of Laws, and by the success of his generals, Belisarius 
 and Narses. Belisarius wrested Africa from the Vandals, subdued 
 Sicily and a great part of Italy, and regained Rome. The jealousy 
 of Justinian recalled him to Constantinople ; and his conquests rapidly 
 fell back into the hands of Totila, the Ostrogoth. He was again sent, 
 and retook Rome ; but his progress was hindered by the meanness of 
 his master, who, finally rewarded his faithful services by ignominy, a 
 prison, and death. Rome remained in the possession of the Greek 
 empire until 568, during the reign of Justin 2d, when a great part of 
 Italy was taken by the Lombards. 
 
 610 Heraclius, the first of his family, came to the throne. He is 
 famous for his great victories over the Persians in many campaigns. 
 
 * A continuation from {he History of the Roman Emperors.
 
 HISTORY OP GAUL. 115 
 
 Mahomet first tried his sword against foreigners in an invasion of 
 Syria during this reign ; and his successors stripped the old monarch 
 of Syria, Africa, and all his acquisitions in Persia. 
 
 The Heraclian family filled the throne during the seventh century 
 and were followed by the Isaurian ; so called from their native place' 
 Isauria, in Asia Minor. They were Iconoclasts image breakers. ' 
 
 When persecution ceased and Christianity triumphed, its professors 
 fell from the first spirituality of their faith, and looked for something 
 of corporeal presence that the-eye might behold, the hands touch to 
 call their wandering minds back to devotion. Images and idolatry 
 were introduced. A pretended likeness of our Saviour, painted by St. 
 Luke, long concealed, was miraculously discovered. As it was an 
 undoubted likeness, and painted by a saint, they thought there could 
 be no harm in adoring it. This was the beginning of image worship. 
 Likenesses of the Virgin Mary and of all the Apostles were found in 
 the same manner ; and, in the time of Leo the Isaurian, all the East 
 consented to worship them. 
 
 Leo the A simple, uncultivated man, of strong native sense, an 
 iconoclast i saur i an general raised himself to the throne of Constanti- 
 nople ; ana looking upon this idolatry with disgust, called a council, 
 which forbade the worship of images. The decree was carried into 
 effect by the sword, and Constantinople became the scene of civil war. 
 Images were destroyed throughout the eastern churches. The em- 
 perors then endeavoured to carry the edict into effect in their domini- 
 ons on the coasts of Italy. Rome and Ravenna revolted, but Naples 
 and the south submitted to the command. 
 
 The fourth of the Isaurian family is reigning when we take leave of 
 them, A. D. 800. 
 
 Continuation of the History of Gaul, to the time of 
 Charlemagne, Jl. D. 800. 
 
 Gaul always Though Gaul generally remained submissive, the vigil- 
 exposed to in- I r j 
 
 cursionsfromanceof the Roman emperors was always necessary to defend 
 
 the German and Batavian frontiers. Germany beyond the 
 
 a* 1 
 
 Rhine was often penetrated by Roman armies, but never quite 
 subdued. Defeats were frequent and fatal, victories costly and fruit- 
 less. Emperor after emperor had to repeat the defensive wars of his 
 predecessor. In the time of Augustus even the Roman arms suffered 
 the most shameful disgraces, and mutiny increased these horrors in 
 the time of Tiberius. In the time of Vespasian, the famous Batavian 
 Civilis armed and inflamed his nation, and with them enlisted the 
 whole German nation in a most frightful rebellion. 
 Gaul conquered Gaul often stood separate from the Roman empire under 
 bytneFranks. usurpers. Its painful recovery by the emperors aggravated 
 the miseries of the world. About A. D. 250, we find the savage 
 Franks and Allemani planted along the Rhine ; from which time the 
 Roman arms were perpetually exercised in defending Gaul against
 
 116 OUTLINE OP HISTORY. 
 
 their dreadful inroads. At last, about A. D. 500, the Franks having 
 first overcome the Allemani, spread themselves over Gaul, to which, 
 from them, the name of France was fixed, instead of Gaul. The Bur- 
 gundians and Visigoths, who had previously settled in Gaul, were 
 obliged either to submit to the Franks, or flee into other countries, as 
 the Visigoths did into Spain. 
 
 The ciovingian Clovis was a politic and enterprising prince, and estab- 
 race, from ciovis, Hshed a powerful kingdom. But though he embraced the 
 
 commonly called ^i / .-> *i_ u ^.v. / i / 1-11 *! 
 
 the Merovingian, Christian faith through the persuasion 01 his wife, Olotil- 
 hte^Mdfothe ^a, an( * ma( ^ e ^ s Pagan Franks follow his example, yet 
 about 250 years, neither he nor his people ever forgot their original fe- 
 
 from aboufA.D. _ 
 
 500to750.' rocity. 
 
 After the death of Clovis, the custom of dividing the 
 French monarchy among several sons, led to the most frightful cruel- 
 ties and disorders. The final and total degeneracy of the whole race 
 threw all the royal power into the hands of hereditary ministers, call- 
 ed Mayors of the palace. Pepin the Elder, Charles Martel, and the 
 second or younger Pepin, ruled France under this singular title, while 
 the slumbering kings, mere phantoms of royalty, only retained the 
 mere name. 
 
 Cariovingian or Pepin the Second reduced the last Ciovingian king to a 
 Pepingian kings, monk, and united the title of king to the power which he 
 fromVsoto^ooo! already possessed, 750, and obtained the papal sanction 
 198?.] t n j g usurpation. 
 
 Frank Western Pepin, and after him his son Charlemagne, (Charles 
 Roman Empire, the Great,) grew in power, and triumphed in arms, till, 
 under the latter, Lombardy, (Italy,) Germany, and part of Spain re- 
 ceived the yoke of the French. After thirty cruel and bloody cam- 
 paigns, Charles assumed the splendid title of Charles Augustus Caesar, 
 Emperor of the West, with the solemn sanction of the pope at Rome, 
 A. D. 800 ; and thus we have a French Western empire, or Western 
 Roman empire, restored by Franks. 
 
 But this splendid fabric, Ccotemporary with the great Saracen em- 
 pire,) was dissolved almost as soon as Charlemagne died, by family 
 discord and papal intrigue. The imperial title was perpetuated in the 
 same family till 712, when it passed to the Germans ; but it continu- 
 ally shifted from one branch to another, and from one country to ano- 
 ther, till it finally rested, 912, on the imperial Caesars of Germany, 
 and the German Cariovingian branch became then extinct. In France 
 the degenerate Carlo vingians continued till Hugh Capet deposed the 
 last of the race, 987.
 
 RECAPITULATION. 117 
 
 recapitulation of the Roman History, from A.D. 1, 
 to the reign of Charlemagne, Jl.D. 800. 
 
 first, most natural, and most imposing reflection is, 
 '250 years from' that this period presents the origin, propagation, and fiery 
 A*D e KA?M.4oo4 ordeal of CHRISTIANITY. A universal empire, and two uni- 
 A.u.c.756-to versal languages facilitated the intercourse of men, and 
 
 A.D. 2oO, when ., .. f , , TT , /. . , r , 
 
 the whole impe- the propagation of the gospel. How the foresight of the 
 
 "em SSftS" final trium P h of such a religion, 325, (see next period,) 
 
 ments by usurpers and of a universal Christian monarchy at Rome, (see pe- 
 
 ors - riod 7, papal Rome,) would have confounded the mind of 
 
 Augustus Csesar ! 
 
 What a field for an imperial master, either to display splendid vir- 
 tues or perpetuate enormous crimes in an immense empire, assimi- 
 lated and cemented by the artful policy of ages! But bad men gene- 
 rally prevailed, and Rome, excepting a few illustrious intervals, gene- 
 rally declined in virtue, power, and unity, till it was even prematurely 
 dissolved ; for it required enormous violence to rend asunder parts so 
 firmly woven together. The idea is too immense to find place even 
 in the most contemplative mind. Virtues and crimes, disorders and 
 their remedies all on a grand scale of magnificence. Whether the 
 emperor was a patriot, a philosopher, a tyrant, a stage actor, or a buf- 
 foon, he performed on the same magnificent stage. The same impe- 
 rial code, the same spirit of despotism pervading the whole ; it formed 
 one immense prison, from which the accused or oppressed could only 
 escape to their inevitable fate among the wild savages of the inhospita- 
 ble deserts around. 
 
 In this age the edict of an execrable tyrant, Caracalla, extended the 
 bounds of the Roman city (legally) to the utmost limits of the empire. 
 In one breath the most remote subjects were all declared Roman citi- 
 zens, with all the privileges of native citizens; and condemned to the 
 same vexatious taxes, tributes, and exactions. The mind shrinks at the 
 thought of such a world, convulsed within, and assailed on all sides by 
 howling savages and wild barbarians. But such is the appalling pic- 
 ture presented, 250, at the end of this gloomy period ; and the empire 
 is entirely dissolved, divided among competitors, and assailed on all 
 sides. 
 
 sth Period. Though we find the empire in confusion, yet the idea 
 imperial Rome, of its unity was still sufficiently pervading to encourage 
 A^ 250,' when the splendid talents and efforts of Probus, Claudius, Aure- 
 Romaniawas ij an Diocletian, Constantine, and Theodosius, in their re- 
 
 prematurely and . . . . .. , i. j 
 
 transiently dis- spective times, in reducing to obedience the revolted pro- 
 Se'coinpS'rte'ofr- vinces. From the commencement of this period we find 
 cupation of the the Franks and Alemanni already seated on the Rhine, 
 tarbarians? 811 and the Ostrogoths and Visigoths on the North of the 
 A.D. 500. Black Sea. The Huns also rushed from Asia unto Eu- 
 rope, 374, and subdued the Ostrogoths, and chased the Visigoths into
 
 118 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. 
 
 Thrace. All these new savage races exercised the vigilance of the 
 
 emperors, and helped to precipitate the downfall of the empire. 
 
 325 Triumphand The cruel and wanton persecutions of this age, (those 
 
 corruption of of Decius, Valerian, Aurelian, and Diocletian,) were ar- 
 inity- rested, 325, by the triumph of Constantine the Great over 
 all colleagues and competitors, which proved also the final triumph of 
 Christianity over Paganism. Constantine unfortunately not only gave 
 the Church a legal existence, hut made it an affair of the state. The 
 wealth and power he conferred on the Church corrupted Christianity, 
 and proved a greater burthen to the Church than all the Pagan perse- 
 cutions, which had tended to preserve its simplicity and purity. Be- 
 sides, the moment that the Pagan persecutions ceased, Christians di- 
 vided into innumerable hostile sects, and persecuted one another with 
 the most implacable and unrelenting fury. 
 
 Circumstances tending to the division and dissolution of the empire ; 
 Milan, capital of the West ; Constantinople, or New Rome ; frequent 
 divisions among colleagues and competitors. The new organization 
 of the empire made by Diocletian, placed the East and the West each 
 under the immediate charge of a distinct emperor, (imperial colleagues,) 
 while, at the same time, it preserved the unity of the whole, by a uni- 
 formity of imperial laws and edicts. Without the ascendant genius of 
 Diocletian, the frequent repetition of the same division afterwards, weak- 
 ened the bond of union, by making the idea of division familiar; and 
 it even awakened ideas of separate and conflicting interests. The con- 
 venient removal of the imperial residence from Rome to Milan, towards 
 the German frontier, soon broke the charm of Roman supremacy ; and 
 Constantinople, (the New Rome, and rival Rome of the East,) had the 
 same tendency. The almost continual division of the empire among 
 the sons and successors of Constantine, finally resulted in a complete 
 and permanent division into East and West, at the death of Theodosius 
 the Great, A. D. 395. The Eastern Roman Empire was called also 
 Greek, Lower, Byzantine Empire, or Empire of Constantinople. It 
 lasted till 1453. 
 
 AD 409-500 ^ e dissolution of the Western Roman Empire begins 
 at once after this division. Ravenna becomes the capital 
 of the West, instead of Milan. This division of the empire, between 
 Honorius and Arcadius, the sons of Theodosius, was not a more formal 
 separation, than was usual between two colleagues. But the East and 
 the West had distinct interests, dangers, and calamities, and the West 
 began at once to yield, piecemeal, to the savage Germans. 
 
 The Visigoths who had been driven (374) by the hide- 
 Barbarian setuc- ous and deformed Huns, into Moesia and Thrace, began 
 fVom^oo^soa 684 the work of desolation in Greece as soon as Theodosius 
 died, 395. From Greece they went into Italy twice, be- 
 sieged and sacked Rome, 409, and were persuaded, 412, to pass into 
 Gaul and establish in Aquitania the Visigothic kingdom of Thoulouse. 
 In the meantime, the trembling Honorius had fled before Alaric, the 
 Visigothic king, when he first entered Italy ; and changed the impe- 
 rial residence from Milan to Ravenna, which long continued the capi- 
 tal of Italy. In 409, just before the Visigoths settled in Aquitania, the 
 Vandals passed through Gaul, and settled in the south of Spain ; while
 
 RECAPITULATION. 119 
 
 the Burgundians, the same year, 409, crossed the Rhine into Helvetia 
 and the east of Gaul. In 429, the province of Africa became a Van- 
 dal kingdom. In 449, the Saxons began to conquer Britain, which 
 the emperor had abandoned twenty years before to the mercy of the 
 Picts and Scots. The Saxons, however, did not complete the conquest 
 of England till 600. About 450, the terrible Huns scourged Gaul and 
 Italy, but did not settle in any province. In 455, Genseric, the Van- 
 dal king of Africa, sacked Rome. The succession of western empe- 
 rors finally ended in 476, when Odoacer, king of the Heruli, subdued 
 Italy, and took the title of king of Italy instead of emperor. Though 
 this was the end of the western Roman ' empire, there was still a 
 part of Gaul that was Roman, that is, was not yet occupied by barba- 
 rians ; but in 486, Clovis, king of the Franks, in the fifth year of 
 his reign, conquered Syagrius, the last Roman governor, and in the 
 course of about twenty-five years, Gaul became the kingdom of the 
 Franks. The Visigoths of Aquatania were gradually driven into 
 Spain, which became a Visigothic monarchy about 500 ; and the Bur- 
 gundians and Alemanni we also obliged to submit to the Franks, 
 In the mean time, the Ostrogoths entered Italy, 493, subdued the 
 Heruli, and swayed the country till 535. 
 
 About 435, Ostrogothia, or the Ostrogothic kingdom of 
 6th Period. Italy, was assailed by the arms of the Eastern emperor 
 
 The west occu- _ *. . P J i r i n ** 
 
 pied by barbari- Justinian, whose famous general behsanus, after reduc- 
 from A/D.wcTto g the Vandal kingdom of Africa, under his Eastern 
 750, when Rome master, was occupied from 535 to 550 in subduing and 
 Rome. 68 apal re-subduing Italy and Sicily. Thus Italy in its turn be- 
 came a province of the East, and Old Rome was subjected 
 to New Rome. (Constantinople.) 
 
 Italy and Africa were splendid acquisitions to the East, 
 
 Exarchate and , , J ., , ., ,. T - r . __ ^v, T , , 
 
 Lombardy. but on the death of Justinian, 568, the fierce Lombards 
 rushed into Italy, conquered the north and central re- 
 gions, and established the kingdom of Lombardy, which lasted 206 
 years, from 568 to 774. The emperors of Constantinople still retained 
 both coasts, and the south, including on one side Rome and Naples, 
 and on the other Ravenna and Ancona. These possessions were gov- 
 erned by an Eastern governor, called exarch of Ravenna, and that part 
 of Italy that belonged to the East, was the exarchate. 
 
 The division of Italy between the Lombards and Greek 
 
 i>i5nops ot ivornc, j * _iirii 
 
 (popes,) and pa- emperors, proved most unhappy, and the feeble emperors, 
 * 'stMtinopief" assailed by Persians and Saracens on the east, maintain- 
 
 ioftheeast e d a precarious and contested authority over their part of 
 
 ' . ^ s ~ T*n 1 r on/1 frm Tfit"/^/>i/MiQ T ,/MTrt r\Q tA o *Mn*r*rt *% nil tli . **-.nt 
 
 schism i 
 
 war; revouTf Italy ; and the ferocious Lombards preyed on all the rest. 
 
 Ravenna, Rome, ^he p 0pe an( j patriarch of Constantinople were in a con- 
 
 and pope. , r _, , . . . .. r . 
 
 tmual wrangle. Safe in his distant province, the bishop of 
 Rome assumed, even towards his Greek emperor, a bold and lofty style 
 of defiance, and the pious shepherd insensibly gained, over his Roman 
 flock, the influence of a civil magistrate. As successor to St. Peter, and 
 bishop of the ancient metropolis, he claimed the character of universal 
 bishop ; his address (about 600) had brought the pagan Saxons, as well 
 as the Arian Visigoths and Lombards, into the bosom of the Catholic 
 church ; the ignorance of the age, and the alms he distributed from 
 his immense revenues, favoured his pretensions.
 
 120 OUTLINE OP HISTORY. 
 
 Finally Ravenna, Rome, and the pope revolted from 
 reroff ^f*^ 6 . their Greek master, who (7ii8) by a decree against images 
 Uiepopea prince.' and image worship, had kindled a furious religious war 
 both in the East and West. The images of course won 
 the victory in such an age, and only Naples and the south of Italy re- 
 mained subject to the East. 
 
 7th Period After the revolt of Rome and Ravenna, the Lombard 
 Papal Rome, 750 king improved the auspicious moment, seized Ravenna, 
 years^commenc- an( j Qn jy S p are( j R orne ou t O f respect to the eloquence and 
 when the pope be] sa cred character of the holy pontiff. But when Rome 
 
 came a temporal , , . -i- r , , , 
 
 prince, and end- was threatened by another Lombard prince less scrupu- 
 thl protjtant h re" ^ OUS) ^ e sou g nt ^ e protection of his pious friend Pepin, 
 formation arrest- the Frank. Pepin was not only able to save, but willing 
 
 ed the career of , . ,v ... e ..L i. i / 
 
 papal ambition, to accept, in return, the gracious sanction of the holy fa- 
 ther, to his usurpation of the throne of France, (see Gaul.) 
 He flew to the relief of his holiness, retook Ravenna from the Lom- 
 bards, and piously gave the spoil to St. Peter, whose pretended suc- 
 cessor, the bishop of Rome, took the earthly charge of the sacred patri- 
 mony. Already a magistrate at Rome, the pope now becomes a tem- 
 poral prince, as vicegerent of a saint in heaven! From this time we 
 may more particularly style Rome papal; though the pope did not 
 become a formidable potentate till after the death of his powerful pro- 
 tectors, Pepin and Charlemagne. 
 
 The Franks allowed the Lombards to retain their an- 
 
 Lombardy and cient possessions till 774, when Charlemagne, the son of 
 
 Germany by p e pin, being called into Italy to protect Rome against the 
 
 Charlemagne. * . i i 
 
 Lombards, conquered their country, and was crowned 
 king of Lombardy. In thirty cruel campaigns Be conquered Ger- 
 many, and baptized the pagan Saxons at the point of the sword. Part 
 of Spain was also added to his immense empire. 
 
 Charlemagne (Charles the Great) being invited to 
 Rome to protect Pope Leo III, against the fury of his own 
 pir flock, was solemnly crowned emperor of the West, under 
 ome the name of Charles Augustus Caesar. (See Gaul.) As 
 lemagrie. y "" Rome was expressly included in this great political fabric, 
 the relation between the pope and the new emperor was of 
 a very delicate nature. But the ascendancy of Charlemagne was not 
 to be shaken by a priest who was unable to control his own flock ; and 
 mutual good offices preserved a gracious and undisturbed intimacy. 
 The papal sanction to the usurpation of Pepin and Charlemagne, and 
 the holy unction, poured on the imperial head, were not trifles likely 
 to be overlooked by future popes, who could dexterously employ them 
 in extorting new concessions, or baffle weak princes by withholding 
 them. Though the supremacy of Charlemagne over Rome and the 
 pope was clear and undisputed, yet future popes could choose between 
 rival candidates, and the one a pope chose to approve and anoint, was 
 most likely to prevail in a disputed succession. By these means it was 
 that succeeding popes arrayed people against their princes, one prince 
 against another, and even sons against their fathers ; and caught the 
 balance of political power, which they managed with sufficient dexte- 
 rity to erect at Rame a throne of despotism tenfold more frightful than
 
 SARACENS 
 
 121 
 
 that of the worst tyrants of ancient imperial Rome. No sooner was 
 Charlemagne dead, than the succeeding popes began to inflame, in- 
 stead of healing the discord of his descendants ; and this artful policy 
 soon made them the arbiters of princes. 
 
 The term Sa- 
 racen. 
 
 Historical sketch of the Saracens. 
 
 The term Saracen signifies Arabian and Mahometan, and 
 includes an idea of conquest. It was originally merely the 
 designation of a single tribe in Arabia. 
 
 There are two successive Mahometan empires, viz. The Saracen or 
 Arabian Mahometan empire, and the Turkish Mahometan empire. 
 To the Saracen Mahometan empire may be allowed four periods, viz. 
 
 1st Period. The period of the elective caliphs residing at Medina, 
 viz. Mahomet, Abubeker, Omar, Othman, Ali. This period extended 
 from 622 to 665, or 43 years. 
 
 2d Period. The period of the Oromiades, or the hereditary ca- 
 liphs, descended from Ommyah, (whence they derive their name,) re- 
 siding at Damascus. This period extends from 665 to 750, when 
 Spain separated under an Ommiades prince, a period of 85 years. 
 
 3d Period. The first period of the Abbassides, or caliphs descend- 
 ed from Abbas, an uncle of the prophet residing at Bagdad. This 
 period extends from 750 to 850, 100 years. This is the glorious mag- 
 nificent and powerful period of the Abbassides. 
 
 4th Period. The second period of the Abbassides at Bagdad, being 
 the falling or crumbling period of the Saracen empire, extending from 
 850 to 1258. 
 
 TABLE OF SARACEN CONQUESTS. 
 
 A. D. 569 
 609 
 623 
 629 
 632 
 
 Commence- 
 ment of the 
 
 conquests. 
 633 
 
 632 
 
 Birth of Mohammed. 
 Begins to preach. 
 Hegira, or Flight. 
 Conquest of Arabia. 
 Death of Mohammed. 
 
 Begin to conquer Syria. 
 Battle of Bozrah, 632. 
 Battle of Aiznadin, 633. 
 Siege and capture of 
 
 Damascus, 634. 
 Capture of Balbec and 
 
 Einessa, 635. 
 Battle on the Yermuk, 
 
 636. 
 Surrender of Jerusalem, 
 
 637. 
 Surrender of Aleppo and 
 
 Antioch, 638. 
 Final conquett of Syria. 
 Commencement of the 
 
 conquest of Persia. 
 
 Battle of Cadesia, 638. 
 Capture of Ctesiphon, 
 
 638. 
 Final conquest of Persia 
 
 End of the 
 
 comments. 
 
 638 
 
 638 
 651 
 
 651 
 
 Commence- 
 ment of the 
 conquests. 
 A. D. 638 
 
 709 
 
 711 
 
 823 
 827 
 
 Begin the conquest of 
 Egypt. 
 
 Capture of Pelusium and 
 Memphis, 638. 
 
 Capture of Alexandria, 
 and final cocqueat of 
 Egypt 
 
 Final conqtest of Africa, 
 by the taking of Car- 
 thage- 
 
 Conquest of Spain, ex- 
 cept Asturias 
 
 Conquest of Crete 
 
 Conquest of Sicily, ex- 
 cept Syracuse, 
 
 Capture of Syracutt, 
 878. 
 
 Saracen settlements in 
 Calabria. 
 
 End. 
 639 
 
 639 
 
 709 
 
 714 
 823 
 
 838 
 
 16
 
 122 SARACENS. 
 
 MOHAMMED. 
 
 A.D. 569 Mohammed, the Arabian prophet, was born of a princely 
 BomatMecca. ij ne at Mecca. Naturally enthusiastic, superstitious, and 
 addicted to the study of religious mysteries, he listened eagerly to the 
 doctrines of the Jews, Christians and Persians, whom he met in the 
 short excursions which he made for the purposes of trade in the neigh- 
 bourhood. He embraced the sublime idea of the unity of the divine 
 Spirit, rejected the idolatrous worship of his countrymen, and set about 
 framing a new religion for them. At the age of forty he gave out that 
 he was inspired, the chosen minister of God on earth, and 
 609 began to preach his religion. The labour of the first three 
 preach!" y ears was n t very encouraging it produced him but four- 
 teen converts, including the rich widow Cadijah, whom he 
 had married, and his cousin Ali. Their numbers however increased, 
 until, in 622, he had become sufficiently important to be driven from 
 Mecca by the Korish, the guardians of the old religion. 
 622 This Hegira, or flight of Mahommed, is the year 1 of Ma- 
 ?lra " hometans. At Medina, he was received as a prince and 
 prophet, and the ten years of his residence in that city were ten years 
 of conquest. All Arabia was subdued, and Ishmael's roving 
 children then first acknowledged a single leader. He died 
 at Medina. 
 
 The choice of his successor gave rise to the great schism which still 
 survives in the hatred of the Persians and Turks. The former revere 
 Ali as the vicar of God the latter deny his right of succession. The 
 Persians are denominated Scheyes, or Shiites, their enemies Sunnees, 
 or Sonnites. 
 
 The good old Abubeker, father-in-law of Mohammed, in his short 
 reign, began, through his general Kaled, the sword of God, that tre- 
 mendous course of conquest which was destined to carry their victo- 
 rious arms over a great part of the Eastern hemisphere. Thirty-six 
 thousand cities and villages are said to have been subdued by Omar, 
 and the first century of conquest placed Persia, Syria, Egypt, Africa, 
 and Spain itahe hands of the Saracens. 
 
 About the year 700 they overcame the Moors, or Berbers of Africa, 
 who adopted the, language and manners of their conquerors, and grad- 
 ually became confounded with them. They passed over to- 
 gether to the conquest of Spain. Under the Ommiades 
 OI spain. Constantinople was twice besieged. In 668 the Saracens 
 first approached it, and seven successive years brought im- 
 mense armies for its destruction. They were repulsed by Greek 
 fire. In 717 they made another unsuccessful attempt. Constantinople 
 stood, its people were degenerate, but the place was strong, and its 
 new and mysterious weapon of destruction carried terror before it. In 
 both sieges the Saracen fleets were consumed. 
 
 Though Constantinople locked the door of Europe on the 
 
 ?31. East, the Saracens had already entered it on the West, and 
 
 France" crossing the Pyrenees, they desolated France to the Loire. 
 
 Charles Martel proceeded cautiously, allowed them to grow 
 
 careless and fancy themselves secure, and then coming upon them, he
 
 S ARAC ENS. 
 
 shut them up in Bouillet in Poictou, and left more than 350,000 Sara- 
 cens dead upon the field. Thus Charles Martel and Constantinople 
 saved Europe from the Mohammedan yoke. Vast numbers of Sara- 
 cens settled in the south of France. 
 
 7 - ft The last of the Ommiades was slain, and Almansor, of the 
 line of Abbas, laid the foundation of Bagdad, and made it the 
 seat of government. 
 
 7 - _ Abdurrahman, of the family of Ommiades, escaped to Spain, 
 and established there an independent caliphate, which lasted 
 more than two centuries. 
 
 -Q. We find Haroun Al Raschid reducing to obedience the poor 
 Nicephorus, surrounded at Bagdad by luxury and splen- 
 dour, patronizing science, literature and the arts, and adorning in his 
 own character the golden era of the Saracen empire. He still reign- 
 ed in 800.
 
 A CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX 
 
 Of the most important Events, from the Birth of 
 Christ to the Reign of Charlemagne. 
 
 1 Augustus had already reigned forty-one years; about ten 
 wK eSKffii with Antony and thirty-one alone. He reigned until A.D. 
 14. Christ actually born A. M. 4000, four years earlier. 
 
 50 Britain added to the Roman empire, fifty years after the 
 birth of Christ, in the reign of Claudius. It was visited by 
 Julius Caesar fifty years before Christ, and finally conquered 
 with great difficulty. 
 
 100 Actually 96. Nerva, first of the good emperors, who were 
 successively adopted. Happy period for nearly one hundred 
 years except during the horrid reign of Commodus. After 
 him anarchy till A. D. 193. 
 
 200 193 Pertinax succeeds the dreadful Commodus. Pertinax 
 killed by the pretorians, of whom Julian Didius buys the em- 
 pire. Severus on the Danube, Albinus in Britain, Niger in 
 Syria. Severus prevails, and disbands the pretorian guards, 
 but establishes a new guard of a similar nature. 
 
 225 About this time Parthia changes to Persia, with a new Per- 
 sian dynasty. The following interval is filled with the rapid 
 succession of emperors feeble, contemptible. 
 
 250 Thirty tyrants or usurpers. Empire in fragments. Franks 
 in Belgium ; Allemanni in Swabia ; Visigoths and Ostro- 
 goths, north of the Black Sea. These different hordes of 
 savages pressed upon the different frontiers of the empire, 
 often made irruptions, and kept the emperors and their pro.- 
 vinces in constant alarm. 
 
 275 Aurelian dies this year the conqueror of Zenobia and other 
 usurpers. (Zenobia, queen of the East.) Claudian, Aurelian, 
 and Probus had short reigns, but they did much towards sav- 
 ing the empire. 
 
 284 Diocletian and his imperial colleagues restore the empire, 
 but Rome was no longer the capital. Diocletian lived at 
 Nicomedia, Maximinian at Milan, Constantius in Britain. 
 
 300 Splendour and triumph of the imperial colleagues, who re- 
 stored the empire to its unity, suppressed usurpers, repressed 
 Franks, Allemanni, Goths, Persians, &c. Distinction of Au- 
 gustus and Caesar.
 
 INDEX. 125 
 
 307 Constantine the Great succeeds his father in Britain ; has 
 many competitors, whom he overcomes, one after another, 
 until he becomes sole emperor, in 325. 
 
 312 Constantine conquers his competitor and brother-in-law, 
 Maxentius, and Rome and Italy submit to him. 
 
 325 Constantine having overcome all competitors, embraced 
 Christianity; called the council of Nice to settle its doctrine, 
 and began to build Constantinople. 
 
 327 Constantine dies, dividing his empire between his three sons; 
 of whom Constantine reigned three years over Gaul, Spain, 
 and Britain, and died in the war he made upon Constans in 
 Italy. Constans reigned over Italy three years ; over Italy, 
 Gaul, and Britain, thirteen years, and died 350, leaving the 
 whole empire to Constantius. These three brothers, from 
 jealousy, put to death nearly all their relatives. 
 
 350 Constantius sole emperor after the death of both his brothers. 
 He first made his cousin Gallus his colleague and Caesar, 
 but soon put him to death for his enormous vices. 
 
 355 Constantius makes his cousin Julian, Caesar ; sends him to 
 Gaul against the Franks and Allemanni, who laid waste that 
 province. Julian's great fame and success excites his envy. 
 
 360 Constantius sends for Julian's best legions ; these refusing to 
 leave Julian, proclaim him Augustus, and march against 
 Constantius, who dies, and Julian is sole emperor. Julian 
 dies in Parthia. 
 
 Valentinian rules in the West, and Valens in the East. Va- 
 lentinian succeeded by his son Gratian in the West. 
 
 375 The savage, deformed, hideous Huns, Tartars, from Asia, 
 crossed the Wolga, entered Europe, routed the Alans and 
 Ostrogoths, entangled themselves in the empire, and passed 
 on to Hungary. 
 
 In the mean time the terrified Visigoths fled to the Danube, 
 got permission of Valens to settle in Moesia and Thrace ; 
 rose in rebellion, killed Valens in the fatal battle of Adrian- 
 ople ; and were painfully repressed by Theodosius the Great, 
 successor to Valens. 
 
 395 Theodosius divides the empire into East and West, and leaves 
 both empires a prey to the Visigoths and Huns. Alaric, 
 king of the Visigoths, ravages Greece. 
 
 400 On the entrance of Alaric into Italy with his Visigoths, Ho- 
 norius fled from Milan to Ravenna, which became the capi- 
 tal of the West, on account of the security offered by the 
 water on one side and impassable marshes on the other.
 
 126 INDEX. 
 
 409 Burgundians settle in Switzerland and the east of Gaul. 
 Vandals pass through Gaul into Spain, after which the feeble 
 Romans have but little authority in Spain. 
 
 413-14-15 Alaric sacks Rome after three sieges. Dies in the south 
 of Italy, and his Visigoths follow a new leader into Gaul ; 
 where they founded a Visigothic kingdom. 
 
 425 Honorius dies ; his sister, Placidia, reigns as regent for her 
 son, Valentinian 3d. 
 
 429 Vandals under Genseric, invited by Count Boniface, pass 
 into Africa, and subduing that Roman province, establish a 
 Vandal kingdom. The Britons, abandoned by the Romans 
 and restored to independence, were unable to defend them- 
 selves against the Picts and Scots. 
 
 449 Saxons begin to settle in Britain. 
 
 450 Attila, king of the Huns, lays waste Gaul and the north of 
 Italy, after he was defeated at Chalons. Venice built in the 
 sea by those who fled from Attila. Theodosius 2d dies. 
 
 455 Death of Valentinian 3d ; whose widow, Eudoxia, married 
 his murderer, Maximus, who succeeded : but, on discovering 
 the murder, she invited Genseric from Africa, who sacked 
 Rome fourteen days, and carried off plunder, Eudoxia and 
 all, into Africa. 
 
 476 Odoacer, king of the savage Heruli, conquers Italy, deposes 
 Augustulus, the last feeble emperor. Odoacer sends the im- 
 perial ornaments, as so many bagatelles, to Constantinople, 
 and takes the title of king of Italy, instead of preserving the 
 vain title of emperor, when all the provinces were severed 
 from the empire by other rude savages. This year (476) 
 is called the end of the Western Roman Empire. As an 
 empire, it had been rent and reduced before, by Burgundi- 
 ans, Vandals, Visigoths, Saxons, &c. 
 
 481 to 500 During this period the Franks under Clovis pushed from 
 Belgium into Gaul, and vanquished the Burgundians and 
 Visigoths. The Ostrogoths, who were disentangled from 
 the Hunnish empire on the death of Attila, enter Italy, after 
 menacing Constantinople ; conquered Odoacer, and Theodo- 
 sius their king became king of Italy, 493. 
 
 500 The end of the Western Roman Empire is dated 476, (see 
 above,) and was in fact rent to pieces before that period ; yet 
 the barbarians did not become settled and quiet in their re- 
 spective provinces until about this date, 500 ; but now the 
 Franks are spread over Gaul. The Visigoths retiring be- 
 fore the conquering Franks, settle in Spain ; the Vandals 
 have passed into Africa, 429. The Ostrogoths were estab- 
 lished in Italy since 493, under the Great Theodoric. The
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Saxons are making great progress in Britain ; and thus the 
 wreck of the Great Western Empire is divided among sav- 
 ages: but New Rome, or Constantinople, will long resist 
 the dreadful shock. 
 
 525 About this time the Great Theodoric dies in Italy, and leaves 
 his kingdom in the feeble hands of his. daughter and her mi- 
 nor son. Justinian began to reign, at Constantinople, 527 : 
 a man who had the discernment and wisdom to select the 
 best men to conduct every department of his affairs. 
 
 535 About this time Belisarius, the general of Justinian, subdued 
 the Vandals, and added Africa to the Eastern Empire ; then 
 invaded Sicily and Italy; and, after prodigies of valour, sub- 
 dued the Ostrogoths, and added Italy to the Eastern Empire; 
 which, however, was not wholly completed until 550. 
 
 550 By this time all farther resistance of the Ostrogoths to Justi- 
 nian becomes vain : Italy and Africa belongs to him. Turk- 
 ish Pagan Empire begins east of the Caspian. No Moham- 
 medans yet. These Pagan Turks east of the Caspian, in 
 the interior of Asia, these Scythians or Tartars, long after, 
 become Mohammedans, and overrun the west of Asia, &c., 
 not until after A. D. 1000. 
 
 568 Justinian dies. Lombards rush into Italy from Pannonia, 
 conquer the North and middle, leaving Ravenna, Ancona 
 and the east coast, Rome, Naples and the west coast, to the 
 Eastern emperors, until about 750. The relative position of 
 the Lombards and Eastern emperors was always perplexing, 
 and finally led to great events from 725 to 750. The empe- 
 rors had exarchs, that is out-rulers residing at Ravenna, 
 which was then called the Exarchate. 
 
 581 About this time the language of Italy undergoes a change. 
 The barbarous tongues of the several nations who had over- 
 run Italy, Heruli, Ostrogoths, Lombards, had corrupted and 
 confounded the Latin. 
 
 600 The Heptarchy now completed. Gregory 1st, or Great, 
 (who began his pontificate 590,) sends St. Augustine and 
 others to convert the pagan Saxons. Under this pope the papal 
 jurisdiction was also extended over the Arian Visigoths and 
 Lombards, who were all converted to the catholic faith. 
 
 601 Mohammed begins to preach at Mecca. Heraclius begins 
 to reign at Constantinople. Chosroes, king of Persia, con- 
 quers Syria, Palestine, Asia Minor, a part of Egypt, &c. 
 
 622 Hegira, or flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina. Mo- 
 hammed a prince, a prophet ; returns, converts his relatives 
 and friends in Mecca at the sword's point, and conquers 
 Arabia. From this time, and not before, we call the Ara-
 
 128 INDEX. 
 
 bians Saracens, which of course applies only to Arabians from 
 the time of Mohammed. 
 
 632 Mohammed died, but his successors soon conquered Pales- 
 tine and Syria from the Eastern emperors at the same time 
 with other armies conquered Persia. 
 
 650 By about this time the Saracens, that is, the Arabian Moham- 
 medan empire, extended to Media in the East, and five years 
 after to Egypt. Amrou conquered Egypt and burned the 
 famous Alexandrian library, founded by the Ptolemies. After 
 the conquest of Egypt, the Saracens push on gradually 
 through Africa, until about 700, by which time it is all con- 
 quered. 
 
 665 Damascus becomes the seat of the caliphs instead of Medina. 
 Ommyades caliphs resigned at Damascus, that is caliphs de- 
 scended from a man named Ommyah. The Saracens still 
 prosecute their war in Africa against the Eastern Emperors. 
 
 675 Saracens besieged Constantinople, which was saved by Greek 
 fire. The Saracens never succeeded in passing into Europe 
 by Constantinople, though they long attempted it. 
 
 700 From 632 to 700, the Saracens had conquered from the 
 Eastern emperors, or emperors of Constantinople, parts of 
 Asia Minor and the whole coast of Africa. 
 
 712 Saracens, under the name of Moors, which means Saracens 
 from Morocco, conquer Spain. Thus the Saracens entered 
 Europe from Morocco. A handful of Christian Visigoths in 
 Asturias. 
 
 717 Saracens a second time unsuccessfully besiege Constantino- 
 ple. The few Christians saved in Asturias resist the Sara- 
 cens of Spain, and gradually increase at the expense of the 
 Saracens. The Saracens were not all driven out till after 
 800 years. They were driven out of Grenada by Ferdi- 
 nand 1500. 
 
 725 About this time, the Isaurian family, reigning at Constantino- 
 ple, became zealous Iconoclasts, or Image-breakers. They 
 could execute their edicts at Constantinople, but not in Italy. 
 All this time the war is about images. The Eastern empe- 
 rors were determined to enforce their edicts in Italy, and the 
 popes and Italians determined to resist. The Lombards took 
 advantage of the quarrel, and twice took Ravenna and threat- 
 ened Rome, in which case the popes or bishops of Rome had 
 recourse to the Franks, first Charles Martel and then Pepin, 
 who said " anoint me king." 
 
 , 732 Charles Martel defeats the Saracens and drives them out of 
 France, and saves Europe from the darkness of Mohamme- 
 danism.
 
 INDEX. 129 
 
 750 Bagdad the Saracen capital instead of Damascus. Abbassa- 
 des caliphs. Spain separated under a branch of Ommyades. 
 Pepin, Popes, Bagdad. Pepin 1st, Carlovingian. Popes 
 become temporal princes. The Abbassades caliphs, (that is 
 descended from Abbas, uncle of Mahomet,) at Bagdad intro- 
 duced their splendour, learning, &c. Pepin made popes 
 princes. Popes anointed Pepin. 
 
 768 Charlemagne became king of France by the death of his 
 father Pepin. 
 
 774 Charlemagne conquers the Lombards in Italy, and in the 
 mean while prosecutes his ambitious wars and superstitious 
 conquests in Germany against the pagan Saxons, whom he 
 conquered and converted in thirty cruel campaigns. His 
 wars with them lasted till 800. In the mean time Charle- 
 magne also conquered Spain to the Ebro. 
 
 800 Charlemagne crowned emperor of the West at Rome, with 
 the title of Charles Augustus Casar. Papal oil and sanc- 
 tions fruitful of future quarrels. The conquest and final 
 crowning of Charlemagne is called the Restoration of the. 
 Western Roman Empire. It did not, however, include 
 Britain, Africa, nor all Spain. It must be called the Frank 
 Western Roman Empire, which soon crumbled to pieces 
 under the feeble successors of Charlemagne. 
 
 17
 
 130 
 
 History of Spain, Gaul, Italy, after the time of 
 Charlemagne. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 Visigoths. Spain was (A.D. 500) overrun by the savage Visigoths, 
 Vandals, &c., tribes from Germany, while the other provinces of the 
 west shared a similar fate. 
 
 Saracens or The Saracens, or Moors, subdued the Christian Visi- 
 eipain, and^are goths, A.D. 711, who did not recover the whole coun- 
 not entirely ex- try till the time of Ferdinand and Isabella, after a san- 
 
 pelled or subdued * . i r i o/w\ c 
 
 tin the time of gumary struggle of nearly 800 years. The marriage ot 
 bena'To isoo a Ferdinand and Isabella, and their conquest, united all 
 Spain united en- Spain into one monarchy, to which America, Naples, 
 
 larges into au em- M jjf j 
 
 pj re oiciiy, ozc., were soon added. 
 
 Charles v. & his This great inheritance passed, 1516, to the Austrian 
 Austria^ succes- Charles V., which was the means of adding Netherlands, 
 Milan, &c., to this swelling empire, which, under Charles 
 and his Austrian successors, formed one of the great states of Europe 
 French Bourbons tl ^ 1700, when the chief part of these vast possessions pass- 
 ed to the French Bourbons, while the rest reverted to 
 Austria. 
 
 GAUL. 
 
 , , - In the age of the Carlovingians, from about 800 to 
 
 Feudal System. ,__ . T^ T-I n i 
 
 1000, A. D., trance was generally parcelled out among 
 dukes, who acquired direct and absolute control over the people in their 
 respective dukedoms; while one of them bore the title of king of France, 
 with a certain acknowledged supremacy over the others ; but with no 
 direct control over the people, except in his own ducal dominions. This 
 king looked to the other dukes for homage and military service, and 
 the dukes looked to the people for the same. This was called the 
 feudal system, and under various modifications generally prevailed in 
 Europe. It grew out of confusion, accident, favoritism, usurpation, &c. 
 
 It was a system of weakness and distraction, opening to artful princes 
 and popes the means of humbling a rival, by arraying against him his 
 own rebellious dukes and vassals. The king was often braved by his 
 dependent dukes, and the duke, by having a direct control over his 
 people and revenues, was often more powerful than the king. 
 
 As most of the dukedoms could be inherited by females, it often 
 happened that an heiress transferred her inheritance by marriage to a 
 foreign and rival sovereign. In this way the Norman and Plantagenet 
 kings of England became vassals to the kings of France, and dukes of 
 all the provinces from the Channel to the Pyrenees. Though these 
 acquisitions placed them in the legal relation of vassals to the kings of 
 France, yet as these dukes or vassals had the direct control over the 
 people and the revenues, the feudal relation was merely nominal. 
 
 Yet the kings of France took advantage of the absence 
 Gradual annexa- and occasional weakness of the kings of England, and 
 domsVthecrow'n conquered all their possessions in France, one after an- 
 other. And finally, though slowly, by marriage, conquest, 
 purchase, exchange, &c., the kings got all the French dukedoms an-
 
 ITALY. 131 
 
 nexed to the crown by 1735. Even as early as 1500, (Charles VIII., 
 Louis XII., Francis I.,) so many provinces had been gained as to give 
 France a new rank among the states of Europe. From the time of 
 Francis the First, France was able to make a great struggle against 
 the two houses of Austria, (German and Spanish branches: see Spain,) 
 till 1700, when Spain and its appendages, after a bloody contest, pass- 
 ed from the Austrians to the French Bourbons, whose branches were 
 multiplied also in Naples, Sicily, and Parma. 
 
 Even before this multiplication of Bourbon branches, 
 
 Bourbons. . -, ITT r , ,, T -TT i i 
 
 Henry IV., Louis XIII. and XIV., had very much influ- 
 enced the destinies of Europe. Louis XIV. had domineered over the 
 world for forty years, and the Austrians had ceased to be terrible be- 
 fore the Spanish branch became extinct; and the Bourbon enterprises 
 provoked continual fears and wars, till they were humbled in the long 
 and universal wars concluded by the peace of Paris, 1763. The de- 
 clining race was swept by the storm of the French revolution. 
 
 Napoleon, by a selfish and rigid despotism, arrested the horrors of 
 that revolution, and by his unparalleled success in arms, swelled France 
 into a mighty empire. The idolatry of the world, and presumption of 
 Napoleon, led him to ruin ; and we see the Bourbons creeping out of 
 their hiding places, only to demonstrate that they are incapable of pro- 
 fiting by the lessons of adversity and experience. 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 At last, A.D. 912, when the German Carlovingian 
 (Holy) German b ranc h became extinct, the German princes established 
 
 Roman Empire, , ,._ n j i e r~i 
 
 including both an elective chief, called king or emperor of Germany. 
 thTemperor^nd Tiie y commonly elected one of their own number, (though 
 pope always dis- sometimes a foreign prince,) and the office always con- 
 macyf e tinued strictly elective, even when it passed several gene- 
 
 rations from father to son, as it did in the ducal lines of 
 Franconia, Saxony, Swabia, and Austria. In 960, Otho the Great, the 
 third elective emperor of Germany, conquered Italy, and was crowned 
 and anointed Roman emperor, with the usual title of Augustus, &c. 
 Though in this manner he became acknowledged lord of Italy and the 
 pope, yet this old ceremony of crowning and anointing, laid the founda- 
 tion of those conflicting pretensions that kept Italy, Germany, and Eu- 
 rope so long embroiled. The spiritual thunders of the popes prevailed 
 at least as often as the carnal weapons of the emperors, who generally 
 found one half their own princes arrayed against them in any conflict 
 with a pope. This ghostly power over the minds of men, was first 
 arrested about 1500, by the Protestant Reformation, and the strong arm 
 of the emperor Charles V., who was as much an enemy to thepoliti- 
 cal pretensions of the pope, as he was to the religious reformation of 
 the people. 
 
 During the Crusades, (see table for the East,) we see 
 that rC aivvay" ce re the popes (1 100 1270) setting Christendom in holy com- 
 "ower" 1 * e papal mot i n i an d directing to their own profit the wild enter- 
 prises of fanatacism. The artful and uniform system of 
 encroachment pursued by a long succession of popes, is worthy of our 
 philosophic curiosity. But their authority was impaired particularly
 
 132 SARACENS. 
 
 in Rome itself, by rival ambition, by competitors, and anti-popes by 
 their shameless profligacy, and by seditions. They overwhelmed many 
 prince?, but princes sometimes defied, and overwhelmed popes. Some- 
 times two, and even three popes divided Christendom, and their own 
 councils long questioned their supreme authority. Several attempts 
 were made to subvert or restrain their temporal power at Rome, par- 
 ticularly by Arnold of Brescia, who governed Rome ten years, 1140, 
 and by Nicholas Rienza, who was near becoming the sovereign of 
 Italy, 1347, (while the pope was at Avignon.) Even when distant 
 princes trembled at his name, the pope often had to seek refuge in the 
 neighbouring cities from an enraged people. By the influence of the 
 French kings and cardinals, the popes resided seventy years at Avig- 
 non in France, and their return to Rome resulted in the famous schism 
 of the west, 1377 1414. It was not till after their spiritual power 
 came to a stand, 1500, that they began to enjoy a settled authority over 
 their own capital. 
 
 Crumbling period of the Saracen Empire. 
 
 A.D.750 Spain was cut off from the empire. Its caliph was Abdurrah- 
 man ; its capital Cordova. 
 
 850 Morocco was cut off under a caliph named Mervanold, mean- 
 ing " Commander of the Faithful." About the same time 
 Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and Egypt, were severed under their respec- 
 tive caliphs. 
 
 Q~Q Egypt, under caliphs called Fatimites; from Fatima the 
 daughter of Mahomet, conquered the Holy Land and Syria. 
 Persia and India were next lopped off, where there was a succes- 
 sion of barbarous dynasties, till at last the caliph of Bagdad was a 
 miserable phantom, dressed in priestly robes, retaining the grandeur 
 iof his palace and person. 
 
 qoq The Bowides stripped the caliph Rhadi of his temporal 
 power, and left him a mere priest. The Turks took the 
 1055 temporal power. 
 
 Historical sketch of the Turkish or Tartar 
 Mahommedan Empire. 
 
 This empire may be divided into four periods, viz. 
 
 Isf Period. The pagan period of the Turks, extending from about 
 550 to about 850, 300 years, during which time they resided in the 
 deserts of Scythia, in the centre of Asia. 
 
 2d Period. Their gradual conversion to the Mahommedan faith, 
 .extending from 850 to 1050, when they began to move, a period of 
 200 years. 
 
 3d Period. The period of their conquests, from 1050 to 1453, a 
 period of 403 years.
 
 TAB LE. 
 
 4th Period. The period of the Turkish Mahommedan empire in 
 Europe and the wars of Asia, from 1453 to the present time, 385 
 years. 
 
 1025 Turks begin to move west, and finding the Arabian empire 
 crumbling to pieces, they overrun Persia, take Bagdad, and 
 deprive the caliph of his authority as a prince, but respect him as a 
 priest. 
 
 The Seljukian Turks, or Turks descended from Seljuk, had three 
 great leaders, Togrulbeg, Alparslem, and Malek Shah. 
 
 .Q~ r They take the holy city from the Fatamite caliphs of Egypt, 
 (who took it in 960) while another tribe, under Solyman, 
 conquers Asia Minor and threatens Constantinople. The Turks, not- 
 withstanding their great prowess and power, will be 400 years taking 
 Constantinople. Why so long ? Because they were three times brok- 
 en up. and three times rallied again. 
 
 1100 Broken up 1st, by the Crusaders, but rallied again. 
 1200 " " 2d, by a new invasion of Tartars under Genghis 
 Khan, but rallied again in Asia Minor, under 
 Othman. 
 
 1400 " " 3d, by a third inundation of Tartars under Ta- 
 merlane. 
 
 Table of the Kings of England. 
 
 KINGS OF THE SAXON MONARCHY, 
 
 ' - From 828 to 1066238 years. . , . . , 
 
 A. D. 828 800 Egbert. 
 
 Ethelwolf. 
 Ethelbald. 
 Ethelbert. 
 Ethelred. 
 Alfred. 
 
 A. D. 900 Edward, the Elder. 
 (Athelstan.) 
 Edmund. 
 Edred. 
 Edwy. 
 Edgar. 
 
 Edward the Martyr. 
 A. D. 1000 Ethelred 2rf. 
 
 Edmund Ironside. 
 
 Three Danish Kings, 
 
 1000 Canute, Harold, and Hardicanute. 
 Edward the Confessor. 
 Harold. 
 
 The whole period of the Saxon monarchy was distinguished by the 
 incursions of a people they called Danes, but called by the French 
 Normans. England conquered by the Normans 1066.
 
 134 TABLE. 
 
 NORMAN FAMILY. 
 From 1066 to 115488 years. 
 
 William, Conqueror. 1066 1087 reigned 21 years. 
 
 William Rufus. 10871100 13 
 
 A. D. 1100 Henry 1st. 11001135 35 
 
 Stephen. 11351154 19 
 
 PLANTAGENET. 
 From 1154 to 1399--245 years. 
 
 Henry 3d. 11541189 reigned 35 years. 
 
 Richard 1st. 11891199 10 
 
 A. D. 1200 John. 11991216 17 
 
 Henry 3d. 12161272 56 
 
 A. D. 1300 Edward 1st. 12721307 35 
 
 Edward 2d. 13071327 i 20 
 
 Edward 3d. 13271377 50 
 
 Richard 2d. 13771399 22 
 
 LANCASTER. 
 
 From 1399 to 1471 (Lewis 14th) 72 years. 
 
 A. D. 1400 Henry 4th. 13991413 reigned 14 years. 
 
 Henry 5th. 14131422 9 
 
 Henry 6th. 14221471 49 
 
 YORK. 
 
 From 1471 to 148514 years. 
 
 Edward 4th. 1471 1483 reigned 12 years. 
 
 Edward 5th was only crowned. 
 
 Richard 3d. 14831485 2 
 
 TUDOR. 
 
 ' From 1485 to 1603 118 years. (Punic Wars.) 
 
 A. D. 1500 Henry 7th. 14851509 reigned 24 years. 
 
 Hen ry 8th and 3 children. 1 509 1 547 38 
 
 Edward 6th. 15471553 6 
 
 Mary. 15531558 5 
 
 Elizabeth. 15581603 45 
 
 STEWART. 
 
 From 1603 to 1714. Ill years. (Cromwell off 100.) 
 
 A. D. 1600 James 1st. 16031625 reigned 22 years. 
 
 Charles 1st. 16251649 24 
 
 Cromwell. 16491660 11 
 
 Charles 2d. 16601685 25 
 
 James 2d. 16851688 3 
 
 A. D. 1700 William and Mary . 16881702 14 
 
 Anne. 17021714 12
 
 TABLE. 135 
 
 BRUNSWICK. 
 From 1714 to 1838134 years. 
 
 George 1st. 1714 1727 reigned 13 years. 
 
 George 2d. 17271760 33 
 
 A. D. 1800 George 3d. 17601820 60 
 
 George 4th. 182018:30 10 
 
 William 4th. 18301837 7 
 
 Victoria. 1837 
 
 Table of the Kings of France. 
 
 The Merovingian Kings, or race of CLOVIS, (the Conqueror of Gaul,) 
 reigned 250 years. 
 
 CARLOVINGIAN. 
 From 752 to 987235 years. 
 
 Pepin, 752 768 reigned 16 years. 
 
 A. D. 800 Charles 1st. 768814 46 
 
 Louis 1st 814-840 26 
 
 Charles 2d. 840-876 36 
 
 Louis 2d 876879 3 
 
 Louis 3d. 879884 5 
 
 Charles 3d 884-888 4 
 
 Eudes 888-898 10 
 
 A. D. 900 Charles the Simple 898922 24 
 
 Robert 922-923 1 
 
 Ralpho. 923-936 13 
 
 Louis 4th 936-954 18 
 
 Lothaire 954-986 32 
 
 Louis 5th 986-987 1 
 
 CAPETIAN. (Eldest Branch.) 
 From 987 to 1328341 years. 
 
 A. D. 1000 Hugh Capet 987 996 reigned 9 years. 
 
 Robert 2d. 9961031 35 
 
 Henry. 1031-1060 29 
 
 A. D.I 100 Philip 1st. 1068-1108 48 
 
 Louis 6th. 1108-1137 29 
 
 Louis 7th. 1137-1180 43 
 
 A. D. 1200 Philip 2d. 1180-1223 43 
 
 Louis 8th. 1223-1226 3 
 
 Louis 9th. 1226-1270 44 
 
 Philip 3d. 1270-1285 15 
 
 A. D. 1300 Philip 4th. 1285-1315 30 
 
 Louis 10th. 1315-1316 1 
 
 Philip 5th. 1316-1322 6 
 
 Charles 4th. 1322-1328
 
 136 TABLE. 
 
 VALOIS, (Capetian.) 
 From 1328 to 1498170 years. 
 
 Philip 6th. 13281350 reigned 22 years, 
 
 John the Good. 13501364 14 
 
 Charles 5th. 13641380 16 
 
 A. D. 1400 Charles 6th. 1380-1422 42 
 
 Charles 7th. 1422-1461 39 
 
 Louis llth. 14611483 22 
 
 Charles 8th. 1483-1498 15 
 
 ANGOULEME Branch of Valois Capetian. 
 From 1498 to 1589191 years. 
 
 A. D. 1500 Louis 12th, (ori"o 1498 1515 reigned 17 years. 
 Francis 1st. 1515-1547 32 
 
 Henry 2d. 1547-1559 12 
 
 Francis 2d. 1559-1560 1 
 
 Charles 9th. 1560-1574 14 
 
 Henry 3d. 1574-1589 15 
 
 BOURBON, (Capetian.) 
 From 1589 to 1838 349 years. B evolution, and Napoleon off, 226 years. 
 
 A. D. 1600 Henry 4th. 1589-1610 reigned 21 years. 
 
 Louis 13th. 1610-1643 33 
 
 Louis 14th. 1643-1715 72 
 
 Louis 15th. 1715-1774 59 
 
 Louis 16th. 1774-1792 18 
 
 French Revolution 1792-1799 7 
 
 A. D. 1800 Napoleon's career 1799-1814 16 
 1814 Louis 18th. 1814-1824 
 Charles 10th. 1824-1830 
 Louis Philip 1830. 
 
 Emperors of Germany. 
 
 HEREDITARY EMPERORS. 
 From 800 to 913112 years. 
 
 A. M. 800 Charlemagne. 800814 reigned 14 years, 
 
 Louis 1st. 814840 26 
 
 Lothaire 1st. 840855 15 
 
 Louis 2d. 855875 20 
 
 Charles 2d. 875880 5 
 
 Charles 3d. 880888 8 
 
 Arnold 888900 12 
 
 A. D. 900 Louis 900912 12
 
 TABLE. 
 
 137 
 
 ELECTIVE EMPERORS. 
 Begin A.D. 912. 
 
 Franconia, 
 Saxony, 
 
 A. D. 1000 
 
 Bavaria, 
 
 Franconia, 
 A. D. 1100 
 
 Saxony, 
 
 Conrad 1st. 
 Henry 1st. 
 Otho 1st. 
 Otho 2d. 
 Otho 3d. 
 Henry 2d. 
 
 Conrad 2d. 
 Henry 3d. 
 Henry 4th. 
 Henry 5th. 
 Lothaire2d. 
 
 Swabiaand f Conrad 3d. 
 Franconia J Frederick 1st. 
 
 united. ] Henry 6th. 
 A.D. 1200. \_Philip. 
 Brunswick Otho 4th. 
 Swabia and > Frederick 2d. 
 Franconia, $ Conrad 4th. 
 
 1st Class. 
 
 912 918 reigned 6 years. 
 
 918936 18 
 
 936972 36 
 
 972982 10 
 
 982-1002 20 
 
 10021024 22 
 
 2d Class. 
 
 10241040 reigned 16 years. 
 
 10401056 16 
 
 10561106 50 
 
 11061125 19 
 
 11251138 13 
 
 3d Class. 
 
 11381152 reigned 14 years. 
 
 11521190 38 
 
 11901198 8 
 
 11981208 10 
 
 12081212 4 
 
 12121250 38 
 
 12501254 4 
 
 4th Class. 
 
 (FOREIGN EMPERORS.) 
 
 Holland, William, 1250 1256 reigned 6 years. 
 
 England, Richard, > 1256-1273 17 
 
 Castile, Alphonzo, $ 
 
 5th Class. 
 HAPSBURG AUSTRIANS. 
 
 ' Begin A.D. 1273. 
 
 Hapsburg, Rodolph 1st. 
 Nassau, Adolphus, 
 1300 Hapsburg, Albert 1st. 
 Luxemburgh, Henry 7th. 
 Hapsburg, Frederick 3d. C 
 Bavaria, and Louis, j 
 
 12731291 reigned 18 years 
 
 12911298 
 12981308 
 13081314 
 
 7 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 Elected by 
 
 different 
 
 parties. 
 
 13141347 33 
 
 6th Class. 
 LUXEMBTJRGERS. 
 
 Luxemburg, Charles 4th. 
 Wenceslaus, 
 14CO Bavaria, Robert, 
 Hungary, Sigismund, 
 
 13471378 reigned 31 years. 
 13781400 22 
 
 14001410 10 
 
 14101438 28 
 
 18
 
 138 TABLE. 
 
 HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 
 From 1438 to 1745307 years. 
 
 Albert 2d. 14381440 reigned 2 years. 
 
 Frederick, 14401493 53 
 
 A. D. 1500 Maximilian 1st. 14931519 26 
 
 Charles 5th. 15191558 39 
 
 Ferdinand 1st. 1558 1564 6 
 
 Maximilian 2d. 15641576 12 
 
 A. D. 1600 RodolphZd. 15761612 36 
 
 Matthias 16121619 7 
 
 Ferdinand 2d. 16191637 18 
 
 Ferdinand 3d. 16371658 21 
 
 A. D. 1700 Leopold 1st. 16581705 47 
 
 Joseph, 17051711 6 
 
 Charles 6th. 17111741 30 
 
 Bavaria, Charles 7th. 17411745 4 
 
 LORRAINE. 
 
 From 1745 to 183873 years 
 
 Francis 1st. 1745 1765 reigned 20 years. 
 
 Joseph 2d. 17651790 25 
 
 Leopold, 17901792 2 
 A. D. 1800 Francis 2e?, 1792, became first Emperor of Austria 1802. 
 
 Kings of Spain. 
 
 After the union ofArragon and Castile, by the marriage of Ferdinand 
 
 and Isabella. 
 
 AUSTRIAN 1520. BOURBON 1700. 
 
 Charles 5th, or 1st. Philip 5th. 
 
 Philip 2d. Ferdinand 6th. 
 
 Philip 3d. Charles 3d. 
 
 Philip 4th. Charles 4th. 
 
 Charles 2d. Ferdinand 7th. 
 
 Kings of Russia, from 1700. 
 
 Peter the Great. Peter. 
 
 Catherine. Catherine. 
 
 Peter Paul. 
 
 Anne. Alexander. 
 
 Ivan Nicholas.
 
 TABLE. 
 
 139 
 
 Centurial Monarchs of England, France, and 
 Germany. 
 
 KINGS OF ENGLAND. 
 
 800 Egbert, 1st Saxon Monarch. 
 
 900 Edward the Elder, 1st Saxon Edward. 
 
 1000 (Edward) Canute, 1st Danish Monarch. 
 
 1100 Henry First. 
 
 1200 Richard First. 
 
 1300 Edward First. 
 
 1400 Henry. 1st Lancaster. 
 
 1500 Henry 7th. First Tudor. 
 
 1600 James 1st. First Stewart. 
 
 1700 William 3d. 
 
 1800 George 3d. 
 
 KINGS OF FRANCE. 
 
 800 Charlemagne. 
 
 900 Charles the Simple. 
 
 1000 Hugh Capet. 
 
 1100 Philip 1st. 
 
 1200 Philip 2d. 
 
 1300 Philip 4th, 
 
 1400 Charles, middle Valois. 
 
 1500 Louis 12th. middle invader 
 
 of Italy. 
 
 1600 Henry 4th. 1st Bourbon. 
 
 1700 Louis 14th. 
 
 1800 Louis 18th and Napoleon. 
 
 EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 
 
 Charlemagne. 
 
 Conrad 1st. first elective Emperor. 
 
 Henry 2d. first Bavarian. 
 
 Henry 5th. last Franconian. 
 
 Philip First. 
 
 Albert 1st. 
 
 Robert First. 
 
 Maximilian 1st. 
 
 Rodolph 2d. 
 Leopold 1st. 
 Francis 2d.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Important Events of Ancient History, in which we 
 find a coincidence of dates. 
 
 A.M. B.C. 
 
 2000 
 3500 
 
 2250 
 3750 
 
 2000 Sacred History begins with Abraham, f , enn 
 500 Profane History, { 150 y ears a P art ' 
 
 750 Jacob's children sojourning in Canaan, ( ,_ AA 
 
 250 Punic Wars, '} 1500 years apart. 
 
 2500 1500 Moses, f 1Rftft 
 
 4000 Birth of Christ, { 150 y ears a P art ' 
 
 2083 1917 Abraham, aged 75, crossed the Eu- f" 
 
 phrates into the Promised Land, 
 3283 717 Abraham's descendants carried cap- < 1200 years apart. 
 
 live by the Assyrians over the same 1 
 
 river, 
 
 2298 1702 Jacob removes into Egypt, ( 
 
 3398 602 Daniel and many Jews taken captive < 1100 years apart. 
 by the Babylonians, { 
 
 of Canaan, 
 
 2553 1447 Conquest of Canaan, C 
 
 3029 971 Dismemberment of the kingdom of < 476 years apart. . 
 Israel, f 
 
 3029 971 Dismemberment, 5 471 vears anart 
 
 3500 500 Close of sacred history, f * 
 
 3500 500 Close of sacred history, C 
 
 3939 61 Final subjection of the Jews to the < 439 years apart. 
 Romans, f 
 
 Periods occupying a century. 
 
 A.M. 
 
 3456 to 3555 Struggle between the Greeks and Persians. 
 
 3555 3660 Struggle among the Greek states for supremacy. 
 
 3650 3750 Macedonian career. 
 
 3750 3858 Roman career of conquest. 
 
 3858 3973 Period of Roman internal convulsions.
 
 142 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 B.C. 
 1620 
 
 1220 
 
 KINGS OF ASSYRIA. 
 
 Pul, 
 
 Sardanapalus, 
 Tiglath-Pileser, 
 Shalmanezer, 
 Sennacherib, 
 Esarhaddon, 
 Nebuchadnezzar, 
 3279 Saracus. 
 
 KINGS OP BABYLON. 
 
 Nabonassar, 
 Merodach Baladin, 
 Nabopolassar, 
 Nebuchadnezzar, 
 Evil Merodach, 
 3466 Belshazzar. 
 
 KINGS OF PERSIA. 
 Arbaces, 
 Dejoces, 
 Phraortes, 
 Cyaxares 1st, 
 Astyages, 
 Cyaxares 2d, 
 Cyrus, 
 Cambyses, 
 Darius 1st, 
 Xerxes, 
 
 Artaxerxes 1st, 
 Darius 2d, 
 Artaxerxes 2d, 
 Artaxerxes 3d, 
 3673 Darius 3d. 
 
 721 
 
 534 
 
 327 
 
 A.M. 
 
 KINGS OF MACEDON. 
 
 3200 Ceraunus, 
 
 Alexander, 
 
 Perdiccas, 
 f Archelaus, 
 
 Philip, 
 
 Amyntas, 
 
 Philip, 
 
 Alexander, 
 Empire divided. 
 
 Cassander and his three 
 
 sons, 
 Philip, 
 Antipater, 
 Alexander, 
 
 Demetrius Poliorcetes, 
 
 Lysimachus & Pyrrhus, 
 
 Lysimachus alone, con- 
 quered by Seleucus, 
 conquered by Ptole- 
 my Ceraunus, de- 
 throned by Gauls, 
 Antigonus, son of Deme- 
 trius Poliorcetes, 
 
 Demetrius, 
 
 Antigonus, 
 
 Philip, 
 3836 Perseus. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 800 
 
 Tables of Jlncient Kings. 
 
 For repeating and committing the names of kings, they are divided 
 into portions indicated by a dash at the end of each portion. 
 
 KINGS OF TROY. 
 A.M. 
 
 2380 Scamander, 
 
 Teucer, 
 
 Dardanus, 
 
 Ericthonius, 
 
 Tros, 
 
 Ilus, 
 
 Laomedon, 
 2780 Priam. 
 
 164 
 
 KINGS OF ROME. 
 3250 Romulus, 750 
 
 Numa Pompilius, 
 
 Tullus Hostilius, 
 
 Ancus Marcius, 
 
 Tarquin 1st, 
 
 Servius Tullius, 
 3500 Tarquin the Proud. 500 
 
 KINGS OF LYDIA. 
 Candaules, 
 Gyges, 
 Ardys, 
 Sadyattes, 
 Halyattes, 
 3456 Croesus. 644
 
 A PPE NDIX. 
 
 143 
 
 A.M. 
 
 3973 
 
 KINGS OF SYRIA. 
 
 Seleucus Nicator, 
 Antiochus Soter, 
 Antiochus Theos, 
 Seleucus Callinicus, 
 Seleucus Ceraunus, 
 jf [ Antiochus the Great, 
 Seleucus Philopater, 
 Antiochus Epiphanes, 
 Antiochus Eupator, 
 Demetrius Soter, 
 Alexander Balus, 
 Demetrius Nicator, 
 Antiochus Theos, 
 Diodotus Tryphon, 
 Antiochus Sidetes, 
 Alexander Zebina, 
 Antiochus Grypus, 
 Antiochus of Cyzicus, 
 Seleucus, 
 
 Antiochus Eusebes, 
 Antiochus llth, 
 Philip, 
 
 B.C. 
 
 427 
 
 A.M. B.C. 
 
 Demetrius Euccerus, 
 Antiochus Dionysius, 
 Tigranes, king of Ar- 
 
 menia, 
 3939 Antiochus Asiaticus. 61 
 
 PTOLEMYS OF EGYPT. 
 
 3673 
 
 3973 
 
 Ptolemy Lagus, 427 
 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus, 
 
 Ptolemy Evergetes, 
 
 Ptolemy Philopater, 
 
 Ptolemy Epiphanes, 
 
 Ptolemy Philometer, 
 
 Ptolemy Physcon, 
 
 Ptolemy Lathyrus, 
 
 Ptolemy Alexander, 1st, 
 
 Cleopatra, 
 
 Ptolemy Alexander 2d, 
 
 Ptolemy Auletes, 
 
 Berenice, 
 
 Ptolemy & Cleopatra, 
 
 Cleopatra conquered. 27 
 
 Roman Emperors. 
 
 1st Class Julian Family. 
 
 Julius Caesar, (Dictator,) 
 Augustus " 
 Tiberius " 
 Caligula " 
 Claudius " 
 Nero 
 
 2d Class Scattered Emperors, Sf 
 all crowned in the same year, 
 Galba, 
 Otho, 
 
 Vitellius. 
 
 3d Class Flavian Family. 
 Vespasian, 
 Titus, 
 Domitian. 
 
 4th Class Five good Emperors. 
 Nerva, 
 Trajan, 
 Adrian, 
 Antoninus Pius, 
 
 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, 
 Commodus belongs to the 
 family of the Antonines, but 
 did not inherit their cha- 
 racter. 
 
 5th Class Five Emperors crown- 
 ed in one year. 
 Pertinax, at Rome, 
 Julian Didius, at Rome, 
 Severus, on the Danube, 
 Niger, in the East, 
 Albinus, in the West. 
 
 6th Class Family of Severut. 
 Severus, 
 Caracalla, 
 Geta, 
 Macrinus, 
 Alexander Severus. 
 
 7th Class Maximinus and hit 
 
 competitors. 
 Maximinus,
 
 144 
 
 A PPE NDIX. 
 
 Gordian, 
 
 Gordian, 
 
 Maximus, 
 
 Balbinus, 
 
 Gordian. 
 
 8th Class Those under whom the 
 Empire fell to pieces. 
 
 Philip, 
 
 Decius, 
 
 yEmilianus, 
 
 Gallus, 
 
 Valerian, 
 
 Gallienus. 
 
 These are little more 
 
 than emperors in Italy, ac- 
 knowledged by the senate. 
 9th Class 1st Class of Imperial 
 Restorers. 
 
 Claudius, 
 
 Aurelian, 
 
 Tacitus, 
 
 Probus, 
 
 Carus. 
 
 These did not reign long 
 
 enough to complete their 
 
 work. 
 
 10th Class 2d Class of Restor- 
 ers, or Imperial Colleagues 
 and CtBsars. 
 
 DIOCLETIAN, Eastern Au- 
 gustus, 
 
 Galerius his Casar. 
 MAXIMIAN, Western Au- 
 gustus, 
 Constantius his Ccesar, 
 
 llth Class Constantine and his 
 
 rivals. 
 Severus, 
 Maximian, 
 Maxentius, 
 Galerius, 
 
 Maximinus, 
 Licinius, 
 Constantine victorious. 
 
 12th Class Constantine the 
 Great $p his three sons. 
 Constantine in the W. 
 Canstans in the middle, 
 Constantius in the E. 
 Julian sole emperor. 
 
 13th Class Valentinian Family. 
 Valentinian middle &W. 
 Valens, E. 
 Valentinian 3d, 
 Gratian. 
 
 14th Class Theodosian Family. 
 Theodosius the Great, sole 
 emperor, 
 
 Honorius in, the E. 
 Arcadius in the W. 
 
 After this the empire 
 goes rapidly to destruction. 
 
 15th Class Nobodies, of whom 
 Romulus Augustulus, 476, 
 is the last. 
 
 A.D. 100 Trajan. 
 
 200 Severus. 
 
 300 Constantine. 
 
 400 Theodosius' death- 
 empire divided. 
 
 500 Settlement of the Bar- 
 barians. 
 
 600 Gregory the Great, St. 
 Augustine and Maho- 
 met. 
 
 700 Africa and Spain con- 
 quered by the Saracens. 
 
 800 Charlemagne attempts 
 to restore the Western 
 Roman empire. 
 
 A.D. 1 In the reign of Augustus the empire firm and unbroken. 
 
 250 Broken in fragments. Thirty tyrants or usurpers. Franks and Alleman- 
 ni on the Rhine, Ostrogoths and Visigoths north of the Black Sea, 
 ready to pour down upon the empire. 
 
 500 The Western empire completely occupied by German savages. 
 750 Pepin. Popes and Bagdad. 
 
 Pepin, the founder of the Franks, or Clovingian empire. Popes become 
 
 temporal princes. 
 Bagdad the seat of the Saracen empire then in all its splendour.
 
 SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 FIRST PERIOD. FROM THALES TO SOCRATES. 
 
 Ionic, Pythagoric, Eleatic, Atomic Schools. 
 
 IONIC SCHOOL, 
 
 Founded by Thales of Miletus, 600 B.C. He was the first who dis- 
 cussed on principles of reason the origin of the world. Water was, 
 in his opinion, the original element and spirit, the impulsive principle. 
 His great moral maxim was Know thyself. 
 
 Anaximan- Anaximander, who flourished at Miletus about 610 B.C., 
 
 der - taught that the Infinite and the Divine were the primary ele- 
 
 B.c'.GMi 4 ments. It is not, however, decided whether by the Divine 
 
 he understood an essence distinct from the elements, or a 
 
 subtle quality intermediate between water and air. 
 
 Pherecydes. Pherecydes of Syros, his contemporary, though his junior, 
 
 A.M. 3394. taught the same doctrine in the main ; he recognized, ho\v- 
 
 ' ' ' ever, as the principle of all things, Jupiter or Ether, Time 
 
 and the earth. He appears to have believed in the immortality of the 
 
 soul. Anaximander and Pherecydes were the first who committed 
 
 their doctrines to writing. 
 
 Anaximenes. Anaximenes of Miletus flourished about 557 B.C. He 
 
 A.M. 3447. was the disciple of Anaximander, but limited the Infinite of 
 
 B.C. 557. ^ s master as t j.j e p r j[ m jtive element to the Air, from certain 
 
 observations on the origin of things and the nature of the soul. 
 
 Hermotimus. Hermotimus, of Clazomenae, is said to have held the 
 
 doctrine of a Superior Intelligence as the author of nature. 
 
 Anaxagoras. Anaxagoras, born at Clazomenae, 500 B.C. The great 
 
 dogma of this philosopher was of an intellectual principle, 
 
 from the inadequacy of those systems which recognized only material 
 
 causes. He acknowledged the existence of primeval chaos, which he 
 
 believed to be surrounded by air and ether, and to have been put in 
 
 motion by the Intelligent Principle. This intelligence he considered 
 
 the active and creative cause, endowed with spontaneous energy, but 
 
 refined from all matter, pervading 1 , defining, and limiting all things, 
 
 and consequently the PRINCIPLE or LIFE. In his forty- fifth year he 
 
 settled himself at Athens, where he became the master and the friend 
 
 of Pericles. His doctrines, however, exposed him to the charge of 
 
 atheism, in consequence of which he was obliged to flee from that city, 
 
 and retire to Lampsacus, where he ended his days. 
 
 Diogenes. Diogenes, of Apollonia in Crete, the disciple of Anaximenes, 
 
 A.M. 3538. taught after that philosopher that the fundamental principle 
 
 B-C - 472> W as air, but blended with it the great dogma of Anaxagoras, 
 
 by imputing to it an Intellectual Energy. He flourished about 4T2 B.C. 
 
 Archelaus, the Milesian, about 460 B.C., a disciple of 
 
 ArCIJclcLUK 1*1 11 11 I_ * 
 
 A.M. 3540. Anaxagoras, and resident at Athens, taught that an things 
 B.C. 460. wefe evo i ve d from chaos by the operation of the principles 
 
 19
 
 146 APPENDIX. 
 
 of heat and cold, ovjire and water, and that man had gradually separat- 
 ed himself from the herd of inferior animals, thus making the opera- 
 tions of the mind material. His moral philosophy taught that the 
 notions of right and wrong are not intrinsic, but conventional. 
 
 The great method which distinguished the philosophers of the Ionic 
 school may be termed experimental, from their mode of solving the 
 first problem of philosophy concerning the origin or elementary prin- 
 ciple of the world. 
 
 PYTHAGORIC, OR ITALIC SCHOOL, 
 Founded at Croto in Italy, about 527 B.C. 
 
 Pythagoras. Pythagoras, the founder of this school, ascribed an occult 
 A.M. 3473. power to words and numbers, and looked upon the science of 
 arithmetic as containing the essence of all philosophical 
 knowledge. Hence, his school has also been called the Mathematical. 
 Numbers were defined by him as the principle of all things ; and the 
 ten elementary numbers which contain a complete system of enumera- 
 tion, contain also the elements of a perfect system of nature. Accord- 
 ing to the Pythagoreans, the world was an harmonious whole, consist 
 ing of ten great bodies revolving around a common centre, in confor- 
 mity with certain harmonious laws. The centre, or central fire, the 
 sun, was the most perfect object in nature, from which the soul, also a 
 number, emanates, resembling it by its immortality and its constant ac- 
 tivity, capable of combining with any body, and passing successively 
 through several. This metempsychosis appears to have been connect- 
 ed in Plato's mind with moral retribution. In this system the stars 
 were, of course, divinities, and man, with even the inferior animals, 
 participated in the divine nature. Between gods and men the Pytha- 
 goreans supposed an intermediate race of demons, to whose agency 
 were ascribed, in a great measure, dreams and portents, the subjects of 
 divination. To the same school are due the first attempts at analysis 
 of the operations and faculties of the mind. The understanding and 
 intellectual faculties they placed in the brain, the will and the appetite 
 in the heart. They were, perhaps, the first also who ennobled the 
 idea of Deity by the attribution of moral qualities, such as truth and be- 
 neficence. The society of Pythagoreans established in Italy contem- 
 plated the political as well as the moral improvement of society, in con- 
 sequence of which, the fraternity was suppressed, or rather dispersed, 
 in something less than thirty years, about 510 B.C. 
 
 ELEATIC SCHOOL. 
 
 The fundamental doctrine of this school was the rejection of expe- 
 rience, and the deriving of all knowledge from the mind itself as the 
 only foundation of truth. 
 v ,, Xenophanes, of Colophon, the contemporary of Pvthag-o- 
 
 Acnopnanes. ft i j i i .r j t_ i i -n i TT i 
 
 ras, established himself and his school at laia or Vena, in JVlag- 
 na Grecia. Adhering to the old doctrine, that nothing proceeds from 
 nothing, he argued that nothing could pass from non-existence into 1 
 existence. Hence, whatever exists must have ever existed, and be im- 
 mutable. God is one and unalterable, neither finite nor infinite, nei- 
 ther moveable nor immoveable ; he is all hearing, all thought, all
 
 SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY. 147 
 
 sight, and his form is spherical. Xenophanes was the first one who 
 divested the Deity of the gross images under which he had before been 
 represented. 
 
 Parmenidcs. Parmenides of Elia, about 460 B.C., taught a modification 
 V/''^ 0> f l ^ e same doctrine, maintaining that the understanding 
 
 1>.O. 4uU* i i i / i 
 
 alone was capable of contemplating truth, while the senses 
 afforded but a deceptive appearance of it. 
 
 Meiisus. Melissus, of Sarnos, about 444 B.C., was the boldest, and, 
 A Bctif' P erna P s ' tne ablest master of this school, with the exception 
 of Zeno. He carried his idealism so far as to deny that our 
 senses present us any thing more than appearances, which are alto- 
 gether beyond the limits of real knowledge. 
 
 Zeno . Zeno, of Elia, the disciple of Parmenides, 460 B.C., may 
 ^M-SS-IO. be considered as the great master, if not the founder of this 
 
 U.v. 1OU i| ** 
 
 school. 
 
 ATOMIC SCHOOL. 
 
 Leucippus, an Ionian, probably of Miletus, who flourish- 
 e( * about 50 B-C -' or ig inate d the Atomic theory. This 
 theory was carried out by his great disciple Democritus. 
 Democritus. He maintained the impossibility of infinite division, suppos- 
 ing the atoms originally similar, to be endowed with certain 
 properties, such as impenetrability and density, proportioned to their 
 volume. He referred every active and passive affection to motion 
 caused by impact, limited by the principle that only like can act on 
 like. From the endless multiplicity of atoms have resulted the worlds 
 of the universe. The soul, in his doctrine, consists of globular atoms 
 of fire, which impart movement to the body. Maintaining through- 
 out his atomic theory, Democritus introduced the hypothesis of image?, 
 a species of emanation from external objects, which make an impres- 
 sion on our senses, and from the influence of which he reduced sensa- 
 tion and thoughts. He is vulgarly called the laughing philosopher. 
 
 HERACLITUS AND EMPEDOCLES. 
 
 These philosophers, though flourishing in the first period, can harc 1 - 
 ly be referred to any of the above schools of philosophy. By birth, 
 however, the former, being an Ephesian, belonged to the Ionian. The 
 results of his reflections were given in a volume, which, on account of 
 its obscurity, obtained for him the name of the Dark. With him fire. 
 was the foundation of all things, and the universal agent. He mair- 
 tained the universe to be neither the work of gods nor men, but a liv- 
 ing fire, with alternations of decay and resuscitation. The soul, by its 
 consanguinity to the Divine mind, according to him, is capable, by di- 
 straction, of recognizing the universal and the true; whereas, by the 
 exercise of the organs of the senses, it perceiveth only what is individ- 
 ual and variable. He is vulgarly called the crying philosopher. 
 Empedocies Empedocles, of Agrigentum, about 441 B.C., or perhaps 
 A.M. 3558.' earlier, has been called both the disciple of Pythagoras and 
 B.C. 442. p armen i(j es . He defined the soul to consist in a combina- 
 tion of the four elements, which thus, by the analogy subsisting be- 
 tween the subject and. the object, possessed itself of a knowledge of ex- 
 ternal things.
 
 148 APPENDIX. 
 
 SOPHISTS. 
 
 These were a class of men who may rather be considered as Dialec- 
 ticians and Rhetoricians than philosophers. Their aim was to distin- 
 guish themselves by a show of universal knowledge, by solving the 
 most intricate, fanciful, and useless questions ; and by pretended instruc- 
 tion in the art of persuasion, they sought to amass inordinate fortunes. 
 With this view they had contrived certain logical tricks to perplex 
 their antagonists ; and without possessing in the least degree the spirit 
 of philosophy, they maintained all sorts of philosophical theories. 
 Gorgias. Thus the celebrated orator Gorgias, of Leontium, a disciple 
 A.M. 3564. of Empedocles, 440 B.C., endeavoured to demonstrate that 
 
 B.C. 440. .1- i? t 
 
 nothing really exists. 
 
 Protagoras. Protagoras, of Abdera, maintained that every way of con- 
 sidering a subject has its opposite, and that there is as much 
 truth on one side as the other. He was banished from Athens for 
 atheism, and died 408 B.C. The other most celebrated 
 B.C. 408. sophists of this period were Prodicus of Ceos, Diagoras of 
 Melos, and Critias of Athens, the enemy of Socrates. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 Socrates. Socrates, the founder of a new era, though not of a particu- 
 
 A.M.3534. lar school in philosophy, was born at Athens, 470 B.C., and 
 was the son of a sculptor named Sophroniscus, and of Phae- 
 nareta a midwife. Rejecting, in a great measure, the physical specu- 
 lations of the former period, he sought, as the principal object of his 
 philosophy, the attainment of correct and popular ideas concerning 
 moral and religious obligation ; concerning the end of man's being, and 
 the perfection of his nature. The enmity which he brought upon him- 
 self by his ridicule of mysticism and philosophical charlatanism, at 
 
 AM3C04 ' ast occasioned his death by the judgment of the five hun- 
 
 B.C: 400.' dred, 400 B.C. 
 
 The PARTIAL SCHOOLS among the Socratics were those of the 
 
 CYNICS, 
 
 Established by Antisthenes the Athenian, and of which the principal 
 disciple was Diogenes of Sinope. The 
 
 CYRENAICS, 
 
 Aristippus. By Aristippus of Cyrene, who made the summum bonum to 
 "Vc'.-siot' consist in enjoyment good taste and freedom of mind. 
 A.M. 3704. Aristippus, his grandson, was the first to develope on 
 B.C. 3oo. these principles the complete system of self-indulgence. 
 Theodoras. Theodorus of Cyrene, taking, like his predecessor, sensa- 
 tion for the basis of his doctrine, ended by denying the exis- 
 tence of all objects of perception, and thus opened a way for the scep- 
 tic school, framing a system of indifferentism, which excluded all differ- 
 ence of right or wrong in morals and in religion, and assuming plea- 
 sure as the final end of existence. This branch of the Cyrenaic school 
 was called the Theodorian.
 
 SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY. 149 
 
 THE SCEPTICS 
 
 Pvrrho Arose in part out of the Cyrenaic. Their master was Pyr- 
 
 A.M. 3664. r ho of Elis, 340 B.C. His most illustrious disciple was 
 
 340 ' Timon of Phlius, about 272 B.C. He maintained that the 
 
 Timon. Doctrine of the Dogmatics was founded on mere hypothesis 
 
 that the objects of their speculations do not come within the reach of 
 
 certain knowledge that all science is to be accounted vain as not 
 
 contributing to happiness. 
 
 THE MEGARIC, 
 
 Founded by Euclid of Megara, 400 B.C., whose principal object was 
 
 the cultivation of DIALECTICS, on the principles of Socrates and the 
 
 Eleatics. The other philosophers of this school were Philo, and others 
 
 of not much note, with Stilpo, who derives his principal re- 
 
 B'c'aoo 4 ' pu tat i n fr m hi s dogma, made afterwards so important by 
 
 his disciple Zeno, viz. that wisdom consists in apathy. 
 The schools of ELIS and ERETRIA were founded by Phaedo and Men- 
 edemus, and their doctrines were those of the school of Megara. 
 
 Greater systems proceeding from the Socratics. 
 
 The school of the ACADEMY, founded by Plato on the systems of the 
 Rationalists, and another by Aristotle on those of the Empirics. The 
 former arguing from the phenomena of the mind or world within, the 
 latter from those of the world without. From the CYNIC school sprung 
 the STOICS, and from the CYRENAICS the EPICUREANS, the opposition to 
 which produced the SCEPTICISM of the latter Academy. 
 
 PLATO 
 
 A.M. 3574. Was born at Athens, 430 B.C., of the family of Codrus and 
 B.C. 430. g j on< jj e was t h e f oun( J er o f the ACADEMY, the most fa- 
 mous school of Greek philosophy, and died 348 B.C. He held the 
 doctrine of the existence in the soul of certain innate ideas, which form 
 the basis of our conceptions, and the elegance of our practical resolu- 
 tions. To Plato is due the first attempt at the construction of a philo- 
 sophical language, and the division of philosophy into LOGIC, (Dialec- 
 tics,) METAPHYSICS, (Physiology or Physics,) and MORALS. Plato de- 
 fined virtue to be the imitation of God, or the effort of man to attain to 
 a resemblance of his original. VIRTUE is one, but compounded of four 
 elements wisdom, constancy, temperance and justice. BEAUTY he 
 considered to be the sensible representation of moral and physical per- 
 fection, consequently, it is one with truth and goodness, and inspires 
 A M 3665 l ve ' which leads to virtue. The principal disciples of Plato 
 B'.C! 339.' "were Speusippus, his nephew and successor, died 339 B.C. 
 Xenocrates of Chalcedon, who taught the doctrines of Plato 
 B.ci lu.' m tne language of the Pythagoreans, and who died 314 B.C., 
 and Grantor of Soloe, who adhered most nearly to the doc- 
 trines of his master. To these must be added the celebrated master 
 of the New Academy 
 
 ARISTOTLE 
 
 A.M. 3620. Was born at Stagira, 384 B.C. In 343 having been the dis- 
 4 ciple of Plato, he became the preceptor of Alexander, and in
 
 150 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 A.M. 3670. 334 he founded a new school in the walks of the Lyceum, 
 ' whence his school was called Peripatetic. He died in 
 
 A.M. 3682. 322, at Chalcis in Eubcea, having, as it is supposed, swal- 
 lowed poison on being obliged to leave Athens under suspicion 
 of atheism. He rejected the doctrine of ideas, maintaining that all our 
 impressions and thoughts, and even the highest efforts of understand- 
 ing, are the fruit of experience. Instead of following his master in 
 reasoning from the universal to the particular, he always infers the 
 former from the latter. Aristotle comprised within the limits of phi- 
 losophy all the sciences, rational, empirical, or mixed, with the excep- 
 tion of history, and divided it as a whole into logic, physics and ethics, 
 or into speculative and practical. Speculative philosophy is divided 
 into physics, cosmology, psychology and theology. Practical philoso- 
 phy comprehends ethics, politics and economy. The most distinguish- 
 ed of the immediate followers of Aristotle were Theophrastus, his fa- 
 
 AM. 3684. vourite disciple, Eudemus of Rhodes, Dicaearchus, Strato 
 
 B.C. 320. O f Lampsacus, and Demetrius Phalerius. 
 
 EPICURUS, 
 
 A.M. sec?. Born near Athens, 337 B.C. According to him, philosophy 
 B.C. 337. Directs us to happiness by means of reason, consequently, 
 ethics form a principal part of his system, while physics are secondary, 
 and dialectics hold the lowest place. He regarded the summum bonum 
 to be a state exempt from suffering, the satisfaction of all our ne- 
 cessary and natural desires. The pleasure and pains of the mind ex- 
 ceed those of the body. To attain happiness, therefore, it is necessary 
 to make a choice, and to rule our desires by help of reason and free- 
 will ; consequently, prudence, is the first of virtues, and next, modera- 
 tion and justice. Virtue having no value but for the conse- 
 quences which attend her, viz. her inseparable alliance with enjoy- 
 ment. His physical system was founded on the Atomic school of De- 
 mocritus, whence, in his theology, he was reproached with atheism, 
 though he himself avowed the contrary. 
 
 ZENO AND THE STOICS. 
 
 A.M.3664. Zeno was born about 340 B.C., at Cittium in Cyprus, and 
 after having attended the various Socratic schools, became 
 himself the founder of a new one in the Porch (Stoa) at Athens, oppos- 
 ed particularly to the doctrines of the Sceptics and the Epicureans, 
 and which became memorable for its rigid principles of morality, for 
 the influence it possessed in the world, and for its resistance to vice and 
 tyranny. According to the Stoics, (so called from Stoa,) philosophy 
 is the science of human perfection, which develops itself in THOUGHT, 
 KNOWLEDGE and ACTION. Its three subdivisions are LOGIC, PHI- 
 LOSOPHY, and ETHICS, the latter being the most important. In the 
 establishment of these principles, the Stoics followed the system of em- 
 piricism. The logic of the Stoics was of wider application than that 
 of Aristotle, comprehending GRAMMAR, RHETORIC, and even PSYCHO- 
 LOGY. Their physiology was founded in a measure upon that of He- 
 raclitus, and Chrysippus. One of the most illustrious disciples of the 
 school, deduced from the application of this theory to theology a sys-
 
 SCHOOLS OP PHILOSOPHY. 151 
 
 tern of OPTIMISM, and an attempt to explain the Mythological Polythe- 
 ism. The soul was with them a portion of the soul of the world, but 
 corporeal and perishable : and Cleanthes and Panetius went so far as 
 to endeavour to establish its mortality by proof. The grand formulary 
 of the Stoics was to live conformably to the law of right reason, or, to 
 live conformably to nature. Their morality was built upon the funda- 
 mental attributes of order, legality and reason as the only means by 
 which man can attain to the end of his being VIRTUE. Their funda- 
 mental practical principles were that virtue is the only absolute good; 
 vice the only positive evil ; that virtue is founded on prudence, while 
 vice is an inconsistent mode of action, resulting from the neglect or the 
 perversion of reason, accompanied by evil passions, which are voluntary 
 and blameable ; that virtue is one and vice is one, neither of them being 
 capable of augmentation or diminution; the former being manifested 
 under four principal characters, prudence, constancy, temperance and 
 justice, with a, corresponding number of vices. That the virtuous man 
 is exempt from passions, though not insensible to them, and that these 
 ought to be not moderated but eradicated. 
 
 As a consequence of the unity of virtue and vice, the Stoics could 
 
 admit of but two descriptions of men, viz. the good and the bad. From 
 
 the doctrine of absolute liberty they were obliged to acknowledge man's 
 
 right, as a part of his absolute freedom, to deprive himself of life. 
 
 A.M. 3742. Zeno died about 262 B.C., having taught in public nearly 
 
 ; B.C. 26-2. forty years. The various successive masters of the school 
 
 A~M 3740 were Cleanthes of Assos, about 264 B.C., his disciple Chry- 
 
 B.C.' 264.' sippus of Soloe, called THE PILLAR OF THE PORCH, who died 
 
 about 210 B.C., Zeno of Tarsus, Diogenes of Babylon, and 
 
 Ij.c.' 2io 4 .' Panetius of Rhodes, the friend and companion of Scipio 
 
 Africanus. 
 
 THE NEW ACADEMY. 
 
 The founder of this school of Doubters was Arcesilaus of Pitane in 
 Eolia, born 316 B.C. His school, which was generally known as 
 the New Academy, was sometimes called the Middle. It was found- 
 ed principally in opposition to Grantor and Zeno. The most illustri- 
 ous master of this school, who has been considered by some the foun- 
 der of a third academy, was Carneadesof Cyrene, born about 
 *B.C'. 2if.' 215 B.C. His system was one of Probabilities, maintaining 
 that all that can be inferred is probability in three degrees. 
 He attacked the theology of the Stoics, and proved that we cannot apply 
 to the Divinity our ideas of existence and morality, exposing the falla- 
 cies attending the practice of attributing to the Deity a human form. 
 
 Philo of Larissa, and Antiochus of Ascalon, who died 69 
 "Vc. 3 ^' B.C., in some degree endeavoured to reconcile the two oppos- 
 ing systems of dogmatism and scepticism. The former has 
 been considered as the founder of a fourth academy, and the latter, 
 who derived from conscience an argument against scepticism, of a 
 fifth.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Greek Races. 
 
 The earliest populations of Greece were of Pelasgic origin, who, 
 long before the period of authentic history, had established the civiliz- 
 ation of communities in various parts of the northern and southern di- 
 visions of that country. They were an agricultural people, and were 
 the true founders of society in Greece. At a date still anterior to the 
 commencement of history, the more barbarous tribes of the same ori- 
 gin, who had become distinguished, however, by another name, (Hel- 
 lenes) dispossessed the Pelasgi, expelling numbers, who then assumed 
 the wandering character by which they were subsequently known, and 
 reducing the rest to various grades of servitude. For a long time the 
 agricultural character, and all the habits of the early civilization, were 
 identified with this degraded caste, and the occupations of war were 
 the sole exercise of the heroic Hellenes. With this begins the Heroic 
 or Epic period of Greece. 
 
 The affinity of all the tribes of this common race was represented 
 after the symbolical fashion of the Greeks, by a traditionary descent 
 from a common ancestor, (Hellen,) whose name was obviously derived 
 in after times from that of the race whose origin it was intended sym- 
 bolically to represent. 
 
 The Hellenic race, which may be traced originally from Thessaly, 
 was spread at the commencement of the period of authentic history 
 over the greater part of Greece, although its various inhabitants were 
 not designated collectively by the name of Hellenes till a much later 
 era. 
 
 The symbolical representation of the whole race as descended from 
 one man, (Hellen,) was carried out in the deduction of the various sub- 
 divisions or secondary races. Thus the JEolians were all traced in 
 the genealogical tradition to ^Solus, the son of Hellen, and the Dorians 
 to another son, Dorus, while the lonians, who certainly entered the 
 Hellenic system later, and whose Pelasgic origin was acknowledged 
 in the time of Herodotus, were deduced from Ion, the son of Xuthus, 
 and grandson of Hellen. 
 
 Before the great revolution attending the Doric conquest of the Pe- 
 loponnesus, these races were distributed generally over the country 
 thus 
 
 The jEoLiANS possessed so much of Thessaly as was Hellenic, 
 Bceotia, Acarnania, Phocis, Locris, and the Peloponnesus, with the 
 exception of that portion which was subsequently called Achaia. 
 
 The DORIANS occupied, as their proper country, a small region be- 
 tween Locris, Italia and Thessaly, separated from the latter by the 
 range of Mount CEta. 
 
 The IONIANS were limited to Attica, Mcgaris, and the northern coast 
 of the Peloponnesus. 
 
 About 80 years after the Trojan war, began the revolution alluded 
 to above, and which lasting upwards of 150 years, resulted in chang- 
 ing entirely the settlements of the different races. The Dorians, assist- 
 ed by the ^Etolians, expelled or subdued the ^Eolic populations of the 
 Peloponnesus; extending their conquests over the adjacent islands and
 
 GRECIAN SETTLEMENTS. 153 
 
 the neighbouring Megaris. They had before established in their 
 progress new and powerful settlements in Bceotia, Locris and Euboea. 
 The JEolians, thus driven from their seats, became in their turn 
 aggressors, and expelling the lonians from the northern coast of the 
 Peloponnesus, (called until that time /Egialus,) took up their perma- 
 nent abode in that region, which assumed from them, and ever after 
 retained, the name of Achaia. 
 
 The important changes effected by the extensive movements of the 
 Doric people are identified in the poetic legends with the story of the 
 Heraclidae, their expulsion from the Peloponnesus by Eurystheus, 
 their reception by ^Egimius, king of the Dorians, their return to the 
 Peloponnesus with the Dorians as allies, and their expulsion of the 
 Pelopidae. 
 
 GRECIAN SETTLEMENTS IN ASIA. 
 
 Like all the incidents connected with the early civilization of the 
 Greeks, the Hellenic settlements in Asia Minor received a poetical 
 and semi-mythological colouring. They were connected with the 
 traditions of the Heraclidae, and interwoven with them into one syste- 
 matic narration. The flight of the lonians from jEjialus, (Achaia,) 
 and their reception by their brothers of Attica, occasioned naturally an 
 increase of population in that state beyond the means of support ; and 
 this increase, occurring at a moment of political excitement arising 
 out of the decline of the kingly office, rendered a migration at once 
 necessary to the mass of the people, and acceptable to the malcon- 
 tents. Headed by Penthilus, a large body of lonians, crossing over 
 into Asia, established themselves on the coast of Mysia, in that part 
 which their frequent piratical expeditions, and their long wars, repre- 
 sented poetically in the legend of the Siege of Troy, had made known 
 to the Greeks. These lonians, however, did not compose the mass of 
 the migrating body, for the ./Eolians, following the fortunes of their 
 prince in greater numbers, attached themselves to the expedition. This 
 is called the Mouc MIGRATION, and the portion of Asia Minor thus 
 occupied assumed the name of ^EOLIA In this legend the influence of 
 the ^Eolian prince Penthilus represents probably nothing else than 
 the predominance of the jEolic race in the establishment of the colony. 
 
 About sixty years afterward, the same causes still operating to produce 
 an unnatural increase of population in Attica, and the final abolition of 
 the kingly office, induced a second migration. This was headed by 
 Nileus, tho son of Codrus. He conducted large numbers, whom want, 
 or dissatisfaction at the political changes rendered willing to undergo 
 the dangers and difficulties of migration. The example of the JEoli- 
 ans naturally directed them to the opposite coast of Asia, and crossing 
 the ^Egean, they established themselves south of ^Eolia, along the 
 coasts of Lydia and a part of Caria. From them this region was call- 
 ed Ionia. 
 
 The success of the Dorians in the Peloponnesus had the effect of 
 putting into motion large bodies of that race from their original seats, 
 at first, and afterwards from the Peloponnesus itself, where they found 
 
 20
 
 154 HELLENIC COLONIES. 
 
 the most advantageous places pre-occupied by others of their own race. 
 It was not until many attempts had been made inefficaciously, that they 
 succeeded in reducing Megan's ; and to their ill success in their first 
 efforts directed to this end, has been ascribed the Doric migration to 
 Asia. It is natural to suppose, however, that without this incentive, 
 the example of the yEoliansand lonians, and the inducements of an 
 easy conquest and a fertile country, would have allured thither a peo- 
 ple so restless as the Dorians. The only portion of the western coast 
 of Asia Minor which remained unoccupied, was that which extended 
 south from Ionia in Caria, to the borders of Lycia. Here then, the 
 Dorians established themselves, imparting their name to the country; 
 and thus terminated the line of Greek colonies in Asia, from the Hel- 
 lespont to the Mediterranean. This last migration was either attend- 
 ed or followed by the subjugation of the intervening islands, that is to 
 say, Cythera, Thera, Crete, Rhodes, &c. 
 
 HELLENIC COLONIES IN ITALY; 
 
 The name of Magna Grecia applied to that part of Italy in which these 
 settlements were effected is testimony of their number and importance, 
 yet no accurate and systematic account of their origin, deduced from any 
 early authority, has come down to our time. Sybaris, Crotona, Meta- 
 pontum, and Caulon, were among the earliest and most celebrated of these 
 colonies. They were founded about 720 B.C., by the Achaians, who 
 were soon followed by a Doric colony which settled at Tarentum. 
 Locri and Rhegium were founded about the same time, most probably 
 by Achaians, that is to say, Locri by the Opuntii, and Rhegium by 
 the Messenians and Zancleans. It was not until a later period that 
 the lonians establishecflhe colonies ofSiris and Scyllatium. 
 
 Heraclea, the seat of the general council of the Greek states, was 
 a Doric colony, founded by the Tarentines after the destruction of 
 Siris, 42S B.C. To these colonies must be added the important towns 
 of Velia and Thurii; the former founded by the lonians of Phocea, 
 and the latter by Attics (lonians) in the time, and at the suggestion of 
 Pericles. 
 
 But fir before all these were the Doric colonies in Sicily. The first 
 and greatest of them wns Syracuse, founded l.y one of the Hrraclidae 
 from Corinth, famous in her history, and powerful as the mother city 
 of Agrigentum, Ca marina, &c. 
 
 The Dorians, besides their settlements in Europe and Asia, had es- 
 tablished u flourishing colony in Africa, by the 600th year B.C. It 
 was called Cyrene, and very soon became strong enough to contend 
 with the kingdoms of Egypt and Lybia.
 
 ERRATA. 
 
 In LECTURE I. page 8, line 21 from top, for 3150 read 3250. 
 " " page 9, line 16 from bottom, for 2383 read 3283. 
 
 " " II. page 21, line 9 from bottom, for 2573 read 3573. 
 " " II. page 26, line 15 from top, for Sparta read ATHENS. 
 
 In the Introduction to Ancient Geography, p. 3, line 8 from top, for Pelopennesus read Peloponnesus. 
 " " " " same page, line 3 from bottom, for Selencidie read Seleucidx. 
 
 " " " " same page, bottom line, for Saleucia read Seleucia. 
 
 ' " " " page 5, lines 18 and 20 from top, for Eubca rend EUBOEA. 
 
 In the Hebrew History, page 29, line 4 from top, for 2430 read 2433. 
 In the History of Egypt, page 79, line 1 1 from top, for Alexander read AUGUSTUS. 
 In the heading of ihe Chronological Index, p. 86, for A M. 3750 to 4554, read 3250 to 4004. 
 In the Roman History, page 107, lines 2 and 4 from bottom, for JWaximus read .M A xi M INTS. 
 
 " " " page 108, line 17 from top, Valerian should be Valerian. 
 
 In the Table of the Kings of France, page 135, line 11 from bottom, Philip 1st. 1(108, should be lORO. 
 
 " " " " page 136, line 11 from top, ill the heading, 191 years should be 
 
 91 years. 
 
 " '< ' " " same page, before Louis XIV. should be inserted A.D. 1700. 
 
 55= There maybe a few others, which it was impossible to avoid in a first edition.
 
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